Adolescent Girls in the Balance: Changes and Continuity in Social Norms and Practices Around Marriage and Education in Uganda
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September 2014 Country Report Adolescent girls in the balance: Changes and continuity in social norms and practices around marriage and education in Uganda Grace Kyomuhendo Bantebya, Florence Kyoheirwe Muhanguzi and Carol Watson Despite progress in poverty reduction, significant numbers of adolescent girls in Uganda are still poor, propelled into child marriage or early pregnancy and deprived of full educational attainment. Girls’ education now has greater social value and the universal primary education policies has greatly expanded access; however, many girls drop out due to poverty or early pregnancy, while secondary education remains a distant dream for most. Marriage forms and practices are changing, with more fluid and individual arrangements emerging; however, these leave girls vulnerable and with limited social support. Lack of access to reproductive health information and services leaves adolescent girls vulnerable to early or unwanted pregnancies, HIV and other sexually transmitted illnesses, while sexual and gender-based violence remains widespread. Some social norms and practices are shifting, but others persist as part of deep- rooted value systems that continue to subordinate girls and women: these need to be addressed through integrated approaches that engage traditional cultural and religious leaders and men as well as women and girls. Shaping policy for development odi.org Acknowledgements The research team gratefully acknowledges the valuable contributions of many individuals whose time, expertise and ideas made this effort possible. Particular thanks go to government officials and civil society representatives at national and sub national level in the district of Mayuge who gave of their time, provided valuable insights and helped mobilise communities. These efforts greatly contributed to the successful implementation of the research. Gratitude is extended as well to the national research assistants – Joshua Mutengu from Iganga NGO Forum, Peace Musiimenta (staff of the School of Women and Gender Studies, Makerere University) and Juliet Kushaba (graduate of the Masters in Women and Gender Studies programme, Makerere University) – for their valuable support to the research process. Thanks are owed to the research team and to David Walker of ODI for the pictures taken during fieldwork. The research team is highly indebted to Nicola Jones, ODI Research Associate, for her internal review of the draft report and Rica Garde, Head of Research, Evaluation and Advocacy in UNICEF Uganda, for her external review. Editorial assistance from Margaret Griffiths is gratefully acknowledged, as is the assistance in final formatting of the report provided by Leila Mulloy, Programme Manager Social Development, ODI, and Catriona Foley, Administrative Assistant Social Development, ODI. DFID provided generous financial support, which is most gratefully acknowledged. Above all, we would like to thank all the study respondents – women, men, girls and boys – in the communities of Kityerera and Baitambogwe for their willing exchange of views, experiences and ideas in interviews and focus group discussions. Without their insights, this study would not have been possible. Table of contents Acknowledgements ii Abbreviations iv Glossary of local terms and common sayings vii Executive summary viii Study overview viii Trends in marriage and adolescent pregnancy ix Trends in education x Key drivers of change and persistence x Mediating sites and institutions xi Effects on adolescent girls’ capabilities xii Key recommendations xiii Policy-influencing strategies and potential ways forward xv 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Adolescent girls: an urgent priority in Uganda 1 1.2 Multi-country study context 2 1.3 Findings from Year 1 research in Uganda 2 1.4 Focus of the Year 2 research in Uganda 3 1.5 Organisation of the report 4 2 Conceptual framework and understandings of social norm change 6 3 Research methodology 11 3.1 Study design, methodology and processes 11 3.2 Study sites and site selection 12 3.3 Selection of study participants 13 3.4 Data collection methods and tools 13 3.5 Data management and analysis 15 3.6 Ethical considerations 15 4 National and subnational context 16 4.1 National and regional setting 16 4.2 Mayuge district setting 27 4.3 Sub-county study site profiles 30 5 Changing experiences of marriage and education for adolescent girls 35 5.1 Changing experiences of marriage 35 5.2 Changing experiences of education 68 6 Drivers of change and continuity over time 81 6.1 Overview 81 6.2 Key drivers of change and forces of persistence 81 6.3 Mediating sites and institutions 92 i 7 Effects on girls’ capabilities and gender justice 103 7.1 Developing capabilities through education 103 7.2 Exercising voice and agency in a supportive household 104 7.3 Maintaining physical integrity and sexual and reproductive health 105 7.4 Preparing for productive employment and livelihoods 106 7.5 Ensuring psychosocial and emotional well-being 107 8 Conclusions, policy priorities and recommendations 109 8.1 Conclusions 109 8.2 Policy priorities and recommendations 112 References 120 Annexes 126 Annex 1: Statistical tables and figures 126 Annex 2: Research instruments 129 Annex 3: Key actors and agencies, national and district levels 161 Figures Figure 1: Conceptualising drivers of change and forces maintaining discriminatory gender norms affecting adolescent girls 7 Figure 2: Map of study sites in Mayuge district, Uganda 12 Figure 3: Trends in early marriage and median age at first marriage, 1995/96-2010/11 19 Figure 4: Community timeline 82 Tables Table 1: Conditions in which gender norms are most likely to change 10 Table 2: Overview of research tools and study participants 14 Table 3: Trends in monogamy and polygyny, currently married women aged 15–49, 2006–2011 17 Table 4: Household division of labour in Mayuge district 29 Table 5: Supply and demand constraints in education in Kityerera 31 Table 6: Intergenerational perspectives on trends in age at marriage 36 Table 7: Intergenerational perspectives on the rise of informal cohabitation 41 Table 8: Intergenerational perspectives on changes in ability to choose partner 49 Table 9: Which is worse - premarital pregnancy or early marriage? 56 Table 10: Gender roles and responsibilities in the household 57 Table 11: Ideals of femininity and masculinity 60 Table 12: Marital happiness rating of adolescent girls and their husbands 63 Table 13: Community perspectives on changes in marital stability 64 Table 14: Intergenerational perspectives on changing attitudes and practices for girls’ education 70 Boxes Box 1: Is the bride wealth system contributing to early marriage in Uganda? 18 Box 2: Marriage legislation in Uganda 23 Box 3: Busoga and traditional cultural institutions in Uganda 28 Box 4: Perspectives on changes in customary marriage practices 40 Box 5: Changing perspectives on bride wealth 43 Box 6: Community views on polygamy and its changing forms 44 Box 7: The senga as ‘gate-keeper’ of traditional social norms about women and marriage 47 Box 8: One girl’s harsh initiation into unwed motherhood 55 Box 9: Perceptions that men are abandoning expected household roles and responsibilities 58 Box 10: Marriage is central to a woman’s social identify 62 Box 11: Key informant explanations for domestic violence in the two study communities 66 Box 12: How marriage has changed the lives of married girls 67 Box 13: Gender threats in education 74 Box 14: Intergenerational views on links between education and marriage 76 ii Box 15: Intergenerational views on education and marriage for boys 79 Box 16: Socioeconomic changes, poverty and emerging issues for young people (Kityerera) 83 Box 17: The impact of socioeconomic and livelihood changes on young people (Baitambogwe) 84 Box 18: Men are beginning to feel like ‘empty trousers’ 87 Box 19: ‘Museveni’s children’ – trying to make sense of child rights 88 Box 20: Coming to terms with the minimum age of marriage and law on defilement 89 Box 21: Local perspectives on the proposed Marriage and Divorce Bill 90 Box 22: Case study – girl graduate supported by parents 93 Box 22: Case study – a story of misfortunes 94 Box 23: Case study – positive support at home and school 95 Box 24: Failure to address problems of ‘defilement’ of girls by teachers in school 96 Box 25: Case study – a girl successfully returning to school after childbirth 96 Box 26: Ambiguities surrounding provision of adolescent-friendly health information and services 98 iii Abbreviations Abbreviation Description ABEK Alternative Basic Education for Karamoja ACFODE Action for Development AIDS Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome ANPPCAN African Network for the Prevention and Protection Against Child Abuse and Neglect ARI Acute Respiratory Infection BEUPA Basic Education for Urban Poverty Areas BROSIDI Busoga Rural Open Source for Development Initiative CBO Community-based Organisation CDO Community Development Officer CEDAW Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women CHANCE Child-Centred Alternative, Non-Formal Community-based Education CM Community Mapping COPE Complementary Opportunity for Primary Education CORP Community Resource Person CSO Civil Society Organisation DELTA Development Alternatives DEO District Education Officer DFID UK Department for International Development EMIS Education Management Information System FAL Functional Adult Literacy FAWE Forum for African Women Educationalists FGD Focus Group Discussion FHRI Foundation for Human Rights Initiative iv FIDH