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Being Sami Enough Being Sami Enough Increasing the Sami Stage of Performance Maria Hernes Master thesis Department of Social Anthropology University of Oslo Spring 2017 I Being Sami Enough Increasing the Sami Stage of Performance Maria Hernes University of Oslo 2017 II © Maria Hernes 2017 Being Sami Enough - Increasing the Sami Stage of Performance http://www.duo.uio.no Trykk: Copyco/Trykk24 III Abstract The area of inner Finnmark is often presented as a core Sami area. Many of the cultural markers that are considered and recognised as Sami, are based on traits from these areas. Based on fieldwork done mainly in inner Finnmark, I argue that there is a constant process of expressing a Sami ethnicity within a performance stage defined by both the norms of "how to be Sami" and the ever evolving and breaking of new grounds for this performance. The process might be conceptualised as two axes; one illustrating a measurement of "purity" and the other the constant means of expanding the boundaries for expressions of the Sami ethnicity. Language is a vital foundation that affects both of these axes; although it is used contextually as a marker of Sami ethnicity, it is still an important, perhaps the most important way to assert ones Sami ethnicity, as it makes out the basis of the objective part of the Sami Act’s criteria for how one might be considered Sami. The language is both an important means of communication, and thus social inclusion, but it is also a deeply emotional matter that carries meaning beyond the use as a marker of ethnicity. The gákti (Sami traditional clothes) might be considered the most recognised emblem of Sami ethnicity besides the languages. The making of the gákti is a process that involves both the continuation of cultural specific knowledge, and the composing of new expressions. As the gákti is a garment that pinpoints the wearers geographically based affiliation, it also connects the wearer to a specific social community and might counteract feelings of rootlessness associated with globalisation. Still, it also allows for a range of manipulation within certain boundaries. Based on these two examples, the language and the gákti, I argue that while the Sami ethnic identity needs to take on the challenge of including people into the ethnic group that does not necessarily master this knowledge, this might still be a difficult process for many of the people considering this knowledge as vital for themselves and for their ethnic expression. IV Acknowledgements This thesis could not be have been done without the support of many wonderful people helping me at different stages of the way. First I need to thank all the people that have let me into their worlds and given me accounts of the various matters that I present here. I am honored to be considered worthy off this knowledge that has at time been both deeply touching and personal for the people sharing it. I also want to thank my supervisor Thomas Hylland Eriksen, for both accepting me into the Overheating project, and for guiding me on as best as possible on the challenging road to this final result. Thank you to my family in Finnmark that has helped me in every way they could to give me a nice stay in the field and introduced me to so many interesting people. My family at home in Bodø, I am forever thankful for the support, the advice and the encouragement along the way. And thank you so much for helping me to cope with being a part of two worlds. Brage, thank you so much for all the encouragements and your ever-lasting belief in my abilities. Halvor your patience amazes me, and I am so grateful to be yours. Thank you so much for all the times you have picked me up again after a fall. I love you. Heidi, this would never have happened if you had not helped me. I am forever grateful. And I dedicate this thesis to you. Maria V Trevor Nickolls: Warmun Mandala (c) Trevor Nickolls/BONO The research leading to these results has received funding from the European Research Council under the European Union’s Seventh Framework Programme (FP7/2007-2013) / ERC Grant Agreement n. [295843]. VI Table of contents Chapter 1: Introduction ................................................................................................................ 0 Theoretical Framework and Definitions ........................................................................................... 4 Chapter 2: Presentation of Field, Method and Position ................................................... 13 Change in Plans ......................................................................................................................................... 13 Research Locations ................................................................................................................................. 14 Fieldwork .................................................................................................................................................... 16 Informants and Using Personal Social Networks .................................................................................. 17 Karasjok ...................................................................................................................................................... 18 Methodological Choices, Informants and Challenges ................................................................. 19 My Position as an Insider-Outsider ................................................................................................... 21 Anthropology without Radical Differences .............................................................................................. 22 The Unpopular Anthropologist ..................................................................................................................... 24 Researcher or "Native"? ................................................................................................................................... 25 Chapter 3: Sápmi ........................................................................................................................... 28 Historical Context .................................................................................................................................... 29 Stigma, Assimilation and Colonialism ........................................................................................................ 29 The Silent Revolution ........................................................................................................................................ 33 Global Impulses ........................................................................................................................................ 36 Implications and Misunderstandings Concerning the Indigenous Term ..................................... 38 The Criteria for Sami Ethnicity ........................................................................................................... 40 Making of Sami Emblems ................................................................................................................................. 42 The Core and the Periphery ............................................................................................................................ 44 Chapter 4: Language ..................................................................................................................... 46 Sami Language in Inner Finnmark–a Matter of Mastering ....................................................... 47 Sami Language as an Indicator of Ethnicity ............................................................................................. 49 Changing Attitudes ............................................................................................................................................. 51 Preserving the Sami Language ............................................................................................................ 53 I'm Sorry, I Do Not Speak Norwegian That Well ........................................................................... 55 Tactics to Avoid Speaking Norwegian ........................................................................................................ 56 Positive Discrimination–a Solution? ................................................................................................. 59 Chapter 5: The Gákti..................................................................................................................... 64 The Creation of the Gákti ...................................................................................................................... 65 Distribution, Displaying and Pride............................................................................................................... 67 Continuation of Knowledge ............................................................................................................................ 68 Standardization of Cultural Expression........................................................................................... 70 Connecting to a Fixed Place ............................................................................................................................ 72 Sticking to the Recipe? ........................................................................................................................... 74 The Use of the Gákti in Different Arenas ................................................................................................... 78 Chapter 6: Concluding
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