THE RESURRECTION OF SYRIAN KURDISH POLITICS By Rodi Hevian* This article examines the current political landscape of the Kurdish region in , the role the have played in the ongoing , and intra-Kurdish relations.

For many years, the were Iraqi to Afrin in the northwest on subjected to discrimination at the hands of the the Turkish border. This article examines the Ba’th regime and were stripped of their basic current political landscape of the Kurdish rights.1 During the 1960s and 1970s, some region in Syria, the role the Kurds have played Syrian Kurds were deprived of citizenship, in the ongoing conflict, and intra-Kurdish leaving them with no legal status in the relations. country.2 Although Syria was a key player in the modern Kurdish struggle against and , its policies toward the Kurds there THE KURDS IN SYRIA were in many cases worse than those in the neighboring countries. On the one hand, the It is estimated that there are some 3 million Asad regime provided safe haven for the Kurds in Syria, constituting 13 percent of Kurdistan Workers’ Party (PKK) and the Syria’s 23 million inhabitants. They mostly Kurdish movements in Iraq fighting Saddam’s occupy the northern part of the country, a regime. On the other hand, it cracked down on region that borders with to the its own Kurds in the northern part of the east and Turkey to the north and west. There country. Kurdish parties, Kurdish language, are also some major districts in and Kurdish culture and Kurdish names were that are populated by the Kurds. illegal,3 and those who dared to challenge this These include the Ashrafiya and Shaykh were prosecuted, jailed, tortured, or forced to Maqsoud districts in Aleppo as well as the leave the country. Hay Akrad and Rukn al-Din districts in However, the ongoing civil war in the Damascus.4 The Kurds in Syria speak the country between and Sunnis, which dialect of Kurdish, which is the began in March 2011, has presented an most widely-spoken dialect in Kurdistan. As a opportunity to the Kurds. The unexpected war result of its policies during the has led to a Kurdish-ruled enclave in northeast 1960s and 1970s, the Ba’th regime created the Syria. This has, in turn, led to the so-called Arab-belt from the in reorganization of Kurdish parties, which for the northeast of Syria to the northern Kurdish many years operated clandestinely. Kurdish city of Kobani in an attempt to break the cultural centers and language schools have contiguity of the Kurdish region. The regime mushroomed across the region while succeeded, establishing a strip populated only forbidden Kurdish names are being used again by and forcing tens of thousands of from Derik in the northeast on the border with Kurds to leave.5

Middle East Review of International Affairs, Vol. 17, No. 3 (Fall 2013) 45 Rodi Hevian

Map of Kurdish-Populated Areas in Northern Syria

Credit: Institute for the Study of War

KURDISH POLITICAL MOVEMENTS adversarial policies with Turkey in light of the Alexandretta (Hatay) issue from 1939.8 The history of the Kurdish movements in Nonetheless, the Syria Ba’th regime’s “enemy Syria dates back to the late 1950s, when the of my enemy is my friend” approach became a first Kurdish political party, the Kurdistan lifeline for the PKK, enabling it operate for Democratic Party in Syria, was established by nearly two decades in Syria. However, in late a group of prominent Kurds who had fled to 1998, due to mounting international pressure, Syria from Turkey after failed uprisings the Syrian regime forced PKK leader Abdullah together with some leading Kurds in Syria.6 Ocalan to leave the country. This led to The KDPS was founded as an arm of the Ocalan’s capture, and he was soon handed Kurdistan Democratic Party in Iraq, then led over to and imprisoned by Turkey.9 by the legendary Kurdish leader , in an attempt to organize all parts of THE CURRENT LANDSCAPE the Kurdish regions under one strong and influential movement. Kurdish politics in the Kurdish region of However, in the years that followed, Syria is now dominated by two major blocs: Barzani’s goal to unite the Kurds under one the Kurdish Democratic Union Party (PYD) political umbrella fell short. This was due to and (KNC).10 The the Ba’th regime’s brutality against and PYD is an offshoot of Kurdistan Workers’ intolerance of the existence of the Kurds in Party (PKK), whereas the KNC is comprised Syria as well as internal disagreements among of 16 different Kurdish parties under the the party’s leadership. From the time the Ba’th influence of the Kurdistan regional regime came into power and until the onset of government (KRG) in Iraq (led by Masoud the ongoing Syrian civil war, all Kurdish Barzani’s Kurdistan Democratic Party and parties operated underground, with their Jalal Talabani’s Patriotic Union of leaders facing long prison sentences if caught.7 Kurdistan).11 There are some additional minor The Ba’th regime’s support for the PKK (the parties, such as the Kurdish Future Movement Kurdish militant group fighting Turkey) in the founded by Kurdish activist Meshaal Tammo-- 1980s and 1990s was paradoxical; its support who was later murdered--acting with the was not due to its love for the Kurds in .12 The PKK-affiliated Turkey, but rather was the result of its PYD is the strongest of the Syrian Kurdish

46 Middle East Review of International Affairs, Vol. 17, No. 3 (Fall 2013) The Resurrection of Syrian Kurdish Politics parties.13 Although the KNC is a coalition of (SNC) and even attended some major more than a dozen Kurdish parties, it wields meetings held in Istanbul, its demands for no real power in the region. It lacks, above all, autonomy and national rights have not been the military force and other necessary means met. Thus, it left the SNC shortly after its in this regard to counter the well-organized establishment. PYD.14 On August 28, 2013, the language newspaper al-Hayat reported that the Syrian THE KURDISH NATIONAL COUNCIL National Coalition, led by Ahmad al-Jarba, (KNC) and the Kurdish National Council (KNC), led by Abd al-Hakim Bashar, signed an agreement The Kurdish National Council (KNC) was making Bashar vice president of the Syrian established in October 2011 in Iraqi Kurdistan National Coalition.18 However, Kurdish by 11 different Kurdish parties,15 as a Democratic Union Party (PYD) leader Salih replication of the Istanbul-based Syrian Muslim told al-Hayat that he did not National Council (SNC). While most of the recognize any agreement that was not signed parties that make up the KNC are over a half a with the Kurdish Supreme Committee19 (the century old, at the operational level, they have highest decision-making body in Syrian been rather weak or ineffective.16 The KNC is Kurdistan, according to the July 2012 chaired by Abd al-Hakim Bashar, who is at the Agreement signed by the PYD-led People’s same time the leader of Kurdistan Democratic Assembly of Western Kurdistan and the Party in Syria, which is the strongest member KDPS-led Kurdish National Council).20 party of the KNC. Almost all of the parties According to the report, a 16-article under the KNC umbrella are based in the agreement was signed between the Kurdish Kurdish region of Iraq, making them unable to National Council and the Syrian National influence or change the course of Council. The agreement included developments on the ground in Syria. constitutional recognition of the Kurds as well According to the Carnegie Middle East as the name of the “Syrian Arab Republic” Center, the KNC has 16 member parties; being changed to the “Syrian Republic.” In however, there also exist some deep cleavages addition, 11 KNC members would be included among them. For example, the PUK-affiliated in the National Coalition’s 114-member members of the KNC--like the Kurdistan general commission while 3 KNC members Democratic Progressive Party led by Hamid would join the 19-member political Darwish as well as left-oriented parties such as commission.21 the Kurdish Democratic Leftist Party headed by Muhammad Mousa and the Syrian MEMBERS OF THE KURDISH Democratic Kurdish party led by Shaykh NATIONAL COUNCIL (KNC) Jamal--are close to the PYD. According to some reports from the region, they also The Kurdistan Democratic Party in Syria cooperate with the PYD on the ground and (KDPS) send their men to join the PYD’s fighting 17 force, the YPG. The Kurdistan Democratic Party in Syria The KNC’s main goal was to unite the (KDPS) is among the many offshoots of the Kurdish parties and to organize a struggle 1957 Kurdish Democratic Party in Syria. The against the Syrian regime in the Kurdish party was established by Osman Sabri and region. Nevertheless, it faced challenges from Nuraddin Zaza--two prominent Kurds who the PKK-affiliated Democratic Union Party escaped from Turkey to Syria following the (PYD). The PYD refused to join the KNC and failed rebellions of the 1920s and 1930s--as acted independently from the beginning of the well as Hamid Darwish, Hamzah Diweran, uprising in Syria. Although the KNC and other important Kurds in Syria.22 attempted to join the Syrian National Council The KDPS claims to be the successor of the

Middle East Review of International Affairs, Vol. 17, No. 3 (Fall 2013) 47 Rodi Hevian

Kurdish Democratic Party in Syria of 1957, as was elected as the new secretary general of the do all other Kurdish parties in the region. Abd party and Bashar Emin was made deputy al-Hakim Bashar was elected party leader in secretary general. Juma’a’s election as 2008 and, as of the writing of this article, still secretary general caused an internal dispute, holds this position. KDPS is essentially the causing a group of members, led by Hayrettin sister party of the Kurdistan Democratic Party Murat, to leave the party. in Iraq (headed by ).23 In This has resulted in two different Azadi terms of public support, the party is parties in the Kurdish region--one under considered the second largest political entity Juma’a and one led by Mustafa Hidir Oso. As in after the PKK-affiliated one of the more successful Kurdish parties in Democratic Union Party (PYD). KDPS’s Syria, prior to the outbreak of the civil war in attempts to establish its own forces 2011, Azadi has “enjoy[ed] considerable have failed so far, due to the PYD’s opposition public support on the ground.”29 Azadi is a to a second military force in the region.24 member of the Kurdish Supreme council, Among its political objectives are the which is joined with other smaller Kurdish establishment of a secular Syrian state and a parties. It also signed the Erbil Agreement democratic government, political under Masoud Barzani’s auspices. decentralization of the country, and the Nonetheless, the party has been accused of constitutional recognition of Kurdish rights as collaboration with Turkey and jihadi well as “their right to self-rule in a united movements that have repeatedly attacked the Syria.”25 Kurdish town of Serekaniye, located on the border with Turkey. The Kurdish Union Party (Yekiti) Known for his opposition to the PYD and its armed forces, the YPG, Juma’a asserted The Kurdish Union Party (Yekiti) was that “they would establish their own armed founded in 2009, by Fouad Aleko, Isma’il group and would fight the YPG the PYD's Hamo, and other Kurdish politicians. Hamo armed forces if necessary.”30 In addition, became secretary general in 2010 and, as of Juma’a’s Azadi party supports (and does not the writing of this article, continues to hold deny this) the small Kurdish militia group, the this post. The Yekiti movement was also Selahaddin Eyyubi Brigade, which is fighting among those political groups that founded the the Asad regime in the Aleppo region under Kurdish National Council (KNC).26 While FSA control. Juma’a currently lives in Iraqi Yekiti has no known military force, unlike the Kurdistan, as do other Kurdish leaders of the other KNC-member parties, it has been region. Relations between Azadi’s leadership reported that some Yekiti members have and the PYD are still very tense.31 infiltrated the Selahaddin Eyyubi Brigade (controlled by the Free ) near The Kurdish Democratic Progressive Party in Aleppo “in order to gain political leverage and Syria (KDPP) military aid from Turkey.”27 The Kurdish Democratic Progressive Party The (Azadi) (KDPP), established in 1965, is an offshoot of the Kurdistan Democratic Party in Syria. The Kurdistan Freedom Party or Azadi was KDPP leader Abd al-Hamid Darwish, who has founded in 2005 by members of Hayrettin served as secretary general of the party since Murat’s Kurdish Left Party and Mustafa its creation, is among the “most senior and Juma’a’s Kurdish People’s Union Party. Murat experienced politicians among Syrian also served as Azadi’s first secretary general.28 Kurds.”32The KDPP of Syria is one of the Juma’a, one of the leading figures of the sister parties of Jalal Talabani’s Patriotic movement was arrested in 2008 by the Ba’th Union of Kurdistan (PUK). It is also a member regime. Following his release in 2011, Juma’a of the Kurdish National Council (KNC).33

48 Middle East Review of International Affairs, Vol. 17, No. 3 (Fall 2013) The Resurrection of Syrian Kurdish Politics

The KDPP also maintains good relations Democratic Union Party (PYD), which with the Democratic Union Party (PYD), the controls most of the Kurdish land with its PKK’s offshoot, as well as with other Kurdish well-organized military force, the YPG. leftist parties in the region. The KDPP’s objectives include a decentralized Syria and an The Kurdish Democratic Union Party in inclusive government that recognizes the Syria political and cultural rights of the Kurds and other minorities in Syria.34 It is also one of the The Kurdish Democratic Union Party in few movements participating in the YPG to Syria (KDUP) was founded by a group of fight radical Islamist groups and the Asad senior Kurdish figures who left the Kurdish regime. Yekiti party. KDUP was considered to have some public support among the Kurds Kurdish Equality Party (Partiya Wekhevi ya inhabiting the northern parts of Aleppo and the Demokrat a Kurdi) before its founding leader, Ismail The Kurdish Equality Party is a minor Omar, passed away in 2010.39 According to KDPP breakaway group established in the ORSAM, the KDUP lost its appeal following 1990s. As of the writing of this article, it is led the death of its long-time leader. The party is by Aziz Dawe,35 a former senior member of now led by one Omar’s close associates, the KDPP. Dawe left the KDPP party due to Kamuran Bekes.40 internal struggle36 and problems with Hamid Darwish, KDPP veteran leader. The Kurdish The Kurdish Democratic Party in Syria Equality Party is represented in the Kurdish National Council (KNC). All Kurdish parties operating in Syria have their roots in the first Kurdish party, the KDPS Kurdish Patriotic Party in Syria (Partiya of 1957.41 The Kurdish Democratic Party in Demokrat a Welatparez a Kurdi) Syria is a breakaway from the old KDPS and is led by Nasraddin Ibrahim. All splits among Established in 1998, the KPP is also an the Kurdish parties were mainly the result of offshoot of the Kurdistan Democratic internal fighting over leadership. This KDPS Progressive Party (KDPP), one of the oldest is also a member of the Kurdish National parties in the Kurdish region. The party is Council and is a signatory of the Erbil chaired by Sadun Sfook37 and has only minor Agreement that brought together the PYD and support in the Kurdish region. It is a member the Kurdish National Council. of the Kurdish National Council the KNC. The Kurdish Democratic Party in Syria (al- Kurdistan Democratic Leftist Party in Syria Parti) (Partiya Cap a Kurdi li Suriye) The new Kurdish Democratic Party was The Kurdish Democratic Leftist Party in established by Abd al-Rahman Aluji.42 A Syria was formed by a group that broke away prominent member of the KDPS, Aluji left from the Kurdish Yekiti Party in the late that party in 2004, allegedly over another 1990s. However, as a result of the ongoing leadership struggle. Since there are several war in Syria, the party suffered another split in Kurdish Democratic Parties in Syria, each new 2012. Both parties continue to use the same, group is called by its leader’s name such as name claiming to be the real Leftist Party. One Aluji’s al-Parti or Ibrahim’s al-Parti.43 is headed by Mousa Muhammad and the new Left Party by Shelal Gedo.38 Both parties are The Kurdish Democratic Wifaq Party in members of the KNC and signatories of the Syria Erbil Agreement. However, Mousa’s Leftist Party enjoys good relations with the Kurdish Founded in 2005, the Wifaq movement is a

Middle East Review of International Affairs, Vol. 17, No. 3 (Fall 2013) 49 Rodi Hevian breakaway group from the PKK-affiliated and Kurdistan Workers’ Party (PKK). The PYD most powerful party in the region the was established in accordance with Abdullah Democratic Union Party (PYD). It is led by Ocalan’s “Democratic Confederalism” model, Nazhat Muhammad. However, there have a model he suggested for all parts of been reports that the group has split into two.44 Kurdistan. The Kurdish Democratic Union Party (PYD) is one of the most prominent Syrian Democratic Kurdish Party Kurdish opposition parties in Syria.49 The PYD’s objectives include “the constitutional The Syrian Democratic Kurdish Party, recognition of Kurdish rights,” as well as chaired by Shaykh Jamal Baqi, is one of the ‘democratic autonomy and self-rule’ for the smallest Kurdish parties in the region.45 The Kurdish region.” Just after the start of the party is also known for its close relations with 2011 uprising in Syria, the PYD first joined the PKK-affiliated PYD and its armed forces. the National Coordination Body for There is also another Kurdish Democratic Democratic Change, an amalgamation of Party in addition to those already mentioned, mostly leftist and liberal movements in Syria, led by Faysal Yusuf. This party has good which--unlike the widely recognized relations with the PYD as well. opposition group led by radical Islamists-- rejects violence and favors peaceful struggle. THE KURDISTAN FUTURE Then, in May 2011, the PYD became part of MOVEMENT IN SYRIA newly established Kurdish Patriotic Movement. It, however, declined to join the The Kurdish Future Movement was formed other Kurdish opposition parties that founded in 2005 by Mashaal Tammo, a well-known the Kurdish National Council (KNC).50 Kurdish activist in the region. Tammo and his In 2010, , one of the close friends were the first to join the new influential figures among the leading cadres, formed in Turkey. Tammo became chairman of the party. In order to remained a part of it until he was assassinated avoid political persecution of the Kurds by the by masked men in his home in in Ba’th regime, which once labeled him enemy October 2011.46 It is widely believed that the number one, he stayed abroad in Iraqi Asad regime was behind the assassination, as Kurdistan and led his movement from there. Tammo was the only Kurdish leader to However, shortly after the outbreak of the civil become an executive in the Syrian National war in Syria, he returned to the country’s Council.47 The movement suffered a split after Kurdish region in order to participate. “He his death, and a group led by Jangidar urged the Kurds to fight for their rights,” Muhammad and another headed by Rezan adding “that the Kurds had fought for Arabs, Shaykmus fought for leadership. As a result, Turks, and Iranians, but received nothing in Shaykmus’ group left the party, considering return and that it was time for the Kurds to get Jangidar Muhammad’s election illegitimate.48 rid of this shame and fight their own Tammo’s movement was a staunch supporter people.”51 of external military intervention in Syria and Muslim was reelected at the PYD’s fifth rejected any kind of dialogue with the Asad party congress in June 2012. At the congress, regime. the PYD Central Committee was expanded. In addition, Asiyah Abdullah was made co- THE DEMOCRATIC UNION PARTY chairwoman of the party, as part of the party’s (PYD) new dual leadership and policy of equal representation of the sexes.52 The PYD denies One of the founding members of the accusations of any organic ties with the PKK, Kurdish Supreme Council (KSC) along with though it accepts imprisoned PKK leader the Kurdish National Council (KNC), the PYD Abdullah Ocalan’s ideology and philosophy.53 was formed in 2003 as an offshoot of the The PYD is one of the largest parties in

50 Middle East Review of International Affairs, Vol. 17, No. 3 (Fall 2013) The Resurrection of Syrian Kurdish Politics

Syria. It is also the most powerful and well- is putting pressure on us and the FSA at the organized in the Kurdish region, dominating same time. Moreover, whether we again its rivals, including the Kurdish National confront the FSA and clash with them Council. Its armed wing, the YPG (Popular depends on Turkey’s attitude. In general, Defense Committees), controls the majority of those who are attacking us are the FSA Kurdish towns and villages in the region, groups controlled by Turkey.”56 among them the oil-rich Rimland. It has an In addition, throughout 2012 and 2013, armed force of roughly 30,000, some 40 Kurdish forces have continuously been percent of which are women.54 battling the Syrian army around the Kurdish In addition to the YPG, the PYD also has neighborhoods of Aleppo, and, at times, in the its own regional police force, . The largest Kurdish city, Qamishli. The Kurdish party also provides public services and has YPG has also been fighting jihadi rebels in the established many Kurdish schools throughout Kurdish region since the latter half of 2012.57 the region. Its political rivals, Azadi and the The fiercest fighting erupted on July 17, 2013, Kurdistan Democratic Party, have accused the after members of Jabhat al-Nusra, a jihadi PYD of having ties with the Asad regime, movement linked to al-Qa’ida, attacked the which is denies. Kurdish town of Serekaniye on the border According to party's leader Salih Muslim, with Turkey, while jihadi groups were only in the allegations are pure propaganda of the control of the border crossing that connects Turkish government, which does not want the Turkey and the Kurdish region of Syria. After Kurds to obtain rights. In an April 15, 2013, heavy clashes, the PYD-affiliated popular interview with the Turkish daily Radikal, protection units from the YPG gained control Muslim said: of this important crossing and kicked them out of Serekaniye and the surrounding areas.58 The The Turkish state cannot accept the idea clashes spread to other Kurdish-inhabited that the Kurds can decide themselves to areas in the weeks and months that followed fight for their rights. Turks always think and have continued, with the seizure of the we are servants of someone or are being Yarubia (Til Kocer in Kurdish) border crossing manipulated by someone. We are not with Iraq by the Kurdish forces on October 26, like that. Didn’t the Turkish state have 2013. The border crossing, which had been good relations with Assad in the early held by al-Qai'da-linked groups from March 2000s? We were opposed to Assad then, 2011, fell under total Kurdish control,59 and and we are opposed now, because he has the war still continues on many fronts, as of always been brutal to us. When Assad the writing of this article. had good relations with Turkey, he On July 19, 2013, the PYD announced that became our executioner. They signed the it was preparing to declare autonomy for the Adana Agreement and Assad handed Kurdish region in the coming weeks and that it over 200 PKK militants to Turkey. We would hold elections in six months’ time. were tortured. I can you give a list of While addressing a crowd of tens of thousands Kurds killed with the dates and their of people who gathered to mark the September names. We can’t be on Assad’s side. But 1 world peace day in the unofficial Kurdish we also didn’t play the role Turkey capital of Diyarbakir (Amed), Asiyah wanted.55 Abdullah announced, “We are committed to achiev[ing] this goal in the near future with According to Salih Muslim, the jihadi the joint involvement of all Kurdish parties, groups attacking Kurdish towns and minorities such as , Assyrians and villages are backed by Turkey. He Arabs and individuals in Rojava.”60 The continued, “The regime came after us and declaration of autonomy came in November we clashed with it. The FSA came after us 2013. Reports from the region announced that and we clashed with them. Now the regime a transitional assembly comprising all ethnic

Middle East Review of International Affairs, Vol. 17, No. 3 (Fall 2013) 51 Rodi Hevian minorities in the region had been formed until told Diyarbakir’s Kurdish daily that following the elections would be held. According to the a PYD-organized meeting in Qamishli, the plan, the Kurdish region would be divided into sides approved an understanding to create a three cantons, consisting of Afrin, Kobani, and transnational Kurdish government in the Jazira--each of them with their own local liberated parts of western Kurdistan (Rojava) assemblies and representatives in the regional in order to prepare for general elections.65 governing body. The interim autonomous Moreover, on August 22, 2013, the leader administration is also expected to prepare of Kurdish Democratic Party in Syria, Faysal local and general elections and would deal Yusuf; head of the Kurdish Leftist Party, with defense as well as economic and social Mousa Muhammad; and Selman Hiso from issues, spokesperson of People's Council of the Kurdish Democratic Progressive Party Western Kurdistan Shirzad Izidi said.61 announced that they would support the PYD's proposal for a transitional government and that THE KURDISH SUPREME COUNCIL they would participate in it.66 Turkey, on the other hand, reacted to this announcement by On July 11, 2012 the PYD-led People’s putting its forces across the Kurdish region on Assembly of Western Kurdistan and the alert. It also invited Kurdish leader Salih Kurdish National Council signed the so-called Muslim, once a wanted man in Turkey, to Erbil Agreement sponsored by Masoud discuss the issue. PYD leader Muslim said in Barzani,62 president of the de facto Kurdish an interview with France24 that “they had no region in northern Iraq. These two main intention to proclaim autonomy in northern political forces, which dominate the Kurdish Syria,” but that the Kurds needed to "be in political scene in the region, formed a new charge of the region temporarily" while umbrella organization called the Kurdish waiting "for a political solution in which Supreme Council. The Kurdish Supreme everyone--Kurds, Arabs, Armenians, Council refers to itself as the highest decision- Assyrians--finds their place.”67 making body in Western Kurdistan (or Rojava in Kurdish). The council agreed to administer CONCLUSION the Kurdish areas jointly, establish security committees to monitor the ongoing armed The Kurdish political circles in Syria have struggle, and to form Asayish forces not chosen the Asad regime nor have they responsible for internal security and law and chosen the opposition. Instead, they have order. However, the members of the Kurdish taken a third route introduced by the PYD, the National Council, unlike the PYD, have been region’s most powerful Kurdish movement. disorganized and have lacked popular support Though initially ignored and their demands on the ground.63 Although the PYD is the falling on deaf ears, through their war against youngest party among them, having been al-Qa’ida-affiliated groups in and around the established in 2003, it has surpassed all the Kurdish region of Syria, they succeeded to others, becoming de facto ruler of the region. catch the attention of the international Interestingly, however, on the same day community. reports alleged that the Kurdish National Despite differences and rivalries among the Council had joined the Syrian opposition in Kurdish parties, they all have the same goals. Istanbul, in other headlines across the Kurdish These include autonomy for the “Kurdish world and beyond, it was reported that the region or the Kurdish right to self- PYD and the Kurdish National Council had determination, constitutional recognition of agreed to jointly administer the Kurdish areas the Kurds as a distinct nation with their until elections were held, as PYD co- fundamental rights, and use of the Kurdish chairwoman Asiyah Abdullah told the press.64 language in education.”68 Unlike the Sunni- In addition, a leading member of the Arab opposition dominated by dozens of Democratic Society Movement (TEV-DEM) radical Islamist groups, the Kurdish YPG is

52 Middle East Review of International Affairs, Vol. 17, No. 3 (Fall 2013) The Resurrection of Syrian Kurdish Politics the only armed force charged with the protection and the defense of the Kurdish Salih Muslim,” Firat News Agency, May 5, population and the Kurdish areas. So far there 2013, has been no serious internal fight among the http://www.firatnews.com/news/kurdistan/s Kurds that could harm the YPG’s monopoly uriye-de-petrolun-yuzde-60-i-kurtlerin- that could be detrimental to their future. denetiminde.htm. The Kurdish dream to carve out a safe 6 Christian Sinclair and Sirwan Kajjo, “The haven in the north of Syria continues while the Evolution of Kurdish Politics in Syria,” civil war between Alawites and Sunnis rages Middle East Research and Information Project on, with accusations of chemical warfare on (MERIP), August 31, 2011, both sides. All the while, the international http://www.merip.org/mero/mero083111. community is attempting to find a settlement 7 J. Michael Kennedy, “The Kurds Remain on to this ongoing conflict. If the Kurds are the Sidelines in Syria’s Uprising,” New York successful in realizing their goal of Times, April 17, 2012, establishing autonomy, which they declared on http://www.nytimes.com/2012/04/18/world/mi November 12, 2013, another de facto Kurdish ddleeast/kurds-remain-on-sideline-in-syrias- region ruled by Kurds could emerge in war- uprising.html?pagewanted=all. torn Syria, alongside the Kurdistan Regional 8 Hatay Province of modern Turkey was a Government in northern Iraq. French mandate (together with Syria and ) until 1938, when the province was *Rodi Hevian is a Kurdish journalist based in granted independence by France. However, in Europe. He holds a B.A. in International 1939, its legislature voted to become part of Economics and an M.A. in Peace and Conflict Turkey, although the Turks were a minority Studies from the University of Haifa there. Syria has always claimed rights over the International School. He specializes in province, once called Sanjak of Alexandretta, Kurdish and Middle East politics. and official Syrian maps and documents have showed Hatay as part of Arab Republic of NOTES Syria. Since the annexation of the province by Turkey, the tensions between the two countries 1 Hugh Macleod and Annasofie Flamand, have been high and they have been considered “Can the Kurds Tip the Scales in Syria?” Real to be in an undeclared war with each other. Clear World, June 9, 2011, 9 Michael M. Gunter, From A to Z of the Kurds http://www.realclearworld.com/articles/2011/0 (Lanham, MD; Toronto; Plymouth, UK: 6/09/can_the_kurds_tip_the_scales_in_syria_9 Scarecrow Press, Inc., 2009). 9547.html. 10 Caves, “Backgrounder: Syrian Kurds and 2 Jonathan Spyer, “The Kurds Are for the the Democratic Union Party (PYD).” Kurds,” Weekly Standard, Vol. 18, No. 26, 11 “The Kurdish National Council KNC,” March 18, 2013, Carnegie Middle East, http://carnegie- http://www.weeklystandard.com/print/articles/ mec.org/publications/?fa=48502 (accessed kurds-are-kurds_706670.html. August 28, 2013). 3 Macleod and Flamand, “Can the Kurds Tip 12 Omar Hassino, Ihan Tanir, The Decisive the Scales in Syria?” Minority: The Role of the Kurds in Anti-Assad 4 John Caves, “Backgrounder: Syrian Kurds Revolution, A Henry Jackson Society Report, and the Democratic Union Party (PYD),” March 2012, ISW-Institute for the Study of War, December http://www.scpss.org/libs/spaw/uploads/files/ 6, 2012, Reports/03- http://www.understandingwar.org/sites/default/ 2012_Henry_Jackson_Soc_Rpt_re_Role_of_S files/Backgrounder_SyrianKurds.pdf. yr_Kurds.pdf. 5 Maxime Azadi, “Suriye'de petrolün yüzde 13 Cengiz Candar, “Turkey’s Dual Challenge: 60'ı Kürtlerin denetiminde, Interview with The Kurdish Question and Syria,” Democratic

Middle East Review of International Affairs, Vol. 17, No. 3 (Fall 2013) 53 Rodi Hevian

Progressive Institute, December 2012, p. 44. 28 Erkmen, “Kurdish Movements in Syria,” pp. 14 Ibid. 14-47. 15 “The Kurdish National Council KNC,” 29 Ibid. Carnegie. 30 “ENKS: Emê hêzek çekdar ava bikin,” 16 Caves, “Backgrounder: Syrian Kurds and Rudaw, the Democratic Union Party (PYD),” p. 3. http://rudaw.net/kurmanci/kurdistan/30042013 17 Wladimir van Wilgenburg, “Asayish Deny 10?keyword=cuma, (accessed May 1, 2013). Affiliation to YPG/PYD,” Transnational 31 “Syria’s Kurds: A Struggle within a Middle East Observer, May 23, 2013, Struggle,” International Crisis Group Middle http://vvanwilgenburg.blogspot.co.at/2013/08/ East Report, No. 136, January 22, 2013. jamal-sheikh-supports-pyds-project.html. 32 Ibid. 18 “Syria’s Kurds Formally Join Opposition 33 Erkmen, “Kurdish Movements in Syria,” p. Coalition,” al-Monitor, August 28, 2013, 17. http://www.al- 34 Ibid. monitor.com/pulse/politics/2013/08/syria- 35 “The Kurdish Democratic Party in Syria (al- kurds-join-national-coalition.html. Parti),” Carnegie. 19 Candar, “Turkey’s Dual Challenge,” p. 45. 36 Erkmen, “Kurdish Movements in Syria,” p. 20 Ibrahim Hemeidi, “‘Kurdish National 18. Council’ Joins the ‘Coalition’ and Muslim 37 Renad Mansour, “The Role Iraqi Kurdistan Rejects the Agreement,” al-Monitor, August in the Syrian-Kurd Pursuit for Autonomy,” al- 29, 2013, http://www.al- Jazeera Center for Studies, September 19, monitor.com/pulse/politics/2013/08/syria- 2012, http://studies.aljazeera.net. kurds-join-national-coalition.html. 38 “Syrian Kurdish Leader Urge Parties to 21 Ibid. Implement Erbil Agreement,” Ekurd, 22 “The Kurdish Democratic Party in Syria (al- September 22, 2012, Parti),” Carnegie Middle East Center, http://www.ekurd.net/mismas/articles/misc201 Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 2/9/syriakurd625.htm. February 20, 2012, http://carnegie- 39 “Ismail Omar, Leader of Kurdish mec.org/publications/?fa=48360. Democratic Union Party – Yekiti Died on 18 23 Michael Weiss, “Syrian Kurd Leader: October 2010,” Support Kurds in Syria (SKS), ‘Revolution Won't Succeed Without October 19, 2010, Minorities,’” The Atlantic, January 20, 2012, http://supportkurds.org/news/ismail-omar- http://www.theatlantic.com/international/archi leader-of-kurdish-democratic-union-party- ve/2012/01/syrian-kurd-leader-revolution- yekiti-died-on-18-october- wont-succeed-without-minorities/251660/. 2010/#sthash.nwdSVdDB.dpuf. 24 “The Kurdish Democratic Union Party,” 40 Erkmen, “Kurdish Movements in Syria,” p. Carnegie Middle East Center, March 1, 2012, 21. http://carnegie- 41 Caves, “Backgrounder: Syrian Kurds and mec.org/publications/?fa=48526. the Democratic Union Party (PYD).” 25 Ibid. 42 Mansour, “The Role Iraqi Kurdistan in the 26 Serhat Erkmen, “Kurdish Movements in Syrian-Kurd Pursuit for Autonomy.” Syria,” Orsam Report, No. 127, Center for 43 Erkmen, “Kurdish Movements in Syria,” p. Middle Eastern Strategic Studies Orsam, 14-47. , Turkey, (August 2012), p. 14-47. 44 Rachel Silver, “Kurdish Perspectives on 27 Dildar Aryen, “Armed Groups That Operate Protests in Syria,” Movements.org, July 6, Around Afrin and Aleppo,” November 1, 2011, 2012, http://www.movements.org/blog/entry/kurdish http://www.firatnews.com/news/kurdistan/hale -perspectives-on-the-protests-in-syria-from- p-ve-afrin-de-hangi-silahly-gruplar-var.htm. an-activist-and-a-politi/.

54 Middle East Review of International Affairs, Vol. 17, No. 3 (Fall 2013) The Resurrection of Syrian Kurdish Politics

45 Report: Kurds in Syria: Groups at Risk and Fighters Battle in Aleppo, Kurdish Female Reactions Against Political Activists, (Oslo: Fighters Are the Hidden Face of Syria's Armed Landinfo: The Country of Origin Information Rebellion Against Bashar al Assad's Center, June 16, 2010), p. 10. Government Forces in Aleppo, Sky News, May 46 “The Kurdistan Future Movement in Syria,” 20, 2013, Carnegie Middle East Center, http://carnegie- http://news.sky.com/story/1093053/syria- mec.org/publications/?fa=48524 (accessed kurdish-women-fighters-battle-in-aleppo. August 28, 2013). 58 “YPG Clears Serekaniye of Armed Groups,” 47 Zeina Karam, “Syria Funeral Shooting: Firat News, July 17, 2013, Forces Open Fire on Mashaal Tammo http://en.firatnews.com/news/news/ypg-clears- Mourners,” Huffington Post, October, 8, 2013, serekaniye-of-armed-groups.htm. http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/10/08/sy 59 “Syrian Kurds Capture Border Crossing ria-funeral-shooting_n_1001354.html. with Iraq After Intense Fighting,” The 48 “The Kurdistan Future Movement in Syria,” Guardian, October 27, 2013, Carnegie. http://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/oc 49 Jonathan Spyer, “Amid Syria's Atrocities, t/27/syrian-kurds-capture-border-crossing- Kurds Scratch Out a Home,” The Atlantic, iraq. April 2, 2013, 60 “Diyarbakir'da on binler Rojava devrimini http://www.theatlantic.com/international/archi selamladi” [“Tens of Thousands Saluted the ve/2013/04/amid-syrias-atrocities-kurds- Rojava Revolution in Diyarbakir”], Atilim scratch-out-a-home/274573/. Haber, September 2, 2013, 50 “The Kurdish Democratic Union Party,” http://www.atilimhaber.org/2013/09/02/diy Carnegie. arbakirda-binler-rojava-devrimini- 51 “We Decided to Be Soldiers for Our People, selamladi/. Not Anyone Else’: PYD Leader,” Kurdistan 61 “Syrian Kurds Anounce Formation of Tribune, November 17, 2012, Transitional Authority upon Gains over http://kurdistantribune.com/2012/decided-be- Jihadists,” Russia Today, November 12, soldiers-for-people-not-anyone-else-pyd- 2013, http://rt.com/news/syria-kurds- leader/. transitional-authority-621/. 52 “The Kurdish Democratic Union Party,” 62 Candar, “Turkey’s Dual Challenge.” Carnegie. 63 Ibid. 53 Report: Kurds in Syria: Groups at Risk. 64 “Rojava'da Özerk yönetimin projesi 54 Ibrahim Hemeidi, “‘Kurdish National hazirlaniyor” [“In Rojava the Plan for Council’ Joins the ‘Coalition’ and Muslim Autonomy Is Being Laid Out”], Firat Rejects the Agreement,” al-Monitor, August News, August 14, 2013, 29, 2013, http://www.al- http://www.firatnews.com/news/guncel/roja monitor.com/pulse/politics/2013/08/syria- va-da-ozerk-yonetimin-projesi- kurds-join-national-coalition.html; Caves, hazirlaniyor.htm. “Backgrounder: Syrian Kurds and the 65 “EGRK and ENKS Agree on Establishing Democratic Union Party (PYD).” Interim Administration in Rojava,” Firat 55 Ezgi Basaran, “Turkish-Kurdish Peace News, September 1, 2013, Process Benefits Syrian Kurds,” al-Monitor, http://en.firatajans.com/news/news/egrk- April 15, 2013, translated from Radikal and-enks-agree-on-establishing-interim- (Turkey), http://www.al- administration-in-rojava.htm; “In Rojava monitor.com/pulse/fa/contents/articles/politics/ the Plan for Autonomy Is Being Laid Out.” 2013/04/interview-salih-muslim-syria- 66 “Rojava’daki siyasi partilerden PYD kurds.html. projesine destek,” [“Political Parties Support 56 Ibid. PYD's Project”], Firat News, August 22, 2013, 57 Stuart Ramsay, “Syria: Kurdish Women http://www.firatnews.com/news/kurdistan/roja

Middle East Review of International Affairs, Vol. 17, No. 3 (Fall 2013) 55 Rodi Hevian

va-daki-siyasi-partilerden-pyd-projesine- destek.htm. 67 “Syrian Kurd Leader Says Turkey Vows Aid,” France24, July 28, 2013, http://www.france24.com/en/20130728- syrian-kurd-leader-says-turkey-vows-aid. 68 Candar, “Turkey’s Dual Challenge,” p. 45.

56 Middle East Review of International Affairs, Vol. 17, No. 3 (Fall 2013)