TED ANTALYA MODEL UNITED NATIONS 2017

THE HISTORICAL COMMITTEE

CHAIR REPORT

LETTER OF THE SECRETARIAT DISTINGUISHED PARTICIPANTS, ESTEEMED MUN DIRECTORS, It is our utmost honor and pleasure to genially invite you to participate in the second TED Antalya Model United Nations Conference which will take place from 27 to 30 April 2017, in Antalya, Turkey. As many of you know, TAMUN'16 was a great success for which we worked very hard and we intend to make TAMUN'17 even better. With participants from all over Turkey, we expect to provide you with more in depth debates, more culturally diverse discussions and an even deeper sense of satisfaction on the outcome. We invite you to enjoy Antalya's hospitality, our conference venue and our school campus along with the energy and motivation of our TAMUN'17 Executive Board. We are eager to make the conference a huge success. Our main aim is to raise awareness among high school students on the tough problems the world faces today and to use diplomacy to shape the solutions. The MUN experience will provide the basis for our Future Leaders, something we as TAMUN want to be a part of. The TAMUN'16’s theme was “The consensus for the new generation”, TAMUN'17’s theme will be “Designing our Future”. Foreseeing where we are headed and the (irreversible) damage we are causing, it is time to take precautions now! We will have five General Assembly committees, an ECOSOC committee, a Historical Committee, and a Security Council. Please bear in mind that only experienced delegates should attend the Historical Committee and the Security Council, since their formats are very different from General Assembly committees and students should be very familiar with the procedures of GA committees first.

We have worked hard to present TAMUN’17’s participants a productive and satisfying conference experience which you will never forget. We are looking forward to seeing you there. May we never forget that the strength we need to make any change comes with unity, thus, it’s time for us to DEDICATE OURSELVES TO BEING UNITED.

Mete Erdoğan Tayga Eraybar Taylan Adem Ulusoy Secretary General Secretary General President of the General Assembly

Mehmet Durmaz Can Araz Deputy Secretary-General Deputy Secretary-General

2

THE BERLIN CONFERENCE OF 1884 CHAIRS: ZEYNEP EMEL TURGAY, ATA SEREN, EFE YURET INTRODUCTION Europeans viewed the African continent for a long time with awe, curiosity and greed. Enriched with strategic resources and unwoven beauties, Africa has always been in the center of imperialism. During 15th and 16th century many European countries set sail to new continents and oceans. 1450 was the year when Portuguese Navy sailed and found the coasts of Africa. This success encouraged other imperialist countries in Europe and by the mid 19th century Europeans had established colonies all along the African coast.

The Berlin Conference of 1884–85, also known as the Congo Conference or West Africa Conference regulated European colonization and trade in Africa during the New Imperialism period, coincided with Germany's sudden emergence as an imperial power, and called for by Portugal and organized by Otto von Bismarck, first Chancellor of Germany. Its outcome, the “General Act of the Berlin Conference”, can be seen as the formalization of the Scramble for Africa during the New Imperialism period. The conference ushered in a period of heightened colonial activity by European powers, which eliminated or overrode most existing forms of African autonomy and self-governance.

To have knowledge on the issue of Berlin Conference in 1884, we should know the reasons of gathering of 14 European countries. The key word of the reason behind the Berlin Conference is "power". At the late 1700s we saw a quick uprising in industrial production, which we knew as Industrial Revolution. Even though the Revolution yields a fast process of production; if you don't have the enough raw materials, the process will be stop. At the beginning of the 19th century Europeans tackled with this problem. In order to continue the production, they needed to find new places to get the raw materials. Fighting with another European country didn't make sense since they were as strong as them. Therefore, what the Europeans did was going to Asia and Africa to exploit the land. Africa was the one of the preference of the Europeans because there were lots of goodies. In 1867 diamonds and in 1886 gold was discovered in the meanings of excessive amounts. In addition to that cupper, rubber, cocoa beans and some expensive resources in South Africa has made Africa to be popular to provide raw material. The other main reason to occupy the Africa was cheap labour. This continent was so unknown that neither Europeans knew them nor Africans knew about the economical systems. This is why Africa was known as "Dark Continent". Since they didn't know the Europe's system, they wouldn't know how much money should they get or how the suitable conditions occur. Therefore, Europeans used unknowledgeable people to ensure the cheapest way to produce. The tension between the countries was high enough that the civilians thought that it would be turned out a war, so every nation in the West was needed to Africa. 14 countries that were called themselves as culturally superior came together to divide the continent according to the natural resources zone. The countries represented at the time included Austria-Hungary, Belgium, Denmark, France, Germany, Great Britain, Italy, the Netherlands, Portugal, Russia, Spain, Sweden-Norway

3

(unified from 1814-1905), the Ottoman Empire, and the United States of America. Of these fourteen nations, France, Germany, Great Britain and Portugal were the major players in the conference, controlling most of colonial Africa at the time. Also, we should point out that none of the African leaders were invited to the conference. THE HISTORY OF AFRICA COLONIZATION The Portuguese in Africa In the late 15th and 16th century Portuguese had remarkable maritime achievements by bringing European spotlight onto the Africa beyond its Mediterranean coastline. In the aim of entering Indian Ocean the Portuguese sailors investigated African Western coastline so that they could find a way to round the Continent and plug themselves into the Space Trade and thus not trespassing the Ottoman and Arab strangleholds on this immensely lucrative trade. Bartholomew Diaz was the person who first managed to round the Cape of Good Hope in 1488, however he couldn’t manage to see Indian Ocean. Diaz’s fellow countryman Vasco de Gama made the first voyage all the way to the Spice Islands from Europe and return by the same route after a decade later than Diaz’s voyage. This voyage created a shock in Europe and everyone was talking about, but Portuguese didn’t to share their route, naturally. They were also very defensive about the routes and method, which they were able to reach Spice Islands. Series of forts have been built along the route and jealously guarded the maps and charts. Those forts were the first serious European presence on the Continent, but even these tended to hug the coastline and they were resupply bases for ships on the journey to and from Asia. In 1494, Portugal entered into an agreement, Treaty of Tordesilhas, with Spain in attempt to clearly ensure each other’s spheres of influence. The Spanish tend to control the route to America and Portuguese to control the route to Africa. The Americas were land to be worked but there was not much labor at all. Thus slaves to act as manpower catch Europeans eyes’. Early in 1494 the Portuguese had signed agreements with West African leaders to trade slaves rather than seize assets. Interest in slave trade made Portuguese act more active in supporting and supplanting African and Arab kingdoms that might help or hinder their acquisition of suitable manpower. Portuguese supported and influenced with Angola, Guinea and Mozambique to supply slaves, the milestone to the Atlantic Slave Trade. Throughout those years Portuguese managed to hold off British from slavery and become a monopoly. Incursion of the Dutch Due to various dynastic and political marriages, Netherlands has been a part of Spanish Empire for many years. By the end of 16th century, large numbers of Protestant Dutch began a rebellion towards Spain to form a young and dynamic power on Europe. The Dutch East India Company was created in 1602 in the aim of breaking the Portuguese monopoly. The Dutch slowly but surely sabotaged the Portuguese monopoly by establishing new trading routes. Each successful journey increased the profit of the company resulting better ships and armament.

4

Established by Jan van Riebeeck in 1612 as a resupply base, the Dutch foothold was to become Cape of Good Hope. The Dutch then attacked and undermined Portuguese forts in West Africa and across the Atlantic in Brazil in a sustained campaign that went on for decades. At the year 1637 Dutch attack and take the largest Portuguese Fort in Western Africa at Elmina. The Dutch took over many of the trading relationships already established by the Portuguese. The Dutch had effectively cleared the Portuguese out of the Gold Coast and took over much of the lucrative slave trade. However, the Dutch efforts made fellow Europeans attempt to join in with the trade, Swedish, Danish, English, French and even Brandenburg forts were established in the area to facilitate trade during the Sixteenth and in to the Seventeenth Centuries.

In order to formalise English interest in West Africa King James I gave a Royal Charter to The Company of Adventurers of London (Guinea Company). Between 1618 and 1621 the company sent three voyages to the Gambia in order to trade gold but they found very few. After years of economic difficulties a new charter was issued in 1631 to what was now known as The Company of Merchants Trading to Guinea. Critically, this new charter said that the government would support the company against foreign competitors and, for the first time, the foreign competitor it most mentioned to deal with was the Dutch and not the Portuguese.

In 1632 this new Company set up factories at Komenda, Kormantin and Winneba primarily to trade in gold more factories were created later in Anomabu (1639), Takoradi (1645), Cabo Corso (1650). Kormantin became the focal point and was fortified in 1638 as it became clearer that the Dutch West India Company was unwilling to allow the English free control. Due to interior problems in England and the Anglo-Dutch Wars Company became unprofitable and this company was sold with its remaining rights to the English East India Company in 1657.

The size and the nature of Dutch’s complicated coastline meant that rivals such as English could and did maintain, and even expand their own trading relationships, although Dutch were the pre-eminent of the Continent. In 1660 King Charles II grant a charter to the Royal African Company. From 1662 onwards The RAC decided to expand beyond the gold trade and undertook to supply 3,000 slaves a year to the West Indian Colonies. The company soon racked up considerable debts rather than profits as it sought to take on the Dutch who were more than willing to defend their own monopoly rights in West Africa. The company was led by the Duke of York at 1663 and he sent an expedition to West Africa to capture Dutch forts which they did so before a Dutch counter-expedition captured them all back, which lead to second Anglo - Dutch War. A new Company called the Gambia Adventurers in 1668, which was the heavily indebted Royal African Company, founded with a license to trade north of the Bight of Benin. Under a new Royal Charter in 1672 The Royal Africa Company was reformed with enhanced rights to set up its own forts, factories and troops and even to exercise martial law in areas it controlled. The New Royal African Company appeared to be entering its own circle of success that helped enrich many backers in the City of London its chief backer, the Duke of York,

5 became King in 1685. But, this time period of profitability for the Royal African Company was about to come to a close, paradoxically due to a Dutch king taking over the English throne!

Reign of the British The Glorious Revolution in 1688 forced Catholic James II from the throne and Protestant Dutch William of Orange, with his Stuart wife Mary, became the new joint monarchs of England. This new Anglo-Dutch combination resulted new opportunities and threats to the English Empire. First of all English from now on could access the Dutch and English forts and many other commercial advances of the Dutch. It also created an effective atmosphere for English and Dutch traders. End of 1690s English get ahead of Dutch on the slavery trade, but there was another competitor coming to the stage: the French. They have increased their presence in Senegal, which resulted to several wars. During 1689 and 1697 English and French fought for Senegal, which resulted English temporary, capture of Fort St. Louis on the Senegal and the temporary loss of Fort James on the Gambia. The Treaty of Utrecht in 1713 helped limit French, Spanish and Portuguese economic and political power for the time being and saw the end of the War of Spanish Succession. The English gained the legal right for slave trade for the first time, which was known as “Asiento”. British ships ended up carrying over half the slaves across the Atlantic throughout the eighteenth century. 1807 was the year when England banned the slavery because the price of sugar was decreasing. This law was also a strategic advantage to Britain with a Royal Navy that had recently decisively defeated a French and Spanish fleet at Trafalgar. The Royal Navy would obtain the right to stop and search any ship that it suspected might be carrying slaves. Special forgiveness was made for their Portuguese (and later Spanish) allies to continue trading to their colonies in South America but otherwise ships could to be stopped and searched at will under the pretext of checking for slaves. This helped ensure that possible French attempts to trade outside of Europe using non-French ships could be successfully squashed. Liberty, Equality, Fraternity: République française Although French East India Company was established in 1664, France was not very effective in Africa colonization; they were more effective in North America. Apart from Senegal presence the first signs of French colonization is seen in Algeria, which was seized by France in 1830. The presence of France in America did end with several wars: War of The Austrian Succession (1744-1748), the Seven Years’ War (1756-1783), the French Revolutionary Wars (1793-1802) and the Napoleonic Wars (1803-1815). The First French Colonial Empire, which couldn’t manage to control many territories Africa, but much in North America was ended by these wars. As mentioned, the invasion of Algeria was the beginning of the Second French Colonial Empire. As Napoleon III became emperor of France, he doubled the overseas provinces of France and he established French rule in New Caledonia, and Cochinchina, established a

6 protectorate in Cambodia (1863); and colonized parts of Africa. During the Second Opium War and Taiping Rebellion (1860), he joined Britain by sending an army to China. He established Ministry of the Navy and Colonies in the aim of having a modernized navy, which was ended successful. The French navy was the second biggest Navy after Britain.

At the beginning of Napoleon III’s reign, Senegal was yet a France colony but it wasn’t profitable. Thus, Napoleon III deputed a new governor, which renewed and boosted the trade system in Senegal by building new forts and building new railway stations. Since 1830 Algeria had been formally under French rule, but in 1852, when country was fully invaded, it had became a part of it. Napoleon III didn’t pay much attention to Algeria during his first years but in September 1860 he made his first trip to Algeria with his wife. He thought that Algeria was special from any other colony so he assigned Arab aristocrats to rule Algeria. Cobden-Chevalier Treaty signed in 1860 between France and Britain offering a free trade, was the at most closeness between French and British. They were never close that much ever. British have feared that they might invade England or help Americans during their civil war. The year 1870 saw the French influence in the North Africa. With the Bardo Treaty France established a protector in Tunisia in 1881. French control in Gabon and on the northern banks was formalized in early 1880s. The Ottoman control was declining day by day because British invaded Egypt in 1882. They have lost the control of the North Africa and they even couldn’t send an army to fight against invaders. During 1870s In 1878, King Léopold II of Belgium, who had previously founded the International African Society in 1876, invited Henry Morton Stanley to join him in researching and “civilizing” the continent. In 1878, the International Congo Society was also formed, with more economic goals, but still closely related to the former society. Léopold secretly bought off the foreign investors in the Congo Society, which was turned to imperialistic goals, with the African Society serving primarily as a philanthropic front. From 1878 to 1885, Stanley returned to the Congo, this time not as a reporter, but as an envoy from Léopold with the secret mission to organize what would become known as the Congo Free State. French intelligence had discovered Leopold’s plans, and France was quickly engaging in its own colonial exploration. French naval officer Pierre de Brazza was dispatched to central Africa, traveled into the western Congo basin, and raised the French flag over the newly founded Brazzaville in 1881, in what is currently the Republic of Congo. Finally, Portugal, which already had a long, but essentially abandoned colonial Empire in the area through the mostly defunct proxy state Kongo Empire, also claimed the area due to old treaties with its old proxy, the Kingdom of Spain, and the Roman Catholic Church. It quickly made a treaty with its old ally, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland on 26 February 1884 to block off the Congo Society’s access to the Atlantic.

7

By the early 1880s, due to diplomatic maneuvers, subsequent colonial exploration, and recognition of Africa’s abundance of valuable resources such as gold, timber, land, markets and labour power, European interest in Africa had increased dramatically. Stanley’s charting of the Congo River Basin (1874–77) removed the last bit of terra incognita from European maps of the continent, thereby delineating the rough areas of British, Portuguese, French, and Belgian control. The powers raced to push these rough boundaries to their furthest limits and eliminating any potential local minor powers which might prove troublesome to European competitive diplomacy. Italy took possession of the first parts of Eritrea, while Germany declared Togo, Cameroon and Southwest Africa (now Namibia) to be under its protection in 1884. Conclusion This Article mentioned a brief history of African Colonization that started with the Age of Discoveries. Portuguese were the first to build forts in the Cape of Good Hope and several West African coasts. The following years we saw the Dutch rebellion against Spain and the formation of their new state. This state became the nightmares of Portuguese and Spanish and they became the super-power in the Continent. There was the English navy trying to colonize, which ended not perfectly till the absurd change in the Throne. The Anglo-Dutch combination resulted the British to become the new Super Power of the Continent. France tried raising his head in Senegal, which was successful. But, the lost of territories in Americas and the wars mentioned, the First French Colonial Empire was collapsed. When Napoleon III came on the Throne, the Second French Colonial Empire had begun. The invasion of Algeria and good influences in the North Africa let them have good backbone in the conference. The Scramble of Africa was yet to start. The conference will decide the history of Africa.

TIMELINE OF AFRICA1

1673 France assumed control over a trading post at the mouth of the Senegal River. 1787 Freetown was founded on the West African coast by the British to receive liberated slaves. 1807 The British government abolished the slave trade along the Guinea Coast. 1819 The British establish court of vice-admiralty and headquarters for anti-slave station at

1 Is taken on 5th of March 2017 from http://courses.wcupa.edu/jones/his311/timeline/t-19waf.htm written by Jim Jones in 1998

8

Freetown (Sierra Leone). 1820 First steamship operated on the Senegal River by a private French trading firm. First Anglo-Ashanti War began with the defeat of a small British force and the death of its 1823 commander Sir Charles McCarthy. The British defeated an Ashanti army but did not try to penetrate inland. The British victory 1826 ended the First Anglo-Ashanti War . 1829 First European, a Frenchman named Rene Caillie, visited Timbuctu and returned. 1830 French invade Algiers. 1830s English trader George Maclean became influential along the Gold Coast. 1841 The French founded the colony of Gabon at the mouth of the Ogou‚ River valley. The British government recognized treaties of protection with Fanti leaders collected along the 1844 Gold Coast by British army officer George Maclean. 1848 End of Abdel Kadir's resistance to the French in Algeria. The British government sent John Beecroft as consul to the Oil Rivers. He was a trader and 1849 anti-slavery crusader. 1850 Britain bought the remaining Danish forts along the Gold Coast. Louis Faidherbe became governor of Senegal and launched the French advance inland along 1854 the Senegal River. 1860 The German firm of Woermann & Company first arrived in Cameroon. 1861 The British considered exchanging the Gambia (surrounded by Senegal) for French territory. The London Missionary Society sponsored a group of Rhineland Germans to establish a 1863 mission at Walvis Bay. Ashanti-Fanti dispute led to British casualties and public opinion that the Gold Coast was "a 1863 quagmire". A parliamentary commission recommended that Britain give up all of its West African 1865 possessions except for Freetown. 1865 French expansion in Senegal ended when Faidherbe left. February 19, The British made Freetown the center of administration for their West African holdings. 1866 1871 Prussia defeated France and annexed Alsace-Lorraine. 1872 Cape Colony became an autonomous colony in the British Empire. Britain bought the remaining Dutch forts along the Gold Coast, leaving Britain in sole 1872 possession of the coast. The Second Anglo-Ashanti War began when the Ashanti invaded the coastal region to protest 1873 the departure of the Dutch. 1873 The "Great Depression" began. It undermined the European economy until 1896. The new Disraeli government (in office since 1874/02) converted the Gold Coast into a "crown July 1874 colony.". 1876 French army officer Savorgnan de Brazza began to explore the right bank of the Congo River. The Association Internationale Africaine (AIA) was founded with King Leopold of Belgium as 1876 president. The French and British made competing claims in the the "Southern Rivers" region from their 1877 respective bases in Conakry and Freetown. 1878 Britain occupied the harbor at Walvis Bay and provoked a diplomatic incident with Germany. Admiral Jaur‚guiberry, a supporter of colonial expansion and the former governor of Senegal 1879 (1860s), became the French Minister of Marine, which oversaw the colonial military troops along the Senegal River.

9

The United Africa Company (UAC) was founded by George Taubman Goldie [Chamberlain, 1879 docs 12 & 15] to organize small trading firms along the Lower Niger River. 1879 British and Portuguese opened negotiations over the future of the Portuguese African colonies. 1879 Germany introduced high tariffs designed to protect its industries against British competition. France's Savorgnan de Brazza obtained his first treaty with the Makoko in the Congo River October 1880 basin. Construction began at two locations along the Senegal River on a French railroad to the Niger 1881 River. The North Borneo Company became the first royal chartered company in modern British 1881 history. 1882 France raised its tariffs to protect its industries against British competition. Several important investors joined the UAC and changed its name to National African 1882 Company (NAC). Meanwhile two French companies began to trade on the Lower Niger River in competition with the NAC. The British and French reached a settlement for the "Southern Rivers" region between Sierra 1882 Leone and Guinea. September 15, British troops occupied Cairo and ended dual control of Egyptian finaces by England and 1882 France. November The French revived de Brazza's 1880/10 treaty to soothe domestic public opinion after the 1882 British ended dual control in Egypt. Summer 1882 British troops occupied the Lower Nile Valley in Egypt. The French revived their protectorate over Porto-Novo (between Lagos and Gold Coast). They 1883 also established a fort on the Middle Niger River at Bamako. The Germans asked the British what their intention was for the area around Walvis Bay, and 1883 the British gave a non-committal reply. A German trader with interests in the Transvaal bought land to establish a post at Angra April 1883 Pequena, near Walfisch Bay. The British consul at Fernando Po solicited treaties with African leaders in the Lower Niger 1884 Valley. Leopold of Belgium presented agreements collected by the Association Internationale 1884 Africaine (AIA) as treaties of protection with African leaders in the Congo basin. Goldie's NAC bought out its French competitors and gained a monopoly on trade along the 1884 Lower Niger River. Anglo-Portuguese Treaty recognized Portuguese claims over the region of the mouth of the February Congo River and established an Anglo-Poruguese commission to control navigation on the 1884 river. April 1884 Germany declared a protectorate over Walvis Bay. News reached England of Gustav Nachtigal's treaties granting Germany the right to provide July 1884 "protection" in Togo and Cameroon. November 15, The Berlin Conference opened. 1884

10

THE BERLIN CONFERENCE (1884) The Scramble for Africa had been brought to the table in order to cool down the tension of European Imperialism, which refers to when a nation extends its political power to dominate other nations. Before the conference, Africa was keeping to themselves, which only the coast regions were colonized. 80% was leaded by the tribes. The conference's aim was shown as they wanted to bring civil society, similar to Europe, to Africa. They wished to control slavery and promote humanitarianism. Their aim was reached at some degree, which they bring technology, education and infrastructure; however, it wasn't made the situation better.

The Berlin Conference had been a guideline for colonization of Africa. It prevented a war for next 30 years in Europe up to the World War 1. The base was selected as natural sources not tribes or ethnicities. So the boundaries of tribes were broke down and forced to live another same rulings and land pieces. The borders were designed according to the natural sources, which created areas that more than one tribe lived together. This was how the borders selected but it is not the answer of who did take the control of the place. The rule of getting a land pieces was firstly they needed to tell that the claimed area is theirs and secondly they needed to prove that they could control the territory.

PARTIES INVOLVED

Under support from the British and the initiative of Portugal, Otto von Bismarck, German Chancellor, called on representatives of 13 nations in Europe and the United States to take part in the Berlin Conference in 1884 to work out joint policy on the African continent. The following 14 countries sent representatives to attend the Berlin Conference and sign the subsequent Berlin Act in alphabetic order:

11

The Austro-Hungarian Empire

Austria-Hungary, was a constitutional union of the Austrian Empire and the Kingdom of Hungary that existed from 1867 to 1918. The union was a result of the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867 and came into existence on 30 March 1867.

The Kingdom of Belgium

The Kingdom of Belgium which is a country that gained her independence following a nationalistic revolution in 1830, was dedicated to get a slice of ‘this magnificent African cake’ and, during the reign of King Leopold after the establishment of the International African Association, Belgium finally declared Congo as its own resulting in the Congo Conference –which is now better known as the Berlin Conference of 1884- to be held.

The Kingdom of Denmark

Kingdom of Denmark, is a Scandinavian country in Europe. The southernmost and smallest of the Nordic countries, it is south-west of Sweden and south of Norway, and bordered to the south by Germany. The Kingdom of Denmark is the sovereign state that comprises Denmark proper and two autonomous constituent countries in the North Atlantic Ocean, the Faroe Islands and Greenland.

FRANCE GERMAN EMPIRE UNITED KINGDOM

12

In the Berlin Conference of 1885, the scope of the “Principle of Effective Occupation” was heavily contested between German Empire and French Republic. The Germans, who were new to the continent of Africa, essentially believed that as far as the extension of power in Africa was concerned, no colonial power should have any legal right to a territory, unless the state exercised strong and effective political control, and if so, only for a limited period of time, essentially an occupational force only. However, Britain's view was that Germany was late to come to the continent, and was unlikely to gain any new possessions, apart from already occupied territories, which were swiftly proving to be more valuable than British-occupied territories. Given that logic, it was generally assumed by Britain and France that Germany had an interest in embarrassing the other European powers on the continent and forcing them to give up their possessions if they could not muster a strong political presence. On the other side, the United Kingdom had large territorial possessions on the continent and wanted to keep them while minimizing its responsibilities and administrative costs.

The British were primarily interested in maintaining secure communication lines to India, which led to initial interest in Egypt and South Africa. Once these two areas were secure, it was the intent of British colonialists such as Cecil Rhodes to establish a Cape-Cairo railway and to exploit mineral and agricultural resources. Also, Control of the Nile was considered as a strategic and commercial advantage.

The Kingdom of Italy

The Kingdom of Italy was a state founded in 1861, when King Victor Emmanuel II of Sardinia was proclaimed King of Italy. The state was founded as a result of the unification of Italy under the influence of the Kingdom of Sardinia, which can be considered its legal predecessor state. The most important point about Kingdom of Italy is, at the Berlin Conference, Italy became part of the Triple Alliance, upsetting Bismarck's carefully laid plans with the state and forced Germany to be involved in Africa.

The Kingdom of the Netherlands

The Kingdom of the Netherlands is a sovereign state and constitutional monarchy with territory in Western Europe and in the Caribbean. The European part of the Netherlands borders Germany to the east, Belgium to the south, and the North Sea to the northwest, sharing maritime borders with Belgium, the United Kingdom, and Germany.

13

The Ottoman Empire

The Ottoman was an empire founded at the end of the thirteenth century in northwestern Anatolia. After 1354, the Ottomans crossed into Europe, and with the conquest of the Balkans the Ottoman was transformed into a transcontinental empire. During the 16th and 17th centuries, at the height of its power, the Ottoman Empire was a multinational, multilingual empire controlling much of Southeast Europe, parts of Central Europe, Western Asia, the Caucasus, North Africa, and the Horn of Africa. At the beginning of the 17th century the empire contained 32 provinces and numerous vassal states. Some of these were later absorbed into the Ottoman Empire, while others were granted various types of autonomy during the course of centuries.

The Kingdom of Portugal

The Kingdom of Portugal was a monarchy on the Iberian Peninsula and the predecessor of modern Portugal. It was in existence from 1139 until 1910. After 1248, it was also known as the Kingdom of Portugal and the Algarves and between 1815 and 1822, it was known as the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves. The name is also often applied to the Portuguese Empire, the realm's extensive overseas colonies. With the advent of “rotativismo” and subsequent political stability, the attention of Portugal turned toward its colonial possessions in Africa in 1800s.

The Kingdom of Spain

Kingdom of Spain is a sovereign state located on the Iberian Peninsula in southwestern Europe. But, in the 19th century, its name was Restoration, which is the name given to the period that began on 29 December 1874 and ended on 14 April 1931 with the proclamation of the Second Spanish Republic. After almost a whole century of political instability and many civil wars, the aim of the Restoration was to create a new political system. This was the deliberate rotation of the Liberal and Conservative parties in the government, so no sector of the

14 bourgeoisie felt isolated, while all other parties were excluded from the system. This was achieved by electoral fraud. Opposition to the system came from republicans, socialists, anarchists, Basque and Catalan nationalists, and Carlists.

The United Kingdoms of Sweden and Norway

The United Kingdoms of Sweden and Norway was a personal union of the separate kingdoms of Sweden and Norway under a common monarch and common foreign policy that lasted from 1814 The two states kept separate constitutions, laws, legislatures, administrations, state churches, armed forces, and currencies; the kings mostly resided in Stockholm, where foreign diplomatic representations were located. The Norwegian government was presided over by viceroys, Swedes until 1829, Norwegians until 1856.

The United States of America

The United States of America is a constitutional federal republic composed of 50 states, a federal district, five major self-governing territories, and various possessions. Forty eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico.

OTHER COUNTRIES OF IMPORTANCE

The Khedivate of Egypt

The Khedivate of Egypt was an autonomous tributary state of the Ottoman Empire, established and ruled by the Muhammad Ali Dynasty following the defeat and expulsion of Napoleon Bonaparte's forces which brought an end to the short-lived French occupation of Lower Egypt. Britain's administration of Egypt and the Cape Colony contributed to a preoccupation over securing the source of the Nile River. Egypt was overrun by British forces in 1882, although not formally declared a protectorate until 1914, and never an actual colony. Most important point about Khedivate is that, Egypt has great strategic value in securing the flow of overseas trade.

15

The Mahdist Sudan

The Mahdist State was an unrecognized state that attempted to break Egyptian rule in the Sudan. Developments in Sudan during the late 19th century were heavily influenced by the British position in Egypt. In 1869, the Suez Canal was opened and quickly became Britain's economic lifeline to India and the Far East. To defend this waterway, Britain sought a greater role in Egyptian affairs. Therefore, the British government supported a program in 1873. After the removal in 1877 of Khedive Ismail, Charles George Gordon resigned as governor general of Sudan in 1880. His successors lacked direction from Cairo and feared the political turmoil that had engulfed Egypt. As a result, they failed to continue the policies Gordon had put in place. The illegal slave trade revived, although not enough to satisfy the merchants whom Gordon had put out of business. Although the Sudanese army suffers from a lack of resources, and unemployed soldiers from disbanded units troubled garrison towns, they were still besieging Khartoum –the only British garrisoned city in Sudan.

The Sokoto Caliphate

The Sokoto Caliphate was an independent Islamic Caliphate, in West Africa. Developed in the context of multiple, independent “Hausa kingdoms”, at its height the Caliphate linked over 30 different emirates and over 10 million people in the most powerful state in its region and one of the most significant empires in Africa in the nineteenth century. The caliphate brought decades of economic growth throughout the region. An estimated one to 2.5 million non-Muslim slaves were captured during jihad. However, slavery in the Caliphate was not the more common chattel slavery, slaves provided labor for plantations and were provided an opportunity to become Muslims.

The Orange Free State

The Orange Free State was an independent Boer sovereign republic in southern Africa during the second half of the 19th century, and later a British colony and a province of the Union of South Africa. It is the historical precursor to the present-day Free State province. Following the granting of sovereignty to the Transvaal Republic, the British recognized the independence of the Orange River Sovereignty on 17 February 1854 and the country officially became independent as the Orange Free State on 23 February 1854, with the signing of the Orange River Convention.

16

QUESTIONS TO BE ANSWERED  What requirements should be met for a country to be able to lay territorial claims rather than just having an “informal presence”?  Should free trade exist throughout Africa, in certain colonies, or not at all?  Does Congo have a government that can sustain itself as a free state? If not, what changes should be made to the system to make it a suitable government?  What are some ways to control the Muslim population of North Africa from uprising against their colonial overlords?  What are the benefits of Congo becoming a free state? What are the disadvantages?  What is the foreign policy of the state that you represent? Is it a part of an alliance such as the Triple Alliance?  Is holding colonies in Africa feasible and beneficial for the state you represent? What are some possible repercussions of maintaining presence in Africa?  What are the goals of the country that you represent? Do they have a project such as the Rose-Colored Map?

17

MAPS

18

NOTES FROM THE CHAIRS As the Historical Committee, we will rewrite the Berlin Conference, so it is important to know that the situation of country in 19th century and the actions that were taken before the conference. It will provide you to have a clear view of your representatives' policies. Since we will rewrite the conference, it might be useful to look at the results for see how much countries reach their aims in the meanings of income. The chairs will strongly recommend again studying your country policies in 19th century and learning their roles in the imperialism period and Europe. Don't forget to research about the reasons behind the conference to be held. This chair report will provide you a general view of what we want from you to search for. You may use the links that we provide down below to start your research.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jAXlE7OMoiU  http://teacherweb.ftl.pinecrest.edu/snyderd/MWH/Projects/mun-bc/History.htm  http://www.africafederation.net/Berlin_1885.htm  http://web.cocc.edu/cagatucci/classes/hum211/timelines/htimeline3.htm (EUROPEAN IMPERIALISM 15th-19th CENTURIES)  http://courses.wcupa.edu/jones/his311/timeline/t-19waf.htm ( 19th CENTURY WEST AFRICA)  http://courses.wcupa.edu/jones/his311/timeline/t-19saf.htm (THE HISTORY OF SOUTH AFRICA COLONIZATION)  http://www.thenagain.info/WebChron/Africa/BerlinConf.html  http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/agex/hd_agex.htm  http://www.historyworld.net/wrldhis/PlainTextHistories.asp?historyid=ab48  http://www.sahistory.org.za/topic/africa-portugal  http://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780199846733/obo- 9780199846733-0058.xml  http://www.britishempire.co.uk/maproom/africa.htm

19