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Understanding and Quantifying the Roles of Perceived Social UNDERSTANDING AND QUANTIFYING THE ROLES OF PERCEIVED SOCIAL SUPPORT, PET ATTACHMENT, AND ADULT ATTACHMENT IN ADULT PET OWNERS’ SENSE OF WELL-BEING By STEPHANIE CECILE LANGSTON A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY WASHINGTON STATE UNIVERSITY Department of Educational Leadership, Sport Studies, & Educational/Counseling Psychology AUGUST 2014 © Copyright by STEPHANIE LANGSTON, 2014 All Rights Reserved © Copyright by STEPHANIE LANGSTON, 2014 All Rights Reserved To the Faculty of Washington State University The members of the Committee appointed to examine the dissertation of STEPHANIE LANGSTON find it satisfactory and recommend that it be accepted. ______________________________ Phyllis Erdman, Ph.D., Chair ______________________________ Laurie "Lali" McCubbin, Ph.D. ______________________________ Sarah Ullrich-French, Ph.D. ______________________________ Kathleen “Kathy" Ruby, Ph.D. ii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS My progress and accomplishments throughout my graduate career would not have been possible without the commitment and support of several noteworthy individuals. I would like to thank my advisors and mentors, Dr. Phyllis Erdman and Dr. Laurie “Lali” McCubbin, for guiding and supporting me through this process, both personally and professionally. I also want to extend my gratitude and respect to Dr. Sarah Ullrich-French and Dr. Kathy Ruby for their invaluable knowledge and enthusiasm for this project. I have been graced by the love, support, and power that come with being part of a phenomenal family unit. I want to thank my mother and father for instilling in me a passion for learning and education, and for their willingness to nurture a menagerie of pets throughout childhood. I am also grateful to my sister and her partner. In their love, as well as my parents, I learned how enriching a secure relationship can be, and I understood in a tangible way just how unstoppable a woman can be when she is encouraged to pursue her dreams and goals. I would also like to thank my supervisors and colleagues at Palouse River Counseling, Washington State’s Counseling and Testing Services, and Appalachian State University’s Counseling Center. These individuals have had a profound impact on my personal and professional growth as helper, and I have treasured becoming a member of these communities. Finally, this journey would not have been nearly as fabulous without the companions, both human and furry, I have had along the way. No-filter Fridays, dog walks, and constant support made this journey far more fun than I ever thought possible. I appreciate Conan, Pepper, and Pearl, my furry editors and lap warmers throughout the writing and research process. My cup runneth over and my heart is full. I am thankful for the roots that have kept me grounded, the passion in my mind, the fire in my soul, and the wings I can use to discover new things. iii UNDERSTANDING AND QUANTIFYING THE ROLES OF PERCEIVED SOCIAL SUPPORT, PET ATTACHMENT, AND ADULT ATTACHMENT IN ADULT PET OWNERS’ SENSE OF WELL-BEING Abstract By Stephanie Langston, Ph. D. Washington State University August 2014 Chair: Phyllis Erdman, Ph.D. Researchers have extolled the benefits of pet ownership. Most of the studies which have been published lack a theoretical lens through which to conceptualize the human-animal bond. Attachment theory offers a framework for understanding the connection between humans and pets. This study applied attachment theory to the human-animal bond in an effort to understand whether pet attachment (PAtt) is related to adult attachment (AAtt), subjective well-being (SWB), and perceived social support (PSS). Beyond correlational analyses, this study also examined the degree to which individual differences in pet attachment can uniquely predict subjective well-being in adults who own pets. Participants were 561 pet-owning adults who completed a demographic questionnaire, the Experiences in Close Relationships Scale (ECR), the Pet Attachment Questionnaire (PAQ), the Perceived Social Support from Friends and Family Scales (PSS), the Satisfaction With Life Scale (SWLS), and the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule Expanded Form (PANAS-X). Results indicated that Adult Attachment (AAtt) scales (anxiety and avoidance) were inversely correlated with positive affect (PA) and satisfaction with life (SWLS), and were positively correlated with negative affect (NA). Perceived Social Support (PSS) was positively correlated with PA and SWLS and negatively correlated with NA. PSS was a significant iv predictor of SWB, AAtt was a significant predictor of SWB, and PSS predicted AAtt. AAtt partially mediated the relationship between PSS and PA, fully mediated the relationship between PSS and NA, and partially mediated the relationship between PSS and SWLS. No significant moderation effects were found for the interaction between AAtt and PSS in predicting participants’ SWB. Pet Attachment (PAtt) anxiety had significant correlations with AAtt anxiety and avoidance, while PAtt avoidance had a significant correlation with AAtt avoidance and no relationship with AAtt anxiety. PAtt avoidance was significantly associated with NA, but not PSS, SWLS, or PA; PAtt anxiety was significantly correlated with PSS, SWLS, PA, and NA. PAtt avoidance significantly predicted SWLS and PAtt anxiety significantly predicted NA. PSS was not found to be a significant predictor in either facet of PAtt, and PSS did not predict PAtt. Interpretation and limitations of the findings, applied implications, and future directions are discussed. v TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ……………………………………………………………….. iii ABSTRACT ……………………………………………………………………………….. iv LIST OF TABLES …………………………………………………………………………. ix LIST OF FIGURES………………………………………………………………………… xi CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION …………………………………………………………………. 1 Introduction ……………………………………………………………… 1 Review of the Literature……………………………………………………. 1 Gaps in the Research ……………………………………………………….. 3 The Current Study ………………………………………………………….. 4 Significance………………………………………………………………… 5 Purpose and Research Questions…………………………………………… 5 Hypotheses …………………………………………………………………. 6 2. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE………………………………………………… 8 Attachment Theory…………………………………………………………. 8 Tenets of Attachment Theory ……………………………………… 8 Measuring and Quantifying Attachment …………………………… 13 Neural Pathways of Attachment………………………………........ 18 In Children …………………………………………………. 18 In Adults and Across the Lifespan …………………………. 22 vi Animal Models and Bonding ………………………………. 29 Benefits of the Human-Animal Bond (HAB) ……………………………… 30 Important Terminology in the Human-Animal Bond ……………… 32 Evidence of the Physiological Benefits of the HAB ……………….. 34 Effects on the Companion Animal …………………………. 40 Effects on Humans- Clinical Samples……………………… 41 Effects on Humans- Non-clinical Samples…………………. 42 Evidence of the Psychosocial Benefits of the HAB………………… 45 Effects on Humans- Clinical Samples……………………… 48 Effects on Humans- Non-clinical Samples ………………… 54 A Crossroads: The HAB and Attachment Theory………………………….. 63 Construct Equivalence?…………………………………………….. 63 Pets as Attachment Figures ………………………………………… 65 Attachment Behaviors ……………………………………… 66 Attachment Bonds ………………………………………….. 67 Grief and Loss ……………………………………………… 69 Operationalizing Pet Attachment…………………………………………… 71 Ainsworth’s Strange Situation Procedure ………………………….. 71 Constructing Self-Report Measures………………………………… 74 Current Trends in Research………………………………………… 84 Summary…….……………………………………………………………… 88 Gaps in Research…………………………………………………………… 90 Overview of the Present Study……………………………………………… 93 3. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY………………………………….. 99 Introduction ………………………………………………………………… 99 Instruments …………………………………………………………………. 99 vii Participants …………………………………………………………………. 103 Procedure…………………………………………………………………… 107 Data Analyses………………………………………………………………. 108 4. RESULTS ………………………………………………………………………….. 114 Descriptive Statistics ……………………………………………………….. 114 Pearson Correlations ……………………………………………………….. 115 Tests of Hypotheses………………………………………………………… 117 5. DISCUSSION………………………………………………………………………. 156 Summary and Interpretation of Results…………………………………….. 156 Applied Implications ……………………………………………………….. 171 Limitations and Future Directions………………………………………….. 174 Conclusion………………………………………………………………….. 177 REFERENCES……………………………………………………………………………… 179 APPENDICES……………………………………………………………………………… 190 A. INFORMED CONSENT…………………………………………………………… 190 B. EMAIL RECRUITMENT FLYER ………………………………………………… 193 C. DEMOGRAPHIC QUESTIONNAIRE ……………………………………………. 194 viii LIST OF TABLES Page 1. Descriptive Statistics for Primary Constructs ……………………………………… 115 2. Correlations Between Primary Constructs …………………………………………. 116 3. Hierarchical Multiple Regression with PSS and Subjective Well-being ……………………………………………………………… 119 4. Model Fit for Hierarchical Multiple Regression with PSS and Subjective Well-being…………………………………………………….. 119 5. Hierarchical Multiple Regression with Adult Attachment and Subjective Well-being…………………………………………….. 122 6. Model Fit for Hierarchical Multiple Regression with AAtt and SWB………………………………………………………………… 122 7. Hierarchical Multiple Regression with PSS and Adult Attachment…………………………………………………………………… 124 8. Model Fit for Hierarchical Multiple Regression with PSS and AAtt …………………………………………………………………. 125 9. Hierarchical Multiple Regression with Perceived Social Support, Adult Attachment, and Subjective Well-being……………………. 128 10. Model Fit for Hierarchical Multiple Regression with PSS, AAtt, and SWB………………………………………………………….. 128 11. Hypothesis
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