New Animal Products

RIRDC Completed Projects in 2006 - 2007 and Research in Progress as at June 2007

NEW ANIMAL PRODUCTS

October 2007 RIRDC Publication No 07/002

ISBN 1 74151 402 9 ISSN 1440 6845

RIRDC Completed Projects in 2006 - 2007 and Research in Progress as at June 2007 - New Animal Products

Publication No 07/002

The information contained in this publication is intended for general use to assist public knowledge and discussion and to help improve the development of sustainable regions. You must not rely on any information contained in this publication without taking specialist advice relevant to your particular circumstances.

While reasonable care has been taken in preparing this publication to ensure that information is true and correct, the Commonwealth of Australia gives no assurance as to the accuracy of any information in this publication.

The Commonwealth of Australia, the Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation (RIRDC), the authors or contributors expressly disclaim, to the maximum extent permitted by law, all responsibility and liability to any person, arising directly or indirectly from any act or omission, or for any consequences of any such act or omission, made in reliance on the contents of this publication, whether or not caused by any negligence on the part of the Commonwealth of Australia, RIRDC, the authors or contributors.

The Commonwealth of Australia does not necessarily endorse the views in this publication.

This publication is copyright. Apart from any use as permitted under the Copyright Act 1968, all other rights are reserved. However, wide dissemination is encouraged. Requests and inquiries concerning reproduction and rights should be addressed to the RIRDC Publications Manager on phone 02 6271 4186.

RIRDC New Animal Products Research Manager Dr Peter McInnes RIRDC Level 2 15 National Circuit BARTON ACT 2600 PO Box 4776 KINGSTON ACT 2604

Phone: 08 8556 7331 Fax: 08 8556 7289 Email: [email protected]

RIRDC Publications Manager Cecile Ferguson Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation Level 2 15 National Circuit BARTON ACT 2600 PO Box 4776 KINGSTON ACT 2604

Phone: 02 6271 4165 Fax: 02 6271 4199 Email: [email protected] Website: http://www.rirdc.gov.au

Published in October 2007 Printed on environmentally friendly paper by Canprint ii

Foreword

New Animal Products Research in Program, June 2007, contains short summaries of continuing projects as well as those that were completed during 2006-2007. This program aims to accelerate the development of viable new animal industries

The complete report on RIRDC’s programs is available in electronic format on our website at http://www.rirdc.gov.au

There are three sub-program goals. These are:

Goal 1: Develop New Opportunities Goal 2: Stimulate Industry Partnership and Adoption Goal 3: Increase Competitiveness, Capability and Capacity

This report is an addition to our extensive catalogue of over 1600 research projects supported by RIRDC.

Please contact us for the latest publications catalogue or view it on our website:

• downloads at www.rirdc.gov.au/reports/Index.htm • purchases at www.rirdc.gov.au/eshop

Peter O’Brien Managing Director Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation

iii Contents

1.2 New Animal Products Completed Projects Project No. Page Project Title Researcher Phone Organisation No. BBC-1A Commercial Silk Production Practices for an Sarita Kulkarni (03) 9711 5928 Brij Bugtrap Consultancy P/L 1 Australian Sericulture Industry CSA-31A Identifying and Utilising Genes for Disease Dr Sandra Eady (02) 6776 1394 CSIRO Livestock Industries 3 Resistance and Doe Health for the Crusader Breeding Program for Meat Rabbits in Australia DAQ-312A Commercial development of export markets for Brendan Goulding (07) 3239 3315 Department of Primary Industries 5 emerging skin industries – Qld DRG-1A Feasibility Study for Establishing a Snake Yoland De Groot (07) 3891 3037 De Groot International Food 6 Farming Industry in Australia Marketing Pty Ltd FCI-1A To increase the appreciation of the fine qualities Mel Nathan 0413 616 683 Food Companion International 8 of kangaroo meat among chefs and consumers FSA-6A Composition of New Meats Dr Ron Tume (07) 3214 2007 Food Science Australia 9 LEC-5A Extending the sustainable management of John Kelly (03) 6326 8639 Lenah Consultancy 10 kangaroo PTP-21A Farming & Marketing Goat & Sheep Milk Products Arthur Stubbs (03) 9844 1135 Primary Task Pty Ltd 11 SMG-1A Crusader – a commercial breeding program for Michael Bowerman (02) 6454 4169 Snowy Mountains Gourmet Rabbit 12 meat rabbits in Australia Company UNS-19A Choosing Kangaroo: Product and industry Peter Ampt (02) 9385 5677 University of New South Wales 13 attributes and consumer choice behaviour US-138A The continued development of artificial Professor Chis Maxwell (02) 9351 4864 University of Sydney 14 insemination technology in alpacas WBT-3A Requirements for NAP Traceability Systems, A David Michael (02) 9369 2735 Wondu Business & Technology 16 scoping study Serives WBT-4A Adding Value to New Animal Product Supply David Michael (02) 9369 2735 Wondu Business & Technology 18 Chains: Part 2 Serives WBT-5A Emerging animal and plant industries: Their value David Michael (02) 9369 2735 Wondu Business & Technology 20 to Australia Serives

1.2 New Animal Products Research in Progress Project No. Page Project Title Researcher Phone Organisation No. ABA-22A Emerging animal and plant industries: Their Max Foster (02) 6272 2095 Australian Bureau of Agricultural 21 value to Australia and Resource Economics DAQ-344A A review and feasibility study of brain Craig Davis (07) 3406 8555 Department of Primary Industries 22 phospholipids extraction and Fisheries, Queensland

DNT-33A Genetic and reproduction improvements in Barry Lemcke (08) 8999 2263 Department of Business, industry 23 Australian Water Buffalo and Resources development - NT PRL-1A Catostylus mosaicus anutoimmune stimulant Dr Bruce Rich 0417 700 146 PRINDEL 24 UMO-35A Genetic improvement of dairy sheep Dr Alexander Cameron (03) 5286 1211 Monash University 25 US-139A Linkage mapping and QTL analysis in saltwater Dr Sally Isberg (08) 8988 5554 University of Sydney 26 crocodiles US-140A Runtism and survival in captive saltwater Dr Sally Isberg (08) 8988 5554 University of Sydney 27 crocodiles UWA-84A Exploring the commercial potential of sheep Dr Roberta Bencini (08) 9380 2521 University of Western Australia 28 milk UWA-91A Improving reproduction and genetics for game Dr Irek Malecki (08) 6488 2528 University of Western Australia 29 birds and ratites WMI-4A Crocodile pen design Prof Grahame Webb (08) 8922 4500 Wildlife Management International 30 Pty Ltd WMI-5A Nutritional requirements, feed ingredients and Prof Grahame Webb (08) 8922 4500 Wildlife Management International 31 feeding systems for farmed crocodile production Pty Ltd WMI-6A Captive breeding of Hawksbill turtles Prof Grahame Webb (08) 8922 4500 Wildlife Management International 32 Pty Ltd

Project Title Commercial Silk Production Practices for an Australian Sericulture Industry

RIRDC Project No.: BBC-1A Researcher: Sarita Kulkarni Organisation: Brij BugTrap Consultancy Pty Ltd Phone: (03) 9547 7858 Fax: (03) 9547 7868 Email: [email protected]

Objectives • Setting up of a prototype sericulture farm in South-East Australia (mainly in Victoria) on a commercial basis. • Establishing the local varieties of mulberry in large scale and also import international varieties of mulberry and silkworm. • Establishing a rural-based sericulture industry (moriculture, sericulture and silk reeling) • Develop a tested and suitable system for rearing techniques of silkworm and mulberry plantation. Explore future export opportunities in dried cocoons, raw silk, and other silk by-products and finished products • Provide an avenue to the Australian rural community for a home-based remunerative employment program

Background Sericulture is practised widely in developed and developing countries, such as Japan and South-East Asia and India. In developing countries, it is essentially a village-based, and welfare oriented industry, capable of providing employment to large sections of the population. Although sericulture has been considered as a subsidiary occupation in rural areas, recent technological developments have made it possible to practice sericulture on an intensive scale, producing greater profits than most other agricultural crops. Annual world production of raw silk in 1999 was about 88,000 tonnes - less than 0.2% of the global textile fibre market – which is valued over 1.8 billion dollars. From the point of view of a national economy the most important benefit of sericulture is that it can be practised on small to medium sized land holdings in rural areas, either as a complementary or main occupation. Silk farming can be practised in combination with other farming such as fisheries, piggery, poultry, and grazing. Australian environmental conditions are very suitable for sericulture development including silkworm rearing and mulberry cultivation. Species of silkworm and mulberry plants have been observed in Australia. Therefore, it may be established as a complementary industry under any agro-climatic conditions and also as a high paying agro-based industry in Australia. The production of raw silk will also be helpful to reduce the import dependency of textile industries in Australia. Opportunities exist for the niche marketing of various silk by-products in international trade. Research The following topics were reviewed and researched. • Evaluation of Silkworm Populations on Local Mulberry varieties in Australia • A study on intercropping in Mulberry Plantations to Combat Weeds • A study on various rearing technologies and their impacts on cocoon production. • Techniques of raising Mulberry saplings in Australia • Contemporary Sericulture Techniques and Methods as practiced in China and India

1 • Development of Silk Industry in Australia with reference to new perspectives • A review of the history in the world sericulture industry was compiled. • General methodologies in silkworm rearing and mulberry plantation Outcomes This report evaluates the local population of silkworm varieties on the five mulberry varieties that were identified in Australia. It describes the techniques and methods used for combating the weeds in large commercial mulberry plantations. It describes the selection and development of suitable silkworm and mulberry varieties, and cultivation and harvest methods that enable a sericulture industry to be commenced in Australia. The project developed techniques for raising mulberry saplings for Australian conditions and compiles the contemporary techniques that are presently used in India and China and describes why Australia should have a sericulture industry. The report also recommends methodologies that are practised in producing successful high quality cocoons. It recommends that this information be provided to potential silkworm farmers. It describes how Australia can be a part of the world silk economy. It also recommends that a breeding and development centre be established after clearly identifying the important recommendations and that such a centre should be partly funded from the government so that the industries can progress rapidly. Implications This report describes techniques and methods suited to the selection and development of suitable silkworm and mulberry varieties and the cultivation and harvest methods that would enable a sericulture industry to be commenced in Australia. It is recommended that this information be provided to potential silkworm farmers who wish to participate in the fledgling industry. It is also recommended that a breeding and development centre be established and funded to support the new Sericultural industry. Based on a review of the increasing demand for, and decreasing supply of, high quality silks in the world, and Australia’s favourable position in relation to climate and technological capabilities, it is recommended that Australia continue research and development of silk production by both small and large producers supported by government and research agencies. Sericulture can progress in Australia with further investigation into mulberry and international silkworm selection. Investigations are being continued in techniques and practices for mulberry and silkworm which in the near future will be available to develop a package that can be implemented for Australian conditions. Using international expertise this venture could be successful in producing classquality silk for the international markets. An economic analysis model encompassing most of the practices involving from soil to silk is reported using imported mulberry and silkworm variety Publications Various workshops at open days. Individual farmers’ workshops and training at the experimental site. Workshops and posters at meetings in China and India.

Project Title Identifying and Utilising Genes for Disease Resistance and Doe Health for the Crusader Breeding Program for Meat Rabbits in Australia

RIRDC Project No.: CSA-31A Researcher: Dr Sandra Eady Organisation: CSIRO Livestock Industries Locked Bag 1 ARMIDALE NSW 2350 Phone: (02) 6776 1394 Fax: (02) 6776 1333 Email: [email protected]

Objectives • Leading edge genetic improvement program for meat rabbits incorporating innovative and new traits that impact on farmer profitability. • Commercialisation of the Crusader herd at Snowy Mountains Gourmet Rabbit Company (SMGRC) facility at Bredbo, NSW. • Improved Crusader breeding stock through the conduct of a selection program based on estimation of estimated breeding values (EBVs), index ranking of animals and appropriate mate allocation. • Recommendations for industry on improved management options for rabbit farmers, in the first instance recommendations on kit boxes for improved kitten survival.

Background The Crusader meat rabbit breeding program commenced selection rabbits for improved growth rate and litter size in 2001. The breeding objective was expanded to include resistance to bacterial infection in grower rabbits in 2003. As well as producing superior livestock for the industry, the project produced management and husbandry information on rabbit reproduction and the Crusader Enterprise Model for estimating gross margins. The current project extended the research on new traits for rabbit selection, commercialised the breeding program and provided additional management and husbandry recommendations. Research Scientific advances were made in selection for disease traits in grower rabbits, estimating genetic parameters to allow selection for functional traits related to healthy and productive animals, and in identifying the relative balance to place on these traits compared to production traits such as growth rate and number of rabbits weaned per litter. Feed conversion and doe prolificacy were identified as traits warranting improvement. Outcomes Overall progress in the breeding program, as indicated by the average index value of rabbits, has been substantial with a combination of genetic and management improvements lifting gross margins from an estimated $174 to $242 per doe per annum. Of the $78 gain the average index value of animals has improved to +$55 per doe per annum, indicating that a significant proportion of the improvement has been from genetic sources. The transfer and commercialisation of the Crusader breeding program to industry has been successful. A number of critical success factors for setting up an independent industry-based breeding program were identified. Breeding goals for Crusader have been further refined with a primary focus on improving profit for rabbit farmers. Results have demonstrated that selection for disease resistance is feasible. Information on cage equipment, productivity levels and gross margins for the industry has been made available for farmers to bench-mark their performance.

Implications The Crusader project has demonstrated that a sophisticated and modern breeding program, estimating breeding values every 3 weeks for index selection of breeding stock every 6 weeks, can be run relatively independently in industry. This may serve as a useful model for other new animal industries. Although there has been significant genetic gain, the Crusader population still lags behind the reproductive performance of European rabbits and the industry in Australia may be advised to investigate options for importation of selected strains of rabbits from Europe. Publications Eady, S.J., Garreau H. and Gilmour, A.R. (2007) Heritability of resistance to bacterial infection in meat rabbits. Livestock Science (in press). Eady, SJ, Garreau, H. (2007) Functional traits – can we find practical measures to quantify them and how important are they? In ‘Proceedings of the Association for Advancement of Animal Breeding and Genetics, Armidale, Australia’. In press.

Project Title Commercial development of export markets for emerging skin industries

RIRDC Project No.: DAQ-312A Researcher: Brendan Goulding Organisation: Department of Primary Industries & Fisheries, Queensland Phone: (07) 3239 3315x Fax: (07) 3221 3896 Email: [email protected] Objectives Facilitate the development of sustainable trade for skins from new animal industries including camel, crocodile, emu and goat.

Background This project aimed to build upon the findings and outcomes of the previous RIRDC funded project DAQ258A "Identification of market opportunities for skins products of emerging animal industries". This project successfully identified and commenced the development of new export markets for skins and leather from emerging animal industries. To capitalise on these opportunities this project was undertaken to identify new export market opportunities and to further commercialise previously identified opportunities for skins and leather from emerging animal industries. Research From reviewing the findings of the previous research project and in consultation with an industry advisory committee established for this project, Italy and the United States were the two target markets selected for this research. Secondary desktop research and primary research through visits to both markets were undertaken for this project. Outcomes Export orders of crocodile skins were secured through this project with a high likelihood of repeat orders being place into the future. Relationships were also established with potential export buyers for camel and emu skins suppliers across both target markets. Business leads were also generated for all species in both target markets. Additionally, a supply chain link was established for goat skins to be supplied to an Australian customer. Implications This project has demonstrated that potential export opportunities exist and can be commercialised for skins and/or leather from emerging animal industries. Publications MacNamara, K, Nicholas, P, Murphy, D, Riedel, E, Goulding, B, Horsburgh, C, Whiting, T & Warfield, B 2003, Markets for Skins and Leather, from the Goat, Emu, Ostrich, Crocodile and Camel Industries, RIRDC publication no. 02/142, Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation, Canberra.

Bodger, J & Goulding, B 2003, Distribution of Meat Products From Prospective Australian Animal Industries: crocodiles, emus, game birds, rabbits, hares and snails, RIRDC publication no. 03/023, Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation, Canberra.

Project Title Feasibility Study for Establishing a Snake Farming Industry in Australia

RIRDC Project No.: DGR-1A Researcher: Drs Yoland De Groot, Phil Glatz and Zhihong Miao Organisation: South Australian Research and Development Institute Phone: (08) 83037786 Fax: (08) 83037689 Email: [email protected]

Objectives To deliver a report on the feasibility of establishing a snake farming industry in Australia with the ultimate objective of supplying snake meat to domestic and international markets. To preliminary assess the consumer and producer markets for snake meat in Australia and in selected overseas markets To examine various business and environmental aspects of conducting snake- farming activities based on the experience of existing overseas operations. To deliver a handbook for Australian farmers on how to establish a snake farm.

Background There has been a long tradition of eating snake meat in Asia. Australian aborigines also eat snakes. Most of the snake meat has come from the capture of wild snakes which has resulted in the decline of the native snake populations. The biggest threat to snakes is the destruction of their natural habitats. Bitumen roads are a particular danger to snakes because snakes like the warm surface of the road and are run over by vehicles. Snake populations are also threatened by other animals. For example, the poisonous cane toad was introduced to Australia to control an agricultural insect pest. This species has caused significant population decline in snakes because the cane toad’s poison kills the snakes that prey upon it. Human hunting also reduces snake populations. Pythons and boas, which move slowly, are easy to kill and are hunted for their skins and meat. In addition, the numbers of snakes caught from the wild and sold as pets are increased. Snakes play an important role in the ecosystem, both as predators and as prey. The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora protects many snake species from being sold for their skins or as pet. To satisfy the market demand for snake meat and protect the loss of native snakes, intensive farming of snakes is a solution. In addition, seasonal variation in the supply of snake meat in Asia provides the opportunity for Australia to develop a snake farming industry. Research Results from a survey showed that people from China consume more snake meat compared to consumers in Australia. There are well established snake farms in China (no snake farms are found in Australia), and eating snake meat is a tradition in Asia. All restaurants surveyed in China sell a snake meat dish, none of Australian restaurants surveyed sell a snake meat dish. The survey results showed that the major factor limiting snake meat consumption in China was price and in Australia was culture and image. More snake meat could be consumed if it was readily available and cheap. Of those surveyed more people have eaten snake meat in China (76%) than in Australia (23.3%). The price most surveyed consumers were prepared to pay in China (68% $1-10 per serve) and Australia (46.7%, $1-25 per serve). All surveyed Chinese restaurants served a snake meat dish; none of surveyed Australian restaurants sold snake meat. 16% of the French had tested frog, snake dishes in other countries but not in France. The factors limiting the consumption of snake meat were availability (16%), culture (60%) and availability and culture (24%) in France. French people would like to eat snake meat at home if it is readily available. 40% of surveyed Thai people had tasted snake dishes. 95% of those people tasted at home, 5% at functions. Main

6 factors limiting Thai people to consume snake meat is its availability (66%), other (28%), price (3%) and culture (3%). However, if snake meat were readily available, only 33% of the Thai respondents would eat snake dishes. Outcomes The survey results showed that Chinese consumers like snake meat, but the main factor limiting consumption is price. Meat is sold at about $10/kg, skins sell for about $42 each, but this depends on quality. The return is about $226/snake. Snake meat sales are very strong in Europe. The price for snake meat in Europe is $52/kg with snake weight averaging 1.5kg. In USA, meat price is about $35/kg and skin price is about $130/skin (depending on skin quality). There is large shortage of snake supply in China. The price depends on season. Gu et al (2000) reported that the price of snake meat is 2-3 times more expensive in winter than in summer in China. This may give Australian snake farmers an opportunity to export snake meat or live snakes to Asia and Europe. Australia has the natural resources for snake farming, particularly Queensland and Northern Territory. A snake-farming handbook was also produced. It provides information to Australians on how to establish a snake farm, species to use, management and feeding of snakes and prevention and treatment of diseases. Implications Consumers in Asia like snake meat due to tradition, its medical value, its delicious taste and high nutrition. The supply of snake meat in these countries is dependent on season. This gives an opportunity for Australia to develop a snake farming industry. Farming snakes is environmentally sound because it protects the native snakes, reduces pesticide use and satisfies the gastronomic taste of snake meat consumers.

Project Title To increase the appreciation of the fine qualities of kangaroo meat among chefs and consumers

RIRDC Project No.: FCI-1A Researcher: Mel Nathan Organisation: Food Companion International Phone: 0413 616 683 Fax: (02) 9223 7761 Email: [email protected]

Objectives To increase the appreciation of the fine qualities of kangaroo meat among chefs and consumers

Background In a bid to make Australia's more marketable, Food Companion International magazine in Australia organized a competition to find a more palatable culinary name for kangaroo meat. Research The project found that chefs would make perfect ambassadors for kangaroo meat in the future - they not only make the meat sound delicious and enticing to the consumers, but are the people with all the power and influence. Outcomes From a marketing background “A new culinary name for Kangaroo meat” competition may have been a huge breakthrough for the kangaroo meat industry and the first step in selecting a final name for kangaroo meat. The exercise of re- branding kangaroo has given the kangaroo industries a huge push forward. As yet the name has not been adopted by the Kangaroo Industry in Australia. The re-branding competition was a phenomenal success with the Australian public and kangaroo meat consumers worldwide in 40 countries. Implications There is currently limited consumer education or marketing for this highly versatile and nutritionally low fat meat, thus restricting the number of consumers eating the product. There is an urgent need for more consumer education including; recipes, educational leaflets, nutritional advice, more trade, consumer magazine coverage. Highly desirable would be interviews with leading celebrity chefs who use it. Without this - we won’t see any boost to sales or image of Kangaroo meat.

It may be seen as a missed opportunity, if the Kangaroo Industry Association of Australia (KIAA) decides not to follow down the path of re-branding kangaroo meat. Taking a 2-5 year time frame could be seen as too conservative. Without working towards any marketing strategies now - could result in reduced marketing opportunities in the future. Consumer education will aid in creating future opportunities. The time is ripe to initiate the consumer education process ie; in supermarkets with in-store demonstrations and possibly another competition so more Australians can play a part. Wholesale foodservice distributors could also play a major part in campaigns to attract more chefs to use the meat featuring recipe ideas, ways and how to prepare and cuts and nutritional information.

Project Title Composition of New Meats

RIRDC Project No.: FSA-6A Researcher: Ian Eustace, Ron Tume and Shane Beilken Organisation: Food Science Australia Phone: (07) 3214 2000 Fax: (07) 3214 2103 Email: Ian [email protected], [email protected], [email protected]

Objectives To collect commercially representative samples of meat from nominated species, analyse them using standard procedures, and report the results in a format that is compatible with the Food Standards Australia New Zealand (FSANZ) nutrient database.

Background The Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation receives many enquiries on the chemical composition of meat from animals being raised in new livestock industries. Frequently the information is being sought for nutrition information panels that comply with requirements of the FSANZ Food Standards Code. FSANZ provides access to a nutrient database, Nutrition Panel Calculator (NPC), which can be used for preparing information necessary for nutrition information panels on product labels (Standard 1.2.8 – Nutrition Information Requirements of the Code). The database presently includes information for a number of traditional meats such as beef, lamb, pork, chicken and turkey, and for some others such as rabbit, venison and kangaroo; however, there are many ‘new’ types of meat such as camel and buffalo that have market potential, but as yet have not been analysed. The results of this study have been expressed so they are directly comparable with the data already in the database for meats such as beef, lamb and chicken. Research In consultation with producers and relevant industry organisations, Food Science Australia (FSA) determined the most appropriate meat cuts to be collected for analysis and National Measurement Institute (NMI) was used to undertake the nutritional analyses. Meats analysed were conducted on Swamp buffalo, Riverine buffalo, camel, crocodile, ostrich, emu, farmed rabbit and squab species. Two supply sources were identified for each species. Two specific meat cuts (10 replicates) were selected for each species. Where possible, the age and weight of the livestock and weight of the dressed carcases was recorded. The samples were supplied frozen to NMI for nutritional analysis. Outcomes The main findings were that most of species evaluated were very low in fat (<3.0%); even cube rolls from Riverine buffalo and camel were only (6-7%). However, squab was very high in fat (25.5%). In percentage terms, the Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids (PUFA’s) were highest in the non-ruminant species, although the lean cuts of buffalo were also high. For crocodile, ostrich, emu and rabbit, PUFA accounted for 20 to 30% of the total fatty acids. Squab contained the highest proportion of unsaturated fatty acids, largely as a result of its high content of mono-unsaturated fatty acids. The mean cholesterol contents were relatively low (42-54 mg/100 g) for all lean red meats including ostrich, and emu but were higher for crocodile, rabbit and squab (67-84 mg/100 g). The protein contents were in the expected range for all lean meats (20-25%). Sodium contents were similar to other meats, being approximately 40 to 70 mg/100 g.

Implications This project provides information sought for nutrition information panels that comply with the requirements of the FSANZ Food Standards Code. This information for eight ‘new’ types of meat including buffalo, camel, crocodile, ostrich, farmed rabbit, squab and emu can be used for preparation of the information necessary for the nutrition information panels on product labels.

Project Title Extending the sustainable management of kangaroo

RIRDC Project No.: LEC-5A Researcher: John Kelly Organisation: Lenah Consultancy Phone: 0363 267696 Fax: 0363 262790 Email: [email protected]

Objectives To extend the sustainable management of kangaroo populations into regions not currently covered by Federally approved Management Plans such as Victoria, the Northern Territory and parts of NSW and SA

Background Some states and regions don’t have a commercial kangaroo harvest for lack of a Federally approved Management Plan. The reasons vary from historic anomalies or old survey techniques being inappropriate through to political policies. The project seeks to address these and encourage authorities to develop suitable Plans to enable commercial harvests. Research The project identified all regions not currently harvesting kangaroo which would, given newly emergent survey techniques, be suitable for commercialisation. It then identified why no current harvest takes place and worked with the relevant authorities to encourage development of Management Plans.

Outcomes Western Australia: Negotiations with CALM (the States environment agency) have resulted in access to all government controlled, non-nature reserve land in WA. This represents large tracts of leasehold and government reserve land which to date the kangaroo industry has not had access to. An example is a very large portion of government land on the northern Nullabor.

New South Wales: The NSW NP&WS is assessing a proposal to adjust existing zones to incorporate considerable areas not currently open for commercial harvest. This includes all the area between the existing south-east zone and the Griffith zone, the area north of the existing south-east zone running east to a line through Bathurst and Mudgee. It may potentially include an area east of the existing Glen Innes zone down to a line through Dorrigo, Grafton and Kyogle. These regions will be surveyed and additional quota issued for them.

Victoria: Joint lobby with the Victorian Sporting Shooters Association and Field and Game Australia has been directed at the Minister’s office. An extensive document outlining the advantages of a commercial harvest was presented and a lengthy conversation clarified many questions surrounding the issue. This has been followed up through a change of the Minister and remains an on-going discussion.

Northern Territory: The project is negotiating with the NT Ministers office in conjunction with the NT Cattleman’s Associations to develop a Wildlife Trade Option proposal for Federal Government consideration based on a limited harvest in the Barkley Tableland region only. This would at least make a start in the NT.

South Australia: SA is conducting survey with the aim of establishing quota in the south-east region of the state.

Project Title Farming & Marketing Goat & Sheep Milk Products

RIRDC Project No.: PTP-21A Researcher: Arthur Stubbs & Gaille Abud Organisation: Primary Tasks Pty Ltd Phone: (03) 9844 1135 Fax: (03) 9844 4554 Email: [email protected]

Objectives Increased productivity and profitability in the goat and sheep milk industries by definition of market requirements and promotion of best farming and manufacturing practices to match product demand

Background Several recent RIRDC projects investigated various aspects of farming practices, product options and marketing in the dairy goat and sheep industries. These projects amassed a wealth of information but each project recommended more work on farming and marketing goat and sheep milk products Research A review of previous projects and relevant information was undertaken followed by widespread consultation with industry stakeholders, collection of market statistics and industry logistics, market surveys, and a comparison with the industries in New Zealand. Technical farm management manuals were produced for the dairy goat and dairy sheep industries Outcomes Both industries were found to be in a generally healthy state, growing steadily, and with considerable apparent potential. Critical mass is important and is needed for stability as has been shown by the New Zealand dairy goat industry which is based on a thriving export market. By and large, farming and marketing practices, although differing widely according to the size and location of each enterprise, appear soundly based with little help from primary industry and regulatory authorities. Implications The trend to larger farms and stock numbers, with integrated processing and marketing practices, appears to be the likely future path for each industry. This will require higher levels of management both at a farming and business level. Nevertheless the prospects are good as consumers increasingly turn to the specialty food products that these industries supply. Publications “Farming & Marketing Goat & Sheep Milk Products”

Project Title Crusader – a commercial breeding program for meat rabbits in Australia

RIRDC Project No.: SMG1-A Researcher: Michael & Kathleen Bowerman Organisation: Snowy Mountains Gourmet Rabbit Company 3157 Monaro Highway Bredbo NSW 2626 Phone: (02) 64544 052 Fax: (02) 64544 352 Email: [email protected]

Objectives • Establishment of the 120 doe crusader herd at Snowy Mountains Gourmet rabbit Company (SMGRC facility at Bredbo, NSW • Database of information, updated weekly as per protocols, to support research and development for genetic improvement in the meat rabbit industry • Improved Crusader breeding stock through the conduct of a selection program based on estimation of estimated breeding values (EBV,s), index ranking of animals and appropriate mate allocation as per protocols provided by CSIRO • Crusader rabbits being used in industry and contributing to improvements in farmers’ profits, through the regular sale of breeding stock • High industry awareness of the availability and benefits of Crusader stock by promotion at field days and in the media. • Recommendations for industry on improved management options for rabbit farmers, in the first instance recommendations of kit boxes for improved kitten survival • Crusader taking a facilitative role in the establishment of a national meat rabbit genetic evaluation program, by assisting in genetically linking rabbit herds by purchasing and swapping of stock

Background The aim of the project was a successful commercialisation of the crusader project. The commercial farming of rabbits in Australia is growing rapidly and there is a need to establish sound practices that produce high quality disease resistant breeding stock. Research The principal beneficiaries of the research are commercial rabbit producers and ultimately the consumer. Outcomes Some of the key findings are • Greater disease resistance • Increased growth rates • Improved productivity • Identification of better farming practices • Availability of information to the commercial rabbit industry Implications To increase their chances of success producers should source quality stock and implement better farming practices

Project Title Choosing Kangaroo: Product and industry attributes and consumer choice behaviour

RIRDC Project No.: UNS-19A Researcher: Peter Ampt (UNSW) and Katherine Owen (UTS) Organisation: Future of Australia’s Threatened Ecosystems (FATE) Program Institute of Environmental Science, Vallentine Annexe, UNSW Sydney NSW 2052 Phone: (02) 9385 5677 (02) 9514 3783 Fax: (02) 9385 5710 (02) 9514 3535 Email: [email protected] [email protected]

Objectives • Identify key attitudes and issues concerning the use of kangaroo meat by smallgoods and other meat manufacturers and retailers. • Ascertain which features of meat and smallgoods products are important for consumer choice and relate these to kangaroo meat. • Investigate choice behaviour and potential demand of meat consumers to identify the triggers for increased consumption of kangaroo. • Determine the key factors which will increase demand for kangaroo meat products and which encourage use of kangaroo meat by smallgoods and other meat manufacturers.

Background The kangaroo industry has been growing steadily and kangaroo meat is now present on most domestic supermarket shelves as well as the traditional markets of pet food and export for smallgoods. The Kangaroo Industry Strategic Plan wants to expand the domestic market and has set a target of 80% of kangaroo meat being sold within Australia at prices 10% higher (in real terms) than present. Harvest quotas are being met in most states with demand exceeding supply especially for the primal cuts. A major challenge is to find domestic markets for kangaroo manufacturing meat. This will require greater acceptance of kangaroo meat by meat manufacturers, and this will only happen if they are confident of a positive response from consumers. Research The research comprised interviews with manufacturers and retailers, 3 focus groups covering the spectrum of kangaroo consumers, and an online survey of 1590 consumers that included questions covering attitudes to kangaroo meat, current buying and consumption behaviour, and discrete choice experiments and buying scenarios to identify likely demand for kangaroo mince meat, meat pies and deli meats Outcomes This project shows a steady increase in the percentage of people using kangaroo meat and the frequency with which they use it. There is potential for kangaroo consumption to grow in all three product areas with the gourmet sector the most likely driver of future demand. It identifies mince as the most promising manufacturing meat product and outlines critical issues around the potential for kangaroo mince, smallgoods and pies. Implications Despite being more available, kangaroo meat remains a curiosity. To make kangaroo meat consumption more normal, the industry needs to take a proactive approach in promoting kangaroo as a gourmet alternative that carries health benefits and has a wide variety of uses. It also needs to generate consistent messages of a uniquely Australian resource, that is managed through careful harvesting that is humane and sustainable and that is good for the environment.

The continued development of artificial insemination Project Title technology in alpacas

RIRDC Project No.: US-138A Researcher: Professor Chis Maxwell Organisation: Faculty of Veterinary Science, The University of Sydney, NSW, 2006. Phone: (02) 9351 4864 Fax: (02) 9351 3957 Email: [email protected]

Objectives Further develop and establish the technology for collection, preservation and artificial insemination (AI) of alpaca semen.

Background Difficulties in collecting and liquefying semen, and the lack of knowledge about liquid and frozen storage methods were identified by RIRDC project AAA-1A. Research Optimal semen collection parameters were determined by investigating a redesigned mannequin, new artificial vagina (AV) liners, addition of an artificial cervix, the presence of females during semen collection, collection of semen into a diluent, and collection of semen into a catalase supplemented diluent. Mechanical (centrifugation, density gradient centrifugation, needling, and pipetting) and enzymatic (collecting of semen into an enzyme-supplemented diluent or addition of enzymes post-collection) methods of semen liquefaction were investigated. The effects of temperature (4 or 15 °C), dilution rate (1:1, 1:2, 1:4), diluent (Androhep®, Biladyl, Lactose, Tris and Triladyl), and the presence of seminal plasma on liquid storage of alpaca semen were also studied. To determine optimal cryopreservation procedures for alpaca sperm, cryodiluents (Citrate, Lactose, Tris, Biladyl), packaging (pellets, 0.25, 0.5 mL straws), freeze rate (dry ice or LN2 vapours), glycerol concentrations (2, 3, 4 %) and SDS supplementation were compared. In addition, the effect of inter and intra-male and seasonal variation on semen quality, methods for the harvesting and preservation of epididymal sperm, and the separation of X- and Y-chromosome bearing sperm were also studied. Outcomes High quality semen was obtained by collection with the redesigned mannequin, new AV liner and addition of Tris diluent to the collection vessel. Liquid storage of alpaca semen at 4°C after 1:4 dilution in Biladyl resulted in the highest survival after 48 h, and pellet-freezing after dilution in lactose cryodiluent produced highest post-thaw sperm survival. Effects of inter and intra male, and seasonal variation on semen quality were determined. The DNA difference between the X- and Y- chromosome in alpacas was determined to be 3.8%, and X- and Y-chromosome bearing sperm were successfully separated. Implications This project made considerable advances in collection, liquefaction and preservation of alpaca semen, demonstrated the limitations imposed by the viscous seminal plasma and highlighted the need for future research into seminal plasma viscosity which remains the key problem for the development of AI technology. Nevertheless, efficient and reliable methods for semen collection, harvesting epididymal sperm, liquid storage and cryopreservation were established during this project and will hasten the commercialisation of AI with liquid stored semen. Overall, the knowledge gained during this project has made a significant contribution to the scientific field, and the results challenge many of the perceptions associated with the preservation of alpaca semen. However, a long- term research plan is required before AI in alpacas can be commercialised.

Publications Maxwell WMC, Leahy T, Morton KM, Marti J, and Evans G. 2007. Seminal plasma effects on ruminant and camelid sperm function during processing for storage and sex-sorting. Reprod. Domest. Anim. (in press). Morton KM, Bathgate R, Evans G, and Maxwell WMC. 2007. Cryopreservation of epididymal alpaca (Vicugna pacos) sperm: a comparison of Citrate, Tris and Lactose based diluents, and pellets and straws. Reprod. Fertil. Dev. (in press). Morton KM, Rückholdt M, Evans G, and Maxwell WMC. 2007. Preliminary development of sperm-sexing technology in alpacas (Vicugna pacos). Reprod. Domest. Anim. (submitted) Morton KM, Thompson P, Bailey K, Evans G, and Maxwell WMC. 2007. Quality parameters for alpaca (Vicugna pacos) semen are affected by semen collection procedure. Reprod. Fertil. Dev. (in preparation). Morton KM, and Maxwell WMC. 2006. The continued development of AI technology in alpacas. Proceedings of the Australian Alpaca Association National Conference.

Project Title Requirements for NAP Traceability Systems, A scoping study

RIRDC Project No.: WBT-3A Researcher: David Michael Organisation: Wondu Business & Technology Services Phone: 61 2 9369 2735 Fax: 61 2 6236 6050 Email: [email protected]

Objectives • The study examined options for business models and priorities for traceability systems that have to contend with small numbers of operators, small sized firms, different valued animals and diverse species and production systems. • The study aimed to improve the level of understanding about supply chain operator and market needs, as well as regulatory issues, and explore the possibilities for unified traceability systems across several new animal product industries.

Background The annual value of livestock and products traded from the New Animal Products (NAP) industries exceeds $200 million with about 50 per cent exported. The sub-sector is growing at more than 5%/year, but operators face increasing demands to demonstrate they have effective traceability systems that enable trace-back from retailers through processing to farm production and supply of inputs. Research The following activities were undertaken: • Identification and analysis of traceability systems in Australia and overseas. • Examination of systems and regulations adopted in overseas countries through international survey. • Business model options were identified and examined. • Identification of the constraints to adoption and priority areas for development were identified. • Description of requirements in systems definition, data collection, organizational development and implementation. • Identification of a program of future research for positioning the NAP industries to take advantage of traceability systems. Outcomes The single most important driver of traceability system adoption is the introduction of regulations to meet consumer concerns about the health and security of livestock and food in the supply chain. But over 80% of stakeholders across countries are dissatisfied with their existing traceability systems. Consumers could pay a premium of as much as 7-9% at the retail level for verifiable traceability, though associated characteristics (e.g. animal welfare treatment and meat safety) are even more highly valued than just simply satisfying traceability requirements. The price premium was well above the estimated 1.33% cost of implementation, though there are still significant numbers of people not prepared to pay any premium. Contrary to some beliefs traceability systems do not have to be based on the latest technological wizardry. They can be manual or automated and automated systems can be based on barcodes or RFID.

Implications Measuring consumer willingness to pay is a critical requirement for any sustainable traceability business model, yet many industries and countries seem prepared to implement mandatory traceability systems in an ad-hoc way without this information and often with poor compliance processes, few checks and safeguards and little understanding of linkages required along the supply chains. The presence of a large number of consumers not willing to pay a price premium underlines the importance of understanding market segments. The study concludes in favour of non-mandatory traceability systems. Instead, market based systems with a stronger role for brand development is recommended.

Project Title Adding Value to New Animal Product Supply Chains: Part 2

RIRDC Project No.: WBT-4A Researcher: David Michael Organisation: Wondu Business & Technology Services Phone: 61 2 9369 2735 Fax: 61 2 6236 6050 Email: [email protected]

Objectives • Increased knowledge by industry stakeholders of how value is added through collaboration, and various levels and combinations of labour and capital along the supply chains. • Improved awareness of relative strengths and weaknesses along the supply chains as well as for the overall supply chain. • Improved information for negotiating agreements between participants along the supply chain. • Improved information for quality management systems.

Background New Animal Products (NAP) industries continue to face significant challenges in producing, processing and delivering products for either food or industrial markets. Frequently the firms involved are start-up companies with severe capital shortages and undeveloped distribution channels. At the retail end, NAP enterprises often compete against supply chains of traditional industries, which feature highly developed and technologically advanced information systems and large sized firms, often with multi-national structures. To overcome the high cost problem, there is often a search for niche markets that might be able to generate price premiums to cover higher costs. But the product proliferation that this involves can lead to further fragmentation of supply. If supply-chain participants improved their knowledge of what is happening upstream and downstream from them, they could improve their competitiveness. Supply-chain case studies suggest that improvements in supply-chain management can typically generate cost savings equivalent to five per cent of revenue or seven per cent of costs. Industry turnover of the NAP industries covered by this study is estimated to be more than $30m/year. This suggests potential gross revenue benefits of $1.5m/year for the portfolio as a whole if superior supply-chain management practices are implemented. Research This study extends the investigation into the supply chains of New Animal Product (NAP) industries which commenced with RIRDC Project No. WHP-6A. The industries covered in this stage: are dairy goats, emus, rabbits, turkeys, sheep milk and silk worm, with dairy cattle and pigs included as comparative benchmarks from traditional industries. The importance of supply chain collaboration has been highlighted before, but it has now entered a new phase of pre-eminence. Four developments are set to change the structure, sustainability and outlook for NAP industries: 1.) Growing consumer demand for nutritious, low fat food which is likely to result in declining market share for foods that fail to meet consumer expectations. 2.) Increased feed grain prices as a result of both unfavourable climatic conditions and growing demand for use of grains for industrial products like ethanol. 3.) Growing regulations in support of improved labelling and traceability systems that enable food to be traced from the food product to the feed used by the animal. 4.) Growing cost of labour and limited access to labour in some regions.

Outcomes Outcomes from the study include improved information and awareness about the relative cost competitiveness of different NAP supply chains and identification of opportunities for improving competitiveness. This study provides more objective evidence of the drivers of supply chain efficiency. Implications These four factors are set to become permanent features of the industry environment and to result in more complex supply chains for NAP industries. The increasingly complex supply chains will feature numerous product differentiation possibilities; growing regulations that are likely to be subject to frequent changes; potential for sharp shifts in demand for products; and competition from new entrants capable of meeting consumer expectations. The positive news is that effective supply chain collaboration is likely to enable participants to deal with complexity and the four threats outlined above Publications ‘Adding Value to New Animal Product Supply Chains’, RIRDC Publication 04/166.

Project Title The abattoir processing resource for New Animal Products in Australia

RIRDC Project No.: WBT-5A Researcher: David Michael Organisation: Wondu Business & Technology Services Phone: 61 2 9369 2735 Fax: 61 2 6236 6050 Email: [email protected]

Objectives The project aim was to identify and document the abattoirs being used in Australia for processing new animal species.

Background For the New Animal Products (NAP) supply chains to be internationally competitive the processing activity, and abattoir tasks in particular, take on added importance. Being typically small industries it is an important challenge to start-up and establish an abattoir in a location that can attract sufficient supply of livestock to enable plant capacity to be fully utilized and low processing costs realized. Research Data have been collected from abattoir owners and various Commonwealth and State departments of agriculture, health, quarantine, industry and regional development. The data were collected largely by extensive telephone interviews Outcomes Improved knowledge about the abattoir resource is expected to be useful for all supply chain participants including producers, processors and support service providers, as well as buyers. It will enable them to make informed decisions about contract processing and plans for development, expansion and procurement of land, labour and capital. Buyers of products are also likely to be interested in knowing where they can source NAP products and what the operational standards are Implications There are several implications. First, this could be an ongoing compendium that could be updated, say, every two years, with opportunity to enhance it by establishing an online web site to enable continuous updating of information about processors. Second, it creates the potential for an NAP processing industry that could be used to advance industry policy for processors. Third, the report is expected to be a valuable aid for buyers, especially those in overseas countries.

Project Title Emerging animal and plant industries: Their value to Australia

RIRDC Project No.: ABA-22A Start Date: 01-Mar-07 Finish Date: 22-Dec-07 Researcher: Max Foster Organisation: Australian Bureau of Agricultural and Resource Economics Phone: (02) 6272 2095 Fax: (02) 6272 2348 Email: [email protected]

Objectives • To update RIRDC publication 05/154, a publication prepared by ABARE that provides statistical information on a wide range of new and emerging industries in Australia. • To add up to two emerging animal industries and up to five emerging plant industries Current Progress A draft of revised ‘calendar year’ chapters (updated to 2006), plus two new chapters on ‘Tea’ (black tea and Japanese green tea) and ‘Truffles’ was provided to RIRDC on 1 June 2007 (the first milestone).

Progress has also been made toward the second milestone (due 31 August 2007) which is a draft of the revised ‘financial year’ chapters, plus the remaining new industries to be added.

The new chapters/sections are: • tree nuts, made up of sections on almonds, cashews, hazelnuts, pecans and walnuts. • culinary herbs • dairy sheep (drawing on a recent RIRDC publication) • wallabies in the ‘Kangaroos’ chapter • peppermint and boronia in the ‘Essential oils’ chapter • pitaya and jackfruit in the ‘Tropical fruit’ chapter.

Project Title A review and feasibility study of brain phospholipids extraction

RIRDC Project No.: DAQ-344A Start Date: 1 September 2006 Finish Date: 1 September 2007 Researcher: Craig Davis Organisation: Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries, Queensland Centre for Food Technology 19 Hercules Street HAMILTON QLD 4007 Phone: (07) 3406 8555 Fax: (07) 3406 8665 Email: [email protected]

Objectives • To undertake a comprehensive review of the literature relating to value- adding opportunities from brain tissue (the major focus will be on the lipid composition of brain tissue). • To perform laboratory extractions on representative samples of brain tissue from various species. • To assess to economic feasibility of commercial extraction from brain tissue. Current Progress Large quantities of brain material are currently not utilised in the Australian animal processing industry or are a low value by-product. Brain tissue from representative species (crocodile, rabbit, camel and buffalo) has been extracted to allow an initial assessment of the economic feasibility of commercial extraction of phospholipids from brain tissue.

About 10% of the wet weight of the brain (50% of the dry weight) is lipid. More than half of this brain-derived lipid comprises a particular group of lipids (phospholipids). They are the functional ingredients of lecithins, emulsifiers, and have well documented therapeutic benefits. This research offers a potential benefit to the farmer and to the slaughter facility, as well as presenting an opportunity to a processor to manufacture a high value product from a current waste. Currently, most phospholipids are plant derived (e.g. soy lecithin) and imported from overseas.

Traditional methods of phospholipid extraction have been compared with Supercritical Fluid Extraction (SFE) which uses liquid Carbon Dioxide to extract lipid from biological material. Previous investigations into the extraction of phospholipids from other sources (e.g. milk and egg) using SFE have shown significant promise

Project Title Genetic and reproduction improvements in Australian Water Buffalo

RIRDC Project No.: DNT-33A Start Date: 18-Jun-04 Finish Date: 01-Nov-07 Researcher: Barry Lemcke Organisation: Department of Primary Industry, Fisheries and Mines (NT) Pastoral Division PO Box 3000 DARWIN NT 0801 Phone: (08) 8999 2263 Fax: (08) 8999 2043 Email: [email protected]

Objectives • To analyse the existing swamp buffalo data collected at Beatrice Hill since 1983 and derive heritability estimates for the Australian swamp buffalo. Breedplan EBVs to be allocated. • Review and recommend suitable database system to take the Buffalo Industry (meat, milk and stud) satisfactorily into the next 10 years. • Review Australian and world literature and implement AI protocol that suits Australian conditions over multiple locations - trial in as many States as possible.

Current Progress Results from the Yambuck Vic. AI round 0f 20 heifers performed in Mar 2006 were 6 live calves from the total of 10 that were confirmed pregnant by ultrasound in May 06. One heifer died prior to calving, 3 did not calve. 2 other rounds were carried out during April and July 2006 at BHF. 5 live calves were achieved from the April round although early ultrasounds indicated 9 were pregnant. The July round of 25 head has yet to commence calving and a follow- up bull was assigned immediately after the AI round. DNA testing will be needed to positively assign calves to AI or Bull, but early ultrasounds indicated 12 to AI and 9 to follow-up bull over 2 months. In Feb 2007 a group of 5 purebreds (4 cows [2 lactating] and 1 heifer) were artificially inseminated at university of New England Agricultural Business Research Institute but with nil success at first ultrasound test. Another group of 20-30 will be artificially inseminated at Millaa Millaa NQld during May 2007.

Performance recording data are still being analysed. Both current and historic and the buffalo register work is also progressing with the same group.

Project Title Catostylus mosaicus anutoimmune stimulant

RIRDC Project No.: PRL-1A Start Date: 16-Apr-2007 Finish Date: 30-Nov-2007 Researcher: Dr Bruce Rich Organisation: PRINDEL 20 Tierney Terrece RUSSELL ISLAND QLD 4184 Phone: 0417 700 146 Email: [email protected]

Objectives Finalise project QUT-8A • Investigate the potential commercial development of therapeutic products from Catostylus mosaicus • Establish handling and processing procedures • Identify the class(es) of active components • Determine degree of activity (or range of activity through bioassay) • Gather sufficient data to make Go/No Go decisions for commercial development

Current Progress Ten kilograms of jellyfish tentacle samples have been obtained and extraction and analysis will commence.

Dr David Leach (Southern Cross University) will replace Dr. Leslie Stevenson. Dr. Leach has organized for the extraction to be carried out at The University of Queensland through a colleague he knows who is an expert in the area.

Dr. Leach was delivering the samples personally on 29 November 2006 and will discuss further the extraction process. The original extraction plan used five solvents, namely: 1. Acetone 2. Ethanol 3. Chloroform 4. Ethyl acetate and 5. DMSO. Extracts will be profiled using liquid chromatography mass spectrometry. Once extraction is complete bioassays will be conducted using cell lines. These assays include: 1. Toxicity 2. Immune modulation 3, Anti-inflammatory. It is expect to have the extraction and assays completed in the early part of 2007/08. At that point results will be reviewed as to further assays or progress to the animal model stage.

Project Title Genetic improvement of dairy sheep

RIRDC Project No.: UMO-35A Start Date: 01-Sep-2004 Finish Date: 30-Aug-2007 Researcher: Dr Alexander Cameron Organisation: Monash University RMB Cameron Rd MEREDITH VIC 3333 Phone: (03) 5286 1211 Fax: (03) 5286 1552 Email: [email protected]

Objectives To increase the rate of genetic improvement of dairy sheep by defining the optimum protocol for recording milk yield, and to develop management strategies that maximise the milk yield of dairy sheep.

Current Progress Two successive lactations have been studied, during which ewes suckled lambs for 3 to 4 weeks, then milked for 120 days. The co-efficient of determination (r2) for 120-day milk yield between consecutive lactations was 0.39, and was similar for ewes that began this study as primiparous ewes (r2 = 0.40, n = 77) and for multiparous ewes (r2 = 0.34, n =36). The growth rate of the lamb and measurements of milk production during the suckling period explained none of the variability in 120-day milk yield (r2 ≤ 0.08, in all cases). We conclude that the most efficient criteria for selecting ewes for milk yield are their yield in their first lactation.

When a year round supply of milk is required, ewes may be mated while they are lactating but it is not known if pregnancy reduces either milk yield or the persistency of lactation. To determine this, ewes at the same stage of lactation (day 90 of milking) were allocated into two groups, one of which was mated while the other group was not. Milk volumes were recorded at fortnightly intervals until daily production fell below 500 ml/day or until the experiment was discontinued after 184 days of machine milking. Average daily milk yield was lower in pregnant than non pregnant ewes from 157 to 184 days of milking and more pregnant ewes dried off late in lactation (at day 173 and day 184 of milking). Nevertheless, pregnant ewes produced similar quantities of milk to non-pregnant ewes (246 vs 259 L). We conclude the effects of pregnancy are not pronounced when ewes are mated after 3 months of milking.

Finally we examined the effects of artificial lighting on milk production in winter, and found about a 10% increase in milk production when ewes received 16 h light

Project Title Linkage mapping and QTL analysis in saltwater crocodiles

RIRDC Project No.: US-139A Start Date: 01-Jul-2005 Finish Date: 30-Sep-2009 Researcher: Dr Sally Isberg Organisation: The University of Sydney PO Box 86 PALMERSTON NT 0831 Phone: (08) 8988 5554 Fax: (02) 9351 2114 Email: [email protected]

Objectives The major objective is to enable producers to select future breeding crocodiles based on the animal’s genotype in addition to phenotypic observations made on the individual and its relatives.

Current Progress Of the 600 microsatellite primers developed at Savannah River Ecology Laboratory (SREL) and the University of Sydney in 2005/2006, all have been optimised and scored for polymorphic content upon genotyping (SREL) and analysis (The University of Sydney). Approximately 450 of the 600 primer sets positively amplified, and of these, approximately 270 markers were identified as informative (polymorphic). New primers will be designed for those that failed to amplify at a later date where possible. All informative microsatellites are currently being amplified across the Darwin Crocodile Farm linkage pedigree. At this time we have genotype data for 75 microsatellites. These data are currently undergoing linkage analysis, with the preliminary results being presented at the International Workshop on Crocodylian Genetics and Genomics held in Panama, in April 2007. A short report of the conference outcomes and highlights was presented to RIRDC following this meeting. We still anticipate that the first genetic linkage map for C. porosus, consisting of approximately 300 microsatellites, will be constructed by mid-late 2007.

Project Title Runtism and survival in captive saltwater crocodiles

RIRDC Project No.: US-140A Start Date: 01-Sep-2005 Finish Date: 01-Sep-2008 Researcher: Dr Sally Isberg Organisation: The University of Sydney PO Box 86 PALMERSTON NT 0831 Phone: (08) 8988 5554 Fax: (02) 9351 2114 Email: [email protected]

Objectives • The major objective is to evaluate the specific risk factors associated with juvenile mortality, in particular runtism and disease susceptibility, within a genetic framework. This will help producers identify the main causes of juvenile mortality on their farms and determine whether mortalities are clutch-related, year-related or, more unlikely, randomly occurring events. • The major objective of the histopathology study is to examine the issue of runtism and attempt to observe any differences between 'normal' and 'runt' crocodiles. This will provide clues of why runtism occurs. Similar studies have been conducted in other crocodilians but not for saltwater crocodiles. Since this is an area of major profit loss within the Australian crocodile industry, this pilot histopathology study is of great importance.

Current Progress Mortality details have been recorded for the 2005 and 2006 cohorts, and are continuing for the 2007 cohort. The data have been collected in a categorical fashion (congenital, runt, disease, stress, management/miscellaneous) to provide descriptive statistics for the main causes of crocodile mortality. In addition, genetic parameters have been estimated using data from offspring of known parentage.

Descriptive statistics to the end of January 2007 indicate that deaths from runtism are the predominant cause of mortality in both hatchling and yearling crocodiles. Mortalities displaying “no visible symptoms” was the second most likely cause in the hatchlings with disease-related mortalities third. This situation was reversed in the yearlings.

Initial genetic parameters are inflated since clutch effects have not yet been included due to confounding of the data. The current estimate of overall survival heritability is 70%, which is significantly higher than previously reported. Heritability estimates for disease, runtism, “no visible symptoms” and stress were 0.75, 0.71, 0.62 and 0.40, respectively. Heritability of congenital defects was lower than expected at 1%.

Project Title Exploring the commercial potential of sheep milk

RIRDC Project No.: UWA-84A Start Date: 1/9/2004 Finish Date: 1/7/2008 Researcher: Dr Roberta Bencini Organisation: The University of Western Australia (UWA) Animal Science Faculty of Agriculture NEDLANDS WA 6009 Phone: (08) 64882521 Fax: (08) 64881040 Email: [email protected]

Objectives • Developing feeding strategies to increase the health benefits of sheep milk products, so that these products can be commercialised for their health benefits as well as for their superior qualities. • Researching on the commercial potential of sheep dairy products for the domestic and export markets. • Investigating the suitability of behavioural tests to select dairy ewes based on their temperament.

Current Progress In 2006 we studied a flock of sheep that have been selected for nervous or calm temperaments at the UWA Allandale Research farm. 48 of these sheep were transported to UWA and placed in a dairy situation to test the hypothesis that calm sheep would learn the milking routine faster and have more favourable behaviours during milking, as well as a better milk let down and therefore more fat in their milk.

In terms of behaviour there was little difference between calm and nervous sheep, possibly because the nervous ewes became habituated to the frequent handling. Data on milk production and composition have been collected and will be analysed statistically at a later stage.

At the end of 2006 we measured the temperament of 30 new Awassi sheep provided by our industry partner, YYY Holdings. In 2007 these sheep were transferred to UWA and milked in our dairy to test the relationship between temperament and milk production and composition. Their milk flow rates were recorded with purposely purchased De-Laval electronic milk meter that will allow us to study the milk flow patterns on these sheep. The data on their milk production and composition will be analysed to evaluate the applicability of temperament tests for the selection of sheep suitable for milking.

Project Title Improving reproduction and genetics for game birds and ratites

RIRDC Project No.: UWA-91A Start Date: 01-Jul-2005 Finish Date: 29-Jun-2008 Researcher: Dr Irek Malecki Organisation: University of Western Australia Faculty of Agriculture Animal Science CRAWLEY WA 6009 Phone: (08) 6488 2528 Fax: (08) 6448 1040 Email: [email protected]

Objectives This national project will address with commercial partners production constraints in the management, reproduction, nutrition and genetics of game birds. This will provide these industries with clear breeding and husbandry strategies leading to improved efficiency of production. Progress will continue towards development of AI technology for the ratite industry.

Current Progress Research has covered pheasant, squab, duck, ostrich and emu. Age, colony and stage of the breeding season on egg fertility were investigated in the pheasant breeding flock on the participating farm in Victoria during the 2006-07 breeding season. On-farm studies of reproductive efficiency of squabs have continued in the UEA research station at Shenton Park and on collaborating farms in Queensland and Victoria. In addition, Shenton Park colonies were studied for the rate of lay in the absence of incubation, for the rate of embryo and hatchling growth and the number of squabs produced. The experimental flock of ducks was studied at Shenton Park and showed that high fertility lines are more fertile than low fertility lines but fertility is highly variable within the line. Effect of age on fertility in relation to hatchability was studied in a commercial flock of a participating duck farm in Victoria. The squab breeder diet formulated at Queensland’s Poultry R&D Centre (QPRDC) is being evaluated and first results indicate that high protein diet is essential to achieve high squab weaning weight. Further progress has been made on development of the artificial insemination techniques for ostriches. Female behaviour and human approach appear essential to achieve good female cooperation and stress free insemination procedure. Co-operative in ostrich research has continued in Poland and South Africa.

Project Title Crocodile pen design

RIRDC Project No.: WMI-4A Start Date: 01-Sep-04 Finish Date: 01-Sep-07 Researcher: Prof Grahame Webb Organisation: Wildlife Management International Pty Ltd PO Box 530 SANDERSON NT 0812 Phone: (08) 8922 4500 Fax: (08) 8947 0678 Email: [email protected]

Objectives The proposal aims to investigate two areas of pen design, with captive breeding and raising of Saltwater Crocodiles.

Current Progress The reproductive performance and social behaviour of adult Saltwater Crocodiles housed in three types of breeding pen were investigated. Territoriality and aggressive social interactions were still a problem in all communal pens, regardless of barriers to reduce visual signals. Communal breeding appears to require large areas in order to overcome territoriality, and unitised pens (1 male: 1 female) offer the solution for high egg/hatchling production per female.

Hatchling raising pens were modified to provide access to outside ambient conditions, and preliminary results indicate that hatchlings are utilising both internal and external areas, even during the cool time of the year. Other pen designs are also being trialed. The use of juvenile facilities with areas of deep water (>3 m) and basking areas generating warm surface temperatures (>40C) have resulted in high growth rates, and efforts to improve management (eg grading, handling of animals) are underway.

With the current emphasis on skin quality and production of first grade crocodile skins, cost-effective ways to house crocodiles to minimise damage to the skin (eg physical damage, biting) are being examined, including unitised pens, where animals are "finished off" prior to culling. Skin quality is being tracked to determine time required for healing of different skin defects (eg scratches, bites, lesions, brown spot).

Project Title Nutritional requirements, feed ingredients and feeding systems for farmed crocodile production

RIRDC Project No.: WMI-5A Start Date: 1/7/2006 Finish Date: 30/5/2009 Researcher: Prof Grahame Webb Organisation: Wildlife Management International Pty. Limited PO Box 530 SANDERSON NT 0812 Phone: (08) 89224500 Fax: (08) 89470678 Email: [email protected]

Objectives • To determine an array of feeding requirements, feed ingredients and feeding systems for farmed crocodiles at different stages of growth relying on a minimum amount of fresh and stored meat. • To determine the need for supplements and additives to improve optimal growth and feed conversion in these feeding systems. • To determine costs of the feeding requirements and systems including collection transport, storage and handling and compare with existing costs that rely heavily on fresh meat or by-products. • To identify ways and propose experiments and techniques to minimise variability in the performance of crocodiles within and between clutches.

Current Progress The initial part of this study aimed at quantifying known (standard) production characteristics from farming operations, to establish baselines with which to compare experimental results. Generally, little information was available on conversion rate of food, and growth rates vary greatly. Commercial-in- confidence considerations may apply in some cases.

Although relationships between body weight, various measures and indices of body length and commercial skin sizes are established for wild crocodiles this is not so for farm-raised crocodiles. Yet they are important for assessing condition within and between farms, for readily interpreting results in terms of multiple dimensions (eg length, weight, meat production, skin size, by-product value, transport costs), and for streamlining inventory procedures. These relationships are being derived for saltwater crocodiles of different sizes.

The refinement of semi-moist pellets as complete diets and supplements is being investigated, and will be expanded during the warmer times of the year when animals are not constrained by cool body temperatures. The use of unitised pens will allow individual performance to be monitored. Of particular significance, preliminary investigation on the digestive physiology of crocodiles and alligators has revealed differences between the two groups, possibly explaining the success of formulated diets with alligatorids and problems applying the results to crocodiles.

Project Title Captive breeding of Hawksbill turtles

RIRDC Project No.: WMI-6A Start Date: 1/1/2007 Finish Date: 1/1/2010 Researcher: Prof Grahame Webb Organisation: Wildlife Management International Pty. Limited PO Box 530 SANDERSON NT 0812 Phone: (08) 89224500 Fax: (08) 89470678 Email: [email protected]

Objectives • The overall objective is to investigate strategies for the successful production of Hawksbill Turtles and their captive breeding as a source of stock for commercial raising. Successful captive breeding will allow characteristics of the dorsal shell plates to be controlled, thus increasing the value of the shell. It will offer an alternative pathway through the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) that does not depend on the wild harvest of eggs (ranching).

• Based on previous results with a prototype breeding pen for Hawksbill turtles, it is considered that temperature is an important factor affecting rearing of turtles. Key objectives are to examine cost-effective methods to maintain water temperature within optimum levels, to investigate factors that may affect ovulation, and to look at ways in which ovulation may be triggered by hormonal treatments.

• Reproductive success will be monitored.

Current Progress Different options for heating/cooling systems for a prototype captive breeding pen for Hawksbill sea turtles are being investigated. As maintaining the temperature of total water volume within certain limits may be costly, options to control smaller water volumes are being considered in the first instance. These will require modifications to the existing facility. Solar heating may ultimately provide a cost-effective means of heating water during the cool time of the year, and evaporative cooling to prevent water reaching high temperatures during the warmer times of the year in northern Australia.

Turtles are regularly inventoried to assess growth, and adults continue to show nest-digging behaviour. Ultrasound technology will be utilised to monitor follicular development over time.