In this section we will explore the potentials of peat swamp forests for climate change adaptation 1 •“The earliest emergence of unprecedented climates will occur in areas with the greatest number of species on Earth, where a large proportion of the world’s human population lives and where conservation and economic capacity to adapt are limited.” •A recent study led by University of Hawaii scientist Camilo Mora noted that tropical regions will be first to experience unprecedented climates due to global warming. •In the tropics, both monthly and annual climate variability is lower compared to higher latitudes. This implies that relatively small changes in climate can exceed the bounds of historical variability. • Therefore, seemingly small shifts in temperature and precipitation can have resounding, disproportionate effects on both marine and terrestrial ecosystems. 2 • Peatlands are distributed throughout the tropical world. They too, will be affected by climate change. •Currently, there are an estimated 44 million hectares of tropical peatland. •The majority of mapped tropical peatlands are in Southeast Asia, which contains 56 percent of the World’s total. South America contains 24% followed by Africa, containing 13%. • Although these are the best current estimates, tropical peatlands throughout the world are generally less well studied and poorly mapped. Ongoing and future research in South America and Africa will reduce current uncertainties in both the extent and volume of tropical peatlands. 3 •Most tropical peatlands are formed by highly productive tropical rainforests known as Peat Swamp Forests. •In many ways, these forests are similar to other tropical rainforests such as in the size and density of large trees. However, 4 unique biological communities are specially adapted to thrive in the flooded, oxygen poor environment. •Many tree species have large buttresses and prop roots to hold themselves up in the soft peat soil. Others have pneumatophores or are covered with lenticels at the base of the stem to permit gas exchange with the air, as soils are waterlogged and often inundated. •Wetland associated plants are also very common in the understory and on the forest floor. 4 Peat swamp forests can also be palm‐dominated, such as the Sago swamps of southern Papua, Indonesia and in the upper Amazon basin of Peru. 5 Peat Swamp Forests supply numerous ecosystem services to human societies. •These are natural services that beneficial to humans but not paid for directly. •Provisioning services include 6 timber and non‐timber forest products such as honey, nuts, fruits, medicines, latex, dyes, and fiber. Peat swamps also provide fresh water and fish to local communities. •Peat Swamp forests regulate landscape hydrology, and have been described as “landscape sponges”, absorbing excess rainwater during wet seasons and during extreme storm events, and steadily releasing stored water during dry spells or droughts. •Peat Swamps are also a source of natural pollinators, key to the production of food crops. They also serve as biofilters which trap 6 sediments and excess nutrient runoff from agricultural activities upstream. In their natural state, peat swamps are also globally significant sinks of atmospheric carbon. •Supporting services are those which sustain the ecosystem and other ecosystem services. These include primary production and the maintenance of nutrients necessary to sustain all forms of life, and water cycling. •Tropical peatlands are also important culturally. In many places they are valued for spiritual reasons, provide opportunities for recreation and education, are 6 sources of local traditions and customs, and contain aesthetic values. 6 7 •As adjacent dry land forests are increasingly converted, degraded and fragmented, endangered species rely on peat swamp forest habitat. This is particularly true for primates and wild cats. •Orangutans, gibbons, Sumatran tigers, clouded leopards, and flat 8 headed cats inhabit Indonesian peat swamp forests. All of the great apes: Gorillas, Chimpanzees, Bonobos, Orangutans, and of course, Humans, inhabit and rely on swamp forest habitat in Indonesia and Africa. •In total, 60 primate and 20 felid taxa are reported from peat swamp forests and mangroves of Asia and Africa. Fish fauna is also very diverse, yet little known. Paedocypris, a newly described fish genus, is found exclusively in the black‐water pools and streams of peat swamp forests in Sumatra and Kalimantan, Borneo. At 7mm fully grown, this unique little fish 8 is also the smallest known vertebrate on Earth. •Highly sought Arawana, or Dragonfish, which adorn aquariums around the world, inhabit the lakes of Danau Sentarum National Park in West Kalimantan, Indonesian Borneo. 8 • The conversion of tropical peat swamp forests to other land uses releases very large amounts of greenhouse gases to the atmosphere from peat decomposition and burning. • Drainage lowers the water table and aerates surface peat layers. With oxygen now available, peat decomposes rapidly in the humid tropical environment. • Fire is commonly used to clear unwanted biomass to prepare land for planting. Biomass burning on peatlands often spreads into the surface peat, creating smoldering peat fires that are extremely difficult to extinguish. • Peat consumption can range from a few centimeters to over a meter deep, depending on peat conditions and the duration of the burn. 9 Although the magnitude and exact impacts of climate change are difficult to predict and generalize, several overall trends are expected: •Increased frequency and severity of extreme events, including changes in the amount and delivery of precipitation. Longer, 10 more severe periods of drought and dry spells are expected, along with more intense storms and rainfall events. This means potentially drier dry seasons and wetter wet seasons •Sea level rise is also impacting coastal zones, with increased tidal inundation and storm surges. Rising seas can also cause saltwater intrusion and salinization of groundwater, and decrease drainage gradients from land to sea, affecting land surface discharge causing flooding upstream. •How will interactions between human and climate change impacts 10 on peat swamp forests affect ecosystem services and environmental and human health? •Peat swamp degradation increases the vulnerability of human and natural systems to the impacts of climate change, while releasing large amounts of greenhouse gases which creates a negative feedback. 10 •Climate stressors such as rising temperatures, rising seas, frequent extreme events, and changed precipitation patterns will impact natural and human altered peatland landscapes. •The magnitude of these impacts will be determined largely by the 11 extent to which resiliency and vulnerability of natural and human systems are affected by human impacts of deforestation, degradation, drainage and burning of peatlands. •Intact peat swamp forests are carbon sinks, and maintain carbon stocks over the long term. This is a climate mitigation function, as carbon dioxide is removed from the atmosphere. •Intact peat swamp forests also increase the resilience of the landscape to climate change impacts, as hydrological functions are maintained, the ecosystem is resistant to fire, biological 11 resources including natural pollinators and pest resistance are maintained, and the sustained flow of ecosystem goods and services are beneficial to human welfare. •Degraded peat swamp forests are a large source of greenhouse gases to the atmosphere which contribute to additional climate forcing, thus creating a negative feedback. As peatlands continue to be degraded, more greenhouse gases are emitted which contribute to climate change, while vulnerability to climate change impacts increases and the system continues to degrade. 11 •Degraded peat swamp landscapes are more vulnerable to climate stressors. As hydrological functions are lost, more floods and drought are to be expected. •Areas where peat has subsided significantly will be semi‐ permanently or permanently flooded. •Drained landscapes are highly susceptible to fire, and severe fire events will be more frequent with dry periods and drought. 11 •How will governments, communities, and people respond to climate driven environmental pressures? •In short, people will need to adapt to a changing climate to maintain or improve public health, economic security, and quality of life. •What is climate adaption? As defined by the IPCC: Adaptation refers to adjustments in ecological, social, or economic systems in response to actual or expected climatic stimuli and their effects or impacts. •It refers to changes in processes, practices, and structures to moderate potential damages or to benefit from opportunities associated with climate change". 12 • Considering the potential for mitigation and their numerous ecosystem services, peat swamp forest systems are ideal for Adaptation based Mitigation strategies, or AbM. •AbM involves synergizing adaptation and mitigation efforts: managing and rehabilitating ecosystems for adaptation to, and mitigation of climate change. Mitigation efforts focused on peat swamp forests include forest conservation and management and the maintenance or restoration of peatland hydrology. •These activities reduce the vulnerability of human systems in the landscape to climate change impacts, thus contributing to adaptation needs as well. •Another form of adaptation suitable for peat swamp forest landscapes is ecosystem based adaptation, where ecosystem services are