Montréal Olympic Park Heritage Study

Home , 1976 Summer Olympics, 60th Grey Cup, Beaubien Street, Bell Centre, Borduas, Camillien Houde

Montréal Olympic Park Heritage Study –

Updated and expanded edition

ISBN 978-2-9807921-9-9 Docomomo Québec Acknowledgements

A non-profit association dedicated to providing knowledge Many people were involved in the research and preparation about and preserving innovative 20th century architecture of this study. We would especially like to thank: in Québec, Docomomo Québec is one of the 69 chapters of Docomomo International, a non-governmental organization • Hélène Barrette, Communications Advisor, RIO, founded in the Netherlands in 1988 to document and • Janis Lucas, Document Management Coordinator, RIO, preserve modern architecture. The secretariat of Docomomo • Mélanie Borgognon, Attorney, RIO, Québec is located in the Pavillon de design at UQAM, with • Mario Robert, Head Archivist, and Gilles Lafontaine, which the association has a partnership agreement. Division de la gestion des documents et des archives et de l'accès à l'information, Direction du greffe, Docomomo Québec City of Montréal, Université du Québec à Montréal • Michel Lemire, Document Management and Archives Case postale 8888, succursale Centre-ville Technician, Direction générale adjointe à la qualité de Montréal, Québec, H3C 3P8 vie, Service des grands parcs, du verdissement et du mont Royal, City of Montréal. Compiled and written by France Vanlaethem Lastly, we would like to thank the CEO of the Olympic Park, (Chapter 5 in collaboration with Soraya Bassil) Michel Labrecque, for giving us full access to the Olympic [email protected] Park and for his constant support throughout our work. Research This English edition is the translation of the updated and Soraya Bassil expanded edition of Étude patrimoniale du Parc olympique Ulisses Munarim de Montréal published in May, 2019. Bessam Fallah (until April 2015) France Vanlaethem, Director of Research Jordane Zakrzewski (in 2018) Collaboration Hélène Barrette Design and production Maud La Rue Translation Versacom Cover page Upper corridor to access the spectator stands (level 400) of the Olympic Stadium. Olivier Blouin, photographer Legal Deposit – 2019 Bibliothèque et Archives nationales du Québec Library and Archives of Canada ISBN 978-2-9807921-8-2 (printed) (Original publishing: ISBN 978-2-9807921-6-8, Docomomo Québec, Montreal) ISBN 978-2-9807921-9-9 (PDF) (Original publishing: ISBN 978-2-9807921-7-5, Docomomo Québec, Montreal) This study is available in PDF format on the BAnQ portal at banq.qc.ca.

Updated and expanded edition Bibliothèque et Archives nationales du Québec and Library and Archives Canada Cataloguing in Publication

Title Montréal Olympic Park Heritage Study: Updated and expanded edition

Includes bibliographical references. ISBN 978-2-9807921-8-2 (printed) (Original publishing: ISBN 978-2-9807921-6-8, Docomomo Québec, Montreal) ISBN 978-2-9807921-9-9 (PDF) (Original publishing: ISBN 978-2-9807921-7-5, Docomomo Québec, Montreal)

1. Olympic Park (Montréal, Québec). 2. Olympic Games - Structures - Conservation and Restoration - Québec (Province) - Montréal. 3. Olympic Games - Structures - Québec (Province) - Montréal - History. I. Vanlaethem, France. II. Bassil, Soraya, 1974- . III. Munarim, Ulisses, 1979-. IV. Docomomo Québec. May 15, 2019

Michel Labrecque Chief Executive Officer Régie des installations olympiques 4141 Avenue Pierre-De Coubertin Montréal, Québec H1V 3N7

Dear Mr. Labrecque:

Enclosed please find the second edition of the Montréal Olympic Park Heritage Study. This new publication was inspired by the reflections prompted by the first edition produced as part of the 40th anniversary of the Montréal Olympic Games, particularly concerning the urban insertion of the facilities. Following the new research we conducted at your request on the Quartier olympique and on the La Joute fountain-sculpture, an artwork by Jean Paul Riopelle initially installed on the site during the Games, we have updated and expanded the first edition taking into account the key events that occurred since 2016.

The main modification is the addition of a chapter on the history of Maisonneuve Park and its neighbourhood. This led to a revision of Chapter 1, “Montréal, ville olympique,” which briefly covered this topic, as well as to the chapter on the organizers of the Montréal Olympic Games to whom we devoted another chapter in order to preserve content logic. This heritage study, conducted according to the values-based approach, is the result of thorough research. Its methodological framework is described in the introduction. Nine chapters are devoted to the events leading up to the 1976 Summer Olympics, starting in the mid-19th century and an event in Montréal that contributed to the revival of the Olympic Games, followed by the development of the Olympic Park. Also discussed are the Park’s completion and modifications made in response to contemporary issues and its reception by the academic community and the public. These historical considerations are synthesized in the Olympic Park statement of heritage value formulated based on our work, which has been expanded in this edition by a list of the Park’s character-defining elements. Readers curious and eager to discover the heritage interest of the Park can jump to Chapter 12.

We thank you for your confidence in the Docomomo Québec team.

Sincerely,

France Vanlaethem, Professor Emeritus, UQAM Chair, Docomomo Québec

École de design Université du Québec à Montréal Case postale 8888 Succursale Centre-Ville Montréal (Québec) H3C 3P8 t 514 987 3000 #3866 f 514 987 7717 e [email protected]

“ Only time, and time alone, will show whether our values were sound. ”

Roger Taillibert, Construire l’avenir 1977. Docomomo Québec | Montréal Olympic Park Heritage Study

1. Introduction – 6

– Background and purpose – Methodology – Challenges – Research team and collaborations – Forty years later

2. Identification and Description of the Complex – 14

– Identifying information – Protection status – Description

3. Montréal, Olympic City – 18

– The Olympic Movement – The first Olympic bids – Sports facilities in Montréal – The winning bid

4. Maisonneuve Park – 28

– Colonizing Montréal Island – The urbanization of Maisonneuve – Maisonneuve, “Montréal’s garden” – Development of Maisonneuve Park – The Cité-Jardin du Tricentenaire – Centre sportif de l'Est

5. A Brief History of Olympic Facilities – 38

– The “modern Olympia” – Architecture and the Olympic Games – The Olympics, an urban issue – The architecture of great stadiums

6. The Organizers of the Montréal Olympic Games – 46

– The State’s role – The Olympics Organizing Committee – Choosing the architect – Roger Taillibert in Montréal

7. The Architect of the Montréal Olympic Games – 54

– An architect's training – Early projects – A versatile international agency – Museums showcase Taillibert’s talent

4 Docomomo Québec | Montréal Olympic Park Heritage Study

8. The Facilities from Start to Finish – 66

– The facilities program – The urban concept of the Olympic Park – The master plan of the complex – The architectural concept of the Olympic Park – The technical concept of the Olympic Park – The professionals involved in the project – Construction of the complex – The Stadium rings with applause 9. Integrating Art Into the Summer Olympic Games – 84

– “Remarriage of muscle and intellect” – La Joute, the fountain-sculpture – Urban furniture – The Games' logo and brand image

10. Completion and Use of the Olympic Stadium – 90

– After the Games – Completion of the facilities – A multipurpose site and a new roof – Renovation and densification of the Olympic Park

11. The Reception to the Montréal Olympic Stadium – 102

– The Canadian architectural press – The international architectural press – The daily press before the Games – The daily press after the Games – Quebecers make the Olympic Park their own – The Stadium: a controversial icon

12. Heritage Value of the Olympic Park – 115

– Historical value – Architectural value – Urban value – Iconic value – Integrity and authenticity – Character-defining elements

13. Bibliography – 129 14. Credits and Figures – 145 15. Appendices – 146

– Program – International Conference | May 12, 2016 – Program – Study Day | September 27, 2017 – The Olympic Park in Figures

5 Docomomo Québec | Montréal Olympic Park Heritage Study

1. Introduction –

This publication is the second updated and expanded edition of the Étude patrimoniale du Parc olympique de Montréal drafted by Docomomo Québec in 2016 on the occasion of the 40th anniversary of the Montréal Olympic Games, at the request of the Régie des installations olympiques (RIO) [Olympic Installations Board]. Located in Montréal east, five kilometres from downtown, in the Mercier–Hochelaga-Maisonneuve borough, the Olympic Park is bounded by Pie-IX Boulevard, Sherbrooke Street, Viau Street and Pierre-De Coubertin Avenue. Covering 4 hectares, this location is home to various sports and cultural facilities managed by different public and private entities. RIO is responsible for the Olympic Stadium, the Sports Centre housed under the Montréal Tower and the vast underground parking surrounding these facilities and whose stepped flat roof forms the Esplanade. To the east of the Park are the former Olympic Velodrome, now Biodôme de Montréal, the Centre Pierre-Charbonneau, the Maurice-Richard Arena and the Planétarium Rio Tinto Alcan, all properties of the City of Montréal, as well as the Viau metro station operated by the Société de transport de Montréal (STM) and the Stade Saputo, named after its owner, the Saputo family, and home to the Montréal Impact soccer team.

6 Fig. 1. The parvis in front of the Sports Centre and the Montréal Tower, May 2, 2013.

7 Docomomo Québec | Montréal Olympic Park Heritage Study 1. Introduction

Background and purpose at least on this basis that the cultural landscape to which the Olympic Park contributes should be evaluated, a much This heritage study was commissioned in response to larger area than that under RIO’s responsibility. Moreover, one of the recommendations of the Rapport du Comité- determining landscape value not only requires the skills conseil sur l’avenir du Parc olympique [Report of the of a multidisciplinary team but also a concerted collective Advisory Committee on the Future of the Olympic Park], effort (Paquette 2008, 26). submitted to RIO in December 2012 by committee chair Lise Bissonnette. It was recommended that steps be taken In this study, we focused on identifying the heritage value of to recognize the cultural landscape value of the Park and the facilities commissioned by the City of Montréal for the to confer the status of classified heritage property on the 1976 Summer Olympics to French architect Roger Taillibert Olympic buildings, under the Québec Cultural Heritage and which are currently managed by RIO: the Esplanade, Act (Comité-conseil sur l’avenir du Parc olympique 2012, the Olympic Stadium, the Sports Centre, the Montréal 30). Tower and the underground parking lots. Value-based management, which focuses on the range of values ascribed The Olympic Park already benefits from dual heritage to the cultural significance of heritage assets, is a method protection under the 2004 Master Plan adopted by the that is now widely accepted among heritage organizations City of Montréal’s Executive Committee pursuant to the in Québec, even though it is rarely applied in its entirety. Act respecting land use planning and development. The Currently, to have a property designated as heritage under urban heritage assessment conducted as part of this Plan the Cultural Heritage Act, the expert study does not have recognizes the Olympic Park as an “area of exceptional to be complemented by stakeholder assessments obtained heritage value” and the Olympic Stadium as a “building of through public consultations, as suggested by value-based exceptional heritage value” (City of Montréal, Service de la management (Mason 2002, 6-7). mise en valeur du territoire et du patrimoine 2005, 29, 35). By establishing heritage value, the study is a first step in The two protection statuses under the Québec Cultural the process of conferring national heritage status on the Heritage Act (CHA) are very different from each other Olympic Park under the Cultural Heritage Act. It may help in terms of conceptualization and the heritage approach. the City of Montréal develop a statement of heritage interest Classifying a building or a site consisting of several in this regard. At the municipal level, such recognition, buildings is an official act based in large part on the opinion for commemorative purposes only, will complement the of experts although today the community’s attachment to statuses already acquired under the Act respecting land use the building or site plays an increasingly important role planning and development mentioned earlier. in the decision. However, the designation of a heritage cultural landscape “involves popular public support" In this second edition, we have completed the statement (Paquette 2008, 24). The initiative and the decision to of heritage value by identifying the character-defining classify are the prerogatives of the Minister of Culture elements of the built environment, a precision that is and Communications, who proceeds after consultation useful for management purposes. “Anyone carrying out with the Conseil du patrimoine culturel (CHA, section an intervention at an historic place must be mindful of its 29), whereas the designation of a cultural landscape by overall heritage value, using the documented character- the government, on recommendation from the Minister, defining elements as a starting point and guide,” states the must have been “requested by all the local municipalities Standards and Guidelines for the Conservation of Historic whose territory includes the land area concerned” (CHA, Places in Canada, a Federal, Provincial and Territorial sections 17, 18). Collaboration (2010, viii).

Maisonneuve Park, which extends to Rosemont Boulevard Lastly, the study was intended to provide a synthetic history to the north and includes the Jardin Botanique and to showcase the Olympic Park on the occasion of the 40th the municipal golf course, was the site chosen to house anniversary of the Montréal Olympic Games. It was used the main facilities built for the XXI Olympiad. The to prepare, in collaboration with Docomomo Québec, section of Sherbrooke Street that crosses it was partially the exhibition titled Le Parc olympique, une architecture transformed into a viaduct to connect the south and the à célébrer [The Olympic Park, Architecture Worth north portions of the park, between the sports facilities Celebrating], inaugurated on this occasion at Château and the Olympic Village, erected east of Viau Street. These Dufresne on June 6, 2016. form the Olympic City (COJO 1978, vol. 2, 32). Also, it is

8 Docomomo Québec | Montréal Olympic Park Heritage Study 1. Introduction

Methodology Their research deals mainly with the 19th century and the first four decades of the 20th (Boileau and Guay Notwithstanding its well-defined object, a heritage 1999, Hall et al. 1991, Janson 1996, Metcalfe 1983, 1987, study uses a broad perspective, i.e. the stadium-sports Morrow et al. 1989, 2005). While the researchers looked centre-tower complex and its underground parking; the at the role of community groups, private business, the investigation into the history of these facilities looked at a Church (Bellefleur 1986) and the federal and provincial territory that extends well beyond the boundaries of RIO’s governments (Jamet 1980, Harvey 1988, Harvey and property and went back much further than the early 1970s, Thibault 1996) in the development of sport, they overlooked culminating with Montréal’s winning the bid to host the the role of municipalities. To address this shortcoming, we 1976 Summer Olympics. turned to urban history, more specifically, the history of parks (Laplante 1990; Dagenais 2005, 2006; Wolfe 1988). Maisonneuve Park, which includes the Olympic Park, Until the 1970s, the City of Montréal invested heavily was officially established in 1910. As far back as 1928, in these public spaces, considered a cultural priority. Montréal was vying to host the modern-day Olympic In this second edition, we put into perspective the Games, a sport and artistic event that began in the 19th development of Maisonneuve Park, which was completed century and whose first events were held mainly in Europe. by the construction of the Olympic Park, by dedicating a It was therefore essential to adopt a long-term, local and chapter to its history and that of the City of Maisonneuve, international perspective. which made the decision to create it (Linteau 1981, Choko 1988). With ideals dating back to ancient Greece, the Olympic Games are the ultimate sporting event and a source of The history of modern architecture, urbanism and civil national pride. They have been held regularly since 1896, engineering also served as a scope of reference for this interrupted only by two world wars, and held most often study, notwithstanding the fact that Roger Taillibert’s since 1924 when the first winter games were introduced. work did not capture the attention of international and With the advent of modern means of communication, their national experts in the field (Picon 1997, Monnier 2000). visibility has multiplied, as have commercial interests in Although the Montréal complex is one in a long line of the Games. The modern-day Olympic Games are the most “modern” Olympic stadiums dating back to the 1920s striking manifestation of a phenomenon characteristic (Sharp 1972), its architectural and urban value remains of our modern age – sport – a human activity whose underappreciated. To rectify this situation, Docomomo definition has not found consensus among historians. Québec took advantage of the 84th congress of the After the definition suggested by Thierry Terret (2013, 9), Association francophone pour le savoir (Acfas) held at we chose to retain the one proposed by Quebecer Donald Université du Québec à Montréal (UQAM) in May 2016 Guay: “Competitive and enjoyable physical activity to organize an international symposium on the subject, practiced for a specific purpose according to written rules titled Le Stade olympique, une grande œuvre architecturale and sportsmanship consisting of fairness, a desire to win, [The Olympic Stadium, an Architectural Masterpiece], and loyalty.” In the Encyclopædia Universalis, sociologist and which coincided with the celebrations of the 40th Christian Pociello notes that “Sport appears today as a anniversary of the Olympic Park. The symposium’s ‘total social fact’ (Marcel Mauss) in that it can mobilize all program is appended to this study. of society and its institutions and engages all its aspects For this revised and expanded edition, we also added to (political, economic, cultural, social, technological, etc.).” the chapter on completing and updating the facilities. Since 2018, the lower floors of the Montréal Tower are at As well, while the City of Montréal took a largely go- long last occupied, having been leased to Desjardins Group it-alone approach to building the facilities for the 1976 following rehabilitation work by RIO, which also included Olympic Games, we must situate this undertaking among replacing the existing curtain wall. the initiatives marking the development of sport in Québec and Canada. To this end, we turned to the history of Challenges sport and more generally, recreation, despite the dearth of historical studies in this regard, as pointed out by Gilles In terms of attendance and sport performances, the Janson regarding the former (2013, 3). On this front, Montréal Games were an undeniable success. The Donald Guay and Michel Bellefleur were pioneers in the competitions, many of which took place at the Olympic 1980s. However, despite a recent resurgence in this type Park, were attended by more than three million spectators of research, its results are of limited use for our purposes. and reached more than one billion viewers worldwide.

9 Docomomo Québec | Montréal Olympic Park Heritage Study 1. Introduction

Despite this success, the Olympics do not enjoy the same they were held (Comité consultatif chargé d'étudier l'avenir aura as Expo 67, another international event spearheaded des installations olympiques 1977, Commission d’enquête by Mayor Jean Drapeau which, besides having a positive sur le coût de la 21e olympiade 1980, Comité-conseil sur impact on society’s collective memory, transformed the l'avenir du Parc olympique 2012,2012, and others). Most face of the city. While the memory of Expo 67 is filled unusual is the abundance of monographs on a given with nostalgia, that of the Games remains tainted by the built structure – a dozen or so on the Taillibert-designed setbacks associated with construction of the Olympic Olympic Stadium – either to denounce the excesses of Stadium and its completion, as evidenced by the abundant its construction or to justify the unforeseen events and literature on the subject. showcase its architecture. Most of the authors are journalists (Nick Auf der Maur, Marc Emery, Alain Orlandini). The project developed by French architect Roger Taillibert at the request of Mayor Jean Drapeau was very ambitious Worthy of note is that several actors have recorded their in terms of architecture and technique, and its execution memories of this ambitious project, starting with its was filled with challenges associated with the construction architect Roger Taillibert, who in 1977, barely a year site, the troubled social climate in Québec and the global after the Games, wrote two books – Construire l'avenir inflation in the early 1970s. The hiring of a foreign and Œuvres récentes de Roger Taillibert – with Marc architect, ballooning costs, delays in construction, which Emery, both with an introduction by Jean Drapeau and was actually only finished in 1987 with the completion an afterword by French historian René Huygue of the of the Stadium mast and roof, and recurring problems Académie française. Previously, the year of the Montréal with the roof ever since have triggered many questions Games, also in collaboration with Emery, the editor- and debates. in-chief of the magazine L'Architecture d'Aujourd'hui, a book titled Roger Taillibert, architecte = Roger Taillibert, To say that the summer Games of the XXI Olympiad architect was published, documenting the architect’s seven attracted much attention would be an understatement: achievements, including the Montréal Olympic Park. In a large number of articles on the subject were published 2000, Roger Taillibert once again created a memoir, this in newspapers and magazines (the articles that appeared time in the form of letters, publishing Notre cher stade in the 1960s and ‘70s on the preparation and staging of olympique: lettres posthumes à mon ami Drapeau, followed the 1976 Games are kept on 32 reels of microfilm at by his latest book, Stade olympique de Montréal, mythes the Archives de Montréal), and many articles on the et scandales (2010). The architect has spoken extensively Taillibert-designed complex were featured in Canadian about his experience and view of architecture in numerous and international specialty journals. media interviews on radio, television or in specialized and mainstream publications. A recent interview with journalist Philippe Ungar is recorded in a small book titled For this study, it was impossible to conduct an exhaustive Entrée principale (2010). exploration of the daily press to identify, over time, the Olympic Park’s acceptance by industry professionals and the public. We therefore proceeded by looking at certain There are also testimonials from numerous politicians, specific moments in time. While we systematically looked managers and professionals who were involved in the at the period covering the commissioning and building of adventure. The most recent contributions on the subject the Olympic complex, for the post-Games years, we focused include the chapter on the Olympic Games in the memoirs on certain important events. We selected a series of articles of Raymond Garneau, published in 2014 and titled De published in the daily press by scrolling through microfilm Lesage à Bourassa. Ma vie politique dans un Québec en on the Olympics kept in the Archives de Montréal and by mouvement. The 1997 book by Guy R. Morin, La cathédrale consulting the press files kept by RIO’s Service de la gestion inachevée L'histoire rocambolesque des installations documentaire. We also made use of the Nick Auf der Maur olympiques de Montréal…et des idées pour en finir, provides fonds, which contains numerous press clippings related to another perspective from the inside. As well, Claude the Olympics and previous projects but many of which are Phaneuf, who was closely associated with the project as unfortunately unidentified. The selected titles are listed in superintendent of the City’s Division du Parc olympique the bibliography. Although numerous, they only provide a within the Service des travaux publics, chose the Web to glimpse of the press coverage of the Olympic Park. spread “the real truth about the Montréal Olympic Stadium” (stadeolympiquemontreal.ca). In a long series of articles, he Another unusual aspect of the Montréal Olympic Games gives his version of the events that resulted in the selection is the number of inquiries or reports commissioned since of Roger Taillibert as consulting architect for the Olympic

10 Docomomo Québec | Montréal Olympic Park Heritage Study 1. Introduction

complex and led the Québec government to dismiss the • UQAM Archives (in the wake of the Marsan report, City of Montréal as the project manager by creating the negotiations to install sports facilities in the mast), RIO, as well as his opinion on the consequences thereafter. • CBC and Radio-Canada Archives (broadcasts), We also found texts published by former members of • Archives of the Québec National Assembly, the Comité d’organisation des Jeux Olympiques (COJO) • Archives of the Atelier d'histoire Mercier–Hochelaga- [Organizing Committee for the Olympic Games] on Maisonneuve, the Montréal 1976 website (montrealolympics.com), • Bibliothèque et Archives nationales du Québec which complements the COJO’s official report in three (BAnQ), volumes, published in 1978. Lastly, it bears mentioning • Comité organisateur des Jeux olympiques de 1976 that the Internet contains an abundance of information fonds (E46), on the Olympics in general and especially on the Montréal • Commission d'enquête sur le coût des Jeux et des Olympics. installations de la XXIe Olympiade fonds (ZA 190, unavailable for consultation until 2080), The amount of material published on the main Montréal • Régie des installations olympiques fonds – 1975-2000 Olympic facilities is impressive, far exceeding the amount (E241), on the buildings and ensembles, whose construction • François Dallegret Archives (integrated furniture), went fairly smoothly and was completed on schedule. It is • Roger Taillibert’s architectural agency in Paris. difficult, if not impossible, to review all this material for a heritage study – an exercise that requires us to focus on Despite these many sources, we found little material on existing historical studies in order to identify a property’s the development of the Olympic complex project, which cultural value. However, heritagization often precedes the began in April 1971 with pre-design studies and which writing of history, particularly in the case of recently built culminated in a first project publicly unveiled with great heritage. The Olympic Park is no different in this regard as fanfare in April 1972, followed by the final project in there is little academic research on the topic (Kidd 1992, mid-1974. With the help of RIO’s Affaires juridiques et Noppen 1992, Bilodeau 2004, Bassil 2010). corporatives, we tried to access the fonds of the Commission d’enquête sur le coût des Jeux et des installations de la We therefore had to turn to archives, particularly since e the many testimonials were sometimes contradictory. XXI Olympiade as well as the archives of Agence Roger Here again we faced challenges, namely numerous, Taillibert. We felt that many of the attachments mentioned scattered archives with many documents not available in Justice Robert Malouf’s report could provide us with for consultation. Documents and images on the Olympic information that was unavailable elsewhere. Since the facilities are kept by various organizations: Division du Parc olympique was only created in March • RIO, 1973, it is understandable that the archival fonds held in • Service des grands parcs de la Ville de Montréal Montréal would have few documents on this crucial stage (where many plans are kept), of the project, whose work was mainly carried out in Paris. • Archives de la Ville de Montréal (AVM), • Claude Robillard fonds, On September 14, 2016, we submitted a consultation • Nick Auf der Maur fonds, request to Florian Daveau, the reference archivist at the • Jean Drapeau fonds (not reviewed and closed until BAnQ’s Archives iconographiques, cartographiques, 2018), architecturales et audiovisuelles. Four months later, we • Service des travaux publics fonds, received written notification on January 14, 2016 from the • Service des parcs fonds (Maisonneuve Park projects) director of access to information, Me Isabelle Lafrance, • Service des affaires institutionnelles fonds (municipal stating that our request was refused. stadium), • Executive Committee fonds (stadium and employee As well, on November 13, 2015, we submitted a formal files), request to Roger Taillibert for documentation that would • Microfilmed press material, shed light on his work in general and on the Olympic • Image files associated with City of Montréal project in particular; namely, the general and detailed departments, plans, drawings and other documents to determine the • Two films produced by the City of Montréal, one authenticity of the complex. On January 18, 2016, following called Du béton et des hommes on Schockbéton and a meeting in Paris between architect Roger Taillibert and another called J'ai vu naître un chef-d’œuvre on the RIO Chief Executive Officer Michel Labrecque, it became construction (plant and worksite), clear that such an approach would not be useful as the

11 Docomomo Québec | Montréal Olympic Park Heritage Study 1. Introduction

documents provided by the agency under the agreement Research team and collaborations were very similar to the ones published in magazines and monographs. The study was launched on January 22, 2015, when RIO convened Docomomo Québec’s researchers to a kick- RIO's Service de la gestion documentaire was often off meeting attended by RIO Chief Executive Officer consulted for this research. The document management Michel Labrecque, Maurice Landry, Vice-President, department provided invaluable help in tracing the Construction and Maintenance, Jean-Sébastien Duperval, history of the Olympic Park’s completion as of 1976. We Director, Engineering and Project Management, Carla complemented the information provided in RIO’s annual Molina, Project Manager - Architecture, Janis Lucas, reports by consulting archives, mainly studies, and by Document Management Coordinator, and Hélène Barrette, reading the daily press, which offered another perspective Communications Consultant. This meeting was followed on the events. by a lengthy visit of the Olympic Stadium, the Sports Centre and the Montréal Tower led by Stanley Trudel, RIO’s sector In addition to documentary research, we made several visits manager responsible for maintenance of architectural to the Olympic Park and conducted a series of interviews components. A second visit was organized on December 2, with some of the people involved in its construction: 2015, and a third, this time led by Mr. Labrecque on May 11, • Roger Taillibert, architect, on March 19, 2015 and 2016, on the occasion of the Acfas conference. November 24, 2016, at his firm in Paris, and on October 7, 2016, by telephone; The Docomomo Québec research team consisted of: • Raymond Cyr, retired engineer, employed by the • Soraya Bassil, heritage consultant and treasurer of Division du Parc olympique and then by RIO, on Docomomo Québec, October 16, 2015, in Saint-Lambert; • Ulisses Munarim, B.Sc. in urban architecture, M.Sc.A., • Yves J. Pigeon, retired engineer, former partner of Ph.D., resident researcher at Docomomo Québec, engineering firm Tecsult, formerly Asselin, Benoit, • Bessam Fellah, licensed architect with a DESS in Boucher, Ducharme, Lapointe Inc., on October 28, modern architecture and heritage from UQAM, 2016, at his home in Ville Mont-Royal; resident researcher at Docomomo Québec (until April • François Godbout, attorney, one of the ten best tennis 2015), players in Canada from 1959 to 1967 and advisor to • France Vanlaethem, emeritus professor, École de Mayor Jean Drapeau, on November 16, 2015, at the design, UQAM, president of Docomomo Québec, offices of Docomomo Québec at UQAM; research director and author of the report except for • Jacques Chartrand, engineer, December 15, 2015, at the Chapter 7, written in collaboration with Soraya Bassil. office of firm Nicolet Chartrand Knoll, in Montréal; • Claude Phaneuf, retired engineer, superintendent of At RIO, Hélène Barrette was the resource person for any the Division du Parc olympique from 1973 to 1975, on communication between the organization and the team. January 14, 2016, in Montréal; • Maurice D'Arcy, engineer at Régis Trudeau et associés As well, with the approval of Docomomo Québec, RIO in the early 1970s, on January 29, 2016, at RIO, along formed a steering group composed of members from with Maurice Landry, Vice-President, Construction various heritage bodies. The group’s mandate was to guide, and Maintenance, and Michel Langlois, structural make suggestions, explore avenues and share information. engineer; Its initial members were: • Pierre-Claude Aïtcin, engineer, emeritus professor, • Nancy Shoiry, director of the City of Montréal’s Service Université de Sherbrooke, November 2, 2015, at his de mise en valeur du territoire, replaced on August 31, home in Montréal. 2015 by Luc Gagnon; • Huguette Béland, director of Aménagement urbain et We were unsuccessful in our search of the public and services aux entreprises and assistant director of the private archives for the film produced by André Morin, Merchier-Hochelaga-Maisonneuve borough; a former film director at Radio-Canada, used during the • Frédéric Dubé, architect, representing the Ordre des official presentation of the project in April 1972. With the architectes du Québec; help of the Association des retraités de Radio-Canada, we • Marie-Ève Bonenfant, heritage advisor at the Ministère contacted the author, who told us he did not have a copy of de la Culture et des Communications du Québec; his work. • Pierre Lacombe, director of the Planétarium Rio Tinto Alcan, representing Space for Life;

12 Docomomo Québec | Montréal Olympic Park Heritage Study 1. Introduction

The following joined later: • Analays Alvarez Hernandez, art historian and • Adriana Pedroff, architect in the Division de independent researcher, for the fountain-sculpture l’aménagement urbain et des services aux entreprises study. of the City of Montréal’s Division de l’urbanisme; • Julie Boivin, of the City of Montréal’s Bureau du patrimoine, de la toponymie et de l'expertise; • Réal Ménard, mayor of the Mercier−Hochelaga- Maisonneuve borough.

A first meeting was held on March 12, 2015 and a second on November 10, 2016 after the first version of the study was submitted. In the days following the kick-off meeting, the documentary research team began to prepare France Vanlaethem’s interview with architect Roger Taillibert on March 19 in Paris. To this end, Docomomo Québec used the documentation compiled by Soraya Bassil and Amélie Dion for the article titled “Stade olympique de Montréal et installations connexes” published online in the Encyclopédie du patrimoine culturel de l'Amérique française as well as a list of documents prepared by RIO’s Service de la gestion documentaire.

The heritage study took longer than expected mainly because of the overwhelming number of documents and delays caused by requests for access to certain archival fonds. Also, in September 2016, we were asked to organize the Acfas conference and prepare the Château Dufresne exhibition, whose theme and content were changed in January 2016. Originally designed to showcase Roger Taillibert’s work and architectural approach, the exhibition, curated by Soraya Bassil, ended up depicting the results of the heritage study under the title Le Parc olympique, une architecture à célébrer.

Forty years later

To mark the release of the Étude patrimoniale du Parc olympique on September 29, 2017, the RIO organized a study day, whose program is included as an appendix. New research was subsequently conducted on the neighbourhood, the results of which helped enrich the second edition. As well, RIO commissioned a historical study, published in 2019, on Jean Paul Riopelle’s La Joute fountain-sculpture, which was on display in the Olympic Park until 2002. The following individuals were involved in the aforementioned work: • Jordane Zakrzewski, art historian, graduate of École du Louvre (Paris) and Université Blaise Pascal II, Clermont-Ferrand, and holder of a DESS in modern architecture and heritage from UQAM (2018) for the neighbourhood research;

13 Docomomo Québec | Montréal Olympic Park Heritage Study

2. Identification and Description of the Complex –

Current name Montréal Olympic Park

Variations of the name Centre sportif de l'Est Maisonneuve Sports Center Olympic City (including the Olympic Village)

Main address 4545 Avenue Pierre-De Coubertin Mercier−Hochelaga-Maisonneuve borough Montréal, Québec Canada H1V 3N7

Current owner Under the responsibility of the Régie des installations olympiques (RIO)

Address 4141 Avenue Pierre-De Coubertin Montréal, Québec Canada H1V 3N7 parcolympique.qc.ca

Contact person Hélène Barrette, Communications Advisor Tel. 514 252-4617 Fax 514 252-7451 [email protected]

Protection status City of Montréal “Area of exceptional heritage value” “Property of exceptional heritage value”

Québec - Ministère de la Culture et des Communications None

Canada - Historic Sites and Monuments Board of Canada None

14 Fig. 2. Aerial view of the Olympic Park from the west, May 21, 2018.

15 Docomomo Québec | Montréal Olympic Park Heritage Study 2. Identification and Description of the Complex

The Olympic Park is bounded by Boulevard Pie-IX, via a large circular space called the Rotunda, covered by a Rue Sherbrooke, Rue Viau and Avenue Pierre-De transparent dome, which leads directly to the street and is Coubertin. It is located just below the Jardin botanique connected to the mezzanine of the Pie-IX metro station by de Montréal, not far from the centre of the Maisonneuve a wide sloping corridor. Along the back wall of this public neighbourhood. The focal point is the Olympic Stadium and space are the ticket booths and other entrances to the four its tall, inclined tower from which the arena roof cables are floors of the east side underground parking (PA). Located at suspended and whose wide footing holds the Sports Centre the western end of the arena, this hall is the main entrance and the Tourist Hall giving access to the funicular up to to the Stadium. the Observatory. Together with the former Velodrome, today the Biodôme de Montréal, this complex forms a The Stadium itself is a large elliptical space centred on cohesive whole unified by concrete, its main material, the playing field and surrounded by two large rows of painted light gray for the buildings and left natural for the superimposed spectator stands truncated at the height of stepped esplanade connecting them and leading to the the scoreboard on the opposite end at the main entrance. surrounding streets. A concrete ring suspended from the series of surrounding consoles overlooks the playing field, its centre closed by the Several buildings are found on the east side of the block: at canvas stretched roof. the corner of Rue Viau and Avenue Pierre-De Coubertin is the Maurice Richard Arena, a cylindrical building that The five levels of spectator stands are accessible from the stands next to the entrance of the Viau metro station and vast corridors that encircle them, connected mainly by Cinéma StarCité, an L-shaped complex built around a escalators and wide ramps, with the upper ones suspended glazed entrance; in the centre of the complex is Centre from the structure. These circulation spaces are punctuated Pierre-Charbonneau, a sports centre with a vaulted by multiple “events:” food concession counters on the lower roof, and the Planétarium Rio Tinto Alcan, whose main floors, brown concrete brick spaces housing the public entrance, crowned with two cones, overlooks the Stadium restrooms, and monumental elements of circulation. square; at the corner of Rue Viau and Rue Sherbrooke, diagonally across from the Stadium and its tower, stands At the other end of the Stadium, under the mast and the the open-air Stade Saputo. These sports and cultural vaults which, on each side, widen its base, are the pools, facilities surround an outdoor parking area facing Rue accessible from the parvis below the Rue Sherbrooke Marseille, perpendicular to Viau, and flanked on the viaduct. These form the core of the recently renovated north by one of the five entrances to the Olympic Park’s Sports Centre. Transversely aligned, the pools are bordered underground parking (entrance P5 on Viau). on one side by two levels of spectator stands and, on the other, by the facilities of the Institut national du sport du A vast, curvilinear stepped mineral esplanade is found at Québec, located beside the Stadium. Today, the parvis still the other end of the block, along Boulevard Pie-IX, at the gives access to the Tourist Hall and the Montréal Tower. A corner of Avenue Pierre-De Coubertin, the entrance to triangular public space, the former is spread over two floors, the Pie-IX metro station. Its main level (level 200) forms with the mezzanine adjacent to the aquatic centre and the base supporting the elliptical Stadium, its angular its 200-seat auditorium. At its other end is the funicular, cantilevers projecting over the long circular glazed facade which climbs the backbone of the Tower to the top and to of the upper entrance. This vast pedestrian area, which the Observatory which offers a breathtaking view of the city leads directly to the parking levels under the slab, also on three sides. An inside staircase leads to the two lower provides tiered access to Rue Sherbrooke. A third of the way floors, reserved for commercial and corporate rental. along this esplanade is the long ramp of the P4 Sherbrooke parking entrance, another (P3 Pie-IX) giving directly The 14 lower floors of the Montréal Tower, originally onto Pie-IX, and two others (P1 and P2 De Coubertin) reserved for sports facilities and vacant since its leading to Avenue Pierre-De Coubertin. The Esplanade inauguration in 1987, have recently been upgraded and is accessible by five pedestrian ramps, one coming down converted into office space. Desjardins Group currently from Rue Sherbrooke, another coming up from Boulevard occupies seven floors, accessible from a new hall next to the Pie-IX and three others from Avenue Pierre-De Coubertin. Sports Centre entrance, via a corridor on the first floor and three elevators. Along Pierre-De Coubertin, the complex has a long, largely glazed facade that rises above the esplanade and envelops the ground floor of the Stadium (level 100). It is accessible

16 Docomomo Québec | Montréal Olympic Park Heritage Study 2. Identification and Description of the Complex

Fig. 3. The renovated Olympic Park Sports Centre, April 19, 2015.

17 Docomomo Québec | Montréal Olympic Park Heritage Study

3. Montréal, Olympic City –

Montréal, Saturday, July 17, 4:34 p.m. The athletes, along with 73,286 spectators gathered at the Olympic Stadium and millions of television viewers on five continents watched Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II say the ceremonial words: “I declare open the Olympic Games of Montréal, celebrating the XXI Olympiad of the modern era.” The dream had become a reality! This moment embodied the hopes of Montréal’s elected officials and the sports community for half a century; after several unsuccessful attempts, Montréal was finally selected as the host city by the International Olympic Committee (IOC) on May 12, 1970. The City had made at least five previous bids to host the Games, the first one dating back to 1928. In the 1930s, to improve its chances of success, Montréal envisaged building a sports centre that would meet international standards. Through its parks, the City of Montréal played an important role in the development of sports in Québec, a recreational activity that until the mid 1910s was the exclusive domain of private clubs and commercial enterprises. Although a Canadian delegation has participated in the Games since 1908, it was more under the impetus of athletic associations than public authorities. Mayor Jean Drapeau was therefore not the first to launch a campaign to host this ultimate sporting event. However, his aspiration in this regard took hold in 1963 when, as part of the preparations for Expo 67, he discovered the Olympic Museum in Lausanne and became passionate about the movement founded by Baron Pierre de Coubertin at the end of the 19th century.

18 Fig. 4. Aerial view of Maisonneuve Park and site of the Montréal Olympic Games, 1969.

19 Docomomo Québec | Montréal Olympic Park Heritage Study 3. Montréal, Olympic City

The Olympic Movement A key figure of the French sports movement at the turn of the 19th century, Pierre de Coubertin discovered sport and Pierre de Coubertin (1863–1937) is a Frenchman its educational benefits in England in 1883 and as of that recognized for reviving the Olympic Games. The first moment made it his mission to make physical exercise a modern Games were held in Athens in 1896 following the part of public education. He advocated “to calm the mind, first Olympic Congress organized in Paris in 1894 by de strengthen the body and build character through sport” Coubertin in his capacity as Secretary General of the Union (Lagrue, “Coubertin”). For de Coubertin, the Olympic des sociétés françaises de sports athlétiques, together with idea married “a strong physical culture supported on the a representative of the Amateur Athletic Association of one hand by chivalry... and on the other by aesthetics, England and a professor from Princeton University. At this by the love of beauty.” This primarily educational ideal meeting, attended by athletic associations from around the runs counter to “the spirit of profit and professionalism” world, it was decided to revive the Olympic Games, that (Coubertin 1967, 1–18). The Olympic Charter (1967, section they would be held every four years and that they would be 3) establishes the humanist and pacifist goal of the Olympic overseen by the International Olympic Committee (IOC). movement: “promote the development of those fine physical However, the origins of this sporting event can be traced and moral qualities that come from contests on the friendly much further back. fields of amateur sport and to bring together the youth of the world in a great quadrennial sport festival, thereby While the Encyclopedia of Modern Olympic Movement creating international respect and goodwill, and helping to traces the beginning of the modern Olympic Games to the construct a better and more peaceful world.” 17th century and their staging in England, Germany and Finland (Rühl 2004, 3–7), it is generally agreed that the At the outset, not all the countries joined the Olympic most extensive revival efforts appeared in the mid 19th Games as conceived by de Coubertin. Born of the 1917 century in England. This is not surprising given that sport Russian Revolution, the USSR set up a competing was recognized as a cultural invention by the British, driven institution to the IOC, the Red Sport International, which by the Industrial Revolution (Suchet 2011). Some authors began organizing the international Spartakiads in 1928. even credit the Olympic Club founded in Montréal, in For their part, European socialist parties supported the 1842, by British soldiers stationed in the city, as among the Socialist Workers’ Sport International organization, which first to have organized Olympic Games in 1844 (Toohey organized the Workers’ Olympiads. The first Workers’ 2007, 34). In England, a similar initiative was launched Olympic Games were held in Frankfurt in 1925 and the last in 1850 by the Agricultural Reading Society founded by one took place in Helsinki in 1943. Following the Berlin Dr. William Penny Brookes (1809–895) with a view to Olympic Games, in order for sport to take a united stand educating people through sport. Unlike the Montréal against Nazism, the USSR re-joined the Workers’ Olympic Olympics, those of Much Wenlock were a lasting event. In movement, which did not survive the Second World War addition, they started a movement that led to the creation (Lagrue, “Jeux olympiques—L’U.R.S.S.”; Ruijter). of the National Olympian Association in 1865, whose first “festival” was held the following year in London. Canada sent its first official delegation of athletes to the Another five national Olympic Games were subsequently 1904 Olympic Games in St. Louis, held after Athens and held in England, the last in 1883. In 1881, Dr. Brookes Paris. The country won eight medals, including one for shot had even tried to organize an international Olympic put taken home by Montréal’s Etienne Desmarteaux (1873– festival in Athens, but without success. While preparing 1905). Canada has since participated in all the Games. an international conference on physical education, Pierre Prior to the 1976 Olympic Games in Montréal, many other de Coubertin contacted him and the two met in 1890. It Quebecers won gold or silver medals: in 1908, 1912, 1920, was during this encounter that de Coubertin first learned 1932, 1952, 1956 and 1964 (Université de Sherbrooke). about the International Olympic Games (Rühl 2004, 8–9). The year before, on a mission to North America to The first Olympic bids document the importance placed on physical education in universities and colleges on the other side of the Atlantic, Montréal’s various bids to host the Games were made de Coubertin stopped in Montréal and Québec City. during the terms of two of its five mayors between 1928 In his travel report, he praised the English education and 1970: Camillien Houde (1889–1958), for the first ones, system that built both character and strength and and Jean Drapeau (1916– 1999) for the last two. However, criticized the Church-dominated French system the Olympics were not the only major sporting event that (Vigneault 2004, 154). Montréal sought to host. In 1939, it made a bid for the

20 Docomomo Québec | Montréal Olympic Park Heritage Study 3. Montréal, Olympic City

second edition of the British Empire Games, competitions, conference on April 6, 1972, following the presentation which date as far back as the Olympic Games and which made on the site of the Olympic City project designed by were first held in Hamilton, Ontario, in 1930. French architect Roger Taillibert for the 1976 Games.

At first, it was customary to hold the Summer and Winter Another important factor contributing to Montréal’s Games in the same year and in the same country. In 1928, international stature and credibility in terms of its ability after Los Angeles was chosen to host the 1932 Summer to stage a major event such as the Olympics was its hosting Olympics, Montréal offered to host the Winter Olympics of the 1967 International and Universal Exposition (Expo in the event that U.S. cities could not. Ultimately, Lake 67). Incidentally, it was this event that sparked Drapeau’s Placid, New York, was chosen. According to GamesBids. desire to host the Olympic Games in Montréal. The idea com, in 1932 Montréal joined the ranks of those bidding took hold in 1963 while the mayor was standing on the for the 1936 Winter Games. In 1939, Montréal competed shore of Lac Léman, in Lausanne, where, as part of the for the 1944 Winter and Summer Games, once again preparation for Expo 67, he had travelled to visit the site unsuccessfully, as it did not garner any votes despite the of the future Swiss National Exhibition, Expo 64 (Ville de presence of a City representative at the 38th session of the Montréal 1965, 11). IOC in London. It would have no better luck in 1949, at the 43rd session of the IOC in Rome, where the venues Moreover, Montréal had been developing its sports facilities of the 1956 Games were decided. Letters of support from in order to consolidate its strengths ever since its city the Premier of Québec and the Prime Minister of Canada officials began dreaming of hosting major competitions, extolling the advantages of Montréal and the Laurentians be it the Olympics or the 1942 British Empire Games. where the ski competitions would be held (Robert 2014) had no impact. Although with seven votes, Montréal came Sports facilities in Montréal in second, behind Cortina d’Ampezzo, which beat out two other North American cities; its bid for the Summer Games In terms of facilities, the candidature dossier for the 1972 received no votes, unlike Melbourne, which prevailed Olympic Games lists 15 parks and their sports fields, (GamesBids.com). swimming pools and gymnasiums, as well as other facilities such as the Palestre nationale, the Centre Paul- The next attempt, made by Mayor Jean Drapeau, was Sauvé and the Montréal Forum (Ville de Montréal 1965, more encouraging. At the 64th session of the IOC in 26–31). Since the beginning of the 20th century, alongside Rome on April 25, 1966, Montréal's candidature for the the Church and the Commission scolaire de Montréal, the 1972 Summer Games reached the second round of voting, City of Montréal has played an instrumental role in the ahead of Detroit and behind Madrid and Munich. Unlike development of physical activity and sports. the Spanish capital whose score remained unchanged, the Québec metropolis increased its votes but could not As a gateway to the continent and a commercial and compete with Munich, which rallied the majority of the industrial hub, Montréal is the “cradle of sport in Canada” delegates (Wikipedia 2016). (Morrow 1989, ch. 1). However, in the 19th century, physical activity for pleasure and in a spirit of personal The diplomatic efforts made by Mayor Drapeau and his challenge and competition was reserved for the Anglo- team at the IOC bore fruit. The mission to Rome had been Protestant bourgeoisie and the garrisoned British officers preceded by a tour of Europe and another of South America, who belonged to private clubs, such as the Olympic Club, allowing them to promote Montréal's candidature to about organizations that were steadily growing in number. a third of the delegates (Auf der Maur 1976, 13). After By the end of the 1860s, to better meet the needs of World War II, Canada’s metropolis, at least by reputation, their membership, some of the clubs merged locally or had been propelled onto the international scene. continentally to form, in 1881, the Montréal Amateur Athletic Association (MAAA), the first multisport club, Right after the war, Montréal was chosen for the and, in 1884, the Amateur Athletic Association of Canada headquarters of the International Civil Aviation (AAC), one of the first national organizations (Metcalfe Organization (ICAO), the first international organization 1996, Boileau and Guay 1999, Sawula 2006). to set up operations in the city. To attract ICAO, the federal government had promised to erect a building at its expense However, among francophones, the development of in downtown Montréal to house the organization. It was a sports culture was slow as the Catholic Church, at ICAO’s headquarters that Jean Drapeau held a press which had a strong influence in Québec, was wary of

21 Docomomo Québec | Montréal Olympic Park Heritage Study 3. Montréal, Olympic City

practices that placed importance on the body (Janson Owned at one point by the Association catholique de la 1996). Nevertheless, by the late 1920s, some religious jeunesse canadienne-française, the Palestre national would communities supported such activities by organizing be purchased in 1943 by private interests, represented by sports in public parks for young boys in the summer. The the Association athlétique nationale de la jeunesse. In program offered in 1927 by the Jesuits at Parc Lafontaine the late 1950s, it would build a second recreation facility, in the parish of Immaculée-Conception led to the creation Centre Paul-Sauvé, in Rosemont, also mentioned in the of Œuvre des terrains de jeu (OTJ), whose mission was candidature dossier. both educational and moral in nature (Université de Sherbrooke; Bellefleur 1986, 55, Bienvenue 2003, 34–36). In the period between the two world wars, sport finally became democratized in Canada. However, as the Canadian The concept of public park changed in the early 20th population became more urban and the Dominion became century, both in Montréal and in North America as increasingly influenced by the U.S., amateur sport, a practice the pace of urban development accelerated, the built and ideal imported from England, was challenged by the big environment densified and the population grew (Dagenais business of professional sport, which was both a lucrative 2005, 207–213, 2006, ch. 2). Expectations concerning this and popular show (Morrow 1990, 91). In Montréal, this was kind of urban space changed from those that led Montréal evidenced by the success of the Montréal Forum, a 10,000- to create Mount-Royal Park, in the heart of the city, in the seat multisport arena built in 1924 in the City’s west end 1870s. It became less about alleviating the dissatisfaction that became a hockey shrine for Quebecers. Included in caused by urbanization by introducing nature in an urban the candidature dossier for the 1972 Games, this facility setting to satisfy the desire of the wealthy for beauty would also be mentioned in the dossier for the 1976 Summer and tranquility than about ensuring public health and Olympics. There were others, such as the Université de preventing juvenile delinquency (Wolfe 1988, 67): the Montréal winter stadium (1960–1966), the Autostade built public leisure park gradually made room for playgrounds. for Expo 67, and the recently inaugurated Jarry Park baseball In Montréal, the first playgrounds were opened in stadium, home to the first game of the Montreal Expos on response to pressure from a reformist citizen group called April 8, 1969. the Montréal Parks and Playgrounds Association. Born at the turn of the century, this playground movement would For its part, as of 1942 and following a new reorganization only intensify in the decades ahead as Montréal established of the Service des Travaux publics, Montréal became land reserves in order to increase the number of parks increasingly involved in recreation. No longer content with and create park programs. In 1918, as part of the City’s providing playgrounds and sports fields like the religious efforts to streamline its management, municipal services communities did in an effort to keep young people occupied were merged into five major units, (Dagenais 2000, 49) in their free time, the City organized activities. It also worked and a Département des récréations publiques was created to provide baseball facilities so that young people no longer within the Service des travaux publics to contribute to had to play the sport in vacant lots. In 1953, Montréal created general health “through the use of public baths, enjoying a department dedicated to parks in order to complete their the outdoors and healthy recreational activities that offer development, including their sports and cultural facilities, rest and relaxation after work” (Laplante 1990, 89–90). and to diversify their programming. Under the direction of Claude Robillard (1911–1968), a visionary engineer, the That year also marked the inauguration of the Palestre City’s efforts were exemplary (Laplante 1990, ch 8). This was nationale, another facility mentioned in the candidature the era of the Olympiade des parcs. Held from 1954 to 1971, dossier. Located on Cherrier Street, this sports centre was this event inspired by the Olympic Games, brought together commissioned by the Association athlétique d'amateurs hundreds of children each summer for athletic competitions Le National (AAAN). Founded in 1894, the AAAN was (Fig. 6, 7) (Robert 2015). The Games were no longer just an the first francophone sports club to last. By building a ambition, their ideal became ingrained in popular practices. centre equipped with, among other things, a swimming pool, a gymnasium and a library, the goal was to facilitate The winning bid the development of excellent athletes and to allow French Canadians to play sports on a regular basis (Detellier When on December 4, 1969, Montréal again submitted 2011, 178–183) just as their English-speaking counterparts its candidature, its motivation was twofold: to host the could at the Young Men's Christian Association (YMCA) competitions of the Summer Games of the XXI Olympiad and the Young Women's Christian Association (YWCA) but also to build a stadium worthy of the Major League facilities. Baseball franchise it had recently acquired. In the letter

22 Docomomo Québec | Montréal Olympic Park Heritage Study 3. Montréal, Olympic City

Fig. 5. Olympiade 55, Molson Stadium, Montréal, August 17, 1955.

23 Docomomo Québec | Montréal Olympic Park Heritage Study 3. Montréal, Olympic City

Fig. 6. Claude Robillard at the Olympiade 55, Molson Stadium, Montréal, August 17, 1955.

24 Docomomo Québec | Montréal Olympic Park Heritage Study 3. Montréal, Olympic City

of introduction to IOC President Avery Brundage, Mayor in 1976) which was to serve the downtown area. Taking the Drapeau said: “In Montréal, you can rest assured that the form of a viaduct spanning Rue Boyce at Rue Bennet, this Olympic Games will be characterized by human dignity, road can be seen on the model and appears on the project's nobility and simplicity. We will do everything to ensure exhibit panels. their success.” Several other letters were written: one by H. M. Wright, President of the National Olympic However, Montréal was at a disadvantage: it had to Committee; a positive message by Prime Minister P.E. compete with Vancouver’s bid for the 1976 Winter Games Trudeau supporting the bid; and another signed by (Godbout interview), along with Denver’s (United States), Québec Premier Jean-Jacques Bertrand, who promised Tampere’s (Finland) and Sion’s (Switzerland). Since the the provincial government’s full cooperation (Ville de 1930s, the Summer Games and Winter Games have Montréal 1969, 7–14). The mayor had left nothing to not been held in the same country. If Montréal were chance to win the bid. chosen, Vancouver would have no chance, a situation it tried to avoid by spreading rumours about Montréal’s After the failed bid in 1966 in Rome, Montréal’s solvency and by supporting Moscow, one of Montréal’s candidature was carefully prepared. In addition to rivals (Toronto Daily Star, February 7, 1970, Montréal learning about the IOC members, the mayor had invited Matin, L'Action, February 10, 1970). Not everyone in half of them to an all-expense paid trip to visit Expo 67 Canada agreed with the Montréal Olympics project, (Purcell 1981, 275). The City had prepared an impressive particularly since Montréal had just hosted Expo 67 array of information and set up a booth. Moreover, to and was not the only Canadian city seeking to host the answer questions in Amsterdam on May 12, 1970, during Summer Games, the Canadian Olympic Committee the 69th session of the IOC, Mayor Jean Drapeau and (COC) having given preference to Montréal’s bid over Executive Committee President Jerry Snyder would be Toronto’s and Hamilton’s (The Montreal Star, May 12, accompanied by half a dozen hostesses who could answer 1970). In addition, unexpectedly and at the last minute, questions in twelve languages (Gignac 2009, 188–190). the IOC demanded that each city in the running present Aside from the collaborators who worked closely on the serious financial guarantees. Montréal was unable to Olympic dossier, several suburban mayors would make obtain such a guarantee from the federal government the trip, as well as Lucien Saulnier, former president of which, although it supported the City’s bid, had stated the City’s Executive Committee and who had become the that it would not help finance the Games (COJO 1978, president of the new Communauté urbaine de Montréal vol. 1, 46, Gignac 2009, 157–161,188–190). It was Mayor (The Gazette, May 9, 1970). Jean Drapeau's speech to the delegates that made all the difference; he captivated and convinced them with his On February 11, 1970, the Executive Committee hired humanistic vision of the Games. And even though he said the architectural firm Webb, Zerafa, Menkes to draft the Montréal could not offer any financial assurance, he won Olympiade 1976 project which, in addition to the facilities their support by promoting its reputation as a “big city” at Maisonneuve Park, included the Olympic Basin that the (Purcell 1981, 276–278). However, such an explanation City wanted to build west of the Champlain Bridge and does not take into account the role of the Olympic Games the Olympic Village. Project exhibit panels were prepared in the global geopolitical balance. for the meeting of international sports federations convened in Munich in March 1970, to which a model of In Amsterdam, three cities were competing for the 1976 the Olympic Park, prepared by the Service d’urbanisme Summer Games: Moscow, a first for a communist country, (Fig. III), was subsequently added. The model presents none having previously sought such a responsibility; Los a verdant landscape crisscrossed by winding paths Angeles, which wanted to make this event the highlight converging on a central area bordered to the north by of the celebrations marking the bicentennial of U.S. the diving pool and surrounded by the large stadium, a Independence, and Montréal (Florence had pulled out training track, a football field, outdoor swimming pools of the race). At the vote, Moscow came in first with 28 and a broadcasting tower (Commission d’enquête sur le votes, just ahead of Montréal's 25, while Los Angeles coût de la 21e Olympiade 1980, vol. 2, 25–26). Different was automatically eliminated with only 17 votes. In the configurations were proposed for the Stadium to meet the second round, Moscow’s position remained unchanged needs of both athletics and professional sports (football and Montréal won with 41 votes. and baseball). To facilitate access to the site, the project called for an extension of the metro and a feeder road from Historian Jerome Gygax, author of a study on the the east-west highway (that became Ville-Marie highway importance of sport in the Cold War and the resulting

25 Docomomo Québec | Montréal Olympic Park Heritage Study 3. Montréal, Olympic City

transformation of the modern Olympic Games, notes that that lasted two weeks, we would not have placed so much according to the American Consul General in Amsterdam, importance or spent so much energy on this project. in 1970, “Montréal was a ‘choice by default:’ it was neither Olympism brings with it self-improvement, involving the U.S. nor the U.S.S.R.” (Gygax 2012, 157). The 1968 both physical and intellectual enhancement. At Terre des Republican White House supported Denver’s bid for the Hommes we realized how humankind has been perfected. Winter Games and placed an “absolute priority” on Los With Olympism, we bring a new goal, a new spirit to our Angeles winning the bid for the Summer Games. The youth” (Dimanche Dernière Heure, May 17, 1970). challenge was to present a vision of the world and of a way of life. It was an ideological and cultural battle between the United States and the U.S.S.R. that one official overseeing the bid described as “a confrontation to determine the appeal of our systems to the international public under the guise of political neutrality, the verdict of which would be decided by the awarding of the 1976 Summer Olympics.” The Los Angeles support committee had systematically and cogently lobbied the IOC members and its president, taking every opportunity to denounce the Soviets’ (alleged) failure to meet the Olympic ideal and their violations of IOC rules ever since they joined the Olympic movement in 1952. The Americans were confident of winning, especially since their project “was by far the best funded” (Gygax 2012, 149–156). Montréal’s victory came as a complete surprise.

To secure the Games, Montréal had undertaken to assume the costs of renovating and building all the Olympic facilities, with or without the help of private investors, and to ensure their technical execution under the leadership of city departments. At Maisonneuve Park, it was planning to build an Olympic stadium with at least 80,000 seats, a swimming centre and a velodrome, each with a capacity of 10,000 spectators. The cost of the entire renovation and construction program was estimated at $120 million. The candidature dossier stated that “by avoiding costly extravagances” the Games would be financed by revenues from the sale of television rights and souvenirs. It also stated that in collaboration with the Canadian Olympic Association, Montréal was perfectly capable of organizing the Games because of its “unique experience:” in just four years, it had built the metro and in less than eleven months it had created the Expo 67 islands, a 400-hectare area; it organized the annual Terre des Hommes summer exhibition attended by “millions and millions of visitors” (Ville de Montréal 1969, 36, 48, 30). In the summer of 1970, the model of the Olympic facilities presented in Amsterdam would be exhibited at Terre des Hommes (The Montreal Star, June 6, 1970).

On May 15, the Montréal delegation returned home, where they were greeted by a large triumphant crowd of young people, citizens and officials (Figure 7). The mayor told them: “If it were just a matter of presenting Games

26 Docomomo Québec | Montréal Olympic Park Heritage Study 3. Montréal, Olympic City

Fig. 7. Arrival of Jean Drapeau at Dorval Airport, May 15, 1970.

27 Docomomo Québec | Montréal Olympic Park Heritage Study

4. Maisonneuve Park –

In 1939, when Montréal was vying for the second time to host the Olympic Games, Maisonneuve Park in the east part of the city was being considered as the site for the Olympic Stadium. The project for this vast green space reaches back to the time when this part of Montréal Island was administered by the City of Maisonneuve, established at the request of large landowners in 1883 and driven by grand ambitions. After transforming the city into one of Canada’s most important industrial centres, the city fathers focused on its beautification. The territory covered by the park—bordered by Boulevard Pie-IX, Boulevard Rosemont, Rue Viau and Avenue Pierre- De Coubertin—was established in the 1910s. By the end of the 1930s, the development of the park was well under way, at least north of Rue Sherbrooke, which cut across the park from west to east. A golf course occupied the park’s east section since 1923 and, in the early 1930s, the Jardin botanique de Montréal had opened its gates at the corner of Boulevard Pie-IX. By dedicating this vast space to nature, culture and sports, the City of Montréal, to which Maisonneuve had been annexed in 1918, was pursuing the intentions of the plan drawn up in 1914, or at least to some degree.

28 Fig. 8. Cité de Maisonneuve, oblique aerial view, circa 1914.

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Colonizing Montréal Island Chemin du Roy, the village of Hochelaga, whose territory extended as far as Longue-Pointe, began to develop, Maisonneuve Park is located about 10 kilometres stimulated by industrial operations as early as the 1860s east of Mont Royal, the small mountain that rises up and by construction of the North Railway in 1876. almost in the centre of Montréal Island, the largest Nevertheless, large farms continued to survive, many of island of the Hochelaga archipelago at the confluence which had been purchased by businessmen, as shown in of the St. Lawrence River and the Ottawa River. A vast one of the first atlases of insurance plans for Montréal quadrangle of nearly 24 hectares, its grounds encompass (Hopkins 1879, 102). The entity was dissolved in 1883, when three quarters of the high terrace that stretches a good Hochelaga was annexed by Montréal. The landowners in distance from the shore of the St. Lawrence and which the east end were defiant and obtained the creation of an bears the name of the thoroughfare built along its independent city—Maisonneuve (Linteau 1991, 27). The escarpment in the 19th century—Rue Sherbrooke. About movement of annexing surrounding municipalities to the 15 metres below, the low terrace gently slopes down to larger city had thus begun, making it possible to amortize the St. Lawrence River. Humans have been coming to the the costs for building urban infrastructure. island for millennia, drawn by its fertile land which is well suited for agriculture. Hochelaga harks back to the The urbanization of Maisonneuve Aboriginal village on the side of Mont Royal, discovered by French explorer Jacques Cartier in 1535 at the time The territory of the new city of Maisonneuve adjoined that of his first voyage. Not far from there, in the following of Montréal, up to the back of the lots on Rue Bourbonnière century, Ville-Marie was founded in 1642 by a missionary and, to the east, it extended to the property in the middle group sent by the Société de Notre-Dame—which had of which, around 1890, the 1ère Avenue (future Rue Viau) acquired the island—and led by Paul de Chomedey de would be plotted. Its jagged northern border merged with Maisonneuve (1612–1676) and Jeanne Mance (1606– the Chemin de la Côte de la Visitation (Boulevard Rosemont 1673). In 1663, development of the colony took a turn as of 1908), to the east and, to the west, it ended at when the Sulpicians became the seigneurs of Montréal what is now Boulevard Saint-Joseph (Linteau 1981, 32; (Robert 1994, 20–21, 36). Goad 1890, plate 50). Urban development of the new city In the second half of the 17th century, the entire island occurred in phases in step with its industrialization. The was opened for colonization and farming. The Sulpicians city council favoured the opening of factories to attract gradually divided the land into côtes (“coasts” or new inhabitants. The rate at which the city progressed “shores”), which were groupings cut into long narrow followed the pace of its economic growth, picking up speed strips of property perpendicular to the shores, to grant in the 1880s and being particularly strong at the turn of the them as concessions (Beauregard). In the 18th century, 20th century. the future site of Maisonneuve Park was located at the northeast border of Côte Sainte-Marie, with Côte de la Property owners had an influence on the city’s future, to Visitation to its north and Côte de Longue-Pointe to a degree that was proportional to the value of their land: the east. To facilitate land clearing in the centre of the their votes were solicited to ratify any regulations adopted island, the Chemin de la Visitation was opened in 1707 by the city council, including those governing loans, at (Boulevard Rosemont as of 1908) followed by, in 1737 least until 1909. Moreover, they were well represented on along the river, the Chemin du Roy (now Rue Notre- the city council or were on good terms with its members Dame), which led to Québec City. (Linteau 1981, 50, 224, 47). To entice industry, the city introduced a tax-exemption policy in 1884. Initially, it The land on which the future Maisonneuve Park would had little effect in light of the economic context. Only two be built continued to be used for farming until the large companies set up operations in Maisonneuve: first, city of Montréal’s limits, officially established in 1792 the St. Lawrence Sugar Refining Company, in 1887, and, a to a distance of 100 chains (about two kilometres) year later, the Montreal Terra Cotta Lumber Co., founded from the fortifications, became overpopulated and the by businessman and politician Alphonse Desjardins (1841– inhabitants quickly spread out farther. The abolition of 1912). Desjardins set up a tile factory on his land, at the foot the seigneurial system in the mid-19th century, which of the Sherbrooke Terrace, east of the boulevard opened in freed the land of transfer taxes, had a significant impact its midst in 1884 and named in honour of Pope Pius IX, on the island’s future urbanization as it paved the way whom this ultramontane admired (Les grandes rues for land speculation (Grenier 2012, 137). Serviced by the de Montréal).

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The urban development of Maisonneuve began in the Maisonneuve, “Montréal’s Garden” area of Rue Notre-Dame, around the refinery built next to the St. Lawrence River, at the corner of Boulevard Pie-IX Just before the war, the local industrial bourgeoisie was (Goad 1890, plates 86, 87). Later, buildings started being well represented on a particularly stable city council, to erected toward the north, up to Rue Ontario, which had which it brought a new dynamic. Confident about the been extended beyond the Hochelaga neighbourhood, future, the municipal officials were no longer content with in 1894, a sector that had streetcar service as of 1896 (a projects intended solely to service the area; there was more service the lower city had since 1893). This area became than just building streets, signing contracts with private particularly enticing for industries with the opening of companies to ensure the supply of water, electricity, gas and the Chateauguay & Northern Railway line in 1901, which public transit: the new goal was the city’s beautification. crossed the municipality from west to east, cutting through This shift in direction was primarily promoted by the subdivisions, south of Rue Ernest (today, de Rouen), as Mayor Alexandre Michaud (1868–?), and councillor well as the subsidiary track of the Canadian Pacific Railway Oscar Dufresne (1875–1936), who together hired Oscar’s more to the north. brother, Marius (1883–1945), as the city’s engineer. During these years, in the spirit of the City Beautiful movement TheAtlas of the Island and City of Montreal by Pinsoneault, that originated in the United States, in the wake of the dating back to 1907, shows all the subdivisions in the area, 1893 world exposition in Chicago, not only were many with the exception, at the centre, of the lands belonging to public buildings constructed in the Beaux-Arts style, but James Morgan Junior and to William Bennett (for Bennett, even more large tree-lined boulevards were built and a solely to the north of the railway tracks). As pointed out spacious public park was planned. Maisonneuve sought to by historian Jean-Claude Robert (1994, 76), many of the become the “Garden of Montréal” (Linteau 1981, 101, 219). subdivisions appearing on the old maps existed only on paper, unlike the buildings indicated on those maps. At the South of the Canadian Northern Railway line, a boulevard time, construction was concentrated in the southwest part was opened in the middle of the property of James Morgan, of the city of Maisonneuve, around the Très-Saint-Nom- from whom the boulevard took its name, according to the de-Marie church (1903–1906), built on Rue Adam, at the plans drawn up by Frederick G. Todd (1876–1948) in 1912. corner of Rue Desjardins, while the southeast sector was This landscape architect, who moved to Canada in 1900, less developed and the north was empty (Linteau 1981, 164), was a disciple of the renowned Frederick L. Olmsted with the exception of Mont-de-la-Salle. The novitiate of the (1822–1903), who had designed New York’s Central Park Institute of the Brothers of the Christian Schools had been and, in 1874, had been engaged by the City of Montréal built between 1885 and 1887, north of Rue Sherbrooke, in a to design Mount Royal Park (Jacobs 1983). North of completely rural area (Voisine 1991, 79–81). Avenue Morgan, the public market was built (1912–1914) and, close by, on the avenue’s east side, the public bath Between 1907 and 1913, the municipality stepped up went up (1912–1916). its efforts to attract industries through a systematic and intensive use of advertisements. As a result, many companies, Previously, on Rue Ontario, a new city hall had been including larger ones, set up operations in Maisonneuve. built (1911–1912), east of Boulevard Pie‑IX. Moreover, In 1910, the shipyard of the Canadian subsidiary of the like Rue Sherbrooke, this thoroughfare was widened to British firm Vickers, Sons & Maxim opened in Maisonneuve, allow bourgeois residences to be built along it. However, on the shore of the river, transforming Montréal into one construction did not go beyond the railway tracks, with of Canada’s main shipbuilding centres. Three years later, the northern sector of Maisonneuve remaining isolated another international company, United Shoe Machinery, because of Montréal’s refusal to extend Rue Sherbrooke opened a factory on Rue Boyce and found in the surrounding past the point where it met with Hochelaga. Only the area many companies to which it could lease the machinery Dufresne bothers—Oscar, the businessman, and Marius, and lasts it produced for shoemaking, the largest local the engineer—would build their “château” (1915–1918) at industry. Within twenty years, the number of employees in the intersection of these two prestigious thoroughfares. Maisonneuve factories increased nearly 25-fold, approaching The creation of Maisonneuve Park was legally authorized ten thousand around 1910 (Linteau 1981, ch. 4). in 1910. The park’s 242 hectares were acquired over time, However, with a new team coming to power to lead between 1911 and 1916, with ever-increasing haste. Land the municipality in 1909, the development of the city was even purchased beyond the municipal limits, up to that came to be known as the “Pittsburgh of Canada” Boulevard Rosemont. The scheme, which stimulated land took a turn. speculation, ended in the “Scandal of Maisonneuve Park.”

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Historian Paul-André Linteau noted that land promoters In the 1920s in Montréal, the idea of a botanical garden who enjoyed considerable success in the southern part of was not new. Since the second half of the 19th century, the city, had a lot of difficulty selling their lots in the north such a project had been proposed on numerous occasions, sector, which lacked a good communication network with especially at McGill College, but with no concrete results the city centre. The park’s development was therefore (Desrochers 1995, 7–11). In 1929, the notion was put a way to unload this land while making some money. forth again, for the benefit of all Montréal citizens, by For its part, the municipal government saw the park as Brother Marie-Victorin, a young botany professor and a source of revenue given the crowds that would visit it a leading proponent of scientific rationality. One year (Linteau 981, 12). later, he took a decisive step by founding the Association du Jardin botanique de Montréal with the goal of creating At the end of 1914, Marius Dufresne drew up a plan for a large, modern botanical garden like those in London, Maisonneuve Park, which was published in the newspaper New York and Boston. However, support was sparse La Patrie. The project included numerous sports and outside the intellectual circles, except for the Montréal cultural activities: sports grounds, amphitheatres, art city council, where Marie-Victorin had a strong ally, gallery, botanical garden, hotels, casinos, cafes ... Some Mayor Camillien Houde (1889-1958) (Dagenais 1998, 6). of the work began immediately; however, with the war Houde suggested implementing the program adopted dragging on, the project ended up being suspended. The by governments to reduce unemployment, by funding work started up again in the 1920s, under the direction public works, and applying it to Maisonneuve Park of the City of Montréal. In 1918, collapsing under the (Desrochers 1995, 12, 13). Marie-Victorin knew the debt it had amassed to carry out its policy of grandeur, area well, having been educated at Mont-de-la-Salle Maisonneuve had been annexed to Montréal. (Voisine, ch IV).

Development of Maisonneuve Park It was not until March 1932, just before the municipal elections, that funds were freed up to begin construction Maisonneuve Park’s sports and cultural vocation was based on the plans drawn up by the City’s Chief maintained by the City of Montréal, and even expanded Draughtsman, E. P. J. Courval, for the development projects, throughout the park’s development, which would take and by architect Lucien F. Kéroack (1886–1951) for the several decades. Beginning in the 1920s, development administrative building. A service greenhouse was also advanced gradually, initially north of Rue Sherbrooke built. Finalized in 1933, the work was then suspended due and then to the south. Work first began on the municipal to the new administration’s opposition to the project. The golf course and continued with the Jardin botanique de work resumed in 1936, when the municipal government, Montréal throughout the following decade. With the reconquered by Camillien Houde, set up the Commission creation of the botanical garden, the public park took on a du Jardin botanique de Montréal. Appointed to head the new educational role. The main goal of the garden’s founder, Commission were Brother Marie-Victorin, as Scientific Brother Marie‑Victorin (1885–1944), was to promote Director, and Henry Teuscher (1891–1984), German- and popularize science, which was rapidly emerging as a born American horticulturist and landscape architect, subject of interest among French Canadians. The Jardin as Superintendent. The work, which was relaunched botanique was also one of the large construction projects based on a new master plan designed by Teuscher, made launched to reduce unemployment during that time of good progress and the worksite was one of the largest in crisis, similar to the construction begun in 1938 on the Montréal. Funding was ensured by the policy for assisting Centre sportif de l’Est for the 1942 British Empire Games, the unemployed, which was again subsidizing public on the occasion of the tricentennial of the founding of work projects. The funding was even more generous Montréal. given that Premier Maurice Duplessis was fully on board with the idea, as was the member for the district of In 1923, the municipal golf course was developed, east Maisonneuve who, as Minister of Labour, allocated the of the former Mont-de-la-Salle property, and the 9-hole funds (Desrochers 1995, 13, 14, 23; Dagenais 1998, 10–15). course was immediately expanded to 18 (AVM). A year earlier, the novitiate of the Institute of the Brothers In 1938, the Jardin botanique, with an enlarged central of the Christian Schools, which had closed its doors pavilion, was inaugurated and, that same year, the garden’s in 1917, had been torn down. Some of its materials had surface area was extended to Boulevard Rosemont. been recuperated to build a chalet in the alignement of Rue Bennett. The land would be selected as the site for the Also in 1938, at the initiative of the provincial government Jardin botanique de Montréal. and, again, as part of the public works spending to reduce

32 Docomomo Québec | Montréal Olympic Park Heritage Study 4. Maisonneuve Park

Fig. 9. Maisonneuve Park: the Botanical Gardens, north of Sherbrooke Street, and the Centre sportif de l’Est, to the south, May 29, 1957.

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Fig. 10. Ski lesson at Maisonneuve Park, Montréal, January 1970.

34 Docomomo Québec | Montréal Olympic Park Heritage Study 4. Maisonneuve Park

unemployment, the development of Maisonneuve Park, future both in Europe and in America. The model south of Rue Sherbrooke, was begun based on the plans consisted in eliminating congestion by creating new towns drawn up by Frederick G. Todd. The second plan retained in the countryside, with limited growth and be managed for the Centre sportif de l’Est, dated January 18, 1939 by the inhabitants, and where emphasis would be placed (Fig. I), shows a design based on both classical and on private homes built in the vernacular style. After the picturesque styles, given its primary orthogonal lines and First World War, many cooperative garden districts had secondary curving lines. Only Rue Baird was maintained been built in Belgium, where social housing had become from the previously planned subdivision, dividing the a government priority. One of the founders of the Union quadrangle between Rue Desjardins and Rue Viau. économique d’habitations, lawyer Joseph-Auguste Along Rue Boyce (today, Avenue Pierre-De Coubertin), Gosselin (1897–?), had spent some time in that country. the layout of the various facilities was aligned with the streets descending to the south. Associated with the In 1940, along with others, Gosselin, having returned to project, architect Emmanuel-Arthur Doucet (1888–1960) the province of Québec, established the Union économique designed a large stadium to have a monumental and d’habitations, whose “moral advisor” was the Jesuit priest classical look. The plans also included a baseball stadium, Jean-d’Auteuil Richard. The goal was to build garden cities a palestra, an aquatic centre, a chalet-restaurant between throughout the province that would help members of the two lawn-bowling fields, tennis and lacrosse courts as working class become homeowners, in theory at least. well as an outdoor amphitheatre. However, reality would impose certain constraints: at the Union’s initiative, a single group of houses was built, and Many newspapers reported on the Centre sportif de l’Est not completed, for professionals and white-collar workers and its numerous winter and summer sports grounds. (Choko 1988, 40). In May 1938, Le Petit Journal announced the start of construction (Archambault). A year later, The Gazette After months of searching for the right site, cost ended up specified that the Centre was built to Olympic standards being the deciding factor that led to the selection in 1941 so that it could host the 1942 British Empire Games, of the quadrangle east of Maisonneuve Park. The intention on the occasion of Montréal’s tricentennial. Like the was to build 600 “maisons canadiennes” or Swiss chalet- 1944 Games, which Montréal had bid on in 1939, these style dwellings and their nearby facilities: church, school, competitions were cancelled following the outbreak of the shopping centre, swimming pool and park, according war, and development of the sports centre was suspended. to a master plan that was revised many times. Most of the houses were built along cul-de-sacs, off the main thoroughfares, with pedestrian paths between the private The Cité-Jardin du Tricentenaire gardens. When the cooperative ceased its activities at the end of 1946, only 167 houses had been completed. The In 1942, the tricentennial of the founding of Montréal undeveloped land was resold, some to the City of Montréal was celebrated through a series of events, including the to extend the municipal golf course to the east of Rue Viau. inauguration of the first 16 houses of the garden city named in honour of the anniversary. They were built In the 1950s, after Boulevard Assomption was opened, new along Avenue Des Maronniers, about 100 metres east streets were built east of the subdivision, along which, during of Maisonneuve Park. The entire project was originally the following decade, private individuals built houses in a intended to occupy the full area bounded by Rue Viau, much more modern style (Vanlaethem 2008, 158–159). As Boulevard Rosemont, Rue Dickson and Rue Sherbrooke. with a garden city, all the streets of this new subdivision However, with the bankruptcy of the organization behind bore the names of trees. the garden city, the Union économique d’habitations, in late 1946, the subdivision was suspended and was limited Centre sportif de l’Est to the area close to Boulevard Rosemont. The facilities for the Centre sportif de l’Est put forward Since the end of the 19th century, the idea of nature as by Montréal in its bid for the 1972 Games were not an antidote to the industrial city had not only led to the based on Todd’s plan, but on the one designed in 1956 by creation of parks (Dagenais 2006, 141), but also influenced Clarke & Rapuano, an American engineer and landscape the approach to urban development. As such, the garden architect firm engaged by Claude Robillard, the Director city model that was advanced in England in 1898, as a of Parks. This firm, which collaborated regularly solution to the congestion in large cities, had a remarkable with the powerful Robert Moses, a central figure in

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the modernization of New York’s infrastructure and public facilities, had been involved in the development of many parkways and public parks. For Montréal, Clarke & Rapuano designed the Maisonneuve Sports Center, a project dated May 1956, including the master plan (Fig. II), several perspective views and some drawings of the stadium.

The drawings of the Maisonneuve Sports Center indicated a large stadium built on the narrowest section of the land extending all the way to Boulevard Pie-IX. From Rue Viau, a monumental walkway led to the centre, flanked on both sides by buildings and outdoor facilities (Fig. 11). The critical reception of the project was very positive. It received an award from the American Society of Landscape Architects, at the organization’s 57th annual meeting in Cleveland, in 1956, and was displayed in Zurich at the World Congress of the International Federation of Landscape Architects (La Presse, December 3, 1960).

In 1955, a stadium committee was set up by several business leaders, including Léo Dandurand (1889–1964), President of the Montréal Alouettes and former owner of the Canadiens. He proposed to Jean Drapeau that funding be provided for the construction of a stadium that would also be suitable for baseball and football. The mayor’s defeat in the 1957 elections put the project on hold for a while (re-elected in 1960, Drapeau would focus on the metro system and the Universal Exposition).

During the mayoral term of his successor, Sarto Fournier (1908–1980), two of the buildings included in the plan were completed by Montréal architects: Paul Lambert (1910– 2005) built the Maisonneuve centre (1958–1960), which included an Olympic-size swimming pool and immense gymnasium, and Jean-Julien Perrault (1893–1970) built the Maurice-Richard Arena (1958–1961). The first was renamed in 1975 in honour of Pierre Charbonneau (1928–1975), who died prematurely. Passionate about sports, Charbonneau helped organize amateur sports in Québec; he headed the Fédération d’athlétisme du Québec as well as the Confédération des sports du Québec (RDS 1997). In 1968, Mayor Drapeau asked Charbonneau to coordinate Montréal’s bid for the XXI Olympiad and, in March 1971, he was appointed to the Olympic organizing committee (COJO) that had just been created, taking on the role of vice-president for the sports program (COJO 1978, vol. 1, 46, 31).

36 Fig. 11. Perspective of Maisonneuve Sports Center, 1956, Clarke & Rapuano, landscape architects.

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5. A Brief History of Olympic Facilities –

The Olympic Games date back to Ancient Greece, where they began in the 8th century BC as a sports and religious event, continuing until their abolition at the end of the 4th century AD on the grounds of their pagan character. The idea of reviving them gained ground in the 19th century until 1894, when it crystallized in an international movement aimed at promoting amateur athletics and world peace through the Games’ renaissance. Since the first Olympics of the modern era, held in Athens in 1896, the Games have been held regularly every four years except during the two world wars. At first they were held in summer only, but from 1924 the winter games were added. There was, however, one exception in the four-yearly series: the edition celebrating the 10th anniversary of the revival. These “Intercalated” Games, held in Athens in 1906, established the independence of the Olympics, which had hitherto formed part of world expositions, hampering their visibility.

Until recently, little value was placed on Olympic facilities by the Olympic movement or by the history of architecture. On the official website of the Olympic movement, while every past edition has a page that features the emblem, commemorative medal and posters created for the event, information on the built infrastructure is scarce. It was not until Munich 1972 that the official report of the Games began to pay special attention to facilities, devoting a volume to this aspect. Some years later the first monographs on the history of facilities began to appear, although they remained rare up to the end of the 2000s. And yet Pierre de Coubertin, the indefatigable promoter of the Games in the early 20th century, had placed great importance on the physical framework.

38 Fig. 12. Helsinki Olympic Stadium, 1938-1952, Yrjö Lindegren and Toivo Jäntti, architects.

39 Docomomo Québec | Montréal Olympic Park Heritage Study 5. A Brief History of Olympic Facilities

The “modern Olympia” just as he had been disappointed by the first Games of the modern era (Wimmer 1976, 21–26). In 1910, de Coubertin persuaded the IOC to organize an international architecture competition to draw up plans Architecture and the Olympic Games for a “modern Olympics.” He had set out his vision of the Games in a June 1909 special issue of Revue olympique The modern Olympic Games did not always lead to new (Coubertin 1967, 20–34). He specified how the Olympic facilities being built and, when they were, it was only City should be run and the conditions for participation later that they made contributions to the development of of athletes and spectators, his view being that it was innovative modern architecture in a formal or technical essential to know the number of inhabitants and visitors sense. The first modern Olympics, in Athens, were held on in order to plan permanent and temporary facilities. a rehabilitated ancient site, while a number of subsequent He even prescribed the ceremonies and festivities that Games involved the use of existing facilities. An Olympic should take place there. stadium is the main site for competitions and ceremonies. For a considerable time, plans for stadiums followed the The site that had hosted the Games in antiquity, lying at ancient model, with changes to meet, on the one hand, the the foot of Mount Kronos in the Peloponnese peninsula, requirements of modern athletics competitions—whose was first a sanctuary in an entirely natural setting, a rules were gradually being established—and, on the other place of worship to which facilities were added later hand, the accommodation of spectators. (Wimmer 1976, 22, 11). In de Coubertin’s view, the modern Games had to be modelled on those of antiquity, The choice of the capital of Greece for the first modern though adapted to the necessities of contemporary life Olympics in 1896 was “a strong symbol of continuity of and the international scale of athletics competitions. Yet the Greek tradition” (Étienne 2004), as was the choice because he was an educator and humanist, he saw the regarding facilities. The stadium erected in Athens in 330 Olympics as much more than an athletics event: they BC for the Panathenaic Games was reconstructed by the had an educational and even philosophical importance, architect Ernest Ziller, on the very site of the excavations and so art and aesthetics had to make a contribution. To that had revealed its remains a century earlier. The narrow avoid the Games turning into a “circus,” he envisaged U-shaped enclosure, about 200 metres long, was built in a them on a modest scale, with no more than a thousand natural ravine between two hills. Its white marble benches, competitors and about 10,000 spectators. He wanted whose capacity was expanded to seat 70,000 spectators, their physical framework to be designed as a separate followed the site’s topography (wikiarquitectura.com). city, hosting the Games at regular intervals, with the Although it was shortened and widened to suit modern building of permanent and temporary administrative athletics competitions, this ancient circus set the prevailing and residential facilities. pattern for stadiums for the next quarter-century: a huge, open-air oblong area for games surrounded by benches to De Coubertin called for a grandiose complex of a accommodate standing or seated spectators. monumental aspect, in which buildings and landscape would blend to create a harmonious whole, and where The competitions for the second edition were held as part the purpose of every structure would be obvious. The of the Paris Exposition of 1900, with no athletics facilities density of the complex might vary, but de Coubertin’s being built for the occasion. Up until World War I, a number preference was for an open, though not sprawling, site. of Olympiads formed part of similar world expositions. As in the ancient Games, the centre devoted to sports and the arts must be separate from the “secular” (residential The third Olympic Games, held in the United States in and administrative) city, far from the “court of honour.” conjunction with the St. Louis World’s Fair in 1904, took De Coubertin imagined a large park in which multiple place in Francis Field, which had a capacity of 19,000 athletics competitions would be held in the open air, spectators. Four years later, the Games were part of the alongside musical and theatrical performances and art Franco-British Exhibition in London. For the first time, exhibitions, and in which spectators could move around a venue had been specially built for the occasion, the and form groups freely. The park, and the style of the White City Stadium, a 68,000-capacity multisport facility buildings erected there, had to be new (Coubertin 1967, designed by the architect James Black Fulton. Two sections 20–34). De Coubertin was disappointed by architects’ of grandstand were protected by a roof supported by a submissions to the competition that was opened in 1910, steel structure: “an engineering structure of great

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magnitude” according to the specialist press of the time for the eventually cancelled 1940 Games, was completed. (Architecture.com). The building and other facilities were erected in a park on the outskirts of the city. Its enclosure features a facade of Although smaller (35,000 capacity), the stadium designed concrete members contrasting with the white modernist by architect Torben Grut for the Stockholm Games of 1912 architecture of the entrance section and its tower. The was more monumental in character, with its medieval- height of the tower is 72 metres, the distance of a winning looking enclosure and towers. Pierre de Coubertin saw javelin throw, javelin being a national sport (fig. 12). The it as a model, given its location in a wooded area on the Melbourne Cricket Ground, opened in 1854 and repeatedly outskirts of the city and its versatility, which lent the enlarged thereafter, was the centrepiece of the 1956 Games stadium to both sporting competitions and ceremonies in Australia. and shows. The 1912 Games marked a new departure for two reasons: the importance placed on architecture and The Olympics, an urban issue the inclusion of artistic competitions (Wimmer 1976, 27). The 1960s ushered in a new era. Physical facilities The first postwar Games were held in Antwerp, in the became a key aspect of the Olympic Games: host cities renovated Beerschot stadium, two neo‑baroque pavilions rivalled one another in audacity, using their project to having been added to the enclosure. The 1924 Paris Games leverage urban development. This situation was linked were held in a suburban setting. For the first time, facilities to the economic boom and the accompanying intense were complemented by an Olympic village, in which cabins urban modernization. Moreover, the uniformization of provided a basic level of comfort (Gordon 1983, 13–17). international safety and visibility standards meant that grandstands for the public had to be enlarged and new The stadium built for the 1928 Games in Amsterdam is layouts provided for competition areas (Perelman 2010, among the iconic buildings of 20th‑century architecture 313–316). Stadium building type was reconfigured, (Sharp 1972, 96). The Amsterdam Olympic Stadium was moving towards a circular plan (Gordon 1983, 39–41). the magnum opus of architect Jan Wils (1891–1972), who succeeded in combining the modernist monumentalism of In Rome, in 1960, the holding of certain events in ancient the Amsterdam School with the elementarism advocated monuments would be more memorable than the impact by the avant-garde De Stijl group, of which he was a of the Games on the city and on international architecture founder. The stands of this large amphitheatre, supported (Olympic.org). In other respects, however, they marked a by a concrete structure, are contained within brick- turning point: on the one hand, the Games gave a new clad walls, whose facade treatment moves away from neoclassical composition and decoration to a functional impetus to urban development, supported by the return design integrating bays. The high brick tower standing to economic growth after years of war and crisis, and, on adjacent to the stadium became the symbol of the event. the other hand, they contributed to setting a new standard for facilities, at the crossroads of technological progress Classical monumentalism was once again in the spotlight in construction and the innovation in form that had in the 1930s. For the Los Angeles Games in 1932, Memorial become the standard in architecture with the “triumph” Coliseum in University Park was extended to create space of the modern movement. Many of the new facilities were for over 100,000 spectators in its stands. Four years later, designed in collaboration with Pier Luigi Nervi (1891– in Berlin, the architect Werner Julius March (1894– 1979), the designer of the unique bearing system of the 1976) was obliged to modify plans to expand the old Stock Exchange Tower in Montréal (1963–1966). Since Grünewald Stadium to satisfy Hitler’s taste for grandeur the 1920s, this engineer had been reinventing concrete (Larson 1983, 28). The Olympic Stadium formed part of a structures, benefiting from his unique experienced with vast 132-hectare complex, designed to stage the regime’s the work site afforded by his construction business, Nervi rites and rituals (Gordon 1983, 27–29). In Berlin, for the & Bartoli. first time, competitions were filmed and images broadcast throughout the city. In the Eternal City, the Games provided an opportunity to consolidate the blossoming of three sites on the The next Games were held in 1948 in London. In a context periphery of the downtown area, which had been targeted of postwar austerity, Wembley Stadium, built in 1923 for by the 1909 city development plan and fascist rule the British Empire Exhibition, was reused. In Helsinki, between the two wars. They also led to an improvement the 40,000-seat stadium, which had won a competition in transportation infrastructure (Casciato 2006, 95)

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as the automobile spread to the masses. The Stadio dei village on a single site close to downtown. This proximity, Centomila (“stadium of the 100,000”) erected under favoured in order to facilitate travel between the main Mussolini and renovated by the architect Annibale competition and accommodation sites, was a first. One Vitellozzi (1902–1990) in the early 1950s served as the year later, a competition for the design of the layout of Olympic Stadium. However, it lacked the elegance of the the 3,000-hectare Olympic Park was won by the firm of venues built by Pier Luigi Nervi: the two circular-plan Günther Behnisch (1922–2010) on account of the quality indoor arenas, the Palazzetto dello Sport (Small Sports of its landscaping and the choice of a light roof connecting Palace) (1956–1957) and the larger Palazzo dello Sport and covering the sports facilities planned for the site. (1958–1960), and the Flaminio soccer stadium (1957– 1959), all built on the cheap (Lori 2012, 76). The architect Frei Otto (1925–2015) was the designer of this vast tent covering the 34,500 m² of the sports hall Initially planned as a prototype for a medium-sized, low- and the 11,900 m² of the indoor pool (Nerdinger 2005, cost multisport facility, the Small Sport Palace (fig. 13, 14), 260–269). The huge saddle‑shaped covering is formed of designed with the architect Annibale Vitellozzi, lattices of cables suspended from tubular steel masts and represented the “economic and architectural success of covered with translucent acrylic panels (Glaeser 1972, the ‘Nervi system,’ as well as the success of its construction 112). A highly experienced specialist in tensile structures, method.” This method combined cast-in-place concrete Otto had attracted notice in Montréal, during Expo 67, and prefabrication, bringing together craftsmanship, with the German Pavilion. He had worked with Roger standardization and technological innovation. For the Taillibert on two occasions. In 1965, the commission for prefabricated elements, Nervi used concrete reinforced the open-air theatre at Palm Beach in Cannes had given with a light metal screen, ferrocemento, and produced the men their first opportunity to construct a retractable the elements on site, thereby avoiding the need to use roof, an experiment repeated in Paris for the Boulevard sophisticated machines (the concrete of the units forming Carnot swimming pool (1966). In 1969, Frei Otto the dome of the structure was applied with a trowel in constructed a similar roof for another outdoor stage built a limited number of configuration moulds) (Lori 2010, in the ruins of a monastery at Bad Hersfeld. The following 167). Among the distinguishing features of the Flaminio year, he worked on plans for a 100,000-seat stadium stadium, designed in collaboration with his son Antonio, fitted with a 60,000 m² retractable roof suspended from are the huge, elegant y-shaped cast-concrete buttresses a sloping 180-metre mast, a design that was doomed to that surround and bear the prefabricated elements of remain on the drawing board in the economic context the stands. Only some of the 30,000 seats are protected of the early 1970s (Nerdinger 2005, 224–225, 236–237, by a broad, slender ajouré concrete canopy, which 275, 277). again combined casting in place and prefabrication. Another signal achievement of the Rome Games was The Munich Games also went down in history because of the Corso di Francia viaduct (1958–1960) crossing the the terrorist attack that marred them. The taking of Israeli Olympic Village. athletes as hostages that began in the Olympic Village resulted in the death of 17 people and the suspending of In Tokyo, in 1964, the Games were again a driver of the games for 36 hours. urban development, with concrete being the material of choice for facilities. Standing out among these are the Architecture of great stadiums indoor swimming pool and gymnasium in Yoyogi Park by the architect Kenzo Tange (1913–2005)—featuring The Montréal Stadium stands apart from other Olympic curved lines—located on either side of a huge elevated stadiums as a result of its hybrid vocation, linked both walkway (fig. 15). The concave roofs of the two buildings to athleticism and to commercial ball games, and of are suspended from huge pylons (Sharp 1972, 261). For its retractable fabric roof, all the others being large the Mexico Olympics in 1968, the sporting facilities of open-air or partially roofed enclosures (Wimmer 1976, the Autonomous National University (UNAM) were 39–41). In the United States, retractable roofs have used, including the 63,000-seat Estadio Universatario become widespread in recent decades, with many new (1952) (fig. 16). In 1966, Munich was chosen from the baseball and football stadiums being built as large steel four cities vying for the 1972 Olympics, including structures with sliding roofs. An examination of the Montréal, because Munich proposed to cluster the major stadiums with which that of Montréal can be Olympic stadium, gymnasium, swimming pool and compared would not be complete without taking into

42 Figs. 13 and 14. The Petit Palais des sports, Rome, 1957, Pier L. Nervi, engineer, and Annibale Vitellozzi, architect.

Fig. 15. View of the National Gymnasium in Yoyogi Park, Tokyo, 1964, Kenzo Tange, architect, Yoshikatsu Tsuboi and Yuichi Inoue, engineers.

Fig. 16. University Olympic Stadium in Mexico, 1952, Augusto Pérez Fig. 17. Munich Olympic pool, 1962, Günther Behnisch and Palacios, Jorge Bravo, Raúl Salinas, architects. Frei Otto, architects.

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account the large reinforced concrete stadiums built metres in diameter. Its roof framing is made up of multiple between 1930 and 1972. The scientific symposium on the criss-crossing metal lamella trusses covered with Lucite Montréal Olympic Stadium held in May 2016 as part of translucent acrylic resin panels. This structure broke a the 84th Congress of the Association francophone pour number of records at the time of its inauguration: it was le savoir (Acfas) provided an opportunity to examine this the largest dome without interior supports and made subject, with professors Franz Graf and Giulia Marino use of Lucite to a then-unmatched extent. The National of the École polytechnique de Lausanne devoting their Park Service considered it a marvel of engineering for its communication to it. From among their selection, we time, and it was dubbed the “8th wonder of the world.” have chosen the structures which, like the Montréal Today it is disused (United States Department of the Olympic Stadium, give expression to “the structural Interior 2013, 7.7). frame as a fully fledged architectural device—a leitmotif for sporting infrastructures of the 1950s and 1960s.” Another American structure of note is the first retractable- Concrete, a formless, monolithic material—unlike roof stadium: the Civic Auditorium (1958–1961) in steel, whose structures are assembled—is particularly Pittsburgh, which served both as a hockey rink and conducive to this kind of treatment. concert hall. Its roof, in the form of a 120-metre diameter dome, was supported at the centre by a triangulated The stadiums built in the United States in the mid-20th cantilevered arm and made up of eight sections, six of century generally have a circular or oval enclosure, are which, driven by motors installed at their base, could used for a variety of ball games, and have an average slide under the first two sections, which were fixed. Since capacity of 50,000 seats. Few are of architectural interest, the 1990s, many retractable-roof stadiums have been most being vernacular in nature (Adams 2006, 208). built in the United States. Most, however, are rectangular Departing from a mere constructive approach, the steel boxes, with part of the roof opening and sliding on a Busch Memorial Stadium (1964–1966, demolished in gantry crane principle. 2005) in St. Louis, was designed by Sverdrup & Parcel, in collaboration with Edward Durell Stone (1902–1978), an In Latin America, a much different tradition was architect shunned by the modern movement on account developing, making use of the plasticity of concrete, of his ornate, kitschy and popular approach to modernism just as Pier Luigi Nervi did in Italy. The grandstand of (Hunting 2013, 10, 126). The stadium was distinguished the Olympic Stadium (1948–1951) of Caracas University by its curved roof above the stands forming a crown of (listed as a World Heritage building), by the architect 96 arches. Carlos Raúl Villanueva (1900–1975), is composed of a series of consoles supporting the stands and roof. A Another structure worthy of mention is the Oracle similar technique was used for the enclosure of the famed Arena, the 20,000-seat indoor basketball arena adjacent Maracanã Stadium (1947–1951, Miguel Feldman et al.) to the Oakland-Alameda County Coliseum (1964– built in Rio de Janeiro for the 1950 FIFA World Cup. With 1968), designed by the major firm of Skidmore Owings 200,000 seats and an area of 86,000 m², it prevailed as the & Merrill. The interest of this complex lies not only in largest in the world for the remainder of the 20th century. its urban setting but also in its architecture. The two The canopy sheltering the grandstands of this stadium sports venues making up the complex, which borders an is continuous, encircling the entire arena. It is built of intercity highway, are sunk into the ground and linked by ferrocemento and its 30-metre cantilever is anchored an esplanade covering an exhibition hall that provides a by tie beams on the concrete consoles punctuating the connection between the venues. The glass cylinder of the enclosure, whose 317 x 279-metre oval structure reaches Oracle Arena stands out by virtue of its simple geometry 32 metres in height (Feitosa 2009). and transparency, contrasting with the complexity of its structure. It combines an exterior steel skeleton, a sort of The Maracanã became an icon of Brazilian culture and large circular Vierendeel girder covered with a concrete a model for many later constructions. In the smaller skin which holds a roof composed of cables and thin (100,000-seat) Governador Magalhães Pinto stadium prefabricated concrete beams (Adams 2006, 271). (1964–1965, Eduardo Mendes Guimarães Júnior) in Belo Horizonte, the stands, canopy and walkways are supported Fully covered baseball and football stadiums were by concrete consoles. Dating from the same era as the an exception. The multipurpose Houston Astrodome Montréal Olympic Stadium, the multisport Governador (1965) was the first American stadium of this type, Alberto Tavares Silva stadium, known as the Albertão, and was equipped with air conditioning (to combat the in Teresina, the capital of Piauí State, used a number of subtropical climate). It is capped by a dome of some 200 technological innovations, including climbing formwork

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and a cement accelerator enabling rapid execution, at least in the first phase of the work. The second phase, in which the 96 consoles of varying size and the roof slab were completed, was slower. The canopy protects only part of the 60,000 seats, its width varying according to their exposure to the sun (Feitosa, 2009).

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6. The Organizers of the Montréal Olympic Games –

The organization of the Olympic Games is entrusted to various bodies: the International Olympic Committee or IOC, the “supreme authority” of the Olympic Movement established in Lausanne, whose first duty is “to ensure the regular celebration of the Olympic Games” and which is responsible for selecting the host city and overseeing the process; the officially recognized National Olympic Committee of the country of the host city, to which the IOC delegates the organization of the event, in the case of Montréal, the Canadian Olympic Association (COA)—today the Canadian Olympic Committee—which endorsed Montréal's bid on September 7, 1968; and the international sports federations, which define the rules and standards for the sport that each one represents and decide the competitions to be held at each Olympic Games (Olympic Charter 1967). The National Olympic Committee may entrust its organizing mandate to a special committee, as the COA did for Montréal, by creating the Comité d’organisation des Jeux olympiques (Organizing Committee for the Olympic Games) or COJO on March 20, 1971.

46 Fig. 18. Meeting of the COJO Executive Committee, December 21, 1973.

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The State’s role In Québec, the Quiet Revolution added sport to its agenda. In 1962, the Ministère de la Jeunesse formed the Comité Unlike international or world exhibitions for which the d’études sur les loisirs, l’éducation physique et les sports Bureau international des expositions (BIE) chooses a host [Study committee on recreation, physical education and country, the Olympic Games are linked to a city, to which sports] to which it appointed René Bélisle, the City of the IOC entrusts “the honour of holding the Olympic Montréal’s “Mr. Recreation,” as chair (Laplante 1990, 120– Games.” However, it is rare for the State not to be involved 121). In connection with ongoing socio-economic changes, in their organization. It was different in Montréal, despite including widespread urbanization, reduced working the recent interest demonstrated by both the federal and hours and greater purchasing power, the committee noted Québec governments in amateur sport and their official that the public had new expectations in terms of recreation support for the candidacy, at least until shortly before the and recommended that the State take action in this area opening of the 1976 Games. (Jamet 1980, 50–51). The committee’s work led to the 1965 creation of a Division de l'éducation physique within the new Ministère de l’Éducation, an initiative in line with The 1968 Summer Olympics were opened by the President the Royal Commission of Inquiry on Education in the of Mexico, who had decided to compete (Barke 2016, 235) Province of Quebec, chaired by Bishop Alphonse-Marie and had submitted Mexico’s candidature dossier at the Parent. According to the Commission’s report, physical 60th session of the IOC (Organizing Committee for the education is a “discipline of synthesis and part of a Summer Games of the XIX Olympiad, vol. 2, 5–7). At person’s overall education” (Royal Commission of Inquiry the suggestion of the German Sports Federation, Munich on Education in the Province of Québec 1963–1966, vol. 2, applied to host the 1972 Summer Games. The City’s bid section 554, chapter XXII). As many authors have pointed was supported by the Bavarian Parliament and the federal out, the decade when Montréal, under the leadership of parliament, both of which committed to assuming one Mayor Jean Drapeau, twice tried (1965–66 and 1969–70) third of the costs (Organizing Committee for the Summer to win the bid to host the Games was a particularly active Games of the XX Olympiad, vol. 2, 5). In Rome, the 1960 one in terms of sport. Several major sporting events were Olympic Games were organized under the patronage of introduced, starting with Québec’s first gymnastics games the President of the Italian Republic and the Ministers for in 1964 and followed by the Jeux du Québec in 1971. The Public Works and Tourism. The chair of the Organizing third edition of these competitions featuring gymnastics Committee was Giuli Andreotti, Italy’s Minister of and athletics would take place at the Autostade, during Defence (Organizing Committee for the Summer Games Expo 67. of the XVII Olympiad, vol. 1, 19). Moreover, after decades of hesitation, the celebration of Although by the 1960s sport had become an important the 100th anniversary of Confederation precipitated the new political issue at both the federal and provincial organization of the first Canada Games, which would be levels, Montréal’s bid for the Olympics received little held in the Québec capital in 1967. This deadline forced support from the State. Physical education was a the province to form “a ‘Québec team’ for the first time, compulsory subject in public school curricula since 1937, bringing together the province’s best athletes under the and in 1943 Ottawa had adopted the National Physical fleur-de-lys flag” (Boileau 2013, 40). According to Michel Fitness Act in an effort to improve public health, although Bellefleur, sports began “to take off and for at least the its applications were limited. Twenty years later, with next 10 years were given priority on a social level” in the rise of the welfare state, the governments multiplied Québec (Bellefleur 1997, 130). initiatives aimed at the population and amateur sport in order to ensure the social well-being and equal rights of Nineteen-sixty-eight was a pivotal year. Following the all citizens. In 1961, the federal government passed the Bélisle report, a high commission for youth and sport, Fitness and Amateur Sport Act, which paved the way for based on the French model, was created within the Québec the creation of a specific public administration, whose two government (Bélisle 1997, Chapter 6). In December, the components would be Sport Canada, dedicated to high founding convention of the Confédération des sports performance sport, and Recreation Canada, to promote du Québec (CSQ) was held: 800 delegates unanimously physical activity for all. At the same time, financial and approved the “Manifeste du sport québécois” (Québec technical support programs for sports were launched Sport Manifesto), which demanded “a new sports order, (Harvey and Thibault 1996, 94-95, Morrow and Wamsley based on the social justice of the rights and responsibilities 2005, 201). of individuals” to ensure the improvement of Québec

48 Fig. 19. Roger Rousseau, COJO President and Commissioner General, announces appointment of COJO members, October 23, 1972.

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society (Foisy 2013). As well, the federal government would ultimately have about 40 members (COJO 1978, vol. conducted a survey on amateur sport to improve the 1, 46, 33–34), all men. country's performance in international competitions. It would be another year before a team of professionals Despite the Canadian and Québec governments’ dedicated to the Olympics would be set up within enthusiasm for amateur sport, the City of Montréal took Montréal’s Service des travaux publics, similar to the a largely go-it-alone approach to get the Games and build office created for the construction of the first metro lines. the facilities, at least until 1974 (Commission d’enquête According to some observers, this delay was owed to the sur le coût de la 21e Olympiade 1980, vol. 3, 8). time it took the federal government to develop the Olympic (1976) Act, authorizing the issue of commemorative The Olympics Organizing Committee postage stamps and coins, and the conduct of lotteries (COJO 1978, vol. 1, 47, 55; Commission d’enquête sur le Many observers pointed out the time it took to establish the coût de la 21e Olympiade 1980, 78–87), notwithstanding governing bodies for the organization of the 1976 Summer the gambling and betting provisions of the Criminal Code. Games after they were awarded to Montréal on May 12, On March 16, just one month after Prime Minister Pierre 1970 (Morin 1997, ch. 3, Commission d’enquête sur le coût E. Trudeau announced that the bill had been tabled, the de la 21e Olympiade 1980, vol. 2, 27). No major decision City's Executive Committee authorized the creation of the seems to have been made until spring 1971, neither by Division du Parc olympique within the Service des travaux the City nor the Canadian Olympic Association (COA). publics, without waiting for the text to be approved by the Meanwhile, on October 25, 1970, Mayor Drapeau was re- Senate and the House of Commons. This division would elected with an overwhelming majority for a third term be responsible for the construction of the Maisonneuve and the Parti civique won all the seats on City Council Park facilities while the public works department would amid the full blown October crisis, just a few days after oversee construction of the other major facilities. In the the Government of Canada passed the War Measures Act meantime, during 1971, Mayor Jean Drapeau chose the following the kidnapping of a diplomat and a minister by architect of the Olympic facilities and on April 6, 1972, the Front de libération du Québec (FLQ). the preliminary design of the Olympic City was publicly unveiled at a high-profile press conference. On March 20, 1971, the COA passed a resolution creating COJO, whose letters patent would be issued on September Choosing the architect 20, 1972. Immediate appointments to the organizing committee included the Association's newest presidents: It was no secret that Mayor Jean Drapeau had an affinity for Harold Wright, James Worrall and Howard Radford, the French and their culture, and considered the country a former athletes and figures in Canadian amateur sport, source of inspiration, recalls Yvon Lamarre, City councillor as well as Kenneth Farmer. Also on the committee were since 1966 and member of the Executive Committee as of Mayor Jean Drapeau and some of his followers: Gérald 1970. This affinity was apparent during Drapeau’s second Snyder, chair of the City’s Executive Committee and the term, when Montréal decided to build a metro (1961): the driving force behind the creation of the Montréal Expos, City established a collaboration with the French public Pierre Charbonneau, the coordinator of the 1976 bid, and transit authority, the Régie autonome des transports Jean Dupire (COJO 1978, vol. 1, 46, 31–34). An official parisiens (RATP), for the project, and decided to use its within the City’s Service des parcs since 1953, where he rubber-tired technology for the Montréal metro system. championed organized sport (Laplante 1990, 139, 157), the To design the main Olympic facilities, Montréal chose the latter had long been involved in the Olympics candidature French architect Roger Taillibert (born in 1926), who had dossier, having been part of the Montréal delegation to built Parc des Princes in the early 1970s. This 50,000-seat Amsterdam, as were Snyder and Charbonneau (COJO football stadium, erected on Boulevard Périphérique in 1978, vol. 1, 115). Another appointee was Paul Desrochers, Paris, was lauded by both the architectural and the sports Québec Premier Robert Bourassa’s closest advisor (COJO press. When and how Roger Taillibert was approached 1978, vol. 1, 34, 46). by the City is unclear, with some claiming it was after Montréal was awarded the Games and others claiming it A year later, on March 7, 1972, Roger Rousseau, a was before. Either way, this decision was not well received native of Trois-Pistoles, Québec, and Canada's former by Québec’s professional circles. ambassador to Africa, was appointed president of COJO and commissioner-general of the Games (Fig. 19). COJO According to the Rapport de la Commission d'enquête sur le

50 Fig. 20. Lord Killanin, IOC President, visiting Montréal, with Mayor Jean Drapeau and others, November 1972.

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coût des Jeux de la 21e Olympiade, filed by Judge Albert H. According to journalist Nick Auf der Maur, Jean Drapeau Malouf in 1980, the City’s representatives first met Roger would meet Roger Taillibert as early as 1968, immediately Taillibert on March 17, 1971, when, at the suggestion of after the Grenoble Winter Games in February, through Mayor Jean Drapeau, the City’s public works (Service des Maurice Herzog (1919–1978), France’s Secretary of State for travaux publics) director, Charles-A. Boileau, and engineer Youth Affairs and Sport from 1958 to 1966. The architect Claude Phaneuf, stopped in Paris to see Parc des Princes on would have shown him the plans of Parc des Princes (Nick the way home from an assignment in Munich (Commission Auf der Maur 1976, 47) at that time. The date of Roger d’enquête sur le coût de la 21e Olympiade 1980, vol. 2, 15– Taillibert's first visit to Montréal, as part of the Olympics 16, 36). project, is more clearly established.

Still according to Justice Malouf, on May 31, 1971, at Roger Taillibert in Montréal Claude Phaneuf’s suggestion, Drapeau met the architect for the first time through Colonel Marceau Crespin while In July 1967, Roger Taillibert had come to Montréal as in Paris for a meeting of the Bureau international des a member of the delegation accompanying General De Expositions (BIE) (Commission d’enquête sur le coût de Gaulle on an official visit to Québec for Montréal’s World la 21e Olympiade 1980, vol. 2, 15–16, 36). As Director of Fair. The Olympics candidature dossier brought him back Physical Education and Sport, Colonel Crespin was known to Montréal for the first time in August 1971 (Taillibert for having raised the level of French athletes following their 1977, 54, 57). The architect was invited by the City of failure at the Rome Olympic Games. In 1968, he had created Montréal to present his achievements, particularly the the Centre national d'entraînement de Font-Romeu, whose newly completed Parc des Princes in Paris. facilities were designed by Roger Taillibert. This first meeting between Drapeau and Taillibert is corroborated by According to Claude Phaneuf, his presentation to the the architect in his book Construire l'avenir: “My Montréal engineers of the City’s Service des travaux publics was adventure began in May 1971.” He also mentions the recent the deciding factor. However, giving preference to French visit of the delegation led by Charles-A. Boileau (Taillibert architect Roger Taillibert for the construction of the 1977, 54–56). Olympic Stadium was not without technical and financial consequences. The City’s professionals were divided on the model and material to use: should they rely on However, Guy Morin, the author of La cathédrale the Europeans’ experience, in particular the French, inachevée, believes the first encounter took place a year recognized for their expertise in reinforced concrete, earlier, in March 1970, citing an article penned by Guy or follow the U.S. trend of using steel, better suited for Pinard titled “Un stade conçu en secret à Paris” (Secret sport venues? Are baseball and football not much more Stadium Agreement in Paris), published in the La Presse popular in the United States than in Europe? daily on January 17, 1973. This date is a few weeks before the IOC session that would see Montréal chosen to host the When asked by their superiors, the City engineers invited 1976 Summer Games. Mayor Jean Drapeau reportedly sent to Taillibert's presentation concluded that a stadium such Maurice Gauvin to Paris to visit Parc des Princes. Gauvin as Parc des Princes could be built in Montréal since the would be skeptical of the estimated $9 million construction local workforce was sufficiently experienced and the cost, which he felt could reach $18 to $20 million (Morin equipment needed to lift heavy prefabricated concrete 1997, 67). An engineer, Maurice Gauvin had worked parts was more powerful than what was available in within the Service des parcs since 1955 and had served as France. As for the cost, they figured an additional 25% superintendent of its Division de l'entretien since 1963. He due to employee benefits. To build a similar stadium in had long been involved in the Olympics file: in 1964, he had Montréal would cost $23 million (Phaneuf, “L'engagement been dispatched to Mexico City to study the facilities for de M. Taillibert”). the 1968 Summer Olympics, at which point he dove head first into the Olympics project (Laplante 1990, 167, 178, Roger Taillibert wrapped up his stay in Montréal 183). He knew Roger Taillibert since the latter’s first visit with visits to the Jarry and Molson stadiums and to to Montréal to attend Expo 67 (Commission d’enquête sur Maisonneuve Park. During the discussions, he insisted le coût de la 21e Olympiade 1980, vol. 2, 36). According to on the need to define the program for the facilities as soon Claude Phaneuf, City engineers would visit Parc des Princes as possible (Phaneuf, “L'engagement de M. Taillibert,” in May 1970 on their way back from Amsterdam (Phaneuf, Taillibert 1977, 57). Claude Phaneuf had already started “Premier voyage”). this work informally when he returned from Paris. Since

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then, Roger Taillibert was involved without any official facing local architects at the beginning of the twentieth mandate (Commission d’enquête sur le coût de la 21e century from architects outside the province, mainly the Olympiade 1980, vol. 2, 39). U.S. (Vanlaethem 1996, 71–111). Also, when the City’s Executive Committee authorized Taillibert’s engagement, It was only on April 24, 1973, that the director of public it was as consulting architect to the City’s architect, André works (Service des travaux publics) would be authorized by Daoust. The AAPQ’s administrative director, Antoine the City’s Executive Committee “to retain the professional Ghattas, was worried about the difference between French services of Paris architect Roger Taillibert as consulting and local materials and techniques, raising fears of rising architect” (Resolution No. 63682, AVM CE73-1218). This costs and major problems once Taillibert’s project got decision would not lead to a contract but only to a draft underway. He also questioned the wisdom of hiring a agreement, signed by Roger Taillibert on November foreigner at a time when 8% of Québec’s engineers and 12, 1974, and never ratified by the City (Commission architects were unemployed (TCA, November 1972). The d’enquête sur le coût de la 21e olympiade 1980, vol. 2, 43– former avoided the fate of the latter during the Olympics 46). In the meantime, however, Roger Taillibert and his project as many structural, mechanical and electrical firm continued to develop the Maisonneuve Park Olympic engineers in the private sector would be hired thereafter. facilities. In Montréal, the engagement of a foreign architect did not go over well with the architecture and civil engineering communities.

In March 1972, Mayor Jean Drapeau's announcement that Roger Taillibert's had been chosen to design the Olympic facilities sparked a revolt among Québec architects. On the front line was Melvin Charney (1935–2012), professor at Université de Montréal’s École d'architecture, who lamented this decision as evidence of the “extremely rotten state of mind with regards to allowing people to participate in the expression of their own culture” (La Patrie, March 30, 1972). At the time, Charney was preparing Montréal, plus ou moins ? (Montréal, more or less?), an exhibition that would be held at the Montreal Museum of Fine Arts that summer with the aim of showing that the city could not be reduced to the official urbanism projects developed by experts in secret, to use Charney’s words: the east-west highway, the Maison de Radio-Canada, Place Desjardins and the Guy-Favreau complex, mainly. This collective presentation was in keeping with his most recent publication, Architecture et urbanisme au Québec (1971), where he attempted to redefine architecture in Québec, moving away from the institutional system to promote “authentic architecture born in real things and rooted in people's lives.”

Later in the year, the Association des architectes de la province de Québec (AAPQ, precursor of the Ordre des architectes du Québec, created in 1974) launched a lawsuit against Roger Taillibert since he had no temporary practice permit; he was therefore practicing illegally in Québec. Since the end of the 1920s, any foreign architect who built in Québec had to not only be accredited by the province’s professional organization but also had to partner with a member of the AAPQ. This provision had been introduced due to stiff competition

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7. The Architect of the Montréal Olympic Games –

In his address inaugurating Roger Taillibert as a member of the architecture section of the Académie des beaux-arts de l’Institut de France in 1983, the architect Guillaume Gillet remarked that obtaining biographical details from the recipient had proven difficult. Looking back, things have not changed much in the meantime, even if Taillibert, now in his 90s, still has a sharp memory. One thing about which there is no doubt is that in 1971, when Taillibert was approached by the City of Montréal to design the facilities for the 1976 Summer Olympic Games, he had over 10 years’ experience behind him, marked by numerous achievements, most of them sports venues, a number of them large-scale. Those years had been preceded by a period of specialized training that was almost as long. Taillibert forged his career on three fronts, gaining recognition for expertise in new building technologies, obtaining valuable distinctions, and cultivating friendships and special relationships. The Olympics project, the first commission from outside France, began the broadening of the scope of his professional activity which, a decade later (despite the mishaps in Montréal), had become truly global. Summing up that professional activity is no simple task, given the number of his achievements, many of them on a very large scale.

54 Fig. 21. Roger Taillibert at his agency in Paris, at the time of the Parc des Princes study, 1970.

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An architect’s training When peace returned, encouraged by the architect and decorator Léon Caillet (1881–1963), Taillibert went to Paris to prepare for the entrance examination for architecture The early years of Roger Taillibert’s training were marked at the École nationale supérieure des beaux-arts, which by his origins in a family of artisans, and by the war and he passed in 1949 (Gillet 1983; Taillibert International.fr). the Resistance. In 1948, Taillibert took steps to enrol in At the time, he received additional support from Roger the venerable École nationale supérieure des beaux-arts Pierre Honoré Séassal (1885–1967), a 1913 Grand Prix in Paris. At the time, however, this institution’s influence de Rome recipient who took him on as an apprentice. In was waning, while elsewhere in Europe and in North Séassal’s firm Taillibert learned “professional integrity America the teaching of architecture was gradually being and rigour with businesses” (Ungar 2010, 19). Séassal modernized following the model of the Bauhaus school, built numerous hotels and casinos for the businessman which had emphasized individual creativity and technique François André (1880–1962), in particular the Palm rather than looking to the past. After graduating in 1955, Beach (1928–1929, rebuilt in 1947) in Cannes, in whose Taillibert looked beyond the bounds of this traditional garden Taillibert would complete one of his first projects education, taking an interest in major figures of the in 1965, under the owner’s successor and nephew, Lucien modern movement and travelling. Barrière (1923–1990).

Roger Taillibert’s first contacts with architecture date back At the École des beaux-arts, the studio that the ambitious to his childhood. He was born in 1926 in Châtres-sur- Taillibert chose to join was one of the most eminent, on Cher, near Vierzon. His father Gaston Taillibert headed a account of the professional prestige of its patron, Charles cabinet-making business specializing in the restoration of Lemaresquier (1870–1972), and its affiliation with the antique furniture, particularly items from the châteaux of biggest names in French architecture. In the liberal the Loire valley. Many craftsmen were associated with the tradition of beaux-arts education, students’ choice of firm, as were teachers from the celebrated École Boulle à mentor (known as a chef d’atelier), inside or outside the Paris, which specialized in fine crafts and applied arts. The institution, contributed to the establishment of “lineages.” industrious atmosphere rubbed off on the young Taillibert, In this case, the line could be traced back to Henri who spent long hours making models from offcuts. He Labrouste (1830–1856), who gave iron its architectural also visited his father’s work sites—Chambord, Saint- legitimacy with the construction of the Bibliothèque Aignan-sur-Cher, Chaumont, etc. (Ungar 2010, 12)—and Sainte-Geneviève (1843–1850) in Paris; it then passed monuments such as the Eiffel Tower in Paris, which made through Labrouste’s collaborator Jules André (1819– a deep impression on the young child (Orlandini 2006, 21; 1890) and, most notably, Victor Laloux (1850–1937), the Taillibert 2000, 137). architect of Gare d’Orsay (1900) in Paris, a major example of the beaux-arts style, both classical and eclectic. In In his teenage years, he had begun studying at Romorantin 1937, Laloux was succeeded by Charles Lemaresquier, college (Taillibert International.fr) when World War whose work remained monumental and richly decorated. II broke out. The demarcation line between German- Although Lemaresquier’s son Noël (1903–1982) took over occupied France and the free zone set by the June 1940 the studio while Taillibert was attending in 1953, the latter armistice ran through the family property, making it an has stronger memories of the father than the son (Gillet ideal clandestine crossing point (Gillet 1983). Like many 1983; Ungar 2010, 19). From the older man’s teaching young men, Taillibert turned his hand to smuggling. But he understood the importance of mass in architecture, after being informed on, he was forced to flee, joining the while—strongly influenced by Le Corbusier’s ideas— ranks of the Resistance as a lookout in the “Buckmaster” allowing “volume in all its unaltered sparseness” to group (Agencetaillibert.com). However, he did not triumph (Gillet 1983). Taillibert also acknowledges hold any official position in the Resistance, and was not that Lemaresquier trained him thoroughly in program counted among the Compagnons de la Libération nor as analysis with the aim of separating “what is essential from a member of the Comité français de Libération nationale, what is not” (Ungar 2010, 19; Orlandini 2006, vol. 2, 21). unlike several people who would play a key role in his career. These included none other than General De Gaulle In 1955, Roger Taillibert earned his degree from the (1890–1970), his sports consultant Maurice Herzog (who, French government (DPLG) with a non‑conformist, according to Nick Auf der Maur as we saw earlier, put premonitory design: a swimming pool at Deauville, a Taillibert in contact with Jean Drapeau as early as 1968), project that he apparently chose after meeting the director and other leading figures of the 1960s. of the casino in that city, which was, like that at Cannes,

56 Fig. 22. Inauguration of Roger Le Gall swimming pool, Paris, November 9, 1967.

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owned by François André. The project was adjudged the industrialization of the building trade and heavy “très bien” and earned him a bursary that enabled him prefabrication, and at securing a place among major to travel abroad (as did a second government grant, nations, particularly with respect to the Olympic Games. obtained in 1957). This success led him to Sweden and Taillibert’s expertise in sports architecture was soon Finland, where he spent several months as a trainee with recognized. Alvar Aalto (1898–1976), one of the leading figures of the modern movement. At the time, Aalto was building the The 1950s and 1960s were a fertile period for Otaniemi campus (1949–1964) of Helsinki Technological experimentation in both architecture and urban University, a complex that testifies to his humanist vision planning: a new confidence in technology stimulated of architecture and the importance he placed on nature research conducted by the architects, engineers and as a source of inspiration. In the strong prosperity of the artists seeking to rethink buildings and cities (Ragon postwar period in Finland, many new public facilities 1978). These explorations made it possible, among other were being built, including sporting venues. Taillibert things, to reduce the building mass and the weight of took the opportunity to visit the site of the 1952 summer materials by making use of the possibilities afforded by Olympics in Helsinki. metal and fabrics to cover vast spaces. A mark of the interest in “space structures” in metal mesh was the Taillibert has said that his work with Alvar Aalto was invitation of Georges-Robert Le Ricolais (1884–1977), decisive. Like many of his modernist colleagues, Aalto a Frenchman who had settled in the United States, and had a broad vision of his profession, designing all the Richard Buckminster Fuller (1895–1983), whose large elements of the built environment, “from the coffee geodesic dome for the United States Pavilion at Expo 67 cup to the urban plan.” Taillibert’s experience with was under construction in Montréal, to the 1965 World Aalto led him to place as much importance on details in Congress of the International Union of Architects (IUA), architecture as on the whole, to see the big picture, in the held in Paris. context of the city as a whole, yet without establishing a volumetric hierarchy, and while favouring rhythms In 1965, Roger Taillibert completed his first retractable that emerged from a focus on function. It also convinced roof, covering the open-air theatre that Lucien Barrière him of the importance of sustained hard work in which had commissioned for Palm Beach at Cannes. On this a disciplined hand is placed at the service of the mind occasion, he had contacted the German tent manufacturer, (Ungar 2010, 16). His many travels brought him into Peter Stromeyer, who introduced him to the architect Frei contact with other greats of modern architecture: Otto (1925–2015) (Taillibert interview, November 2016), Le Corbusier, Frank Lloyd Wright and Walter Gropius with whom Stromeyer was collaborating (Nerdinger (Gillet 1983; Ungar 2010, 18). 2005, 175). In this way Taillibert came into contact with Stuttgart University, into which the Institute for Light On his return to France, he made two unsuccessful Structures (Institut für leichte Flächentragwerke) founded attempts to secure the Grand Prix de Rome, the ultimate by Frei Otto in Berlin in 1958 had been incorporated. For stage in beaux-arts training, and the key that opened the the previous decade and since completion of his doctoral door to public commissions in France, at least up until thesis on suspended roofs and tensile structures, the World War II. The project he developed for his second projects developed by Otto, both theoretical and related attempt in 1959 won him an award from the Institut de to commissions, had focused mainly on light, even France “for his research” (Orlandini 2005, 21). mobile, coverings for spaces of considerable size. Otto’s first project with Stromeyer, the small tent-shaped music Early projects pavilion (1955) in Kassel (Nerdinger 2005, 179, 180), foreshadowed the German Pavilion at Expo 67, which In 1959, Roger Taillibert founded his own architectural was to deploy a polyester covering over a lattice of cables firm in Paris. The first significant commissions came suspended from seven metal masts (Nerdinger 2005, 179, from the Barrière group, who offered him an opportunity 227–236). to innovate by proposing unusual coverings for the open- air theatre of the Cannes casino and the swimming The three men worked together on the roof of the Palm pool of the casino at Deauville. The young architect Beach theatre, a project that also involved Stéphane Du also benefited from proactive government policies Château (1908–1999) for the construction of the stayed aimed at modernizing the country by increasing the mast from which the fabric was suspended. Du Château numbers of community facilities, while prioritizing was an urbanist and architect of Polish origin, specializing

58 Fig. 23. Deauville swimming pool, 1966.

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in the design and manufacture of tubular structures housing the pools, close to 4,000 m² in area, is bathed in (Motro 1997, 153–154) with the Tubetal company that he natural light entering through entirely glazed facades and had founded in the 1950s (Abram 1999, 179). The mobile through Plexiglas rooflights installed atop the shells. roof at Cannes was a first. Previous designs that Frei Otto had worked on did not get beyond the project stage Taillibert reinterpreted this solution in 1969 in the design (Nerdinger 2005, 175, 219, 223). The pyramid-shaped of an ambitious experimental complex of over 75,000 m² membrane of PVC-covered polyester, which deployed dedicated to sports and study, the commission being an in 16 minutes over the 800 m² area of the theatre, was initiative of Joseph Comiti, Secretary of State for Youth attached by pulley blocks to 16 cables connected to and Sports, for the town of Chamonix, whose mayor was electric winches grouped around the base of the mast none other than Maurice Herzog. Taillibert used nine (Taillibert interview, November 2016). thin shells of prestressed concrete to cover the sports centre, which included a number of pools, one of them Roger Taillibert improved on this covering system in an Olympic pool, and stands for 300 spectators, together 1966 when he was asked by the Minister of Youth and with a multisport room that could accommodate 500 Sports to design an “experimental all-weather swimming seated spectators, and a variety of exercise rooms. The pool” to be built on Boulevard Carnot, Paris: he invented same principle was used for the cultural centre, which a “four season” pool that could be used covered or under featured 19 shells. The tower of the Cité scolaire forms a an open sky (Agencetaillibert.com; Cité de l’architecture counterpoint to this complex nestled in the low-lying area et du patrimoine 2016–2017). In collaboration with the of the Bois du Bouchet site, establishing a dialogue with engineer Corentin Queffélec (1921–1985), he developed the mountains of the Mont-Blanc massif that surround it an improved system for raising the fabric by attaching (Agencetaillibert.com; Orlandini 2006, 66–79). its extremities to motorized pulley blocks running on suspension cables, like cable cars. Once again, Du Château Previously, in the Pyrénées-Orientales, Taillibert had contributed to the design of the metal mast, and Stromeyer built the Font-Romeu pre-Olympic sports complex and Otto to the manufacture of the covering (Fig. 22). At (1964–1968) using a similar program and overall concept. the end of the decade, Roger Taillibert attracted notice in This high-altitude facility, backed by General de Gaulle national competitions organized by the State Secretariat and his Director of Physical Education and Sport, for Youth and Sport on the theme of swimming pools, Colonel Marceau Crespin, was intended to improve the proposing two solutions, one of which was modular, and performance of French athletes, as we saw earlier, in our the other based on the pool that had been built in Paris. A account of the first meeting between Jean Drapeau and number of completed projects followed: the Lyon/Saint- Roger Taillibert. After the Tokyo Games, the very short Fons/Vénissieux nautical centre (1970), Les Thiolettes window of time to make ready this 75,000 m² training pool (1971) in Reims and the Georges-Hermant pool facility so that performances could be improved for (1972) in Paris. Mexico 1968 meant that intensive use had to be made of prefabrication: elements of the structural framework In 1966, Roger Taillibert completed his first project and facade were manufactured in Toulouse and trucked in prestressed concrete vaults when, after Cannes, to the site. The speed of execution also necessitated Lucien Barrière again turned to him, commissioning a a metal-truss roof for the sports centre, a structure swimming pool for the Deauville casino, a subject he had designed in collaboration with the engineer Du Château dealt with 10 years previously while earning his diploma (Agencetaillibert.com; Orlandini 2006, 42–61). (from that time on, he moved away from the prevailing regionalism, avoiding the Normandy style). It appears On the strength of these achievements, Roger Taillibert that the motivation for this approach was his admiration was given a prestigious commission by the City of Paris: for the Mexican architect Felix Candela (1910–1997) the reconstruction of the Parc des Princes (1967–1972). (Taillibert International.fr; Orlandini 2005, 21), a The velodrome stadium built in 1932 was condemned pioneer of the architecture of thin reinforced concrete because the route of the Boulevard Périphérique would shells of complex geometry, angular or curved. Another run through part of its land, although the provisions factor was the location of the building, between the beach of the Loi Borotra, a law aimed at protecting sporting and the hotel fronts, which necessitated a low profile. facilities and playing fields, meant that the venue could He covered the pools with a roof resembling waves, the not disappear. In addition, since activities could not be undulation formed by a series of juxtaposed shells resting suspended, work on the new stadium for rugby and soccer on supports 45 metres apart (Fig. 23). The vast free space matches was planned in phases, with prefabrication

60 Fig. 24. Parc des Princes worksite, Paris, circa 1971.

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being favoured. Taillibert’s design made full use of the Claude Parent describes his contribution in these terms properties of concrete to create an enclosure that was [TRANSLATION]: “The industrialized C.E.S. [secondary- efficient from the point of view of circulation and would level college] (the first example of which was built in provide all spectators with an excellent view (Orlandini Toulouse), gave pride of place to structure through the 2008, 25). The bowl of the new stadium was elliptical use of a framework of beams running in eight directions. (252 x 141 metres) and made up of 52 self-supporting This octagonal system gives the interior spaces an original cantilevered consoles of 13 different sizes, supporting character, distinct from other models used by the Ministry two grandstands with a total of 50,000 seats (Fig. 24) of National Education” (Parent 1977, 37). and a light metal roof covering between the beams (Agencetaillibert.com). The use of precast prestressed The connection between Roger Taillibert and Claude concrete segments was proposed by the engineer Parent (1923–2016) is surprising: Parent saw himself as an Pierre Richard (1927–2002), scientific director of the architect of “la fonction oblique” and was a critical thinker firm of Bouygues which was in charge of construction close to the artistic avant-garde of the 1950s, a precursor of (Gaspérini-Coiffet 1997, 418). At the time, this technique the deconstructivists of the 1980s and the mentor of a major was common in bridge construction in Europe, but had contemporary architect, Frenchman Jean Nouvel. Yet links not been used in architecture. In this case, the structural can be traced: they shared a teacher in Noël Lemaresquier, elements were cast on-site in variable-geometry moulds who had previously taught at Toulouse, where Parent was and assembled as the job progressed, as in Montréal. his student. More decisive was their involvement in the The world’s first stadium in prestressed concrete, Parc French nuclear program. des Princes, inaugurated in 1972, served as a prototype (Gaspérini-Coiffet 1997, 418) for the Montréal Olympic Out of concern for its sovereignty and energy Stadium, with some modifications. independence, France in the 1970s developed an ambitious nuclear program. Under the leadership of the engineer A versatile international agency Michel Hug (born 1930), the Equipment Directorate of Électricité de France (EDF), responsible for electricity In Roger Taillibert’s view, technique must be at the production infrastructure, revolutionized the approach to service of architecture. In 1974, in order to put this the design of nuclear power stations. It applied the notion vision into practice as fully as possible and to respond to of standardization to their construction and brought in commissions of increasing scale, Taillibert complemented architects to introduce esthetic concerns, not only regarding his architectural firm by setting up at the same address finishing, but also their volumetric design and their fit with a technical bureau bringing together all building trades the landscape (Orlandini 2007, 88–90). Having become a (Technique avancée et de l’aménagement -T.A.A.A. — member of the Collège des architectes du nucléaire, Roger Agencetaillibert.com), under the direction of Louis Taillibert worked on the design of two power stations, at Billotey, an École Polytechnique graduate. Despite the Penly (1980–1990) and Clivaux (1981–1992). setbacks in Montréal, Taillibert’s order book was filling up, particularly in the fields of school and industrial From the 1980s onward, Taillibert’s firm gradually architecture, before taking a definitively international changed tack: it began exploiting the lightness of structural turn. The 1970s and 1980s saw the awarding of early frameworks in glued laminated wood or steel, and metal distinctions, crowned by Taillibert’s admission to the cladding and curtain walls, though without forsaking Institut de France in 1983. “grand gestures.” Its often large-scale projects express an assertive building bulk, in accordance with the purpose, as In France in the 1970s, demographic pressure meant that in the Coca-Cola France plant (1984) at Grigny (Orlandini the Ministry of National Education was facing pressing 2007, 110–119), commissioned by Colonel Crespin, who had demands for new premises. It approached businesses, become the company’s managing director. Private industry asking them to form teams with architects that would is a field in which Taillibert worked on many occasions. enable it to deliver (in theory) a school per day. In One of his first projects was the French plant for DAF this context, Taillibert was involved in research into (1967). Once again, in this sector, a special relationship prefabricated reinforced concrete structures, developing with the client was very fruitful. a number of construction systems based on combinations of meshes (Orlandini 2005, 23; Agencetaillibert.com). Taillibert has for many years been the architect of the The number of schools he built is impressive—over 40 French pharmacist Pierre Fabre (1926–2013) who oversaw in France alone (agencetaillibert.com). The architect the transformation of the drug laboratory he created in

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Castres in 1962 into a large international group operating shopping centre and a skyscraper hotel. The Sports Hall, in the fields of health and beauty care. Taillibert built at with an area of 115,000 m², includes numerous playing least six complexes for this business, beginning with a fields beneath low half-domes, supported by a gigantic pharmaceutics and cosmetics plant (1968) in Soual. The tubular structure, a vast space of almost three quarters most recent is the head office of the group’s cosmetics of a kilometre, with no internal support, and climate- division at Lavaur, close to Toulouse, a building of controlled (Orlandini 2006, 194). 20,000 m² featuring glass and flowing curves set in the middle of a forest. Museums showcase Taillibert’s talent

In Orlandini’s view [TRANSLATION] “the major sports Roger Taillibert’s merits quickly gained official facilities built by Roger Taillibert, together with their bold recognition. In 1966, he benefited from the desire of technical solutions” were what established his reputation André Malraux, De Gaulle’s Minister of Cultural Affairs, on the international stage (2006, 24). In the wake of the to end the dominance of the beaux-arts system and Montréal Olympics, the abortive commission of the academicism when he was appointed Architecte en chef des European Parliament building in Luxembourg, for which bâtiments civils et des palais nationaux, despite not being he designed a monumental tower with dynamic forms close a recipient of the Grand Prix de Rome. In this capacity to those of the Montréal Stadium, was followed by one for he was responsible for the maintenance and refitting of the “D’Coque” Centre national sportif et culturel (1974– the Grand Palais in Paris (Taillibert interview, 2016). 2002), a project that resembles the Montréal Velodrome. Moreover, in the 1970s, he received several prizes from his The program’s two components, the swimming centre peers in the Académie d'architecture and in 1983 became and the multisport complex with a sporting and cultural a member of the Académie des beaux-arts de l’Institut de vocation, are housed beneath two fanned sets of shells France. Among French architects, Taillibert stands as a covering an area of close to 20,000 m² and 10,000 m² pioneer on account of his activity abroad, as the art and respectively, the first featuring thin panels of prestressed architecture historian Gérard Monnier acknowledges in concrete, the second a mesh structural framework of L’Architecture moderne en France (2000, 272). And yet, in glued laminated wood. This twofold solution illustrates spite of their innovative nature and their abundance, his the subsequent shift to lighter techniques. achievements earned few mentions in this first historical study of recent French architecture (Monnier 2000, And yet the technical and esthetic aspects introduced 114, 272). They are even completely absent from major at Deauville were still present in the Officers’ Club accounts of modern architecture (Frampton 2006; Curtis project (1987–1997) in Abu Dhabi, where the various 2004; Cohen 2012; Sharp 2004). Furthermore, none of technical and cultural facilities spread over an area of his achievements is classed as a historic monument or almost 25,000 m² were sheltered under a triple shell of recorded in the Inventaire général du patrimoine culturel prestressed concrete (Orlandini 2005, 152–170). This was in France. not Taillibert’s first nor his last project in the Arab world, a market that he generally broke into by taking part in These omissions are beginning to be rectified. In international competitions (Taillibert interview, 2016). September 2016, during the Journées du patrimoine en France, the City of Deauville, where Taillibert had His firm’s presence in this part of the world began with completed one of his first projects, the swimming pool construction of the Royal Jordanian Geographic Center for the Barrière group casino, honoured the architect (1975) in Amman (Orlandini 2007, 84), and continues by unveiling a commemorative plaque and holding an today with the construction of the immense Aspire Zone exhibition entitled La piscine de Deauville a 50 ans. The educational and sports complex in Doha, Qatar, a contract Cité de l’architecture et du patrimoine in Paris presented obtained further to an international competition in 2002. an exhibition of sports facility projects in its modern Work having begun for the 2006 Asian Games, the facility and contemporary architecture gallery, running from was put forward during the country’s application for the November 23, 2016 to May 7, 2017, in which the Montréal 2022 FIFA World Cup. Over a site of almost 160 hectares Olympic Stadium and Velodrome were prominently (the area of Montréal’s Mile End neighbourhood), on featured (Fig. 25). This exhibit marked the entry into the which a swimming pool and a 40,000‑seat soccer stadium collection of an exceptional fonds of models, drawings, were already present, the immense Aspire Zone (also photographs and films donated by Taillibert’s firm. It was known as Doha Sports City) includes a sports academy complemented by the holding of a study day at the Institut that can accommodate 350 interns, a vast sports hall, a national d’histoire de l’art (INAH), on March 23, 2017,

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organized in collaboration with the Cité de l’architecture et du patrimoine and RIO, in the wake of a symposium presented by Docomomo Québec in Montréal, during the 84th congress of Acfas in 2016. While the Montréal gathering sought to determine the historical significance of the Montréal Olympic Stadium, the Paris symposium, whose theme was “Structures architecturales. Autour de Roger Taillibert (1923),” was aimed at contextualizing the architect’s work on the international stage, focusing particularly on the design process. Recently, a number of cultural and scientific events have been devoted to the architect Roger Taillibert, including the Château Dufresne exhibition Le Parc olympique, une architecture à célébrer (June 8, 2016 − March 26, 2017), mounted to mark the 40th anniversary of the Montréal Olympic Games.

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Fig. 25. Exhibition, Galerie d’architecture moderne et contemporaine, Cité de l'architecture et du patrimoine, Paris, November 23, 2016 to May 7, 2017. 65 Docomomo Québec | Montréal Olympic Park Heritage Study

8. The Facilities from Start to Finish –

When on March 21, 1972, the City of Montréal announced the name of the architect of the future Olympic installations, a number of important decisions had already been made. The winning candidate’s bid specified that, with a view to the Summer Games of the XXI Olympiad, Montréal would continue its sports facility development program, complementing existing facilities by building the Olympic Stadium, the main swimming pools and the Velodrome within the Maisonneuve Sports Centre, and that it would construct the Village and press centre nearby (City of Montréal 1969, 36). The southern part of Maisonneuve Park, used for major sporting events since the 1930s, was still largely overgrown, the construction of the Maisonneuve Sports Centre according to the plan by Clarke & Rapuano having only just begun, with only two facilities built—the gymnasium and the arena (Fig. 4). Roger Taillibert did not restrict himself to reconfiguring it by designing the Olympic City to the park’s scale: he drew up an Olympic complex unified by its shapes, its materials and its landscaping. His proposal, which was presented publicly on April 6, 1972, was a natural development from his earlier achievements, which exploited the architectural potential of new technologies. It would be fine-tuned with the collaboration of Montréal-based engineers, whose input was, however, slow in coming, their involvement starting only in the spring of 1973. The design team was then complete and work on the site began with excavation. A little over three years remained to carry out the work—a period that would have been sufficient to complete the project were it not for the numerous problems encountered.

66 Fig. 26. Sketch of part of the Olympic Park, undated, Roger Taillibert, architect, Paris.

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The facilities program hundred pages titled “Montréal 1976. Parc Maisonneuve, secteur Viau Boyce Pie-IX Sherbrooke, programme The new facilities specified in the candidature dossier d'ensemble” was found in the Archives of the City of for the 1976 Games included: an Olympic Stadium with Montréal. It sets out the functional and technical features a capacity of at least 80,000 spectators for track and of buildings to be planned in the area referred to in the field, soccer, hockey and equestrian events, as well as the title and ends with a schedule of studies and work. It also opening and closing ceremonies, the main swimming contains a number of schematic diagrams, including a set pools and the Velodrome, each with a capacity of 10,000 dated July 1973, which suggests that the programming and spectators. There was no mention of the fact that once the design of the preliminary project for the Olympic complex Games were over, the stadium that had been erected to were carried out in concert. celebrate amateur sport would be dedicated to professional sports, that it would become the home of the Montréal We were anxious to find such a document in order to Expos baseball team and that it would also host American verify what use was planned for the Olympic Stadium football matches. We know little about the facilities’ mast. In this document, only one page is devoted to the detailed programming phase, except for the facts reported roof covering, about which it states [TRANSLATION]: by Claude Phaneuf on his website, and details given by “The versatility of the complex and the process of limited Roger Taillibert in Construire l'avenir (1977, 55–58). financial commitment have led to the use of a stretched membrane that can be unfolded to cover the open area of In April 1971, the following were present at a dinner hosted the stadium.” Regarding the mast, we find the following by Jean Drapeau at the Hélène-de-Champlain restaurant [TRANSLATION]: “To make use of the space inside the in Île-Sainte-Hélène park: Gérard Niding, Executive tubular section of its envelope, the study has put forward Committee chair, Pierre Charbonneau, Olympism the creation of a set of superimposed rooms to be used consultant, Charles-A. Boileau, director of the Service des for fitness activities, individual sports or small team ball travaux publics, and his collaborator Claude Phaneuf. The games,” with no further details. It should be noted that occasion was a meeting at which the mayor entrusted the Mayor Drapeau had long dreamed of a tower for his city. public works department with the mandate of establishing the functional program for the facilities. Heavily involved In the 1950s, Jean Drapeau had wanted to give Montréal a in this mission, in addition to his regular duties, would monumental tower, like Paris with its Eiffel Tower. He first be the young engineer Claude Phaneuf (Phaneuf, “Un attempted to impose a tower as part of Expo 67 to mark the diner important”). Phaneuf had earned his spurs and the city’s 325th anniversary. Although the project was initially mayor’s trust by overseeing the urgent completion of the rejected by the Canadian Corporation for the 1967 World Jarry Park baseball stadium in time to host the Montréal Exhibition and its chief planner Édouard Fiset (1910– Expos’ first season in 1969. During his visit to Montréal 1994), who favoured a layout for the site with no strong in August 1972, the architect Roger Taillibert would visual features, land was eventually set aside for it at the emphasize the importance of this programming stage. eastern end of Île Sainte-Hélène. Following the madcap scheme of Drapeau’s friend, cartoonist Robert Lapalme Claude Phaneuf embarked on the work without delay. (1908–1997), to move the Eiffel Tower to Montréal, no He brought to it the knowledge of baseball stadiums held fewer than seven projects were produced. Three were by various Montréal baseball enthusiasts, notably the designed by Montréal architect Jean Gélinas (1921–2007), Beaudry brothers, members of Jean Drapeau’s circle and who advised the French architect Jean-Robert Delb (born co-owners of the Expos. Phaneuf had become acquainted 1925), creator of the “Montréal-Paris Tower” project with the brothers during the construction of the Jarry (Fig. 27). This prestressed concrete edifice of about a stadium (Phaneuf, “Les frères Beaudry”). Observations hundred storeys would have stood 325 metres tall (twice made during missions to visit a number of stadiums in the height of the Stadium mast). the United States and Europe proved extremely valuable. Phaneuf continued working on this needs inventory in By the end of October 1964, the model, preliminary plans close collaboration with Roger Taillibert throughout and feasibility study for the Montréal-Paris Tower were the fall of 1972, travelling to Paris several times. At the ready, and the official unveiling was held on December 12. end of the year, Jean Drapeau received the full program, To cover the estimated construction costs of $20 million, accompanied by a letter from the architect (Commission Drapeau envisaged a self-financing scheme fed by income d’enquête sur le coût de la 21e Olympiade 1980, vol. 2, 39). from rent and from operating the observatory at the summit After extensive research, an undated document of some of the tower—a formula not unrelated to one that was to be

68 Fig. 27. Unveiling of the model of the Montréal-Paris tower, December 12, 1964.

69 Fig. 28. Sketch of the urban part of the Olympic Park, 1971, Roger Taillibert, architect.

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thought up for the financing of the Olympic installations. sports close to Boulevard Pie-IX, the other to amateur Reception of bids, the lowest of which exceeded the sports close to existing facilities, i.e., the Maisonneuve planned budget by $8 million, put paid to the project: on Sports Centre and the Maurice-Richard Arena. With the July 8, 1965, Drapeau announced the abandonment of the addition of pools and the Velodrome, these would make project, which had been coldly received by the public for up a multipurpose centre. An underground parking lot reasons including the fact that the architect was French. was planned between the two. This provision arose out But this setback did nothing to dampen the mayor’s of a rigorous study of automobile traffic (Phaneuf, “La ardour, who would use the opportunity of the Olympics to conception”), which had been a major preoccupation of the erect “his” tower in Maisonneuve Park. municipal administration since the 1950s.

The urban concept of the Olympic Park Roger Taillibert’s solution was different: the new facilities were not separate pavilions, but formed a “compact” The location of the main Olympic facilities in Maisonneuve whole in order to facilitate pedestrian traffic between the Park was in line with Mayor Jean Drapeau’s urban various installations—a response to the Canadian climate development vision. However, the project put forward by (Taillibert 1997, 61). In addition, the project presented Roger Taillibert stood out from those developed for the on April 6, 1972 took into consideration all 240 hectares Maisonneuve Sports Centre by his predecessors. Access of Maisonneuve Park and included a master plan for the to the site by road and by public transit had become a Olympic Village (Orlandini 2010, 28). major issue. In February 1971, with the Olympics in view, the Montréal Urban Community Council authorized the Taillibert divided this huge site into two distinct entities: extension of the metro network to serve the Olympic Park, the “vegetable” area, which includes the Jardin botanique among other areas. In addition, several thousand parking and the municipal golf course, and the “mineral” area spots would be added to the program for the facilities. As made up of all the sports facilities, integrated in terms in many large-scale urban projects of the day, circulation of both the visual and circulatory aspects (Fig. 28). He on the site was hierarchicized and segregated, based on acknowledged that this would involve [TRANSLATION] the suspended slab style that was popular in French urban “radically changing the configuration of the site that had design at the time. been chosen, creating levels, promenades and an overpass to facilitate pedestrian connections, so that the public Drapeau intended to rebalance the city’s urban development could easily walk from one park to the other, winter or (then concentrated in the west around Central Station summer” (Taillibert 1997, 62–63). (1938–1943) and Place Ville Marie (1957–1966)) for the benefit of the French-speaking community by favouring To the south of Rue Sherbrooke, the “mineral park” is the east. In 1955, during his first term, the creation of Place dominated by the Olympic Stadium and its mast, taking des Arts a stone’s throw from Rue Saint-Laurent had been a in the Maisonneuve Sports Centre and the Maurice- first step in this direction. After failing to push through the Richard Arena. To the west, on a lateral slope of about Cité-des-Ondes (1957) project in place of the Habitations 20 metres of land, are a series of terraces connecting to Jeanne-Mance social housing complex (1957–1962), in a huge pedestrian esplanade overlooking Avenue Pierre- 1963 the Drapeau administration succeeded in persuading De Coubertin, on which the Stadium enclosure sit. This Radio‑Canada to build its headquarters at the foot of the avenue establishes the project’s other main reference level, Jacques-Cartier Bridge. In addition, in 1967 it was delighted the parvis extending from the foot of the mast and running by the initiative of the department store Dupuis Frères to alongside the Velodrome. To the north, this public space build a complex to rival Place Ville Marie on Rue Sainte- provides access to the “vegetable park” through a passage Catherine, east of Rue Saint-Hubert: this became Place running under Rue Sherbrooke, which at this point is Dupuis (1971–1974) (Vanlaethem et al. 2007, 70–71). treated as a viaduct. To the south, it connects to Avenue Pierre-De Coubertin, running under the walkway that Since April 1971, the Service des travaux publics, or rather extends the esplanade at this height as far as the Maurice- its young engineer Claude Phaneuf, had been exploring the Richard Arena, with several ramps providing contact with configuration of facilities in Maisonneuve Park (Phaneuf, the street. Beneath this artificial ground lies the double “Un dîner important”). In the wake of Clarke & Rapuano’s multistorey underground parking lot, accessible from Maisonneuve Sports Centre project and the Olympiade 1976 all the adjacent streets. The curved lines of the terraces, project by Webb, Zerafa, Menkès, the engineer envisaged esplanade, walkways and ramps echo the elliptical shapes two hubs, one dedicated to major events and professional of the Stadium and the flared silhouette of the mast. Along

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Avenue Pierre-De Coubertin, the esplanade and walkways range of materials, second, a new knowledge of space and, establish a reference line on a human scale. On pilings last, that formidable device, the computer, and using these facing the street, the walkways preserve the spatial and elements we have been able to conceive of new data for visual continuity between the public area and the mineral architecture” (Ungard 2010, 14). park, which is punctuated by grassed areas and fountains. The architectural concept of the Olympic Park The master plan of the complex In Montréal, prestressed concrete and a new textile, Kevlar, Roger Taillibert has on several occasions spoken about his were used in the construction of the Olympic complex. The architectural preferences and his design method. He likes Stadium and swimming centre lie within a single gigantic curved “natural” shapes, those of animals and the human building, adjacent to the Velodrome. Unlike the circular body; he sees architecture as “an extension of the body.” form of the Olympic stadiums that had been built since He favours what he calls the “grand gesture,” meaning 1964 (Wimmer 1976, 39), the Montréal Stadium’s elliptical [TRANSLATION] “the use of posts and platforms in plan was ideally suited to multiple uses, while affording a architecture does not interest me, because there is no good view from the stands on all occasions—for the track grand gesture involved.” He adds that he has a fondness for and field events of the Olympic Games and subsequently vaults and hence for the Gothic tradition, explaining that for baseball and football games. The configuration was, in [TRANSLATION] “the Gothic gesture [is] simultaneously Taillibert’s view [TRANSLATION] “the best geometrical anchored in the ground and, thanks to vaults, open to the definition as regards visibility for all sports” (Taillibert sky” (Ungard 2010, 68, 14). 1977, 59). Its retractable roof was to provide protection against the harsh local climate with its heavy snowfalls, For the block to the south of Rue Sherbrooke, Taillibert without contravening the Olympic rule that athletes drew up a concentrated ground plan: the Stadium and its should compete in the open air. The Kevlar fabric was to be pools are housed in a single building adjacent to which suspended from a high, triangular cross-section tower built is the Velodrome (Fig. 26). The Stadium and swimming into the ring of the stands and leaning over the arena. The centre are bound together in a “grand gesture” that traces base of the tower houses the pools, while its upper floors a broad oval on the ground, a swirling shape with its axis mainly contain sports rooms. the rising diagonal of the land towards the northeast and, at its centre, soaring in counterpoint towards the sky, the The Olympic Stadium enclosure forms an ellipsis of 488 x Stadium arena and its mast as the high point (Orlandini 268 metres. It is symmetrical, unlike “asymmetric basket” 2010, 21, 25). stadiums such as those in Tokyo (1964), Mexico City (1968) and Munich (1972), an arrangement intended to bring Architecture historian Luc Noppen observed that seats closer to the playing area. Regarding the structure Taillibert’s plan for Montréal “flows quite naturally of the grandstands, in Montréal, a number of options from his previous work” (1992, 34). To the enclosure were explored using cross-sections and models (Orlandini of prefabricated, post-stressed concrete elements of the 2010, 56–61), the issue being to support and protect the open stadium of Parc des Princes (1968–1972) in Paris, he seating areas. The option put forward in the preliminary added the retractable roof of the Boulevard Carnot pool submission filed in the spring of 1973 (Commission (1966). Others pointed out the kinship between the self- d’enquête sur le coût de la 21e Olympiade 1980, vol. 2, 21), supporting roofing of thin concrete shells in the swimming is somewhat different from that presented on April 6, 1972 centre and Velodrome with the vaults of the Deauville (Fig. IV), which is closer to Parc des Princes, the model on pool (1966) and the Chamonix sports centre (1969–1973). which it was based. In Montréal, the bowl of the Stadium In addition, most of these buildings are characterized by does not rest on the ground: it is cantilevered above the their main material, prestressed concrete, and their self- promenade, its 34 consoles being fitted with two beams, supporting structures, which brought the architect fame. one projecting forward and one back. Parc des Princes was hailed as one of the most remarkable sports facilities since those designed by Pier L. Nervi for At its periphery, the consoles are equidistant at 20 metres the Rome Olympics (Sandori 1976, 56). Roger Taillibert apart and the isostatic beams supported by posts project saw new structures as offering an unmatched potential for inwards to carry the canopy of the grandstands, and creativity. In a 1970 interview with the magazine Galerie outwards to form, with the tie‑beam that connects each d'Arts, he stated [TRANSLATION]: “The modern world one to the post, the structure that encloses the walking has provided architects with, first, a quite astonishing space overlooking the esplanade. The lower level provides

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access to the seats of the first balcony, backing onto the Access to the facilities and crowd movements were primary large hall that opens out onto the promenade, and to the considerations during the development of the project basement floors, while the passageways on the two upper (Taillibert 1977, 60). The south of Maisonneuve Park is storeys serve the upper grandstands in the second and third served by two metro stations, Pie-IX and Viau. Entry to the balconies attached to the consoles. They are connected by Stadium is via the esplanade through the doors, about 10 in eight wide concrete ramps, for the use of electric vehicles number, located beneath the underhang of the enclosure, of maintenance services and concessionaires, and 18 and also via the public hall overlooking Avenue Pierre-De escalators and five elevators. At their summit, the beams Coubertin, which is connected to the corridor leading to are joined by a technical ring overhanging the playing area the mezzanine floor of Pie-IX metro station. On either and featuring two levels containing ventilation ducts and side of the Stadium-swimming centre-mast complex, two the lighting system. large underground parking lots complete the facilities: on the Rue Viau side, one floor is reserved for 200 buses and This framework gives the Stadium great spaciousness: another for 500 cars, while on the Boulevard Pie-IX side, with its angular-profile enclosure overhanging the beneath the terraces and the esplanade, four levels provide esplanade by 20 metres or so, the Stadium bowl appears parking for almost 4,000 cars. As well as being connected to float in the air. This arrangement illustrates Taillibert’s by interior ramps, most of the floors of the western parking ideas when, talking of the Gothic tradition, he says that lot are accessible from the street, an arrangement made [TRANSLATION] “it is as if the architecture sprang out possible by the topography of the surrounding streets. of the ground, holding itself in space by dint of prodigious strength” (Ungard 2010, 15). The technical concept of the Olympic Park The tower, with a projected height of 175 metres and an incline of 45 degrees, also seems to defy the laws of On a technical level, the Stadium-swimming centre-mast gravity. Partially embedded into the ring of grandstands, complex is designed like a gigantic Meccano construction in the main axis of the ellipsis, it rises obliquely over of approximately 12,000 prefabricated parts (COJO 1978, the arena with an overhang of 60 metres (Orlandini vol. 2, 49) in reinforced or prestressed concrete. The 2010, 96–97). Inside its three-legged base spanning complexity is all the greater because, given the volumetrics about a hundred metres lie the pools of the swimming of the Stadium bowl—a flattened ellipsoid truncated on the centre: the Olympic pool (25 x 50 metres), the diving tower side—the prefabricated components are of varied pool and the underwater diving pool, plus a training dimensions and configurations; the 34 consoles of the pool located beneath the permanent seating area. For enclosure provide for a limited degree of standardization. the Games, a second grandstand was constructed, The technical ring overhanging the playing area varies in bringing the number of spectators from 2,500 to 10,000 height between 39.7 and 49.5 metres, and the length of (Fig. VII). the forward beam that supports it is between 36 and 56 metres, while that of the rear beam is between 18 and 23.4 The primary function of the tower was to support the metres. The 18,000 m² oculus can be closed by the large retractable roof and store it when folded in its upper velum suspended from the tower (Demarthe 1976, 32; portion. The roof was meant to be stored inside a COJO 1978, 56). 17-metre high niche, at the back and top of which were the deployment mechanism and operations control room respectively. However, other uses were also planned for The foot of each console was cast in place as high as the the mast, to complement the Olympic program, forming second balcony, while the upper part of the post and the a multidisciplinary centre. The huge floor area of the first forward and rear cantilever beams were prefabricated ten storeys was set aside for the practice of indoor sports, in prestressed concrete: they are made up of between 18 with the next two storeys housing offices. Above the roof and 34 hollow segments weighing up to 180 tonnes that niche, a panoramic two-storey restaurant and a terrace were epoxy glued and post-tensioned. The technical ring were planned, to be accessed by a funicular installed on attached to the ends of the beams is made up of 38 oval the tower’s backbone (Orlandini 2005, 102; Orlandini prefabricated elements 12 metres long and 6 metres high 2010, 96–97). The funicular departs from the Tourist Hall (Orlandini 2010, 50). The floor slabs and upper seating at the base of the mast, in the rear, which is accessible from areas are made up of prefabricated reinforced-concrete the esplanade, the parvis, and the Rue Viau underground elements supported by girders, also prefabricated, attached parking lot. to posts and suspended from the rear beams (Fig. 29).

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The Stadium’s permanent covering is a light metal roof publics, engineer Charles-A. Boileau, set out his vision of above the seats and a heavier concrete-panel roof above the way that preparatory work for the Olympics would be the ambulatory, to reinforce the counterweight function of organized. In addition to its normal duties, the public works the rear part of the consoles. The light roof is comprised of department would take responsibility for extraordinary prepainted sheet plate joists running between the beams, work involved in the construction and renovation of waterproofed by copper-faced asphalt felt. buildings intended for the Games, with the exception of the facilities in Maisonneuve Park, which would be handled by The structure of the three-legged mast was to be the new Division du Parc olympique. Also, given the limited constructed of cast-in-place concrete, with prefabricated numbers of municipal personnel, responsibilities would concrete panels for the curtain wall spandrel. It rests be handed over to outside professionals and technicians, on three reinforced-concrete foundation blocks, with architects, engineers, technologists, site supervisors and neoprene bearing pads for the two front legs to absorb support personnel, the estimated cost of all this coming to movement due to thermal variations and possible seismic $250 million. shocks. The tower’s fixed rear support is solidly anchored in the bedrock to a depth of 60 metres (Orlandini 2010, The Division du Parc olympique, whose offices would be in 134). The swimming centre housed in the base of the tower the old Viger station, would have up to about 50 employees is covered by three low-lying concrete shells, the middle (Cyr interview). To head this division, the City’s Executive one forming the lower face of the tower with the two others Committee appointed the young engineer Claude Phaneuf deployed on either side of its lateral faces. The technical as Superintendent on March 16, 1973. Meanwhile, André design of these shells is similar to that of the Velodrome. Daoust was designated as the architect in charge of the Their thin casing is stretched between three arcs, two of entire Olympic project in Maisonneuve Park (Rapport, which run from one of the tower foundation blocks to a v. 2, 14). base a little distance away, with a third running alongside the tower. The distance separating this third arc from the Claude Phaneuf had been employed by the City in the base of the mast is punctuated by a series of rooflights technical division (local improvements) since his graduation resting on transverse beams that are embedded on one from the École polytechnique de Montréal in 1962 (AVM). side and merely supported on the other, again to lend the In late 1968, he had taken over the coordination of the Jarry structure a degree of flexibility. Stadium site and, since April 1971, he had been informally associated with the Olympics project, as we saw earlier. The Stadium’s retractable roof was made of a new, strong, flexible material specially developed for the In his duties, Claude Phaneuf was assisted by his colleague occasion, Kevlar, manufactured from a synthetic fibre Raymond Cyr, another civil engineer who had graduated of high mechanical strength woven in wide strips (3.2 m from Polytechnique in 1962. Cyr joined the City of minimum) using a special mesh pattern and coated on Montréal’s Service des travaux publics in 1964, after both sides (Taillibert et T.A.A.A. 1974). The covering was serving as city engineer for the City of Saint-Lambert. In to be suspended from the mast by a bundle of 25 stainless- the division, he was tasked with coordinating technical steel cables, of high strength but sufficiently flexible to engineering studies, monitoring of planning, and wind around the drums of the 25 winches installed at the supervision of work (Cyr interview). summit of the tower, above the storage niche. This solution was chosen in preference to motorized pulley blocks André Daoust, who had graduated from the École des running along the cables, and the dynamics of the system beaux-arts de Montréal in 1942, had been the architect of were to be harmonized by electronic regulation. Taillibert the Service des travaux public’s Division technique since envisaged that this roof of almost 2 hectares and weighing 1943. A member of Ordre des architectes du Québec, he over 60 tonnes could be raised in less than 10 minutes would act as principal architect, affixing his seal on the by two specialized technicians (Taillibert et T.A.A. 1974; plans, Roger Taillibert being consulting architect. Daoust Emery 1977, 93). would be assisted by the architect Pierre Ronco regarding the coordination of architectural work conducted in The professionals involved in the project collaboration with members of Agence Roger Taillibert, seconded to Montréal for periods of varying length (Cyr In a letter dated March 12, 1973 to the chair of the City interview). Among the latter was a central figure, the École of Montréal’s Executive Committee (Archives de la Ville Polytechnique graduate engineer Louis Billotey, Taillibert’s de Montréal), the director of the Service des travaux “devoted collaborator” (Gillet 1983).

74 Fig. 29. Schematic cross-section of a typical console in the Olympic Stadium.

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In early May 1973, contact was made with the engineers to the Chamonix sports centre housed under nine thin approached to carry the Velodrome and Stadium- prestressed concrete shells with a span of between 22 and swimming centre-mast complex through to completion. 66 metres (Agencetaillibert.com; Emery 1976, 30). Some of them accompanied Mayor Drapeau to Paris in mid-May, where they were introduced to the architect SEEE specialized in the calculation and design of structures, Roger Taillibert. Among these were Régis Trudeau, and was a subsidiary of Grands travaux de Marseille Maurice D’Arcy and Jean-Pierre Caza, of the firm of Régis (GTM), a company that had been operating in the field of Trudeau et Associés (Commission d’enquête sur le coût de construction and public works since 1891 (Barjot 1987, 226). la 21e Olympiade 1980, vol. 2, 48). Created in 1961, Europe-Études was the research On June 29, 1973, the City’s Executive Committee department of Société Technique pour l’Utilisation de confirmed the hiring of the professionals. Chosen were la Précontrainte (STUP), which was founded in 1943 by Trudeau, Gascon, Lalancette for the structure of the the French engineer Eugène Freyssinet (1879–1962), the Velodrome and Bouthillette, Parizeau for mechanical inventor of prestressed concrete, to develop and disseminate systems and electricity; Régis Trudeau et Associés for this technique. Two professionals stood out in the Montréal the structure of the Stadium, Pageau, Morel et Associés file: Pierre Xercavins (1926–2008), technical director of for mechanical systems, and Scharry, Ouimet et Associés Europe-Études, and Jean-Michel Demarthe (1945–200?). for electricity (Commission d’enquête sur le coût de la 21e Olympiade 1980, vol. 2, 48–49). Pierre Xercavins, an engineer who graduated from the École polytechnique in 1946, had worked with Freyssinet The engineering firm of Régis Trudeau et Associés, at STUP, which he joined in 1950 (Structurae.info). In registered in 1967, had been associated with numerous 1970–1971, with Demarthe, he had helped the builders of school and university building projects, in particular the the Bear River Bridge in Nova Scotia, the first bridge in Institut de tourisme et d'hôtellerie du Québec, the Cégep North America to use prefabricated beams. Jean-Michel du Vieux-Montréal, and the first phase of UQAM (D’Arcy Demarthe, a graduate of the École centrale de Paris, had interview). These structural engineers were also studying started with Europe-Études in 1966 and was the main the Radisson metro station project, which is notable for its person in charge of the Montréal file (Xercavins et al. 2010). use of reinforced concrete (Vanlaethem 2012, 48–50). The official hiring of the French engineering firms took By April 1974, since Régis Trudeau et Associés had place on August 7, 1974, at the same time as the formation of fallen behind in the preparation of structural plans, two a local consortium of engineers for whom the French firms French firms—Europe-Études and Société d’études et would act as subcontractors. Les Consultants du Stade de d’équipements d’entreprises (SEEE)—were called to Montréal inc. was made up of the firms of Régis Trudeau the rescue on the advice of Roger Taillibert. The firm of et Associés; Asselin, Benoît, Boucher, Ducharme, Lapointe Trudeau, Gascon, Lalancette, tasked with the Velodrome, inc.; and Trudeau, Gascon, Lalancette et Associés. had been working with Europe-Études for a year. After being hired, they had sought help locally in the form of The engineering firm of Asselin, Benoît, Boucher, knowledge or staff, particularly in the field of prestressed Ducharme, Lapointe inc., set up in the early 1960s, was concrete, but without success (Commission d’enquête sur very active in the Manic and Baie-James projects (Hydro- le coût de la 21e Olympiade 1980, vol. 2, 49). Meanwhile Québec had confidence in francophone professionals), Régis Trudeau et Associés had called on the expertise of a going on to become one of the major engineering firms in German specialist, professor Fritz Leonhardt (1909–1999) Québec (Germain 1996, 151). Trudeau, Gascon, Lalancette (D’Arcy interview), an internationally renowned engineer et Associés was a younger engineering firm, having been who had built numerous bridges in prestressed concrete registered on September 24, 1973. (Graefe 1997, 263). All the plans for the structure were redrawn in France, but The French firms contacted were regular partners of had to be approved by Régis Trudeau et Associés (Purcell Agence Roger Taillibert. SEEE had been involved with 1981, 299–300; Commission d’enquête sur le coût de la the Parc des Princes construction site (Commission 21e Olympiade 1980, vol. 2, 51). In July 1974, Lalonde, d’enquête sur le coût de la 21e Olympiade 1980, vol. 2, Valois, Lamarre, Valois et Associés became coordinating 50–51). Collaboration with Europe-Études dated back mandatary of the Olympic Park work, with the exception of

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the Velodrome. A predecessor of SNC-Lavalin, this firm was been obtained just a few days earlier by the joint venture undoubtedly the most renowned and the most influential Désourdy Construction-Simard-Beaudry-Dumez (Canada) of all the Québec agencies of consulting engineers involved (Commission d’enquête sur le coût de la 21e Olympiade in the Olympic project. 1980, vol. 2, 20). The task was far from straightforward, since the future complex was sunk into the slope of the The origins of Lalonde, Valois, Lamarre, Valois et Associés land and the construction site was adjacent to existing date back to 1936, when two graduates of the École buildings. More than two million cubic metres of earth polytechnique de Montréal, Jean-Paul Lalonde and Roméo were moved (COJO 1978, vol. 2, 14). While the 15-metre Valois, founded Lalonde et Valois. The growth of this high retaining wall on Rue Sherbrooke was being cast, it company was closely linked to the modernization of Québec was found that the quality of the subsoil was lower than and the construction of highway infrastructure and public expected, requiring a change in the technique used to works such as schools. By the 1950s, it was participating anchor the wall. The same technique was adopted to in all major national projects—construction of the Seaway, protect the Maisonneuve Sports Centre building adjacent the Trans-Canada Highway and major bridges over the St. to the future eastern underground parking lot (Rigny Lawrence River. When in 1962 Bernard Lamarre (1931– 1976, 39–40). 2016), who had graduated from the École polytechnique in 1952 and had been with the firm since 1955, became In the spring of 1974, when it became clear that the CEO, the company entered a decade of renewed growth Olympic Velodrome would not be delivered on time, the thanks to local public commissions, and subsequently set atmosphere on the site was feverish. The Montréal engineer out to conquer international markets. In 1971, it obtained Bernard Lamarre approached the mayor and offered to a major share of the public contracts for the Baie-James take the construction site in hand, and over the course hydroelectric facilities. Earlier, in connection with the of the summer many meetings were held with the aim of establishment of a network of polyvalente (comprehensive) controlling progress (Germain 1994, 195, 196). After long schools and CÉGEPS, it had embarked on a new field negotiations with COJO, in July the City of Montréal finally activities: project management and coordination contracts hired coordinating mandataries: Lalonde, Valois, Lamarre, (Wikipedia, SNC-Lavalin). Valois et Associés, the firm headed by Bernard Lamarre, for work on the Olympic Park, except for the Velodrome, Construction of the complex and Asselin, Benoît, Boucher, Ducharme, Lapointe for construction of the Rue Sherbrooke viaduct. At the end of July, COJO released the City from responsibility to deliver Construction of the Olympic complex can be seen as having facilities that were not its property (Commission d’enquête two phases: the first, from April 1973 to November 1975, sur le coût de la 21e Olympiade 1980, vol. 3, 8). Apart from was conducted under the authority of the City of Montréal; the Olympic complex and Village, its mandate as project the second, ending on the eve of the opening of the Olympic manager was reduced to the Maisonneuve Sports Centre, Games on July 17, 1976, was overseen by the Régie des the Saint-Michel arena, the Claude-Robillard and Étienne- installations olympiques (RIO), the provincial body legally Desmarteau centres, the Île Notre-Dame basin, the Mont- constituted to complete the facilities. From the outset, the Royal circuit and the marathon route (COJO 1978, vol. challenge was considerable: to deliver, in just over three 2, 19). Other facilities were taken over by COJO which, years, a complex of almost 900,000 m² (Comité consultatif originally, was not intended to be involved in construction chargé d’étudier l’avenir des installations olympiques (COJO 1978, vol. 1, 57). 1977, 12–15), especially since the Velodrome had to be completed in time for the UCI Road World Championships On August 5, 1974, construction of the foundations of on August 25, 1974. In May 1974, after eight months of the Olympic Stadium was begun. On October 1, the City work, the deadline appeared impossible to achieve, and of Montréal Executive Committee hired Schokbeton to the City decided to adapt Université de Montréal’s winter precast the console segments and elements of the Stadium’s stadium to host the competition. From that time on, the technical ring. Production of other precast concrete City of Montréal’s responsibility as project manager for elements was entrusted to four other Québec companies the Olympic facilities would become increasingly limited, (COJO 1978, vol. 2, 14–18, 21): Francon (floor slabs), Vibrek culminating in the provincial government’s taking control. (girders supporting the seating), Prefac and Spancrete (parts for the seating) (J'ai vu naître un chef-d'œuvre 1978). On April 28, 1973, work on the Olympic Park began with excavations (Fig. 30), the contract for which had Schokbeton Québec inc. was incorporated in 1962 and

77 Docomomo Québec | Montréal Olympic Park Heritage Study 8. The Facilities from Start to Finish

located in Saint-Eustache in the Greater Montréal area. the Montréal Citizens’ Movement (the municipal party “Schokbeton” is the name of a factory precasting technique founded in May 1974 in opposition to mayor Jean Drapeau). that was patented in the Netherlands in 1932 and which Alternative solutions to the Stadium were even considered, quickly spread around the world for the production of but ruled out as unrealistic. structural and architectural elements. Through “shocks,” or vibrations, applied to the mould, the process gives On May 5, 1975, the first components precast by Schokbeton concrete an extremely dense structure (L'Œil 1965). To were delivered to the site. By mid-May, some 3,000 workers cast the 1,500 pieces in the order, Schokbeton placed were toiling day and night on erecting the consoles and its personnel exclusively at the disposal of the City and constructing the base of the tower. But in June the pace leased its existing facilities, equipment and machinery. slowed when a work stoppage reduced the labour force by In addition, the City had a new plant built on Shokbeton’s about half (COJO 1978, vol. 2, 20–23). land, which the company would buy back at the end of the mandate (Convention 15-05–1975, AVM). Quantity and Another strike occurred on October 20, 1975, with more deadlines were not the only difficulties facing Schokbeton than 3,500 workers walking out. When the City obtained Québec: the size and varied configuration of the a return-to-work injunction 5 days later, only 600 workers components to be cast also posed challenges. The pieces complied, the others choosing to wait for the outcome of were cast in giant metal forms, imported from France, negotiations with the La Fédération des travailleurs du whose variable geometry was adjusted using a hydraulic Québec. On October 26, an agreement covering a complete system (Taillibert interview 2015). The composition of resumption of work was reached. On November 4, the first the mix created further problems, which were resolved element of the Stadium’s technical ring was positioned, and by the City’s engineers working with Louis Billotey (Cyr most of the consoles had been erected (COJO 1978, vol. 2, interview). To facilitate casting in the forms encumbered 23–26). Eight months prior to the opening of the Games, with copious reinforcements, Schokbeton’s technical the Stadium’s skeleton was standing, if not totally complete, director proposed using a superplasticizer, an additive to but other major structural work on the complex had hardly improve the fluidity of the mix while reducing its water begun (Fig. 34). content, hence increasing the strength of the concrete. The superplasticizer was imported from Europe (Aictin Time was running out, and on-time delivery of the interview). Olympic complex was looking more and more unlikely. The construction endeavour lacked effective management In late November 1974, casting of concrete posts for capable of dealing with authority and labour conflicts. After the consoles on site was stopped when rebar workers a number of government attempts to gain control over the went on strike. The stoppage was to last until the end of process, on one morning in November, a meeting was held January 1975 (COJO 1978, vol. 2, 19–20). This was not in the premier’s office at which it was decided to create a the first labour conflict. From the beginning, work had board to finish the facilities and a financing company for the been held up by continual sporadic strikes by various post-Olympic period. (Allard 1990, 140–141). At a meeting trades, starting with the truckers removing volumes of on the previous day, the City’s public works director had earth. Then followed the carpenters who made the forms, announced a $600 million deficit (Denis 2006, 262). A few plumbers who fitted sleeves into rebar cages, electricians, days later, on November 20, 1975, Bill 81 constituting the and so on. These pressure tactics rendered all planning Régie des installations olympiques (RIO) was enacted by useless (Cyr interview). the National Assembly.

Things merely got worse as the weeks went by: costs were RIO’s first mandate was to build, fit out and operate the exploding and it was becoming increasingly uncertain Olympic installations of the Olympic Park. The engineer whether the Olympic Stadium would be delivered on time. Claude Rouleau was appointed to head RIO, which was On January 21 and 22, 1975, the National Assembly’s under the authority of the Minister of Municipal Affairs, Commission permanente des affaires municipales met to Victor C. Goldbloom. Rouleau was a former classmate of consider whether the principle of making the 1976 Summer Bernard Lamarre at the École polytechnique de Montréal Games self-financing was still valid. This was not the and had been Commissaire of the Office des autoroutes Commission’s first meeting: in June 1973 it had considered until shortly before the 1970 election. He then joined the disagreements over the location of the Olympic Paul Desrochers, political organizer for Robert Bourassa Village. Testimony was provided by representatives of (Samson 2007, 80–81) and, subsequently, he became the the official opposition, COJO, the City of Montréal and new Liberal government’s Deputy Minister of Transport.

78 Fig. 30. Olympic Park groundbreaking ceremony, April 29, 1973. Fig. 31. Olympic Park worksite, May 20, 1974.

Fig. 32. Olympic Park worksite, March 10, 1975.

Fig. 33. Olympic Park worksite, August 20, 1975. Fig. 34. Olympic Park worksite, November 5, 1975.

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The Olympic Park construction had fallen significantly events. As well as translating the Olympic ideal, they behind, jeopardizing the holding of the Games. provide the organizing committee with an opportunity Completing the work according to plan on time appeared to give the Games an element of originality. In Montréal, impossible. One of the first steps taken was to conduct they were “festivals of youth, beauty and strength” and a study to consider alternative sites for competitions, the running of the Olympic flame, a celebration lighting an option that proved impossible to implement. It was the hopes of youth around the world. In fact the Summer thus decided to sacrifice all non-essential elements, to Games of the XXI Olympiad had begun on July 13, in make temporary premises available to athletes, officials Olympia, Greece, with the lighting of the Olympic flame, and the telecommunications service, to construct a tradition established in 1936 with the Berlin Games. In certain grandstands in a provisional manner, and the sacred grove of Altis, the sacred flame was revived in not to complete the tower. In addition, RIO took full a ceremony inspired by ancient rites, and then carried control over construction, and Jean Drapeau and Roger into the Stadium, where the president of the Hellenic Taillibert became personae non gratae on the site. To Olympic Committee and Father Marcel de la Sablonnière, improve productivity and communication, construction representing COJO, each gave an address. The Olympic was divided into six work cells, each controlled by an flame was brought to Canada in a novel manner: instead engineer in charge. By the spring, work was advancing at of being passed from hand to hand in a relay race lasting such a pace that certain jobs which had been sidelined in many days, it was transmitted instantly by satellite from December 1975 as being of secondary importance, such as the Panathenatic Stadium in Athens to Parliament Hill in the completion of the esplanade, were finally undertaken. Ottawa, where it was relit by a laser beam in the presence On June 13, 1976, RIO handed over the facilities to COJO, of the prime minister of Canada, Pierre Elliott Trudeau. even though some work continued until July 15 (RIO It then immediately started its journey to Montréal, 1976, 11–16). On the day before the opening ceremony, passing through towns and villages, with radio and turf was still being laid inside the Stadium. television tracking its progress regularly (COJO 1978, vol. 1, 280–289). The Stadium rings with applause On July 17, in the Olympic Stadium packed with over On July 17, 1976, not all cranes had disappeared from the 70,000 spectators under a blue sky, the opening ceremony, Olympic Park: one towered over the incomplete Stadium punctuated by performances of music, song and dance, mast (Fig. 29), a portent that construction would soon was held in the presence of Queen Elizabeth II. Once the resume. Television broadcasting served as a pretext 94 delegations had entered the arena and the speeches for keeping it, a camera being installed at its top (Cyr had been delivered by COJO president, Roger Rousseau, interview). By the middle of the afternoon, crowds were and Lord Killanin, IOC president, the Queen declared the amassing around the site awaiting the arrival of the bearers Montréal Olympic Games open. Then followed the entry of the Olympic flame, and the Stadium was packed for the of the Olympic flag (Fig.36) and its hoisting at the southern opening ceremony. There was no pushing and shoving, no end of the field, while the official flag, which had been kept logjams. The thousands of people who had come on foot in Munich since the last Games, was presented to Mayor or by metro, by car or by bus to witness this long-awaited Drapeau, who was given a long ovation by the crowd. This moment were welcomed in complete safety. The facilities highly symbolic gesture, accompanied by laps performed of the Olympic Park proved both functional and esthetic, by two groups, each dressed in regional folk costume, was by night and by day. After nightfall, the cleverly concealed marked by a volley of three cannon blasts and the release electric lighting on the esplanade and walkways guided of pigeons carrying a message of friendship to the people visitors from one site to another. All the sports facilities of the earth. The Olympic flame then entered the Stadium, of the Olympic Park, including the Pierre-Charbonneau carried by two young athletes, a first in the history of the Centre and the Maurice-Richard Arena, were in use. The modern Games, symbolizing the two founding peoples of Village was a short distance away, on the other side of Canada. The ceremony concluded with a ballet performed Rue Sherbrooke. by students from schools in Montréal and the suburbs, and a display by Canadian and international gymnasts. The opening and closing ceremonies are key moments in the celebration of the Olympics. Pierre de Coubertin (1966, Over the following days, track cycling and judo events were 33) saw them as the essential elements that distinguished held at the Velodrome, while the Maurice-Richard Arena an Olympiad from a simple series of world championship and the Pierre-Charbonneau Centre hosted wrestling.

80 Fig. 35. The parvis in front of the pools, Montréal Olympic Games, 1976.

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In the pools, many records were broken, a considerable number by East German female swimmers. Among the men, the Americans were dominant, while on the Canadian team, the women took one silver medal and six bronze medals. Swimming enabled Canada to save face with eight medals, three others being awarded in canoeing, equestrian events and the high jump. The Stadium hosted athletic events from July 23, after the soccer competitions, the last event being held on July 31, after the finish of the marathon.

The closing ceremony was held in the evening of Sunday, August 1, shortly after the last event of the Games, the equestrian team jumping Grand Prix. At exactly 9 p.m., IOC president Lord Killanin, COJO president Roger Rousseau, and the Governor-General of Canada, His Excellency Jules Léger, took their places in the royal box. The Olympic Chimes gave the signal for the start of a choreographed performance by high-school students. The athletes then entered the arena, escorted by a group of First Nations people in ceremonial dress. Music and dance accompanied the closing rites of the Games: the lowering of the Olympic flag, the extinction of the flame and the announcement of the next Games, to be held in Moscow.

Over the 14 days of the competitions, 6,084 athletes, 1,260 women and 4,824 men representing 92 nations, gave their all, supported by 2,661 chaperones. The 198 events, most of them held in the Olympic Park and a dozen other sites in the Greater Montréal area, with a small number in other cities in Québec and Ontario, attracted over 3 million spectators—a figure multiplied by modern communications methods. Worldwide, the sound and pictures of the Montréal Games broadcast by the Olympic Radio-Television Organization (ORTO), created for the occasion by the CBC, reached a billion viewers. Over 5,000 journalists and more than 600 photographers were accredited to cover the Games (COJO 1978, vol. 1, 382–383). To ensure the circulation of information, telecommunications networks in the Montréal area were developed. It was anticipated that traffic would be three times heavier than at the time of Expo 67 (COJO 1978, vol. 1, 416). The Olympic installations that we have inherited are only one aspect of the technical systems put in place to ensure that in July 1976 the Games would run smoothly in terms of the recording and broadcasting of sports results and management of crowds, personnel and equipment. Thousands worked behind the scenes, contributing to the success of this global event, publicizing it, ensuring that it was well organized and providing it with sound technical support.

82 Fig. 36. Olympic flag being brought into the Montréal Olympic Stadium, July 17, 1976.

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9. Integrating Art Into the Summer Olympic Games –

The artistic dimension of the Montréal Summer Olympic Games is generally associated exclusively with Corridart, a collective exhibition curated by Melvin Charney, one of Jean Drapeau’s main opponents since Charney criticized the hiring of Roger Taillibert in March 1972. This criticism coincided with the preparation of the exhibit Montréal, plus ou moins? (Montreal, Plus or Minus), a critical assessment of the mayor’s urban planning that was presented at the Museum of Fine Arts during the summer. Torn down on the order of the City’s Executive Committee, under the pretext of public safety, just a few days after its inauguration on July 7, 1976, Corridart owes its reputation as much to this act of “censorship” as it does to its subject matter that engaged with the city’s history (Mathieu 2016; Vanlaethem 2014). Jean Paul Riopelle’s fountain-sculpture, La Joute, installed at the Olympic Park until it was dismantled in 2002, is the other contribution that marked the collective memory. However, the arts and culture program of the Summer Games of the XXI Olympiad was much broader and diversified. Coordinated by the Olympic organizing committee, COJO, it had an impact on all the communities where sports competitions were held, and involved 3,500 artists who came from across Canada to contribute their talent to more than 1,500 cultural events (COJO 1978, vol. 1, 601). To the events component must also be added the contribution of the designers to the Games’ brand image, which affected many aspects: promotional, informational, signage, etc. We will focus on works integrated into the architecture, but not without referring to some of the other artistic contributions.

84 Fig. 37. La Joute fountain-sculpture in 1976, Jean Paul Riopelle, artist.

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“Remarriage of muscle and intellect” subject to the approval of the International Olympic Committee,” adding that the events and performances on For Pierre de Coubertin, the Olympic Games were much the program should be of the same quality as the sporting more than a sports event; they had an educational and even competitions (COJO 1978, vol. 1, 578). philosophical dimension, and were also a forum for art and esthetics, as we saw earlier. In 1906, during a consultative While in early 1973 COJO focused on developing the conference on arts, letters and sports held in the foyer of arts and culture program, it set up a special department the Comédie française in Paris and bringing together IOC in charge of the opening and closing ceremonies as well members and representatives of artistic organizations, he as the other elements of the Games’ artistic component. proposed the creation of five competitions in the areas This department, which would become a directorate in of architecture, sculpture, painting, music and literature 1974, favoured an approach that would showcase Canada’s to recognize every four years novel works inspired distinctive character and offer the world a genuine view directly by sport‑related themes. His goal was to reunite, of Canadian pluralism. To achieve this ambition, under through a legitimate marriage, the previously divorced the leadership of Yvon Desrochers, the Arts and Culture elements of muscle and intellect (“Le Muscle et l’Esprit”) Directorate would act as coordinator and leave it to the (Coubertin 1967, 15). provinces and territories to decide on the exhibitions and performances they would send to Montréal. The After a first, unsuccessful, attempt to organize such federal government funded this component of the competitions at the 1908 London Games, the practice Games by contributing to the travel costs, while pre- became a common feature at subsequent Games, beginning production costs were assumed locally. Everyone agreed with those in Stockholm. Nevertheless, it only became to this three-way arrangement, except for the Québec a significant component of the Games in 1924, with the government, which took charge of all the proposed participation of nearly 200 candidates and, in Amsterdam, activities (COJO 1978, vol. 1, 579), such as the outdoor in 1928, when more than 1,000 works were exhibited at exhibition, Corridart, and the exhibition at the Musée d’art the Stedelijk Museum in Amsterdam. Like the athletes, contemporain de Montréal, Trois générations d’artistes the most deserving artists received medals. After the québécois : 1940, 1950, 1960, involving about one hundred Games, they could sell their work, which became a point artists, including Jean Paul Riopelle. of controversy as the competitions, whether for sports or artistic achievements, were open only to amateurs. The La Joute, the fountain-sculpture increasing participation of professional artists ran counter to the spirit of the competitions, which is why after much The name of Jean Paul Riopelle (1923–2002) is still debate they were eventually stopped. In 1954, the IOC associated with the Olympics and the only work of art that revised its regulations to give organizing committees was installed in the Olympic Park in 1976—the artist’s more freedom in choosing their artistic participation. most imposing sculpture, La Joute. The work was not For the first time, in Melbourne in 1956, the competitions added as part of the government measure that, since 1961, were replaced by an Arts Festival, whose program aimed provided for the allocation of approximately 1% of to communicate Australia’s national character through the budget for constructing a building, or developing exhibitions and performances (COJO 1978, vol. 1, 578). a public site, to the creation of works of art designed specifically for those projects. It is difficult to determine In its bid for the 1976 Summer Games, the City of Montréal the exact connection between the work of art and the proposed an enormous festival of Canadian culture to Olympic Games, given that those who wrote about the be organized in collaboration with COJO; the program controversy surrounding the work’s relocation in the early was to feature many folklore-themed events and others 2000s gave slightly different versions of the past. To what that represented contemporary art. It was announced extent did Montréal’s bid for the Summer Olympic Games that the Grands Ballets Canadiens, Théâtre du Nouveau influence the fountain project, which originated in the monde, Théâtre du Rideau vert, Stratford Festival late 1960s? This question is still without a definitive Theatre, Royal Canadian Mounted Police and the First answer (Keable 2009, ch. 9), despite the analysis carried Nations of Canada would be participating in the festival out by art historian Analays Alvarez Hernandez in 2018, (City of Montréal 1969, 26). The emphasis on local at RIO’s request. productions was recommended by the Olympic Statutes, which specified that [TRANSLATION] “the organizing The bronze fountain, inspired by an Aboriginal team sport, committee shall set up a national art event or exhibition, the flag game, according to Riopelle (Keable 2009, 82, 84),

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measures about 12 metres wide and consists of 29 elements In the early 1980s, the deterioration of the fountain- and a nameplate. The artist, born in Montréal, studied at sculpture was causing some concern. One of the donors, the city’s École polytechnique (1941–1942) and then the Dr. Légaré, complained to Lucien Saulnier, President École du meuble (1943–1944), where he was a student of the of RIO, about the sculpture being without water and painter Paul-Émile Borduas. In 1948, he joined others in lighting, and about the basin being damaged. In 1983, the signing the famous Refus global manifesto. A practitioner installation of an outdoor café that was encroaching on the of automatism, he developed an abstract visual language fountain required the intervention of the Ministère des guided solely by, as he said, complete chance, and anchored Affaires culturelles (Keable 2009, 103–105). At the time,La in gesture and matter. When he moved to Paris, he Joute could still be seen from the street. But not for long, established himself among the international avant-garde. however. In 1984, the construction of RIO’s offices under The beginnings of La Joute coincided with the beginning the walkway blocked the view for good. Then, to protect of his gradual return to Canada. the offices from being broken into, a Plexiglas wall cut off all public access. In the early 1990s, RIO considered The work created by Riopelle links the earth, fire and water restoring the work, and even completing it by installing that flows from all of the sculptures. At the centre, the gas lighting. However, the idea was dropped given the cost. “Tower” sits on a raised pedestal, ringed by bas-reliefs and RIO attempted to go ahead with the project to underscore surrounded by eight figures emerging from the water in the 20th anniversary of the Games, but without success. the pool lit up by a circle of fire (Keable 2009, 88), depicting Subsequently, the indifference that once again surrounded a bear, a post, an Aboriginal, three owls, a fish and a dog. the sculpture led to the idea of moving it to the Quartier Riopelle first modelled the work in clay, in 1969–1970, and international de Montréal, which was under construction then transposed it to plaster, exhibiting it for the first time (Keable 2009, ch. 5). at the Fondation Maeght in Saint-Paul-de-Vence, France, in December 1970 and January 1971. This was followed Its relocation caused a general outcry, as much for by a presentation of the work at an exhibition devoted cultural as for political reasons. Opponents made the to the artist, by the Canadian Cultural Centre in Paris, accusation that, by agreeing to the move, the authorities and the Musée d’art moderne de la ville de Paris, in 1972. were favouring one of the city’s affluent neighbourhoods It was during this time that the idea was born to offer to the detriment of a working-class neighbourhood— the work to Montréal for the Summer Olympic Games Hochelaga-Maisonneuve. Furthermore, they argued (Keable 2009, 86). that its relocation went against an established principle of conservation, which dictates that a work of art should In 1974, La Joute was cast in bronze in Italy. Also, in not be separated from the environment for which it was February, integration of the artwork into the Olympic Park created. In 2002, a group of citizens formed the Comité was apparently proposed to Mayor Jean Drapeau by SOS La Joute to oppose the sculpture’s relocation, but in radiologist André G. Légaré, who spoke on behalf of vain. The fountain-sculpture was dismantled at the end himself and nine of his colleagues from the Vallée et of the year, to be restored and installed in the square associés clinic. The following year, during a meeting between the Palais des congrès and the new Caisse de between Dr. Champlain Charest, the artist and architect dépôt et placement du Québec building. It is clear that Roger Taillibert at the latter’s firm in Paris, the purchase this initiative undermined the integrity of the Olympic of La Joute by the doctors was confirmed, even though Park, and even more so as La Joute was the only work of the City of Montréal had still not followed up on the offer public art that had been integrated into the complex. The (Alvarez Hernandez 2018, 25). The proposal resurfaced urban furniture designed for the Games had a brighter in March 1976, this time being put to Québec’s Minister future. of Cultural Affairs, Jean-Paul L’Allier, who accepted the donation. On April 21, 1976, the Musée d’art contemporain, Urban furniture which had acquired La Joute, loaned it to RIO, which took on the responsibility of installing it. On July 16, two days The urban furniture of the Olympic Park, consisting of a following the destruction of Corridart, La Joute was very bench and waste container, is part of the BETA series of quietly inaugurated (Brien 1992, 19). It was installed close park furniture created by the artist François Dallegret to the entrance of Pie-IX metro station and Avenue Pierre- (born in 1937). After beginning architectural studies at the De Coubertin, where it was visible through the pilings École des beaux-arts in Paris, in 1958, where he had spent of the walkway that enclosed the garden at that height time at the Lemaresquier studio, Dallegret used his artistic (Fig. 37). practice to launch a criticism of architecture and the world

87 Fig. 38. BETA urban furniture sign, 1976, François Dallegret, designer.

88 Docomomo Québec | Montréal Olympic Park Heritage Study 9. Integrating Art Into the Summer Olympic Games

of objects. From the early 1960s onward, his “mechanical to equip the Olympic Park and Village (Le Devoir, drawings” were exhibited in Paris, where they caught the July 16, 2016). Dallaire, who was beginning his career as attention of a number of publishers. For about fifteen years, an industrial designer, also designed the Olympic torch, Dallegret pursued his reflection on the interaction between which was one of the most emblematic creations that man, the environment and technology - from which came contributed to the brand image of the Montréal Summer his Machinations. In 1965, he had produced La Machine, Olympics. Dallaire’s esthetic of simplicity and clarity, an interactive acoustic work that would be exhibited at represented in the logo for the event, and his consistency Expo 67. At the same time, he designed the pharmacy-bar- came under the purview of the Graphics and Design restaurant, Le Drug, located at 2130 Rue de la Montagne, in Directorate, within COJO. Montréal. In 1976, he created, for the cultural component of the Summer Olympic Games, the exhibition Diskobolite The official symbol of the Summer Games of the Dallegret at the Montreal Museum of Fine Arts. XXI Olympiad, pairing the five Olympic rings with a schematic of a podium, which could also be interpreted as The BETA park furniture project consisted of more than two the “M” in Montréal, was chosen by COJO in May 1972 elements, the bench and the waste container produced for and unveiled on August 22 at the Munich Olympic Games the 1976 Summer Olympic Games. It included “matchstick” (COJO 1978, vol. 1, 367). The symbol was designed by street lamps, fountains, planters and sandboxes as well as Georges Huel (1930–2002), who was close to Jean Drapeau modular benches and tables (Fig. 38). This series, based ever since he had been Drapeau’s graphic designer for on a versatile, resistant and durable design, reinvented the 1957 electoral campaign, and he had designed a traditional park furniture by using a basic “L‑shaped” number of posters, programs and coins for Expo 67 module, called a sabot, which could be placed vertically (COJO 1978, vol. 1, 314). When COJO set up a graphics or horizontally and used alone or with other modules, and design department to oversee the brand image for depending on the piece of furniture needed. A bench-table the Montréal Summer Olympic Games, Huel was asked could be created by attaching two perforated steel plates to to head it. His team proposed a very ambitious graphics two prefabricated concrete sabots with screw anchors. In program, ranging from the general stationery to the red or green colours, these versatile plates could be used as small temporary service buildings. It was responsible for a seat, backrest or table top, as needed. Two bench-tables designing an impressive variety of documents: posters, placed back to back formed a picnic table. activity programs, manuals, brochures, promotional material, certificates, stationery and more. The team’s The BETA series, which took its name from “BEnch- mandate also included designing uniforms, decorations, TAble,” was very representative of Dallegret’s work, being display material and booths, as well as signage for the both utilitarian and poetic. The furniture was installed, Games, not only for the competition venues but also for among other places, in the east part of the esplanade, the reception areas. Among the most emblematic designs, close to coloured dome-shaped tents, in the food area. it is worth mentioning the Olympic torch that, like the This ephemeral architecture was another facet of the work furniture for the Village, was created with the collaboration produced by the Graphics and Design Directorate within of Michel Dallaire. COJO.

At the time of the Games, on the site of the Olympic Park, there were about 30 yellow benches and waste containers and, in the Stadium, 11 red benches. In 2012, the furniture was touched up, with the metallic parts being repainted. For the Park’s 40th anniversary, the work was completed, in collaboration with François Dallegret; 20 new yellow bench-tables and 20 identical red ones were manufactured, in addition to 10 yellow and 10 red waste containers.

The Games’ logo and brand image

The urban furniture designed for the Games by François Dallegret was part of the components designed under the supervision of Michel Dallaire (born in 1942)

89 Docomomo Québec | Montréal Olympic Park Heritage Study

10. Completion and Use of the Olympic Stadium –

No sooner was the Olympic flame extinguished than a new life began for the Olympic Park: on August 12, 1976, the Velodrome hosted the Canadian Cycling Championships and on September 26 the Alouettes inaugurated professional football at the Stadium by playing against the Ottawa Rough Riders in front of 68,500 fans. With the Games over, new challenges awaited RIO: the operation and completion of the facilities as many were temporary or not finished, including the Stadium’s retractable roof and mast of which only seven floors had been erected. The building of this centrepiece took longer than expected and required many additional studies. For a little over 10 years, the Expos played in the open air. However, the installation of the mobile roof did not put an end to the matter. In 1991, due to the repeated tearing of the Kevlar membrane, RIO started to consider and ultimately in 1998 decided to cap the Stadium with a flexible but fixed membrane whose reliability, however, would prove to be no better.

90 Fig. 39. Raising the Olympic Stadium’s retractable roof, April 1987.

91 Docomomo Québec | Montréal Olympic Park Heritage Study 10. Completion and Use of the Olympic Stadium

Besides completing the facilities inherited from the Games, on Youth, Recreation and Sport and as such responsible RIO has always been focused on ensuring their full use for the Olympic facilities (“Biography: Claude Charron,” and profitability. RIO has redefined the Olympic Park’s Québec National Assembly). vocation more than once and as of the late 1980s has been focusing on the recreational tourism aspect. Ten years later, In January 1977, the Minister formed an advisory in 1999, a new master plan called for densification of the committee on the future of the Olympic facilities, site in order to develop the Pôle touristique Maisonneuve appointing as its chair Jean-Claude Marsan, an architect [Maisonneuve Tourist Hub] in collaboration with the City and urban planner, and director of Université de Montréal’s of Montréal. The turn of the new century also coincided École d’architecture. With the publication of his doctoral with a vast building rehabilitation program. In 2004, thesis in 1974, Montréal en évolution, Marsan opened the departure of the Expos required that the Stadium be Québec’s eyes to the importance of preserving the heritage repositioned in terms of marketing. In subsequent years, of Montréal, a city threatened by the major projects of the Sports Centre, which became the headquarters of the Drapeau administration, which he criticized through the Institut national du sport du Québec, was completely his participation in militant groups (Drouin 2005, 114). renovated and the esplanade revamped to transform the Helping him fulfill his mandate were Aimé Desautels, Olympic Park into a contemporary urban park. director of the Communauté urbaine de Montréal’s Service de planification and Jean Gérin-Lajoie, director of the After the Games Syndicat des métallos du Québec. Michel Caron, assistant deputy minister at the Ministère des Finances, served as an RIO did not wait for the Games to end before planning for associate member. The Minister specified in the mandate the future. By the spring of 1976, steps were being taken to that the committee’s recommendations should maximize prepare for the completion and operation of the Olympic use of the Olympic Park by the public, in general, and by facilities at Maisonneuve Park. Thus negotiations began to amateur athletes, in particular, and that they should “take lease the Stadium to the Expos and the Alouettes. As well, into account what is socially justifiable and economically on June 30, the Special Olympic Fund (FSO) was legally reasonable” (Comité consultatif chargé d'étudier l’avenir created to collect the funds needed to repay the loans taken des installations olympiques 1977, 1). out to finance the work completed for the Games. The close to $700 million debt would be recovered through a special In July, engineer Claude Rouleau, who managed to tobacco tax, Loto-Québec’s net income, and the proceeds complete construction of the Olympic complex just one of the disposal of RIO’s fixed assets (RIO, Rapport annuel day before the Games, left RIO to become president of 1976, 16, 17, 28, 32). Lavalin International (Allard 1990, 148) and was replaced by his colleague Robert Nelson. At the same time, the To fulfill its new mission after the Games, RIO created an Québec government set up a “comprehensive” commission operations department as part of its first reorganization. In of inquiry into the cost of the Summer Games of the addition, experts were hired to assess the completion work, XXI Olympiad and its Olympic facilities in Québec. The particularly the Stadium’s mast and mobile roof, estimated deadline of December 31, 1978 for the commission’s report at $70 million at the time. However, in the immediate would be extended to June 5, 1980. future, only essential work was performed in anticipation of football and baseball games. The natural grass was replaced The year 1977 marked the beginning of the Olympic by Astroturf (synthetic turf that became popular in the facilities’ new life (RIO, Rapport annuel 1977, 5). On 1960s). Permanent premises were made available to the January 15, cleared of their temporary spectator stands, Expos, Alouettes and RIO, public services were improved the pools were opened to the public. However, since the and areas were created for concession stands (RIO, Rapport competition pool’s uniform 2-metre depth was not suitable annuel 1976, 18, 19; Rapport annuel 1977, 6). for the new use, a partial floating floor, activated by a Bombardier manufactured device, was installed (Clairoux Moreover, the political context in which RIO was operating 2016, 128, Morin 1997, 155). Although it still did not have was turned upside down following the provincial elections a roof, on April 15, 1977, the Expos moved to the Stadium on November 15, 1976, when the Parti Québécois beat and attracted 57,592 fans for their first game of the season, the Liberal Party, which had been in power since the double the attendance at Jarry Park (Clairoux 2016, 134). beginning of the Olympic adventure in 1970. In René Lévesque's government, the young MNA Claude Charron During the summer, the first non-sporting events were was appointed Minister Responsible for the Commission held at the Olympic Stadium. In June, it turned into a giant

92 Docomomo Québec | Étude patrimoniale du Parc olympique de Montréal 10. Completion and Use of the Olympic Stadium

place of worship. Fifty thousand people attended the second least one year before resuming the work (Richard 1996, 2). congress of the Assemblée canadienne francophone du On December 20, 1978, MNA Charron publicly announced Renouveau charismatique catholique (Giguère). Following that construction would resume in the spring with a $65 the Parti Québécois’ victory, a first concert was organized million budget (Morin 1997, 158, 162, RIO, Rapport annuel in the Stadium’s enclosure to celebrate Saint-Jean-Baptiste 1979, 3; Richard 1996, 2). Over the course of 1978, $20 Day. Strong proponents of Québec nationalism, including million of other work to finish the Stadium, primarily popular singers Félix Leclerc, Robert Charlebois and technical in nature, had been performed (RIO, Rapport Diane Dufresne, accompanied by an orchestra of 45 annuel 1978, 8). musicians under the direction of François Cousineau, performed there. A few days later, on July 6, the group Completion of the facilities Pink Floyd ended its In the Flesh tour in Montreal in front of 78,322 fans (official count), not including the free riders, The erection of the Stadium mast was planned in three the largest audience ever at the Stadium (Clairoux 2016, stages, with completion slated for early 1981. After the five 146–155 ). floors reserved for sports, the nine floors of office space had to be completed. Then the storage niche to hold the On October 7, 1977, the Marsan Committee submitted retracted roof, next to the engine room would be built, its report with 13 recommendations. The first advocated along with the four levels of the summit, including the making the Olympic Park a sports and recreation venue, lookout. While it was planned for the fall of 1982 (RIO, paying special attention to the needs of the population Rapport annuel 1979, 7), the roof installation would take an of Montréal East and downtown. By suggesting that the additional five years due to the stability problems identified eastern part of the site be reserved for amateur athletes during construction, and the roof would ultimately not be and the western part for profitable commercial activities, completed according to Roger Taillibert’s plans. the report confirmed the long-expected use for the Olympic Park. For the vacant built spaces in the Stadium Technical and functional validation studies continued and the Olympic Park totalling over one million square throughout 1979. The snow-load resistance of the roof was 2 feet (114,921 m ) highlighted in the report as having examined by the National Research Council of Canada. “impressive development potential,” it was suggested that In addition, the Institut des sports du Québec stated its it be used to meet the needs of external organizations, i.e. needs in order to verify whether the mast could house its to accommodate the physical education departments and services (Dion 1979). A similar exercise was carried out for sports equipment of UQAM and Concordia University, the RIO’s offices (Côté 1979), for which the premises would administrative services and facilities of bodies recognized ultimately be built under the walkway that connects to the by the Haut-Commissariat, and the administrative and entrance of the Pie-IX metro station (RIO, Rapport annuel production units of Radio-Québec. To place the issue 1984, 3). It was also planned to create a sports centre “for in perspective, the Place Ville Marie tower in downtown public use and for colleges and universities to train elite Montréal occupies 1.5 million square feet. Lastly, the athletes” (Sieber 1980). Marsan report recommended repurposing some of the parking lots and exploring the possibility of using the air In June, the Compagnie Les Formes du Québec Ltd. / rights above the Pie-IX parking lot. Sabrice Ltd. consortium began the task of completing construction of the mast by resuming the erection of its However, the committee members were divided on the topic cast-in-place structure, composed of three gigantic curved of the Stadium roof. While the two members recommended beams, connected by high Vierendeel trusses in the lower that the roof be completed according to the original design, floors. However, as the work progressed, serious concerns even if this option required an additional investment of arose as to the structure’s stability; a deficiency in the $41 million, committee chair Marsan advised covering the prestressed concrete was confirmed at the base of the front stadium with a fixed or movable roof, the additional cost of part of the mast. When Atlas Construction Inc. began which should be limited to $15 million. (Comité consultatif phase two of the work one year later, the engineers revised chargé d’étudier l’avenir des installations olympiques 1977, their diagnosis. I-V, 26, 30). Given the magnitude of the problem, in October 1980, In February 1978, the government opted to complete the Lucien Saulnier, who had headed the City of Montréal’s mast and Stadium roof according to Roger Taillibert’s plans Executive Committee from 1960 to 1969, the Communauté but in light of the cost involved, imposed a moratorium of at urbaine from 1970 to 1972 and several government agencies

93 Docomomo Québec | Montréal Olympic Park Heritage Study 10. Completion and Use of the Olympic Stadium

afterwards and who was now at the helm of RIO, asked the with technical modifications, including the choice of Société d’énergie de la Baie James (SEBJ) to conduct studies steel to complete the mast structure, so as to reduce its on the feasibility of the initial design. This mandate was weight, thus compensating for a full load of snow on the modified during the year as new structural weaknesses roof, which in turn would limit the stress on its base and were detected, for example, the neoprene bearing pads neoprene bearing pads. Another advantage of the second of the front legs of the mast had aged prematurely (RIO, option was the speed of construction (Lavalin November Rapport annuel 1981, n.p.) Founded in 1971, the SEBJ, a 1984, vol. 1, 4–1, 37, 41). In the economic analysis, the latter subsidiary of government corporation Hydro-Québec, solution was preferred because like the Toronto CN Tower builds electricity generation and transmission facilities. As and the Calgary Tower, it would allow Montréal to have a prime contractor for the James Bay hydroelectric complex “prestigious infrastructure” that would generate significant in northern Québec, it had extensive engineering and economic benefits as a tourist attraction (Lavalin December construction expertise. In December 1980, construction 1984). Thus on March 15, 1985, Socodec Lavalin signed a was stopped at level 372 of the mast and the phase 2 and 3 $117.7 million fixed-price contract to complete the facilities contracts were terminated. The mast now rose nine storeys by May 1987 (RIO, Rapport annuel 1985, 2). This contract above the swim centre (RIO, Rapport annuel 1980, 9). included a 10-year warranty on the opening and closing of the Kevlar roof (Phaneuf, “Les 4 toits”; Clairoux 2016, 260). In August 1981, the SEBJ submitted its final two-part report: the first established the feasibility of the original The double-walled elements of the mast’s monocoque steel design notwithstanding the problems observed and structure were manufactured by Sométal of Rimouski, a provided that certain aspects of the project were studied subsidiary of Marine Industries Limited, a company based further; the second provided alternatives to the original in Sorel-Tracy, Québec, that specialized in shipbuilding, project, including cost and schedule implications. With the dredging, boiler making and smelting (“Marine Industries collaboration of numerous consultants, four fixed roofing Limited,” Répertoire du patrimoine culturel du Québec). formulas were considered (SEBJ 1981, Richard 1996, 3-4). To unify its appearance, an exterior coating was applied directly to the double-wall steel shell (Lavalin, November Finally, in February 1982, RIO proposed a fifth solution to 1984, vol. 1, 4–37, 4–38). the government: a fixed Kevlar roof supported by the mast reinforced by a central support and minus the last few floors The hoisting mechanism of the Kevlar canvas, which had to reduce its weight. However, after receiving and agreeing been in storage since 1975, first in France, then at the to RIO’s recommendation, on June 3, 1982, Premier René Stadium, was not installed at the top of the mast, behind Lévesque announced a moratorium on construction due to the storage niche but at its base, just above the pools. the economic situation (RIO, Rapport annuel 1982, 4). It This repositioning required longer, thicker and therefore was at this time that the concrete surfaces of the consoles, heavier cables. According to RIO and Lavalin, this solution the thin concrete shell of the Stadium and shells of the respected Roger Taillibert’s original design since the swim centre were waterproofed with the application of changes made to improve the chances of success were only a limestone-coloured polyurethane membrane (RIO, technical in nature (RIO, Rapport annuel 1985, 2). Rapport annuel 1983, 2; service agreements). On November 18, 1986, under the direction of Marine Two years later, in 1984, as the lifting of the moratorium Industries, the hoisting of the caisson ceiling of the canvas approached, two firms submitted service offers to complete storage niche, a 380-tonne giant metal component, was the Stadium mast and roof. In June, consulting engineering quite an event (Fig. 41) and indeed a first in the world firm Lavalin was ultimately awarded a fixed-price contract according to Bernard Lamarre (La Presse, November 16, in order to avoid “nasty surprises” (Richard 1996, 5). The 1986). A few days later, on November 26, the textile cover, studies then resumed, with validation of the plans and which had been assembled in a warehouse in Ville Saint- specifications, and the reservations concerning the roof Pierre, a suburb of Montréal, was transported in the middle membrane and its installation were lifted (RIO, Rapport of the night to the Stadium on a 68-metre long, 4-axle annuel 1984, 2). flatbed. On February 3, 1987, the traditional spruce tree was planted at the top of the Olympic Stadium Tower to The reports submitted at the end of the year envisaged two mark the end of the structural work. In mid-April, in front options: install a fixed roof suspended from a shortened of thousands of curious onlookers, the 65-tonne canvas mast and reinforced at its base by a central leg (Lavalin mobile roof was hoisted and put in place (RIO, Rapport November 1984, vol. 1, 4–23–24); keep the original design, annuel 1986, 2). On April 20, 1987, the new Expos season

94 Fig. 40. Olympic Stadium Tower in construction, 1980.

95 Fig. 41. Hoisting the caisson ceiling of the Olympic Stadium Tower niche, November 1986.

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began in a covered stadium. Officially open to the public on equipped with a new concrete floor complete with a dense November 21, the Observatory was visited by over 38,000 network of service outlets and covered with a removable people in its first two months of operation (RIO, Rapport synthetic surface (RIO, Rapport annuel 1988, 4). One of annuel 1987, 4). The funicular, which provides access to the the priorities in the first master plan adopted by RIO in top floor of the tower located 165 metres above the ground, 1990 was to improve the quality of user services. In order travels 265 metres on the backbone, a uniquely shaped to be less dependent on sports-related revenue, it focused curved route, in two minutes. Made in Switzerland, the on recreation and tourism. While the Olympic Park has two-storey cable car can accommodate 76 passengers. The always attracted visitors (RIO, Rapport annuel 1977, Tourist Hall at the rear base of the mast providing access 4), the Observatory opened in 1987 was an additional to the lower station of the funicular, would be completed in asset. The Plan directeur 1990-1993 [1990-1993 Master the months that followed (RIO, Rapport annuel 1988, 10). Plan] marked a shift to recreational tourism: with its neighbours, the Jardin botanique and Maisonneuve Park, In the meantime, the mobile roof had been hoisted for the Olympic Park was to become “the place for sports, the first time on October 12, 1987. It was hoped that by recreation and the environment” (RIO, Rapport annuel completing the facilities, the Olympic Park would be 1986, 2; Rapport annuel 1991, 4). RIO made sure to more profitable in the future as the Stadium's indoor work with neighbourhood organizations since it wanted enclosure would attract “huge” crowds for trade shows to contribute to the development of Greater Montréal, and performances, and the inclined tower, the highest in especially in the City’s east end (RIO, Rapport annuel the world, would attract millions of visitors a year (RIO, 1990, 3–4). Rapport annuel 1987, 2). However, this hope was short- lived due to the unexpected fragility of the canvas. In June During the 1990-1991 off-season, the Expos’ main 1988, the Kevlar ripped during a manoeuvre and would owner Charles Bronfman put the club up for sale. In do so many times again due to wind. When a violent order to prevent the sale to U.S. interests, the Olympic thunderstorm hit the Montréal area on June 27, 1991, Park had to promise the future buyer, a consortium of the canvas ripped, leaving a 120 metre hole. This event Québec companies and institutions, that it would invest led RIO “to rethink the very design of this roof, whose $30 million to improve the experience of both baseball effectiveness is essential to making the facilities profitable.” players and fans. The field was brought closer to the (RIO, Rapport annuel 1991, 6). Meanwhile, in 1989, on stands, whose general configuration was modified: the the occasion of the Eiffel Tower’s 100th anniversary, RIO grandstand encircling the baseball diamond was removed participated in the founding of the World Federation of on the mast site (reducing the total capacity from 60,011 Great Towers, an international association that showcases to 43,739), while on the ground, two mobile stands were these gravity-defying monuments that rise ever higher in added to bring viewers closer to the game. In addition, a the sky (great-towers.com). new giant colour video screen was installed (RIO, Rapport annuel 1991, 5; Rapport annuel 1993, 9; Clairoux 2016, A multipurpose site and a new roof 310). Moreover, only a few weeks after the major rip in the roof, on September 13, 1991, a 55-tonne “clé de sol” With the completion of the facilities and the new beam fell from a support beam and crashed down onto challenges facing RIO, the 1980s proved to be the right the esplanade, causing the Stadium to close for over two time to redefine the vocation of the Olympic Park. Since months while all the bowl’s beam brackets at the consoles the middle of the decade, baseball attendance had been were inspected. The problem was specific in nature, declining and, on November 9, 1986, the Alouettes played the anchor bars had been poorly welded; however, all their last regular season game at the Stadium (RIO, the beams were reinforced for the opening of the 1993 Rapport annuel 1986, 2, 4). In addition, the Velodrome had baseball season (RIO, Rapport annuel 1991, 5–6; Rapport become obsolete, having been created for a “dying” sport, annuel 1993, 9). “unseated by recreational cycling in a green environment” (RIO, Rapport annuel 1987, 3), and the trade shows market In order to explore the causes of the tearing, an international had become less profitable. The Olympic Park had been committee of experts was formed, chaired by Robert A. facing competition from the new Palais des congrès in Boyd (RIO, Rapport annuel 1991, 5, 7), a retired engineer downtown Montréal since 1983 (RIO, Rapport annuel who had held key positions at Hydro-Québec since the 1984, 2). 1960s, culminating with president and CEO. In the report submitted in May 1992, the committee concluded that the To attract trade shows, in 1988, the Stadium parterre was roof needed to be replaced (Richard 1996, 9). Since it was

97 Docomomo Québec | Montréal Olympic Park Heritage Study 10. Completion and Use of the Olympic Stadium

not possible to immediately develop and implement a new annuel 1996, 4). The Dominion Bridge-Structuras project design, the sustainability of the existing roof had to be was therefore abandoned. In September, as part of a call for ensured through reinforcement and monitoring (Comité tenders, RIO asked two interested consortia, SNC-Lavalin d’experts internationaux 1992). Also, the firm Socodec/ and Birdair-Rousseau, Sauvé, Warren, to submit a proposal SNC-Lavalin was responsible for reinforcement of the for the Stadium roof. Ultimately, the $37 million proposal canvas and maintenance of the roof (RIO, Rapport annuel of the U.S. firm Birdair was retained (RIO, Rapport annuel 1992, 8). 1997, 4).

As well, preliminary studies of the new roof were Birdair is a leading specialty contractor for custom undertaken. Several firms, including Structuras, were hired tensile fabric structures throughout the world. Its many to design the structure. Many solutions were explored and accomplishments include the Haj Terminal (1981, SOM) the entire process was supervised by a validation committee in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia, the partial cover for the Rome made up of several engineers and one architect. Finally, it Olympic Stadium (1990, Italproggetti S.r.l.) and the Georgia was recommended that a steel-framed roof be used to close Dome (1992, Heery International) in Atlanta located on the Stadium dome, a “proven” solution whose construction 40 hectares of land, making it a structure with the largest would be authorized on May 5, 1993 by the Conseil des cable-supported dome in the world. In Montréal, the teflon- ministres with a limited budget of $57.2 million. After coated fibreglass roof covered an area of approximately two further verifications, in September 1994, the contracts hectares and was supported by a framework consisting of were awarded to the companies tasked with dismantling 1,755 cables (RIO, Rapport annuel 1998, 11). the existing roof and installing the new one (Richard 1996, 10-15). However, following the general election won by the Installed in 1998, the Birdair roof ripped on January Parti Québécois in September 1994, the new steel-framed 18, 1999, while workers were setting up the Auto Show roof was called into question. On October 17, Rita Dionne- (Clairoux 2016, 342); one of its 63 modular elements Marsolais, Minister for Tourism and Minister responsible collapsed under the weight of the snow. While lawsuits for RIO in Jacques Parizeau’s cabinet, ordered that the work were filed against Birdair in 2002, a new roof replacement be suspended for a month to evaluate the consequences of process was initiated, this time based on a formula where a prolonged postponement (to identify the risks associated the future designer and builder would be responsible for its with temporarily extending the life of the existing roof). maintenance for 20 years (RIO, Rapport annuel 2002, n.p.). The government wanted to give itself time to check the A replacement for the roof is still being studied today. costs and stability of the new roof. It was ultimately decided to again delay the work, this time for about a year, during Renovation and densification of the which time the retractable roof held in a fixed position was Olympic Park carefully monitored (Richard 1996, 15-16). Over time, RIO had streamlined its activities to focus on An advisory committee chaired by Université de Sherbrooke its mission of managing the Olympic Park. In 1992, after professor Kenneth C. Johns was created on February 27, 1995, selling Centre Paul-Sauvé located on Beaubien Street in to make recommendations on a cost-effective replacement Rosemont, which it had acquired in 1978, RIO divested roof that respects the aesthetics of the original project and itself of the Velodrome, a facility that despite its versatility delivers the best performance. The results of the studies was underused and that had been transformed into the showed that the projected fixed steel roof was ill suited to the Biodôme for the City of Montréal’s 350th anniversary. existing Stadium frame, as the interaction with the consoles In 1998, it also sold the Olympic Village, which it had and the mast posed a problem (the junctions between the owned since April 1976 (RIO, Rapport annuel 1992, 2, 8). cantilevered concrete frame, hence dynamic, and the steel As the decade drew to a close, RIO tabled a new strategic structure being provided by hydropneumatic cylinders, plan (RIO, Rapport annuel 1999, 4). To make up for the the solution in its current design was unsatisfactory). In departure of the Expos, which occupied the Stadium seven addition, it changed the general appearance of the building months a year, it sought to reposition the Olympic Park by (Comité aviseur 1996; Rapport annuel 1996, 3–4, 44–46). trying to shed its image associated with the 1976 Olympic Submitted in spring 1996, the final report, expanded to Games. It focused on recreational tourism, performances include a review of alternative solutions, recommended “a and receptions, while contending with competition flexible, light non-mobile roof that is compatible with the from the Molson Centre (now the Bell Centre) opened in Stadium’s structure” (RIO, Rapport annuel 1995, 5; Rapport downtown, in 1993, and a growing number of festivals. It

98 Docomomo Québec | Étude patrimoniale du Parc olympique de Montréal 10. Completion and Use of the Olympic Stadium

also tried to forge partnerships with private developers to Following RIO's adoption of a 10-year real estate asset compensate for the gradual decline in government grants management plan in 2002, work began to repair the (Huberdeau 1998). concrete structures of the underground parking lots and would continue until 2006. Then in 2003–2004, the original These orientations were translated by Daniel Arbor et copper cover of the Stadium dome was replaced with a Associés into a development master plan that focused similar-coloured polyvinyl chloride membrane, a material on three action areas: preservation, consolidation and that allows the snow to slide off the roof (RIO, Rapport development. With regards to the first, no construction annuel 2003, 6). In 2008, work to renovate and modernize would be allowed along Sherbrooke Street, the eastern line the networks and technical systems began (RIO, Rapport of sight to the Tower and the ground links to Rue Viau and annuel 2008, 10). Maisonneuve Park. The esplanade overlooking the west parking lot would be transformed into a garden. Finally, In 2006, the Olympic Park was selected as the site for a for the eastern part of the district, it was suggested that 12,500-seat stadium for the Montréal Impact, a soccer more recreational facilities be created, with the addition of, club founded in 1992 by the Saputo family, which made its among other things, a movie theatre added behind the Viau fortune in the dairy industry. To this end, a 31,640 m2 lot at metro station and a hotel at the corner of Rue Sherbrooke the corner of Rue Sherbrooke and Rue Viau was transferred and Rue Viau (Arbor 1999). under a 40-year emphyteutic lease (RIO, Rapport annuel 2006, 2; Rapport annuel 2007, 3). The following year, the A 17-theatre cinema complex, built by France Film and new sports facility was built on the site previously occupied Famous Players, was inaugurated in 2000. The Planétarium by the athletics track, straddling the line of site to the Tower, de Montréal, located in the downtown area since 1966, which in 1999 Daniel Arbor et Associés had recommended would then move. Inaugurated in 2013, this facility, to preserve in the development master plan. which complemented the other nearby city museums, the Biodôme, the Jardin botanique and the Insectarium The middle of the decade also saw the refurbishment of opened in 1990, would strengthen the “Pôle touristique the Sports Centre with the addition of a training pool to Maisonneuve” [Maisonneuve Tourist Hub] (RIO, Rapport the existing pools (RIO, Rapport annuel 2005, 2). Due annuel 1999, 4). to the creation of the Centre d'entraînement des sports aquatiques du Québec, the diving equipment was also The Expos’ announced became a reality in 2002 (RIO, upgraded (RIO, Rapport annuel 2006, 2). This initiative Rapport annuel 2004, 2). They were not moving to a funded by the Québec government was only a first step new downtown stadium, as envisioned in 1996, but to towards bringing high-level amateur sport to the Olympic Washington (Doucet 2015, 960, 1177). One club was Park. In 2010, the Institut national du sport du Québec leaving, others were coming: in 2004, the national women’s synchronized swimming and water polo teams chose to was created to provide athletes and coaches with support come and train at the Olympic Complex Sports Centre. services and training facilities that meet international standards. Set up in the Olympic Park with a budget of In 2004, it was announced that after being vacant for almost some $25 million, it also received $29.5 million from RIO 20 years, the Tower was leased. The Québec government as part of its Plan quinquennal d’immobilisations 2010- and Busac Real Estate were partnering to invest almost $45 2015 [5-year capital plan], enabling the Institut to overhaul million to transform 12 floors into office space. Although the space and sports facilities at the base of the Montréal work began on the project, it was ultimately cancelled. Tower for the benefit of both elite athletes and the public.

The new century saw the densification of the Olympic This desire to become more entrenched in the community Park. The time had also come to plan for the renovation or led the RIO board of directors to form, in May 2011, demolition of the facilities inherited from the 1976 Games. an advisory committee to reflect on the future of the The techniques and cost of tearing town the Stadium and Olympic Park. When the time came to choose a new roof the mast were examined in 2003–2004. Such a process is far for the Stadium, it was important that it meet its current from being “simple and inexpensive”; “while the demolition and potential uses (Comité-conseil sur l'avenir du Parc by implosion of such a massive structure using explosives is olympique 2012, 39). The committee was chaired by theoretically possible, it is impossible in practice,” given its former journalist Lise Bissonnette who, as the first CEO prestressed concrete construction. It would have negative of the Bibliothèque et Archives nationales du Québec, had effects on the area around the building according to a study spearheaded the construction of the Grande bibliothèque updated in 2009 (Seguin 2009). in Montréal (2000-2006).

99 Docomomo Québec | Montréal Olympic Park Heritage Study 10. Completion and Use of the Olympic Stadium

The year 2011 was marked by change. In July, David the Esplanade increased, both in winter and summer. At Heurtel, an attorney specializing in event marketing, was the end of 2016, after Desjardins Group leased seven floors appointed to head RIO, a move that breathed new life into of the Montréal Tower, which had been vacant since its the organization (RIO, Rapport annuel 2011, 6, 7). At the completion in 1987, a huge crane was brought on site to end of August, he proposed an ambitious action plan to bring the space up to standard and renovate its exterior “make the Olympic Park a world reference in modern envelope. The old curtain wall gave way to a new more urban parks, a unique crossroad where creation, discovery, transparent one to provide natural light and comfort to the entertainment and physical activity come together.” The future occupants of the AccèsD offices replacing the sports following summer, for the first time in 35 years and like the facilities that had been planned in 1972. Quartier des Spectacles and the Vieux-Port de Montréal, the esplanade came alive thanks to a program of family Since then, the newly renovated Olympic Park continues and sports activities and temporary facilities funded by to build on its momentum. With the arrival of a thousand the private sector, in particular Sun Life Financial. In employees in the Tower in 2018, the Olympic Park has addition, new configurations for the Stadium’s enclosure become the site of choice for electric mobility and micro- were studied in order to accommodate a greater diversity mobility pilot projects and has welcomed a new generation of events (RIO, Rapport annuel 2012, 9–13, 18). of event promoters to the Esplanade and the Olympic Stadium. The Québec government has also approved the After conducting province-wide consultations and continuation of work to replace the enclosure roof, while commissioning a number of studies, the Comité-conseil hundreds of millions of dollars are being invested in capital sur l’avenir du Parc olympique submitted its report projects to renovate and modernize the facilities. The in December 2012. First, it confirmed RIO’s national history of the Park continues to be written, day after day. mission in terms of “the promotion and territorial coordination of recreation and sports at all levels, except professional.” Then, it outlined the Park’s future in terms of major facilities for amateur and school sports and as a “family and educational destination capable of attracting international tourism and accommodating the public in the neighbouring areas.” In order to fulfill this mission, the facilities had to be upgraded and open spaces enhanced, fostering the link between science, nature and culture. The report also recommended consulting with the sports and recreational organizations on the premises, in particular, the nature museums of the Pôle Maisonneuve district, and with the general public, not just neighbouring area residents, although it was hoped the Park would have a special appeal for them. The constructability of the vacant spaces of the Montréal Tower had to be explored and as regards replacing the Stadium roof, proposals for mobile roofs had to be examined provided “they were consistent with the building’s original design.” Concerned about respect for the Olympic Park’s architectural integrity, the report recommended that the Olympic Park be granted heritage status under the Québec Cultural Heritage Act (Comité-conseil sur l’avenir du Parc olympique 2012, 38).

In September 2014, the opening of the Institut national du sport du Québec and, a few months later, in May 2015, the inauguration of the fully renovated Sports Centre, reinforced the Olympic Park’s sports vocation, in the spirit of the committee’s report, although the decisions leading to their development were made before its submission. During the years 2013-2016, the entertainment programming for

100 Fig. 42. The renovated Montréal Tower, August 2018.

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11. The Reception to the Montréal Olympic Stadium –

How did the public and the professional community react to the Olympics celebration in July 1976 and how have they since enjoyed the Olympic facilities at Maisonneuve Park? To what extent has the Olympic Park become a familiar place for Montrealers in particular and Quebecers in general? How does the tourism industry view the Stadium and its tower?

The construction of architect Roger Taillibert’s project was covered by many architectural and engineering magazines, both local and international. However, the number of specialized articles is small compared to the coverage in Montréal, Québec and Canadian newspapers. With their punchy headlines and tone, many articles passed judgment on the news that formed the main substance of the press coverage. Although it was completed only 11 years after the Games and the roof replacement is still pending, the Olympic Park is not just an endless construction site and a source of controversy. It is also a venue for recreation and entertainment. A huge sports facility and a massive exhibition and performance hall, the Stadium has attracted the general public for thousands of events, many of them memorable. The Montréal Tower, the tallest inclined tower in the world, is a tourist attraction that has become a symbol of the metropolis worldwide.

102 Fig. 43. The Esplanade during a concert by the Orchestre symphonique de Montréal, August 14, 2014.

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The Canadian architectural press rather flattering. The journal would reiterate this positive view in its 25th anniversary issue, citing the Stadium and The architectural press has never been very well developed the Velodrome among the remarkable achievements of in Canada. About half a dozen magazines sprouted when the last quarter century and lamenting not the choice of a the Montréal Olympics became a hot topic. Among them foreign architect but the selection method (TCA 1980, 42). were Architecture Canada, the new title of the venerable Journal of the Royal Architectural Institute of Canada In the September issue of TCA, architect John Hix presents (JRAIC), the Canadian Building, edited by Maclean- the Stadium and the Velodrome. He compares the first to Hunter, and Southam’s The Canadian Architecture (TCA), the Rome Colosseum, calling its construction technique a more cultural than technical publication. In Québec, “fascinating” and comparing the visual experience Architecture Concept took over from the very first French offered by its spaces to that evoked by etchings of the publication, Architecture Bâtiment Construction (ABC), famous architect Giovanni Battista Piranesi. He sees in and its only competitor was Bâtiment (Vanlaethem the pool dome an “incredible feat of engineering” and in 2008). All the articles focused on the construction of the the Rue Sherbrooke viaduct an “example of extravagant Olympic facilities but mostly in an informative way; few expressionism” (Hix 1976, 35, 42). In the article on the delved into the project and even fewer approached it from Velodrome, Hix delves into the link with history, noting a critical angle. that the Olympic complex has “visual similarities with the utopian visions of Bruno and Max Taut or the work The only article published by Bâtiment on the Olympics of Eric Mendelsohn” (representatives of expressionist was in January 1972. It covered Parc des Princes in architecture of the 1920s), Taillibert having “realized Paris, with its “revolutionary characteristics” (15–17). their dream.” Hix likens Taillibert to such contemporaries The remainder contained only brief news. In April 1973, as Paul Rudolph, Paolo Soleri, Eero Saarinen and Jørn Architecture Concept published a “Dossier Taillibert,” Utzon, while pointing out that Saarinen’s TWA terminal penned by D. Daignault following a trip to Paris. In it in New York and Utzon’s Sydney Opera House date from the author begins by informing the reader that he could 1950s (Hix 1976, 47). not obtain, as hoped, more details on the architectural concept of the Olympic Stadium than what was disclosed In the September 1976 issue of TCA, Professor Paul in the famous presentation of April 6, 1972. He writes: Sandori considers the Olympic complex to be the “Mr. Taillibert fears the Québec press like the plague culmination of research carried out by Taillibert through and has been very reluctant to explain the technique his achievements, seeing in the pool of Boulevard Carnot that will be used to make this white elephant feasible,” in Paris, the Chamonix sports centre and Parc des adding that aside from highlighting the future benefits Princes, precedents to its three main components and of the Stadium for the city, Taillibert had told him that stating at the outset that the Parisian stadium is “the most he “was sure that he was one of just a few architects who remarkable sports building since Nervi’s achievements could build a stadium of this size so economically.” Also, at the Rome Olympics” (Sandori 1976, 56). He notes, somewhat resentfully, Daignault presents Taillibert’s however, that these early works are much smaller and main achievements, the swimming pool in Deauville and goes on to highlight some of the problems encountered the one on Boulevard Carnot, in Paris. In conclusion, in the development of the Montréal structures, referring he questions the suitability of the retractable roofing to an article by a former Taillibert collaborator, engineer system in Montréal considering the size of the space to Kazimierz Flaga. He points out that Taillibert’s penchant be covered and the city’s harsh climate. He writes that in for curved, asymmetrical lines and surfaces, “beautiful choosing Taillibert, Drapeau opted for experience over forms” in his view, cannot be reconciled with “economical local collaboration (Daignault 1973, 17, 20). use of concrete” (Sandori 1976, 58).

The most consistent contribution in the Canadian press The international architectural press was by The Canadian Architect. Despite an introduction that describes Montrealers as ambivalent, lamenting the Montréal and Québec are rarely covered in international hiring of a Parisian architect and escalating costs while architecture journals. While the construction of the simultaneously congratulating the mayor for putting Olympic facilities certainly captured the attention of the Montréal on the map, the 30-odd page, heavily-illustrated foreign trade press, it did not do so to the same extent article, published in September 1976, is on the whole as the complex that profoundly transformed the face of

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downtown Montréal, Place Ville Marie (1958–1966), the In October 1975, Architecture française ran a story on the first Canadian build to make the news in an American construction of the Olympic complex, highlighting the journal, or Expo 67 for that matter (Vanlaethem et al., 2012, difficulties encountered along the way: “the complexity 135–139; Lortie, 180–189). Among French magazines, of the financing and construction,” “exceptionally tight Galerie des Arts was particularly attuned to Roger schedules,” strikes and inflation, all factors that sparked Taillibert’s achievements. However, the reviews were not “fears that the project would not be completed.” But always positive. Thus, the English design press provided Taillibert maintained that it would be finished on time the mouthpiece for the assault led by the Montréal Citizens’ (ultimately without him, since RIO would be created in Movement (MCM) on the grand Olympics project and its November). promoter, Jean Drapeau’s administration. After the Games, in February 1977, Architecture française In Galerie des Arts’ October 1973 issue devoted to “10 featured an interview of Taillibert by architect Claude years of architecture and urban planning in France,” the Parent, who congratulated him on winning the Grand magazine published an interview with Roger Taillibert Prix national de l’architecture in 1976. The piece contained in which the architect talked about his current projects, many drawings and photographs of Montréal’s Olympic including the one in Montréal. Three years later, in facilities. Parent wrote: “Roger Taillibert represents the March, on the eve of the Olympics, it published a series of perfect type of architect, one who does not want to concede articles that were more political than architectural. After any of the profession’s prerogatives and whose goal, first describing the concept, editor-in-chief André Parinaud and foremost, is to inspire and to take technological recounted how Jean Drapeau’s project became a “backstage innovation to the next level” (Parent 1977, 3). battle,” “a battleground of labour struggles and rivalries” and the major political machinations that had led to The few articles published in the English press (no articles RIO’s creation, echoing the characterization by the Paris on Montréal’s Olympic facilities in Montréal were found press of the event as an “Olympic Western.” Despite this in American journals) couldn’t be more different. In the “display of so much corruption and so little virtue” that January 1975 issue of Design journal, Pamela Fergusson undermined the “Olympic myth,” the author concludes: began her editorial on the Olympics by observing that “The result of these three years will undoubtedly be the Montrealers knew all there was to know about the politics most beautiful Olympic complex that anyone has ever seen. and economics associated with the grandiose design, Roger Taillibert’s high style architecture will transcend contrasting the mayor’s major projects, Expo 67 and the all human pettiness, like the builders of cathedrals, who Olympics to the fact that 20% of the population lived erected monuments of their faith during the abominable in poverty. Middle Ages. Architecture is a pure creation of the mind” (Galerie des arts 15, 90). Even more critical was Peter Marsh’s piece in the June 1976 issue of Building Design called “Madness in Montreal.” The In August–September 1976, Travaux, a periodical geared author begins by saying that two cranes would remain in more to the construction industry than to the field of place for the Games, symbols both of the desire to finish architecture, devoted a section to the Olympic facilities the Stadium according to the original design and the in Montréal. While lamenting France’s poor showing in major, inexcusable errors of the six years of preparation. competitive sports, the journal considered the country’s The author does not challenge the size of the buildings contribution to the built environment to be “one of our but underscores the risk of fire at the Velodrome due to finest medals” (31). In addition to a descriptive article, it its acrylic skylights, the terrorist threat to the Olympic published two technical contributions on the Olympic Village, the complexity of the Stadium’s design, which structures. In the first, Daniel Demarthe reveals the uses non-standard elements, the defects in its technical project’s most remarkable aspects: the prefabrication, ring, many sections of which were not connected, the the control methods with regard to the set-up and inappropriate height of the wall surrounding the arena, levelling, both during in-factory prefabrication and on the cost overruns in order to quickly finish construction, site, and finally, the removal of the formwork used for the and more: “a horror story” (Marsh 1976, 12). He concludes Velodrome shell. In the second, P. Rigny describes the by quoting those who lamented the lack of rental housing problems posed by the nature of the soil and the resulting and community facilities, on the one hand, and COJO’s solutions, particularly for the retaining wall on Rue president, who welcomed the spread of the Olympic Sherbrooke. movement, on the other. Although less severe, the same

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tone surfaces in a piece in the Swiss magazine Werk / “Barring unforeseen circumstances, the Olympics will not Œuvre, published a year earlier, where the presentation of cost a penny” (Le Petit Journal, May 17, 1970). Drapeau’s the project begins with criticism of the architect selection claim that the Games would be “humble,” “modest” and process and the architecture of the Olympic complex, “inexpensive” was a constant refrain (Montreal Star, April described as “‘Spirou architecture’ due to its flashy 5, 1970, The Gazette, May 12, 1970). Newspapers lavished appearance” (1975, 735). This magazine was also skeptical praise on Drapeau: Drapeau, “Superman” (Montréal about the work being completed on time. matin, May 16, 1970), “Jean, the conqueror" (Toronto Daily Star, May 13, 1970). The Gazette (May 5, 1970) saw in the The daily press before the Games IOC vote “the ultimate test of the mayor’s magic.” Some, however, were worried about the departure of Lucien The Olympic Park was an ongoing topic of interest in Saulnier, Jean Drapeau’s “fiscal-policing right-hand man” the Montréal and Québec daily press since Mayor Jean (La Presse, May 26, 1970). Drapeau’s first bid in 1966. The articles published shed light on public sentiment during a series of contrasting events Another issue that quickly surfaced and that was and situations, from the unexpected acquisition in early constantly reignited is the secrecy that surrounded 1970 of the Games, which were supposed to be “modest,” the preparation of the Olympics. After “ten months of and the high-profile unveiling of the Cité olympique silence,” on March 22, 1971, The Gazette welcomed the project, developed elsewhere in May 1972, to the conflict- fact that the City’s and COJO's intentions had finally been ridden construction, started in the spring of 1973 and revealed. Admittedly, the English-language newspapers completed in a rush the day before the opening ceremony were not very receptive to the Games. Neither were some of July 17, 1976. This vast construction, Drapeau’s last mayors of the cities on the west part of the island, nor the big project, cannot be judged separately from his persona federal government, as wrote Jerry Trudel in the Montréal and regime. Matin issue of February 27, 1972: the Games revealed the “mayor’s megalomania”; they were a “luxury that we can’t Montréal’s victory in May 1970 was greeted with almost afford”; they were going to be expensive for the general unanimous enthusiasm, especially since the City had been public, who would have to pay for them. Another bone of waiting for the Games “since 1900” (La Presse, May 8, 1970) contention was the choice of a French architect. On March and had little chance of winning the bid. It had to survive 30, 1972, the headlines of La Patrie read: “Drapeau refuses the machinations of Vancouver and Los Angeles, whose to collaborate. Wants to have the last word in how to build secret weapon was television rights (Sunday Express, May his city.” It then quoted architect Melvin Charney, who 10, 1970) and which led the race “by two good lengths” saw in Drapeau, “a despotic ruler” and denounced “an on the eve of the vote (Montréal Matin, March 23, 1970). extremely rotten state of mind with regards to people’s While many touted the advantages of the Games, such as participation in the expression of their own culture.” the economic boom it would create in Montréal and in Québec (Le Nouvelliste, January 29, 1970, Montréal Star, The unveiling of the future Olympic facilities on April May 13, 1970) and the benefits it represented for young 6, 1972, received extensive coverage by the press, which people and the disadvantaged (La Presse, May 9, 1970), described the event and the project in detail: The April 7 some discordant voices could be heard. issue of Le Devoir was “very impressed by the audiovisual presentation of the ambitious project.” However, opinions Some contended that Montréal could simultaneously were divided with some challenging the project’s merit. “deliver the Olympic Games and urban renewal”; the Le Devoir reported on a protest by the Greater Montreal Regroupement des associations populaires accused the Anti-Poverty Coordinating Committee at the time of the City of spending too much money to gain prestige (La press conference and, on April 8, published the following Presse, March 31, 1970). The day after the City’s candidacy headline: “Urban Planning Department sidelined in the was accepted, The Gazette headlines read: “Man-on the 1976 Games.” The same day, La Presse wondered: “For Street Reaction, It’ll cost... but Wonderful.” The English- or against the Olympics,” summarizing the pros and language daily reported the most persistent concern over cons. The Games would drive Montréal’s industrial and time: the cost of the facilities, although some said that economic development, or at least tourism, and, having “Montréal could make a surplus of a few million” (La chosen Maisonneuve Park, the development of the City’s Presse, May 13, 1970): “Drapeau promises: the Games depressed east end. Still, “we’d be better off giving the won’t lose money!” (Le Journal de Montréal, May 16, 1970); money to the poor” read the article, calling the complex

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a “future white elephant.” In its conclusion, the author “Seventy Olympic Games truckers walk off the job” La( nevertheless acknowledges that the Olympic Park is as Presse, August 21, 1973); “Labour troubles threaten to halt “indispensable as Man and His World to the organization Olympic Park construction for a long time” (Le Journal of recreational activities for a society that increasingly de Montréal, May 8, 1974); “Half of the Olympic site is at needs them.” The Gazette did not agree: “Drapeau’s a standstill. Now carpenters are demanding “indexation” Olympics Not for Here” (April 14, 1972). (Le Journal de Montréal, November 13, 1974). Then the financial issue resurfaced: “The price tag for the Games. The opinion on the Montréal Games was tinged by The waltz of millions” La( Presse, December 31, 1974). external events, especially the “bloodbath” that tainted La Presse wondered: “Who are these Games for?” the Munich Games: they had become “a sad legacy,” their (February 15, 1975). “Death to Olympism” read the spirit was not the same, they had been “violated.” Also headlines of Le Jour (July 30, 1975), claiming that the $300 playing against them was their “unprecedented size” and million could have been better used to eliminate slums $700 million price tag (La Presse, September 16, 1972). and build a dozen stadiums across the province instead Also, it was unrealistic to claim that the Montréal Games of one white elephant in Montréal. This opinion was not could be staged for $125 million when Munich’s had cost shared by all: “‘Impressive and well built’ say Olympic nearly a billion (La Voix de l’Est, September 16, 1972). Park workers” (La Presse, July 17, 1975). “Montréal has only one choice: to innovate ... cheaply,” read the headlines of Le Petit Journal (September 14, On July 11, 1975, newspapers reported on the press 1972), questioning “how to avoid the excesses... in these conference of the Montréal Citizens’ Movement. Le Devoir projects that we know how to do.... we’re the best.” ran a story under the following headline: “Good salesman Montrealers had to decide whether to host the Olympics but no social conscience says MCM” (Le Devoir, July 11, (The Gazette, September 15, 1972). However, “The world of 1975). The MCM was referring to Mayor Jean Drapeau, sport is unanimous: yes to the Games” read the headline whose management style and policies were distasteful in La Presse (November 10, 1972); “The Board of Trade to the members of this newly founded municipal party. of Greater Montréal supports the Montréal Olympics” On November 10, 1974, the Civic Party again emerged (Montréal Matin, January 20, 1973). It was a matter of victorious from the municipal elections, albeit with a civic pride. much less comfortable margin than before. Due to the dissatisfaction with, among other things, the progress of In the months that followed, the divide between defenders the Olympics, the MCM was able to pick up a third of the and detractors of the Games grew. “The 1976 Games have seats on City Council on the first try (Wikipedia). Le Jour only one flaw: their promoter is Jean Drapeau” Québec( wrote that according to the MCM, “the Games will cost Presse, April 1, 1973). This was nothing new. “Will he a billion dollars.” For Le Devoir, “History repeats itself”; ever stop talking?” asked Dernière Heure (February 18, costs were spiralling just as for Expo 67, the Olympics 1973), finding that Drapeau talked way too much about were “a money pit” and their facilities “a white elephant,” “his” Games and noting that “on the air, many people are the most popular moniker given to the Olympic Park. against the Olympics because they are against the mayor’s policy.” On April 14, 1973, in La Presse, Guy Pinard The daily press after the Games wrote: “Initially, there was euphoria across the board except for the “conscientious objectors,” who reminded The main Press Centre was at Place Desjardins during the us of the sad reality of the underprivileged... Today, three Games, while subcentres were set up at the competition years later, the “conscientious objectors” are no longer sites. Sports were in the spotlight and heavily covered by a small minority. While they are not the majority, their the media. A summary of the coverage is out of the scope message is being heard more loudly.” Without guaranteed of this study. We will focus instead on the period following funding, the Games remained uncertain; two headlines, this event, which was both exciting and disappointing among others: “The moment of truth for the 1976 Games given the spiralling costs and the fact that the facilities will come in May, says Willi Daume”; “Daume has faith were not completed. In the years that followed, the in COJO” (Le Devoir, April 19, 1973, April 21, 1973). A creation of committees and commissions by RIO and German athlete, Daum was vice-president of the IOC. the government made the news, as did their reports. The central issue was and continues to be the Stadium roof. Once construction began, other concerns surfaced due to long work stoppages and workers’ strikes on the site: Not everyone was in favour of a royal inquiry into the cost

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of the Games; the construction industry, for one, felt that skeptical, calling the Stadium a “concrete monster” and it “would be a waste of time.” The future of the Olympic observing: “We’re also the only ones with a stadium that Park, and in particular the completion of the roof, divided cost over a billion dollars, a gigantic, laughable relic of the the press as much as it did the committee formed to study Emperor Jean era.” In November, the canvas was hoisted: this matter: “Mr. Marsan, the tower must be completed” “Ten years and $1.2 billion later,” it “ended up making us read the headline in Dernière Heure on October 23, a laughing stock” summed up Le Devoir (November 27, 1977; without a roof, the complex has “no historical 1986). For The Gazette (November 27, 1986), the Stadium value. Twenty or thirty years from now, the Stadium will was “the best-known unfinished building in Canada.” become the shame of all Quebecers, Parti Québécois supporters and federalists alike.” For La Presse (October A few years later, when the canvas ripped, Le Journal de 31, 1975), “the only valid solution: respect Taillibert’s Montréal (June 29, 1991) reported the story under the plan,” whereas according to Le Devoir, “Québec has other headline: “Everyone runs for cover as roof flaps in the priorities” (October 27, 1977). air” and another titled “The question of the day. Should we remove the canvas and install a real roof?” And a The outcry to the announcement that work would again few days later, as the stadium lost “a piece” (La Tribune, resume was louder. Le Journal de Montréal (February 10, September 14, 1991): “Olympic Stadium saga continues. 1978) felt the priority should be to eliminate slums, build A 50-tonne beam detaches from its anchors, closing housing, and develop social programs. Le Devoir (February down the Stadium for five days. $3.5 million shortfall” 8, 1978) said “Yes to the Stadium roof but not right now.” (Le Nouvelliste, September 14, 1991). However, while The MCM and academia were fiercely opposed. For the the closure continued, the Société de promotion et de former, it was “an outrageous financial extravagance... an concertation socioéconomique de l’est de Montréal and irreparable act” considering its irrelevance in the face of the Pro-Est group were “looking forward to the reopening Montréal’s challenges and that would only “perpetuate of the Olympic Stadium” (La Presse, November 23, 1991). the misery of the majority in order to maintain the According to a Léger and Léger poll, 76% of Quebecers privileges of the minority and stoke the dreams of a few” wanted to see the Stadium reopen quickly (Le Journal de (Le Devoir, February 8, 1978). Professors from Université Québec, November 25, 1991). de Montréal and UQAM found that the money would be better spent on education and universities (Le Devoir, Big O roof blows away. What now? asked The Gazette February 14, 1978). on May 30, 1992. For Le Devoir (April 27, 1992), the Stadium roof was suffering from “a congenital incurable As the work resumed and structural problems appeared, disease”; “can’t build another one since this one has yet the press welcomed the intervention of Lucien Saulnier, to be paid off”; “the problem: the only way to correct RIO’s new president and chief executive of Société the mistake is to apply the principle of the lesser of two d’énergie de la baie James (SEBJ). Le Devoir (December evils.” After the 1994 provincial election, the suspension 18, 1980) was in favour of a covered stadium, rejecting any of work by the new minister responsible for the Olympic attempt to make the Stadium “the first in the world with a Park provided fodder for many news stories. Some of the retractable roof.” After the SEBJ report was filed, the press headlines: “Dionne-Marsolais fears cost for Stadium roof announced that Taillibert’s roof had been rejected; one will double” (Le Journal de Montréal, October 20, 1994); headline among others: “High interest rates translate into “Expert says fixed roof could burst concrete structure” a $3 billion price tag for the Olympics. Taillibert’s design (La Presse, October 20, 1998). The Gazette (October 21, to finish the Stadium is rejected” La( Presse, August 6, 1998) ran a piece titled “Revisiting City’s White Elephant. 1981). The suspension of the work was greeted positively: Roof Delay Offers Chance to Rethink Big O’s Future,” “RIO makes a smart decision” (La Presse, August 8, 1981). in which it proposed to get rid of the “Big O.” When the decision was made to go with a fixed, flexible roof, La Everyone was happy to see the mast finished. The hoisting Presse (September 8, 1996) wrote: “We’re going to have to of the caisson beam received extensive media coverage. live with the Olympic Stadium.” “This is a world first, and we Quebecers are behind it,” wrote Le Journal de Montréal (November 18, 1986) while While it is certainly true that Montrealers would have recognizing the Stadium’s beauty, “its prestigious form to come to terms with the Olympic Park, when the 40th conceived by this genius of French architecture, ROGER anniversary of the Montréal Games was celebrated TAILLIBERT.” Le Devoir (November 22) was more in summer 2016, the press once again focused on

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“the tumultuous adventure of the 1976 Olympics” (Le this belief by highlighting the thousands of events staged Devoir, July 11, 2016): “This moment of glory and surge there. Built for sporting purposes and to accommodate of enthusiasm does not mean Quebecers have forgotten at least 70,000 spectators, the Olympic Stadium has been about the huge deficit created by the Olympics,” wrote the scene of many other events (cultural, economic and Jeanne Corriveau (Le Devoir, July 16, 2016). “… the social) since the 1976 Games. In the chapter dedicated Olympics. A poisoned legacy. Montréal is still reeling to the Stadium’s completion, we mentioned several that from the Olympics saga.” So begins an article in Le Devoir spoke to the Olympic site’s versatility. Here we return describing the “bad memories” of one of its subscribers, to those that were indisputably successful in terms of who was 16 in 1976. For him, the “magic of the Games” attendance. quickly gave way to disillusion due to the “systematic fraud by many contractors and suppliers,” the “embezzlement As pointed out earlier, on July 6, 1977, the band Pink and [the] favouritism displayed by COJO,” by “abuses and Floyd attracted nearly 80,000 spectators, a concert blackmail by labour unions,” Jean Drapeau’s “carelessness” attendance record that has yet to be broken. A few weeks and “megalomania,” and “the athletic performances ... later, on August 26, Emerson, Lake & Palmer performed hardly any better” (Le Devoir, July 18, 2016). Denis Poulet, before 73,898 people (Clairoux 2016, 156), a concert that a sports analyst at the Games, concurred; not only did the was immortalized by an album released the following Canadians turn in a lacklustre performance, but some of year and re-released in 1993. Many shows attracted as the greatest successes, Nadia Comăneci and East German many as 60,000 people, including the first, staged by U2 swimmers in particular, later revealed a less than lustrous on October 1, 1987, in front of 63,504 spectators, and the undercoat: harsh discipline and even doping. “Stadium following ones of the famous Irish group in 1992 and still unloved” by the population and Jean-Claude Marsan, 1997 before 40,000 and 50,000 excited fans. On August who still could not understand why Roger Taillibert 16, 1984, the eccentric Diane Dufresne enthralled almost underestimated Québec’s winter when designing the as many fans, most of them dressed in pink to celebrate roof (Le Devoir, July 22, 2016). Montrealers still haven’t the “magic” of this colour. This was the first and only solo digested the “record-breaking cost overruns” (La show staged in the Stadium by a Québec star. Presse, July 29, 2016). The Montréal Gazette pointed out Montrealers’ “love-hate” relationship with the “Big Owe” However, the Stadium drew crowds for other reasons (July 29, 2016) and acknowledged that “Yes, it was fun [the besides entertainment. On September 11, 1984, 60,000 Games], but never again]” (August 1, 2016). Only the local youths welcomed the Pope (Radio-Canada.ca, “Long press seemed to want to “come to terms with the 1976 live the Pope!”), an event that provided exposure for the Olympics” (Nouvelles d’Hochelaga-Maisonneuve, June 14, young Celine Dion, recruited to perform the theme song 2016). As Réal Ménard, mayor of the Mercier-Hochelaga- of the encounter, Une Colombe. In 1988, the Amnesty Maisonneuve borough, sees it, the Games have left four International show, featuring stars from around the world, legacies: the Olympic Stadium, the increased popularity including Bruce Springsteen, Sting, Youssou N’Dour and of sport, the Olympic Park as a tourist attraction Québec artist Daniel Lavoie, attracted a crowd of more and economic driver, and the connection with the than 57,000 people. The following also performed at the neighbourhood, which has strengthened in recent years. Stadium: the Jacksons in 1984, David Bowie three years But for Romain Roult, a university researcher interviewed later in an at long last covered enclosure, the Rolling by Nouvelles d’Hochelaga-Maisonneuve, “events here and Stones in 1989 and again in 1994, staging two concerts there may help, but they don’t change the public’s image each time due to strong ticket sales, pop star Madonna of the site. Often, the process of making a place your own in 1993, and, more recently, Genesis in 2007 and the is a slow one...” and, in this case, there are two obstacles: Australian group AC/DC in 2009 and in 2015, shows “the enormous footprint of concrete and the Stadium as that attracted around 40,000 people. That said, not all the such,” unusable when it snows (June 21, 2016). performances were a success; in 1992, the Metallica/Guns N’ Roses concert was cut short and ended in a riot. There Quebecers make the Olympic Park their own were many unforgettable events for many people, closely associated with the Stadium. Many feel that the Olympic Park has no purpose and is not a popular destination. Historian Benoît Clairoux’s book Pop was not the only type of music performed at the Le Parc olympique. 40 ans d’émotions/40 Years of Emotion, Stadium. On June 16 and 18, 1988, Giuseppe Verdi’s published on the Park’s 40th anniversary, tries to dispel spectacular opera Aïda found a stage worthy of its stature,

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after having been presented by the Teatro Petruzzelli at competitions like the Olympic Games. Although the public the foot of the Pyramids in Giza, Egypt (Clairoux 2016, displayed little interest in the 1979 IAAF World Cup, which 278). In Montréal, the Stadium was chosen as the venue ended in a massive deficit, it provided an opportunity due to its capacity, which is tenfold that of Place des to launch the marathon in Montréal (Clairoux 2016, Arts. The Stadium was transformed for other purposes 190). In 2006, the Stadium hosted the Outgames, whose besides musical performances. In May 1977, several opening ceremony was attended by 40,000 people despite tonnes of clay were dumped on the sports field for the competition from the 7th edition of the Gay Games held firstSupermotocross , attended by some 50,000 spectators, in Chicago rather than Montréal as originally planned an event that would be repeated for 35 years (Clairoux (Clairoux 2016, 356). Most recently, in 2016, on the 40th 2016, 141). And with the introduction of monster truck anniversary of the Montréal Olympics, the Esplanade, the competitions in 1988 (Clairoux 2016, 288), the roar of Sports Centre and the Stadium enclosure served as a venue engines has taken on a new dimension, also attracting for some of the events of the Jeux du Québec, a biennial tens of thousands of thrill-seekers every year. event that since 1971 has been giving young Québec athletes an opportunity to test their abilities and that has Although initially planned for the Velodrome, trade been central to the development of competitive sports. shows began appearing at the Stadium in 1978. The first, the Salon de l’agriculture, held all its shows at the The Stadium: a controversial icon Stadium until 1986, when it moved to Place Bonaventure (Clairoux 2016, 178). In 1980, the National Home Show The Olympic Stadium has clearly become a symbol of made the Stadium its home for 23 consecutive years Montréal, appearing in many illustrated books dedicated (Clairoux 2016, 198). Admittedly, the problems with the to the City, often on the cover. The Olympic Park appears roof were not conducive to such uses. on many postcards found in Montréal convenience stores, drugstores and bookstores. It is also mentioned in all However, sport remains the most popular cultural activity. general tourist guides to Montréal, many labelling it as a Erected to meet the needs of the Expos baseball club and must-see attraction. However, the retelling of its history home of the Alouettes football club until 1986, the Stadium and perception of the architecture differs among authors, would host other teams and would even be selected a few as does visitor reaction. Foreigners are more pleasantly times for FIFA competitions (Clairoux 2016, 360, 388). surprised by what they see than Quebecers (Chaire de The Manic, a franchise of the North American Football tourisme Transat 2015, 6). Of the same view are the League, played there during its brief existence from 1981 to 1983, while in 1991, the Machine, another short-lived club, personalities interviewed by journalist Catherine Mathys held its first match there. The Montréal Impact, for which about the Olympic Stadium on the occasion of the 40th the Stade Saputo was built, played there on occasion. In anniversary of the Montréal Games. These points of view, 2009, the team played a first match before 55,571 spectators compiled in the book Stadorama (2016), paint an overall (Clairoux 2016, 368), a number that exceeded expectations affectionate portrait of her “concrete idol” by exploring but failed to equal past records. the sentiments it evokes among Montrealers of different generations and walks of life, some more well known Still, the Canadian Football League’s Grey Cup final than others. attracted many spectators to the Stadium. Despite a metro strike, on November 27, 1977, the Olympic Stadium Tourist guidebooks on Montréal are easy to find; those was abuzz with 70,000 sports fans, along with the Prime dedicated to architecture less so. Most of the former Minister of Canada and the Premier of Québec, who list the Olympic Park as an attraction in the Hochelaga- excitedly watched the Alouettes win the Cup (Clairoux Maisonneuve neighbourhood (Fabuleux Montréal 2007, 2016, 165). Unfortunately, two years later, almost the same 149), as a “must see” (Pavard 2015; Leblanc 2014, 120) or number of fans looked on as the team lost the Cup. The a “not to be missed” site in Montréal (Gagnon 2015), or Cup, played for in 1981 without them, attracted far fewer give it two or three stars (Lasnes 2014, 140; Montréal. Le people (Clairoux 2016, 192, 226), unlike the one in 1985 plaisir de mieux voyager 2014, 217; Fabuleux Montréal that drew more than 56,000 fans, most of them from 2007, 149). Some even call it “an unrivalled architectural outside Montréal, for a match between the Hamilton Tiger ensemble” (City Trip Montréal 2014, 18), one of Montréal’s Cats and the B.C. Lions (Clairoux 2016, 256). ten “architectural icons” (Lasnes 2014, 12). Especially liked are its inclined tower, whose unrivalled height is always However, the Olympic Park has rarely hosted multisport mentioned (Le Routard. Montréal 2016, 82) and even

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listed in the Guinness Book of Records (November 2010), interviewed draw on their personal memories to express and its funicular offering a “breathtaking view” from their feelings in various forms: argumentative essays, the top, Montréal “show stoppers” (Leblanc 2014, 137). narratives, fiction, poetry... Many point out the “love- Site of the 1976 Games, the Park is a reminder of “the hate” relationship between Montrealers and the Stadium, triumph of the young gymnast Nadia Comăneci” (Le expressed under the themes of “admiration,” “joy,” Routard. Montréal 2016, 82). Superlatives are common “desire” and “sadness” in the book’s summary. The to characterize its architecture: “spectacular,” “daring” Stadium is seen as “a huge toilet bowl,” a “big sinister (Montréal-Hochelaga-Maisonneuve 2015, 121), “incredibly cemetery,” “too expensive and useless” by its detractors, futuristic for the times” (Le Routard. Montréal 2016, 82). and “the ultimate in beautiful concrete in Canada,” an Many note “its organic forms” (Vichit-Vadakan 2015, 222; “extremely modern” ensemble, the [indisputable] symbol Lasnes 2014, 140; Batigne 2004, 173) and do not fail to of Montréal” by its most ardent fans (Mathys 2016, 76, 85, mention the name of its architect, Roger Taillibert. 62, 151, 155).

That said, few have only praise for the Olympic Park Even those most skeptical of the Stadium’s value temper (Le Routard. Montréal 2016; Fabulueux Montréal 2016). their negative view: the Stadium elicits “lessening Many recall the mayor’s promise of modest Games, at hostility,” as Catherine Mathys points out (Mathys 2016, little cost (Fodor’s 25 Best Montréal 2014, 90), highlight the 61). The Olympic torch designer, Michel Dallaire, does higher final cost (Métayer 2016, 113), “astonishing,” the not like its appearance yet urged the Comité-conseil “billion” dollars spent (Gagnon 2015, 62) that Montrealers sur l'avenir du Parc olympique (advisory committee on took years to pay (Barry 2013, 76; Batigne 2004, 13). Some the future of the Olympic Park) to respect of the initial recall “the long unfinished work and many technical design when replacing the roof: “Mr. Taillibert created difficulties” (Gagnon 2015, 62), a comment that became a convertible. Now we’re going to put a hardtop on it?” more common as time went by (Batigne 2004, 13; Pousse (Mathys 2016, 61). Economist Janick Marcil, who has 1997, 199–200). Flattering or derogatory comparisons are focused on its irrelevance since the Expos left, nevertheless sometimes made: “a spaceship on the ground or a giant does not want to see the Stadium demolished. Instead, shell” (Montréal 2007, 15); the “Big Owe” and “giant flying he suggests that the Québec government recognize it as saucer” (Barry 2013, 76). Michelin guide’s ambivalent historical heritage, asking “Can we imagine the Montréal appraisal is typical: “a concrete monument to the glory of landscape without the Stadium? [....] What mark would sport that despite having been the city’s most controversial the destruction of this symbol of Montréal’s modernity project is nonetheless a remarkable architectural feat” leave on the collective imagination? Answering this (Gagnon 2015, 62). question will help us figure out how much value to give it collectively” (Mathys 2016, 62, 67). Such a wish was shared A similar ambivalence characterizes the section on the by all who approached the Olympic Stadium from the Olympic Park in the architectural and historical Explorer perspective of “desire.” Blogger Aurélie Lanctôt wants it Montréal guide published in 1983 and republished in to become a “local heritage.” Heritage Montréal’s program 1990, whereas the one on modern Montréal (Vanlaethem director, Dinu Bumbaru, goes further, advocating for its 2007, 156-157) remains descriptive. Although in the first, inscription on UNESCO’s World Heritage List (Mathys authors Cécile Grenier and Joshua Wolfe, important actors 2016, 187, 193). in the heritage movement of the 1970s, lament the many difficulties encountered in its construction due to the For the 40th anniversary of the Montréal Games in 2016, “European technology of concrete prefabrication,” and RIO rolled out a media strategy to increase the Olympic underline the ingenuity employed by Québec craftsmen Park’s popularity with the public by highlighting the to overcome them, which still failed to prevent delays, and event-related, historical and architectural elements “spiralling costs,” they also recognize that “the stadium- that have characterized its existence. All the media, pool-velodrome complex, through the integration and traditional and social alike, were enlisted to recall the plasticity of forms, mark an important step in the history positive moments of the 1976 Olympics; countless video of modern architecture” (1990, 260-261). clips, reports, interviews and old documentaries were broadcast. An analysis of the media coverage shows An entirely different tone, bordering on confidence, that RIO’s strategy worked; the events organized for is used when discussing the Olympic Stadium in the the anniversary celebrations, particularly in July, were recently published Stadorama. Most of the personalities well received by the public. However, the newspaper

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Le Devoir remained skeptical; journalist Jeanne Corriveau noted that the Stadium is “still unloved,” quoting Jean- Claude Marsan, who chaired the Comité sur l’avenir des installations olympiques in 1977 (July 16, 2016). More voluble and factual, a La Presse headline read “Roger Taillibert continues to defend Olympic Stadium design” (July 12, 2016). Lastly, the Olympic Park also enjoyed strong visibility during major sporting events, including Toronto Blue Jays baseball games and Montréal Impact soccer games.

112 Fig. 44. Soccer match at the Olympic Stadium, April 9, 2016.

113 Fig. 45. Exhibition titled “Le Parc olympique, une architecture à célébrer,” Château Dufresne, Montréal, June 8, 2016 to March 26, 2017.

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12. Heritage Value of the Olympic Park –

A property’s cultural value, established under the Québec Cultural Heritage Act, is generally defined in positive terms. It refers to meanings associated with events, people and ways of doing and thinking that have left a historical imprint at the municipal or national level. However, while the Montréal Olympic Park, a legacy of the 20th century, attests to the metropolis’s role as host of the 1976 Summer Olympic Games—one of the largest international events, whose success reverberated around the globe—the Park continues to be haunted by the controversy surrounding the Stadium’s completion. Rare are the sites that have aroused such conflicting views. For an equivalent scenario, one example immediately springs to mind: the Eiffel Tower in Paris, built for the 1889 Exposition Universelle. The main brainchild of the Montréal Summer Olympic Games, Mayor Jean Drapeau, wanted to endow his city with a similar monument. Both admired and despised at the time it was built, the Iron Lady became, during the 20th century and subsequent to certain significant events, the symbol of the French capital, if not the entire country (Loyrette 1997). In Montréal, the Olympic Stadium and its tower eventually came to represent the metropolis, despite their poor reputation; the Olympic Park is a city park that Montréal residents appreciate due to the activities on the Esplanade, and the Park’s sports facilities are popular recreational and entertainment sites. The heritage value of these buildings, or rather their historical and cultural significance that this study has attempted to illustrate, derives from numerous achievements—technical, sporting, organizational—and moments of collective glory and pleasure as well as from political and social tensions, and certain painful episodes.

In what follows, we explore the key aspects of the Olympic Park’s heritage value: historical, architectural, urban and iconic. Moreover, we give consideration, on the one hand, to the physical integrity of the complex and, on the other, to its authenticity, meaning its capacity to represent the heritage value. Lastly, we present the character-defining elements that should be maintained to preserve that value.

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Historical value

The Olympic Games, a magnificent celebration of amateur sport that was revived in the 19th century, capture the attention of the entire planet given the scope of the participation that the Games involve locally and internationally, their concentration in time and their coverage through modern communication media, specifically radio and television, in the mid- 20th century.

The Olympic Park has a heritage value owing to its historic significance related, initially, to the 1976 Summer Games of the XXI Olympiad, a pivotal moment for the grand sports gathering that was revived at the end of the 19th century and, later, to the presence of a Major League Baseball club in the metropolis, the Montréal Expos, who made their home at the Stadium from 1977 to 2004. The Olympic Park is a “monument” both to amateur sport and to commercial, professional sport—activities that became established in Québec simultaneously during the first half of the 20th century. It also reflects the immense ambition that Mayor Jean Drapeau had for his city—an ambition that his political opponents deemed to be out of place, and even more so in the face of complications at the worksite. To ensure that the Games went ahead and to save Québec’s reputation, the Québec government stepped in at the last minute, in November 1975, to take over from the City, creating the Régie des installations olympiques, whose mandate was to complete at any cost the work needed for the Games to be held successfully.

In Montréal, the cradle of sport in Canada, the Olympic ideal had been alive for a long time; the precursor to the very first modern Olympic Games were organized there in the mid-19th century, at the initiative of the English- speaking community. Montréal’s Étienne Desmarteaux was among the first Canadian Olympic medallists in 1904; however, his participation at the St. Louis Games was more a testimony to personal initiative than to political will.

In Montréal, hosting the Olympic Games was a long-standing “dream.” In 1928, the City of Montréal bid for the first time on the Olympics—an attempt it would repeat on four other occasions, first during the term of office of Camillien Houde and later during Jean Drapeau’s term, until the winning bid was submitted in December 1969. In the 1950s and 1960s, the Olympic ideal permeated the daily life of a part of Montréal’s youth, due to the municipality organizing the “Olympiade des parcs” each summer. In the promotion of amateur sport, initially more popular among the English- speaking community given the Catholic Church’s distrust of practices that placed importance on the body, the City of Montréal played an important role beginning in the 1920s through its Service des récréations publiques et des parcs. In the 1960s, sport, a leisure activity, which had indirectly been recognized as a human right under the Universal Declaration adopted by the United Nations Organization (UNO) in 1948, became a matter of national interest in Canada, with the federal and Québec governments

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passing legislation to foster the development of sport among the population. However, this new emphasis on sport did not push Ottawa to directly fund the Montréal Olympic Games, as the governments in other countries had done before, even if Prime Minister Pierre Elliott Trudeau had approved Montréal’s bid for the 1976 Summer Olympics.

The Summer Olympic Games were among the major projects promoted by Mayor Jean Drapeau to allow his city to acquire an international stature. Hosting the Games followed other initiatives: first, the building of Place des Arts, a performing arts complex fashioned after New York’s Lincoln Center, during Drapeau’s first term, which was followed by the construction of a metro system begun in 1960 and the hosting of the 1967 International and Universal Exposition. For this latter event, which was organized by Canada with the collaboration of the province of Québec and the City of Montréal, the islands in the middle of the St. Lawrence River were enlarged. In May 1970, Montréal’s bid for the 1976 Summer Games was defended before the IOC. Jean Drapeau was successful apparently because of his eloquence, despite his being unable to guarantee the city’s solvency since the federal government refused to help fund the Games. Still, the success was not solely a personal victory for the Mayor; it was largely the result of the geopolitical context. Montréal won out over two very particular cities—Los Angeles and Moscow—representing countries that were caught up in the Cold War and for which the time had not come to be awarded the Games.

The Montréal Summer Games represent a pivotal moment in the history of the modern Olympics. In the 1970s, the humanistic, peaceful and altruistic ideals promoted by their main founder, Baron Pierre de Coubertin, still prevailed, while the event had acquired a new scope and an increasingly political skew. Since the 1950s, from Helsinki to Munich, the number of participating nations had nearly doubled, in the light of several colonies having achieved independence. In Montréal, 114 nations would have had to compete had 22 African countries not boycotted the Games to indirectly protest South Africa’s policy of apartheid. As a result, the number of athletes, over 6,000, did not exceed that of Mexico City, even though nearly 200 sports competitions were held; this number had been constantly increasing since the Games were revived. In Montréal, like never before, the safety of the public and the athletes became a concern following the tragic attack in Munich.

In terms of funding the Games, Montréal also lagged behind, not so much due to the explosion of costs, almost 15 times higher than the original estimate (from $120 million to nearly $1.6 billion in Canadian dollars), as to the pay-out of the funds. The Munich Games were already verging on $3 billion in American dollars (Preuss 2008, 32), against all expectations. In Québec, the overspending resulted from Mayor Jean Drapeau’s paternalistic management of the project and “unbelievable carelessness,” according to Justice Albert Malouf, who presided over the Commission d’enquête sur le coût de la 21e Olympiade, set up in 1977 by the Québec government. Other factors that came into play were the first oil shock that shook the global economy, soaring inflation that increased the cost of materials, particularly steel, and Québec’s conflictual social climate, with successive strikes slowing down the work, which was already on a

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tight schedule. Excavation had begun in the spring of 1973, three years after Montréal had obtained the Games, while funding was finally assured when the Prime Minister of Canada announced that legislation would be passed permitting the organization of an Olympic lottery and the issuance of special coins and stamps.

After Montréal, cities would be more hesitant about bidding to host the Olympics. For the 1980 Summer Games, only Moscow and Los Angeles competed to be host, and for the 1984 Games, Los Angeles was the sole candidate, despite widespread opposition, which was only appeased by the guarantee that taxpayers would not foot the bill for the event. More recently, either the Games have been funded by governments hungry for prestige and power, as was the case in Sochi in 2014, or they have been bid on by cities that are already well equipped with sports facilities, allowing them to minimize, rhetorically, the risk of financial excess, as is the case with Paris for the 2024 Summer Games. The Montréal Summer Olympics were the last to be primarily publicly funded (Preuss 2008, 19); the 1984 Los Angeles Games were the first to depend almost entirely on related marketing activities, which was a strategy that IOC then adopted going forward.

In terms of municipal politics, preparation of the 1976 Summer Olympics was one of the factors that led to the formation of an opposition, with the founding of the Montréal Citizens’ Movement (MCM), a party that criticized the management style of Mayor Jean Drapeau, who cared little about the fate of the disadvantaged, according to MCM members. Following the November 1974 elections, the MCM made its entrance into City Hall. In 1980, the party found itself strengthened in its role as official opposition after the Report of the Commission of Inquiry into the Cost of the XXI Olympiad was tabled, and the MCM finally come to power in 1986.

Architectural value

The modern Olympic Games had not always involved an architectural component, even if the main founder of the Games, Pierre de Coubertin, drafted, in 1910, planning principles and esthetic advice for the “modern Olympia.” On many occasions, until the early 1960s, the host cities used existing facilities. From then on, however, and almost systematically, the design of the facilities was seen as an opportunity to innovate in a formal or technical sense, and even modernize the host city’s urban infrastructure.

The Olympic Park is of heritage interest owing to its architectural value, which resides in the urbanistic and architectural concept applied, which is both spacious and compact, verdant and mineral, and technically innovative. The Montréal Olympic Stadium, with its retractable roof, was the first of its type, and the tower from which the canvas is suspended is the highest inclined tower in the world. The complex is also of interest due to its famous French architect, Roger Taillibert, whose unique expertise was strongly contested locally in 1970.

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The Olympic Park was designed to offer easy access to visitors arriving by public transit and especially by car, the most popular form of transportation among individuals and elected officials: its overall design was based on “urbanism slab,” with the Stadium grounds being installed on a vast esplanade covering several levels of underground parking. Its architecture is characteristic of both the Beaux-Arts tradition —the project being a “grand gesture”—and the modernist tradition, which is centred around fashioning space and new constructive technologies. In Montréal, the technique of cantilevered prestressed concrete was applied; developed for building bridges, the technique had been tried out by Roger Taillibert on the Parc des Princes stadium (1967–1972) in Paris, to ensure that spectators would have an unobstructed view no matter where they were sitting in the stands. Research into light, mobile structures was tapped to build a stadium that complied with Olympic standards, which require that competitions preferably take place in the open air, as well as with commercial sports, which require that events go ahead regardless of the weather or season.

With its inclined tower, the highest in the world, numerous ramps connecting the different levels, and the spatial continuities established with the street and with Maisonneuve Park to the north, the Olympic Park—including the Stadium—is an example of “oblique architecture.” Developed in the 1960s by architect Claude Parent, a friend of Roger Taillibert, and urban planner Paul Virilio, this artistic movement explored a different relationship with the world and the environment—one that was more unstable and dynamic. It questioned the traditional discontinuity between the two axes of the horizontal and the vertical, and instead emphasized the “oblique function,” and that between the building and the city, giving preference to spatial continuity rather than physical barriers. At first, these ideals were not often reflected in constructed architecture, until contemporary architects such as Jean Nouvel, Zaha Hadid and others adopted the principles.

When, in 1971, the City of Montréal contacted Roger Taillibert, a state- certified architect (DPLG), who received his diploma from the École nationale supérieure des Beaux-arts in Paris in 1955, Taillibert was already known for his achievements in the field of sport, having obtained several large private and government commissions in France. When he was hired, there was a considerable outcry from Québec architects and engineers. The reaction of the Association des architectes de la province de Québec (precursor of the Ordre des architectes) was not surprising as its members had been subjected, since the late 19th century, to competition from foreign architects who were deemed to be more competent. This situation led to the requirement that a Québec architect had to sign off on all projects; in the case of the Olympic Park, this role was filled by André Daoust, the civil servant in charge of the project within the Division du Parc olympique of the City of Montréal, while Roger Taillibert acted as a consulting architect.

Roger Taillibert’s project for the Olympic complex was “a natural outflow from his previous work”; his experience enabled him to accept the commission for an open-air Olympic stadium that could later be covered in order to hold baseball and football games. To the enclosure built with prefabricated, post-stressed concrete elements similar to those used for the open-air Parc des Princes stadium in Paris, Taillibert added the retractable roof of the Boulevard Carnot pool (1967). Others pointed out the kinship between the

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freestanding canopies of thin concrete shells of the swimming centre and the Velodrome with the vaults of the Deauville pool (1966) and the Chamonix sports centre (1973). However, on this side of the Atlantic, these devices were employed on an unprecedented scale. From Paris to Montréal, the area covered by the retractable roof was multiplied by ten, the performance of the Stadium’s structural frame was increased tenfold, and with the reduction in the number of consoles, the dimension of the spans increased, and their cantilevers were extended, reaching close to 60 metres.

The challenge for Québec engineers and construction companies, who had acquired unique expertise through the construction of the imposing hydroelectric infrastructure, was even greater considering that the technology deployed for the Olympics was new in North America or at least uncommon. While several bridges using cantilevered prestressed concrete, on which the Stadium’s freestanding structure was based, had been built in Europe, only one such project had been completed in Québec—the viaduct of the northern highway straddling the Rivière aux Mulets (1963), near Sainte-Adèle, which was the first in North America. Regarding the retractable roof, steel solutions based on the gantry crane principle had been experimented with in the United States.

For the Olympic Games, despite the slowness in launching the work and the delays caused by the strikes, the facilities that were essential for the Games to go ahead were completed under the supervision of RIO, in the absence of Mayor Jean Drapeau and his architect, Roger Taillibert, and in record time, but admittedly at great cost. The Games’ opening and closing ceremonies at the Olympic Stadium were filmed using a camera perched on the mast. Completion of the Stadium proved to be problematic, taking about 10 years and, after that, the retractable roof was functional only until 1991.

Urban value

In the modern Olympia envisioned by Pierre de Coubertin, the competitions were to be held in a large park. In Montréal, the southern sector of Maisonneuve Park, the large urban park located in the east part of the metropolis, had long been established as the preferred site for international athletic events, the Winter or Summer Olympics and the British Empire Games.

The Olympic Park’s urban value resides in the Park’s location, within a working-class neighbourhood, and in its active, athletic and recreational function, rather than a contemplative one. While the decision to hold the Games in Maisonneuve Park dated as far back as the late 1930s, it took on new meaning when Jean Drapeau expressed his wish to upgrade the east part of the city in order to rebalance the city’s development, which at that point was concentrated in the west around Central Station. Today, with the many summer and winter activities on the Esplanade, and the refurbished Centre sportif, the Olympic Park, a component of the “Maisonneuve hub,” is increasingly becoming a recreational and tourist destination.

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The predominantly mineral layout for the Olympic Park conceived by Roger Taillibert was in line with certain trends in landscape architecture in the 1960s, and was purposely contrasted with the verdant nature of Maisonneuve Park—the scale on which the Olympic Park was envisioned. The interventions that the Olympic Park underwent since the transformation of the Velodrome into the Biodôme, in 1992, reinforced the purpose of this area—placed under the control of the Québec government, since the creation of RIO in 1975—as a large modern urban park dedicated to entertainment and tourism, even though many of these interventions had compromised its integrity and authenticity.

The Olympic Park, named as such since the preparation of the 1976 Summer Olympic Games, after having been dubbed the Centre sportif de l’Est on the plans drawn up by Frederick G. Todd and Emmanuel-Arthur Doucet in 1938, and the Maisonneuve Sports Center on those of Clarke & Rapuano in 1956, attests to the evolution in how parks were conceptualized early in the 20th century. The land had avoided being subdivided in 1910, with the creation of Maisonneuve Park by the City of Maisonneuve, in a spirit close to that which had prevailed at the time the Mount Royal Park was designed in 1874. The large public leisure park of some 240 hectares was intended to complement a city whose urban planning was based on the esthetic and hygienic principles of the City Beautiful movement, in vogue in North America at the turn of the 19th century. While the park’s work began in the 1920s, at the initiative of the City of Montréal, to which Maisonneuve had been annexed in 1918, its purpose shifted with the development of a municipal golf course in 1923 and the Jardin botanique in 1932, north of Rue Sherbrooke. Begun just before World War II, the planning of the southern sector, integrated with the network of streets, provided for numerous sports facilities, including a monumental stadium. From the revised plan in 1956, based on a monumental design, only the Maisonneuve Sports Center (now the Centre Pierre-Charbonneau) and the Maurice-Richard Arena were built and inaugurated in the early 1960s.

Roger Taillibert designed the Olympic Park, which included Maisonneuve Park. He organized the huge site into two different entities: the “verdant” area, which included the Jardin botanique and the municipal golf course, and the “mineral” area made up of all the sports facilities, integrated in terms of both the visual and circulatory aspects, whether they were new or existing facilities. The esthetic unity and the fluidity are reflected in the prevalence of concrete and curved shapes as well as the spatial continuity provided by large glazed facades, the low meandering walls of the guardrails, the walkways on piles (partly blocked or cut off)— establishing a human-scale frame of reference along Avenue Pierre-De Coubertin—and the Rue Sherbrooke viaduct, which straddles the wide ravine that creates a link with Maisonneuve Park to the north. The Olympic Park is integrated into its immediate urban context in a purely functional manner, with the parking lot entrances being adapted to the layout of the streets.

Iconic value

The fate of Olympic facilities has been problematic ever since the Games have tended toward gargantuan proportions. Many of the facilities built

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for the Games in Berlin in 1936, Helsinki in 1952, Athens in 2004, Beijing in 2008, Rio in 2016, etc. have been abandoned, and many times left to be overrun by nature, as often reported on, and some Olympic stadiums have even been demolished, such as Atlanta’s Centennial Olympic Stadium and Tokyo’s National Stadium. In Québec, this was not the path chosen—on the contrary. Not only did the Québec government fund the completion of the Olympic Park facilities, but, even more, RIO took steps to ensure that they survived by bringing to them many different types of activities. Moreover, on numerous occasions, the government expressed concern over the authenticity of the work of its architect, Roger Taillibert.

The Montréal Olympic Park’s heritage interest resides in its iconic value rooted in a number of memorable events, beginning with the 1976 Summer Olympic Games, for which it was the main site, and the many sports competitions and multiple performances and exhibitions that have attracted crowds since. The Park, and particularly the Stadium and its tower that dominate the east part of the island due to their monumental presence, has become a tourist attraction and Montréal symbol, despite the controversy surrounding the completion of the complex, news of which reverberated far beyond our borders and the memory of which, for many Montréal residents, is still bitter.

The Olympic Park’s primary raison d’être, both internationally and locally, which was to host the Summer Olympic Games and later the Expos baseball club, makes it a site that resonates with the achievements in sport that took place within the Stadium and under the vaults of the swimming pools, as well as the excitement aroused by many of the numerous performances and events held at the site. Some of the more memorable of these included the Games’ opening ceremony, where Jean Drapeau was given an ovation upon receiving the Olympic flag from the mayor of Munich, and the perfect scores of gymnast Nadia Comăneci, the “queen of the Montréal Summer Olympic Games” (who, however, performed at the Montréal Forum). Subsequently, the Olympic Stadium was associated with Montréal’s football and baseball clubs: the Alouettes, who first brought commercial sports to the Stadium and played there for about a decade, winning the Grey Cup in 1977, and the Montréal Expos (for whom the covered Stadium had been built), until they moved in 2004.

On a number of occasions, the crowds at the Stadium exceeded 60,000 spectators for concerts with some of the top rock bands—Pink Floyd and Emerson, Lake & Palmer in 1977, and U2 in 1987, which were followed by many others: the Jacksons, David Bowie, the Rolling Stones, Madonna, Genesis, AC/DC and more. In 1984, Québec’s biggest stars performed at the Stadium: Diane Dufresne with her Magie rose show and a young Céline Dion who sang the theme song welcoming Pope Jean Paul II. And it was not just popular music that was presented at the Stadium. In 1988, the grand-scale production of Giuseppe Verdi’s opera Aïda found a suitable venue there for its performance. More unusual was the transformation of the Stadium into a motocross course in 1977, a Portuguese bullfighting arena for the Féria

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de Montréal in 1999, and a site for monster truck competitions beginning in 1988. Also, many trade shows were held at the Olympic Park, at least as long as it could be guaranteed that the Stadium roof would hold up.

The Olympic Park represents Montréal on numerous postcards, and pictures of the complex are an essential component of any illustration showcasing the metropolis. After the mast was completed and the Observatory was opened at its top, in 1987, the Park became even more of a must-see tourist attraction in the metropolis, even if its reputation remained tarnished due to the problems during its construction.

“White elephant,” “Big O,” “concrete monster”—the Olympic Stadium was given many nicknames by those who criticized Mayor Jean Drapeau’s policy of grandeur. But while, at the time of the 40th anniversary of the Summer Olympic Games in 2016, most journalists revived the same old resentments, some adopted a different view. Anthropologist Serge Bouchard, who was born in the neighbourhood, called it the “large sacred turtle of Rue Pie-IX”. Meanwhile, the poet Jean-Paul Daoust referred to it as a “cement cathedral with a silent steeple—an intriguing Babel”—in his exploration of the metaphorical universe of the Olympic Stadium, a complex seen by many Montréal residents as being part of a collective heritage—even those who were the most skeptical as to its esthetic and utilitarian value.

Integrity and authenticity

Integrity and authenticity are two additional criteria that must be considered in assessing a property’s heritage value. The first seeks to determine if the property is physically whole and in good condition, or intact, and the second, to assess whether, in its current physical condition, its components succeed in transmitting the significance with which the property is endowed.

With respect to integrity, the Olympic Park is a special case given that, at the time the Games were held, it was unfinished. The complex (Stadium and swimming pools) was missing the Stadium’s mast and retractable roof, which were elements that were not necessary for the Games as the athletic competitions had to be held in the open air. Also, the esplanade was not finished; the coloured concrete ground covering, whose pattern was in harmony with the curved volumetric shape of the buildings designed by the architect, had not been installed.

It would take about 10 years to complete the work, including construction of the mast and suspension of the retractable roof. On April 20, 1987, the Expos played their first match in a covered stadium and, on November 21, the public had access to the Observatory at the top of the tower. This marked the completion of the complex, at least from a volumetric perspective as the esplanade was still unfinished. Even though the three areas of parterres and fountains that mark this huge walkway, while highlighting its series of large horizontal planes, had been completed and the rows of flags installed, the esplanade was never paved.

However, the complex cannot be qualified as being authentic, within the strict meaning of the word, compared with the architect’s concept, even

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if the government had decided to complete the facilities while respecting the original design. Certain technical features were changed: the tower was completed using metal instead of concrete and the mechanism for the retractable roof was modified by being moved from the top toward the base. This change led to other adjustments, the main one being the application of a grey polyurethane coating to the surfaces for the purpose of creating an overall harmony, at the expense of material authenticity; the raw concrete had, as a result, lost some of its presence. Material authenticity was also compromised when the Stadium bowl’s copper covering was replaced with a synthetic membrane whose colour was close to a green-grey.

In the meantime, in 1984, the RIO offices had been built under the walkway adjacent to the Pie-IX metro station. This changed the perception from Avenue Pierre-De Coubertin as the spatial continuity between the street and the park was lost and, as a result, Jean Paul Riopelle’s fountain-sculpture was hidden from sight. At the end of 2002, the sculpture was dismantled in preparation for its relocation to the downtown area, in the Quartier international, to give it better visibility. And so was lost the only work of art that had been integrated into the Olympic Park. The relationship between the mineral park and the street was again altered when, during the transformation of the Velodrome into the Biodôme, the east section of the elevated walkway bordering the entire site, from Boulevard Pie-IX to the Maurice-Richard Arena, was destroyed. The elevated walkway established a human-scale frame of reference without creating a visual blockage as it was possible to see between the piles.

With the arrival of the new century came a densification of the Olympic Park, with the construction of the StarCité cinema (1999–2000), relocation of the Montréal Planetarium (2008–2013) and installation of Stade Saputo (2006–2007). These construction projects resulted from a revision of the site’s function, following the departure of the Montréal Expos, which placed greater emphasis on its recreational and touristic functions than on sports. On top of reducing the Park’s open spaces, Stade Saputo also blocked the visual link that existed between the Montréal Tower and the pyramids of the former Olympic Village.

Since 2012, in summer and winter alike, the Esplanade is adapted to transform the Olympic Park into a modern urban park that is open for events and inviting to locals. While the initiatives in this context allow people living in the neighbourhood, as well as the general public, to make the site their own, they are, for the most part, not very consistent with the site’s architecture.

Character-defining elements

The character-defining elements related to value derive primarily from the very personality of the Olympic Park’s layout and architecture, which is at once monumental, organic, tectonic—even sculptural—spatial and simple.

The main character-defining elements are: • the monumental presence of the Stadium’s angular enclosure that appears to float on the huge esplanade, and of the Montréal Tower, soaring upwards on an incline, from the top of which shoots out the

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cluster of suspension cables attached to the Stadium’s lightweight roof— all of which can be seen for miles over the city; • the Olympic Park’s mainly mineral exterior layout, consisting primarily of raw uncoated, unpainted concrete; • at the ground level, the alternation between mineral and grassy areas, some consisting of former water basins; • the roof slab serving as a huge stepped pedestrian esplanade that absorbs the slope between Rue Sherbrooke and Avenue Pierre-De Coubertin, and that extends into elevated walkways and ramps connecting with the streets, and that can also be accessed via outside stairs, some of which are encased in concrete stairwells; • the sculptural concrete viaduct passing over the green ravine leading to the Jardin botanique; • the organic forms, with more or less sweeping curves, of the Olympic Park, the design of the esplanade, the silhouettes of the Stadium, Montréal Tower and Sherbrooke viaduct as well as of their structural and detail elements, such as parapets, roof edges, giant gargoyles, rooflights and lighting devices for public spaces; • the monumental presence of concrete structural systems that are exhibited, both inside and outside, and particularly in the Tourist Hall of the Montréal Tower; • the similar architectural treatment of the exteriors and interiors, in terms of materials, finishings and details—few in number, simple and functional—especially the circulatory area from the metro and the Tourist Hall of the Montréal Tower; • the spatial continuity of the exterior and interior designs, created through the use of cantilevers, overhangs, pilings and ramps, and punctuated with massive elements—spaces containing the washrooms at the level of the public hallways, the esplanade’s sloped-wall stairwells, etc.; • the spatial continuity between the exterior and interior as a result of the transparent facades—high curtain walls whose detail, which distinguishes the structure and envelope, reinforces the smooth appearance of the latter; • in contrast, the strong tectonic presence of walls shaped by the structure, whether a load-bearing or reinforcing structure, especially the covering of the Stadium’s enclosure and the vaults of the swimming centre, both inside and outside, the latter being more aerial, with openwork surfaces, punctuated with tapered rooflights; • the fluidity of the spectator stands, at least the cantilevered upper seating areas, which encircle the arena and whose horizontal layout contrasts with the cover’s ribs that converge toward the imposing technical ring; • the wide corridor leading from the metro station to the Rotunda, which is encircled by monumental columns and covered by a huge rooflight; • the threadlike lighting devices of certain public areas, with curved metal structures and linear-shaped lamps.

125 Fig. 46. View from the 18 metre platform built for the high diver Lysanne Richard at the Sports Centre, June 2018.

126 Fig. 47. The Nadia Comaneci Square highlights the legacy of the Montréal Olympic Games and pays homage to all who took part, October 2017. 127 Fig. 48. Aerial view of the Olympic Park from the east, August 2018.

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Shaffer, Marie-Ève. (Fall 2013). La commission sur le scandale des installations Architectural press (in chronological order) olympiques. Fédération professionnelle des journalistes du Québec, (37)3. Retrieved April 25, 2015, from http://www.fpjq.org/commission-malouf Blumenthal, Max. (1968, December). Actualités recherches. Modernisation du Parc des Princes à Paris. Techniques & Architecture, (30)1, 55–59. Taillibert International. Retrieved April 25, 2015, from, http://www. agencetaillibert.com/index.html Rybczynski, Witold. (1972). Visite d’une tente en Bavière. Architecture Concept, (27)307, 12–14. Taillibert, Roger. (1977). Construire l’avenir. Paris: Presses de la Cité. Que sera le futur stade de Montréal ? (1972, January). Bâtiment, (47)1, 15–17. Taillibert, Roger. (2010). Stade olympique de Montréal, mythes et scandales. Montréal: Éditions Grenier. Paris, France: Éditions Dilecta. Le stade : art, architecture, sculpture. (1972, May). Bâtiment, (47)5, 8.

Taillibert, Roger. (2000). Notre cher Stade olympique : lettres posthumes à mon Olympic Games—Montreal’s Best Kept Secret. (October 1972). Architecture ami Drapeau. Montréal: Stanké. Canada, 6–7.

Tout savoir sur l’élephant blanc du Québec. (1979, February). Loisir plus, 78, Daignault, D. (1973, April). Dossier Taillibert. Rencontre, témoignage, 15–22. cheminement. Architecture Concept, (28)313, 16–21.

Ungard, Philippe. (2010). Entrée principale : entretien avec Roger Taillibert, Parinaud, André. (1973, October). 10 ans d’architecture et d’urbanisme en architecte. Paris: Éditions Dilecta. France. Roger Taillibert. Galerie des Arts (130) 71–74.

Yaroni, Erika. (2012). Evolution of Stadium Design. (Master’s dissertation). 1976 Olympic Games Add $250 Million to Montreal’s Booming Development Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Massachusetts, Connecticut, United Market. (1973, December). Canadian Building (23)12, 20. States. L’affaire Taillibert : “nous évoluons dans l’absurde... (1974, July). Bâtiment (49)7, 7. Tourist guides Les travaux au Parc Olympique. (1974, November–December). Architecture Concept, (29)326, 11. Barry, Chris et al. (2013). Montréal & Québec City. New York: Fodor's Travel. Batigne, Stéphane. (2004). Montréal. Le guide Autrement. Paris: Éditions Ferguson, Pamela. (1975, January). Montreal Olympics: Prestige Politics. Design, Autrement. 313, 30–39.

Bouchard, Anick-Marie and Maud Hainry. (2013). Montréal et Québec en Olympic Construction Costs Vault Higher. (1975, February) Canadian Building, quelques jours. Paris: Lonely Planet, En voyage éditions. (25)2, 39.

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Utilisation d’un nouveau matériau pour coffrages sur les chantiers olympiques. Sandori, Paul. (1976, September). Olympic Stadiums—Olympic Complex: (1975, April). Bâtiment, (50)4, 15–16. Structural Development. The Canadian Architect, (21)9, 56–60.

Taillibert, Roger and T.A.A.A. (1975, May–June). Architecture textile, Fenosa-Chapuis, J.-P. (1976). Entretien avec M. Drapeau, maire de Montréal, architecture mobile. Techniques & Architecture, 304, 32–37. Propos recueillis par J.-P. Fenosa-Chapuis. Travaux, 498-499, 28–30.

Les Jeux Olympiques de 1976 à Montréal. (1975, August) Werk/Œuvre, 8, 735– Yamamoto, Shunsuke. (1976). Montreal Olympic Nearing Completion, A+U, 68, 740. 12–13.

Complexe olympique de Montréal. (1975, October). Architecture Française, Clarkson, B. N., P. Boets and J. P. Entrop. (1977, January). L’éclairage aux Jeux (36)393, 20–23. Olympiques de Montréal. Revue internationale de l’éclairage, (1)1, 9–13.

Quebec Architects Knock Olympic Fees. (1975, October). Canadian Building, Parent, Claude. (1977, February). Interview Taillibert. Architecture française, (25)10, p. 6. 401, 37–48.

Olympic Games construction: How 123 Pinkerton Guards Check on 4000 Le mât du stade : les travaux ont repris. (1979, July). Bâtiment, (54)7, 4. Workers across the 165-Acre Site. (1975, October) Canadian Building, (25)10, 49–50. Chaslin, François. (1987, September). Noblesse d’épée. L’Architecture d’Aujourd’hui, 252, 16–19. Dispute Arises Olympic Architect’s Multi-million Dollar Fee. (1975, December) Canadian Building, (25)12, 19. Taillibert, Roger. (1988, January). Droit de réponse : À propos du Stade olympique de Montréal. L’Architecture d’Aujourd’hui, 256, 68–69. Emery, Marc. (1976, January). Interview: Jean Drapeau. Metropolis, (III)21, 50– 54. Brien, Jean. (1992). La Joute : autour d’une œuvre de Jean-Paul Riopelle. Continuité, 20, 17–19. Le monde de la pratique : Un stade olympique controversé. (1976, February). Bâtiment International, Building Research and Practice, (4)2, 114–129. Noppen, Luc. (1992). Le stade olympique. Continuité, 53, 31–34.

Brillante démonstration de la technique française. Le voile mobile du stade, une Bilodeau, Denis. (2004). Modernisation et utopie : l’architecture des réalisation SEPA. (1976, March). Galerie des Arts, (156) 95–97. infrastructures olympiques de Montréal pour les jeux de 1976. Trames. Revue de l’aménagement de l’Université de Montréal, 15, 215–230. Les tissus Verseidag, structure d’une nouvelle architecture. (1976, March). Galerie des Arts, 156, 98. Wolfe, Jeanne M. (2005). Legacy of grandeur: The 1976 Olympic games. Canada Plan, (45)2, 29–30. Schokbéton. avant-garde de l’industrie du bâtiment au Canada. (1976, March). Galerie des Arts, 156, 99. L’avenir du Parc Olympique : Le sens de l’avis. (Winter 2011–2012). Esquisses, (22)4. Retrieved May 2017 from https://www.oaq.com/esquisses/archives_en_ Parinaud, André. (1976, March). Dossier du Centre olympique de Montréal. html/lavenir_du_parc_olympique.html Galerie jardin des arts, 156, 79–90. Le béton : passer à un autre stade. (Summer 2014). Esquisses, (25)3, 30–60. Sigma-plastique, un velun de 8000 m2. (1976, March). Galerie des Arts, 156, 100–102. Sortir du moule. Patrimoine et béton. (Fall 2014). Continuité, 142, cover page.

Le monde de la pratique: Superplastifiants dans la pratique. (1976, May). Bâtiment Daily press (in chronological order) International, Building Research and Practice, (6)5, 321–331.

Constructions olympiques : monuments hors du commun, mais coûts Dumas, Evelyn. (1970, January 15). Olympic Offer if Modified. The Montreal mirobolants. (1976, June). Bâtiment, (51)6, 11–13. Star.

Marsh, Peter. (1976, June). Madness in Montreal. Building Design, 304, 12–13, 22. Si Drapeau et Cie obtiennent les Jeux olympiques ‘76, un “boom” pour Montréal. (1970, January 29). Le Nouvelliste. Le facteur temps : principal responsable de l’escalade des coûts du chantier olympique — R. Lalancette. (1976, July). Bâtiment, (51)7, 32. Montreal Charges Vancouver Is Using a Whisper Campaign. (1970, February 7). Toronto Daily Star. Castro, Marc. (1976, August). Le béton est la plus belle pâte à modeler... Bâtiment, (51)8, 11–12. Olympiques de 1976. Marché conclu entre les Russes et les Canadiens. (1970, February 10). Montréal Matin. Demarthe, Daniel. (1976, August–September). Structures olympiques de Montréal : Quelques points d’intérêt particulier. Travaux, 498–499, 36–37. Pas de pacte entre Vancouver et Moscou. (1970, February 10). L’Action.

Hix, John. (1976, September). Olympic Stadiums – 1: The Olympic Stadium. The Me Drapeau toujours confiant de voir Montréal obtenir les Jeux de 1976. (1970, Canadian Architect, (21)9, 35–46. February 19). Montréal Matin.

Hix, John. (1976, September). Olympic Stadiums – 2: The Velodrome.The Après Mexico. La prochaine étape de M. Drapeau : Munich. (1970, March 4) Canadian Architect, (21)9, 47–51. Montréal Matin.

L’ensemble olympique de Montréal. (1976, August–September). Travaux, 498– Archambault, Maurice. (1970, March 17). À la poursuite des jeux olympiques. 499, 31–35. Drapeau fait un autre tour d’Europe. Montréal Matin.

Olympic Stadiums. (1976, September). The Canadian Architect, (21)9, 32–34. Pour l’obtention des Jeux d’été de 1976. Los Angeles mène par deux bonnes Rigny, M. P. (1976, August–September). Les installations du Parc olympique de longueurs. (1970, March 23). Montréal Matin. la Ville de Montréal. Problèmes posés par la nature du sol—solutions apportées. Travaux, 498–499, 38–47. Dalon. (1970, March 28). Mayor Enthused After Olympic Trip.The Montreal Star.

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Montréal peut offrir les Jeux olympiques et la rénovation urbaine—Jean Aucoin, Jean. (1970, May 16). Ce surhomme nommé Jean Drapeau. Montréal Drapeau. (1970, March 31). La Presse. Matin.

Dumas, Evelyn. (1970, April 5). Mayor Sees Low Olympic Cost. The Montreal Drapeau le promet : Les jeux ne seront pas déficitaires ! (1970, May 16). Le Journal Star. de Montréal.

Bourassa Favoring Olympic Petitions. (1970, May 2). The Montreal Star. L’important c’est de commencer de vivre dès maintenant l’olympisme (Le maire Jean Drapeau). (1970, May 16). La Presse. Olympiad Approval for MUC. (1970, May 2). The Montreal Star. Turbide, André. (1970, May 16). Les jeux ne sont pas seulement une “quinzaine Drapeau Set Bid for Games. (1970, May 5). The Gazette. de compétitions”. Montréal matin.

Now's the Ultimate Test of the Mayor' Magic. (1970, May 5). The Gazette. À moins d’imprévu. Les Jeux olympiques ne coûteront rien. (1970, May 17). Le Petit Journal. Montréal aura enfin son stade, mais la question du toit est toujours à l’étude. (1970, May 7). La Presse. Beauvais, André. (1970, May 26). Lucien Saulnier. L’ombre “comptant” du Jean Drapeau des Jeux. La Presse. Les Jeux impliquent des investissements importants. (1970, May 8). La Presse. Les installations des Jeux olympiques en montre à Terre des hommes cet été. (1970, May 26). Guide du Nord. Nous attendons les Jeux depuis 1900—le maire Drapeau. (1970, May 8). La Presse. Le village olympique sera construit sur une partie du terrain du golf municipal. (1970, June 3). Nouvelles de l’Est. Flies to Amsterdam. Saulnier Joins Games Bid. (1970, May 9). The Gazette. Drapeau Opens Olympic Display. (1970, June 6). The Montreal Star. Les Jeux profiteront aux jeunes et aux défavorisés principalement. (1970, May 9). La Presse. À l’assemblée de la CSQ, samedi soir. Drapeau : “Conserver l’esprit olympique” et L’Allier “Former des êtres complets.” (1970, June 8). Le Journal de Montréal. Bacon, Dick. (1970, May 10). Montreal Darkhorse for ‘76 Olympics. Sunday Express. Stewart, Brian. (1971, January 25). Summer Olympics Plans Deep City Hall Secret. The Gazette. Dumas, Evelyn. (1970, May 12). IOC Decision—Did It Save Jean Drap's Political Future? The Montreal Star. Montreal Planners Take Charge as City Prepares for 1976 Olympics. (1971, March 6). Financial Post. Durslac, Melvin. (1970, May 12). To Avoid U.S.-Soviet Politics, IOC Selected Montreal. Toronto Daily Star. Doug, Gilbert. (1971, March 22). Olympic Architect Finally Lift Curtain on their Plans. The Gazette. Mayer, Ian. (1970, May 12). Long Olympic Run over—Montreal Gets Games. The Montreal Star. Doug, Gilbert. (1971, March 22). Olympic Stadium: “Wonders of Wonders.” The Gazette. Bourassa Hopes ‘76 Games Will Spur Quebec Economy. (1970, May 13). Toronto Daily Star. Olympic Planning. (1971, March 23). The Gazette.

Desjardins, Marcel. (1970, May 13). Ottawa applaudit le choix de Montréal, Lévesque, Richard. (1971, April 2). Secrecy at City Hall. The Montreal Star. mais... La Presse. “Olympique 76” est aujourd’hui une réalité. (1971, April 15). La Presse. “Extravagant Dreams” Says Mayor Chartier. Most Suburban Mayors Happy about Olympic Games. (1970, May 13). Montreal Star. The Important Questions: How Much Would the Olympic Cost? (1969, April 23). The Gazette. Guerin, Raymond. (1970, May 13). Four Men Smooth Way for Dymanic Drapeau. The Montreal Star. Breil, Charles. (1971, May 2). Les sites des Jeux '76 officiellement connus. Dimanche Matin. “It'll Help our Economy”—Bourassa, (1970, May 13). The Montreal Star. Olympic Chief Secret. (1971, May 2). Montreal Star. Jean the Conqueror. Mayor Explains Low-Cost Plan for Olympics. (1970, May Charbonneau, André. (1971, May 3). Les Jeux olympiques c’est plus gros que 13). Toronto Daily Star. l’Expo ! Le Devoir. Man on the Street Reaction, It'll Cost... but Wonderful. (1970, May 13). The Pinard, Guy. (1971, May 3). Drapeau confirme l’emplacement du Stade olympique ; Gazette. Charbonneau nommé organisateur. La Presse.

Montréal pourrait réaliser un surplus de quelques millions. (1970, May 13). La Pinard, Guy. (1971, May 3). Pour la métropole, 1975 une date sur l’échéancier. Presse. La Presse.

Mayer, Ian. (1970, May 13). “Drapeau Flew in his Own Banquet! Victory Cold Québec donne 25 000 $. Ottawa s’engage très prudemment ! (1971, May 3). Liver, Anyone? The Montreal Star. Montréal Matin.

O’Neil, Pierre-L. (1970, May 13). M. Drapeau accueillit triomphalement à Stewart, Brian. (1971, May 3). The 15 Month Forecast... Mayer Drapeau’s “Grand Dorval. Jeux olympiques sans déficit. Le Devoir. Design.” The Gazette.

Ottawa Reaction General Enthusiasm. (1970, May 13). Montreal Star. Trudeau à Drapeau : Pas de sous pour les Jeux olympiques. (1971, May 12). Montréal Matin. We Will Hold the 1976 Olympics in a Humble Way, in the True Olympic Spirit... Jean Drapeau. Games Means City Boom. 9 Great, Big Bonus. (1970, May 13). L’assemblée annuelle de la CSQ. Les difficultés du sport amateur québécois. (1971, The Gazette. June 7). Point de mire.

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Pour les nominations et le reste. Les olympiques relèvent du gouvernement Montréal '76. La revanche de l’Amérique. (1972, September 17). Dimanche municipal. (1971, June 7). Montréal Matin. Matin.

Trudel, Jerry. (1972, February 27). Les Jeux... et vous ! Montréal Matin. “Notre responsabilité est de donner une nouvelle impulsion aux Jeux olympiques.” M. Roger Rousseau. (1972, September 26). Le Journal de Montréal. Lefebvre, Urgel. (1972, March 23). Frustrations à l’occasion des architectes. Confiez les installations à un étranger “est un affront à la nation.” Le Devoir. Seligons, Lou. (1972, October 25). Gerry Snyder—Man in Olympic Hot Seat. The Montreal Star. Lassé, Louise. (1972, March 30). Il refuse la participation. Drapeau veut être seul à construire sa ville. La Patrie. Donahue, Brian. (1972, November 10). Olympic an International Farce. The Eyrsonian (Toronto). Cowan, Peter. (1972, April 7). 3,000 Watch Film of Design and Installations. Mayor Courts Criticism to Keep Olympics Out of Politics. The Montreal Star. Drapeau : Les olympiques pourraient être un facteur d’unité du Canada. (1972, November 10). La Presse. Drapeau soulève un coin du voile sur le Jeux de 1976. Un stade couvert de 70 000 places. (1972, April 7). Le Devoir. Pinard, Guy. (1972, November 10). Le monde du sport est unanime : oui aux Jeux. La Presse. Face aux Jeux olympiques. Les ingénieurs ne veulent pas subir le sort des architectes. (1972, April 7). Montréal Matin. Cloutier: Quebecers Must Rediscover Olympic Spirit. (1972, November 14). The Montreal Star. Ferrante, Angela. (1972, April 7). Anti-Poverty Workers. Protesters Evicted from Olympic Press Conference. The Montreal Star. Calgary opposé aux Jeux. (1972, November 23). La Presse.

Olympic Spirit. (1972, April 7). The Montreal Star. Pinard, Guy. (1972, December 30). La préparation des Jeux se fait trop en secret. La Presse. Le Service d’urbanisme tenu à l’écart des Jeux de 1976. (1976, April 8). Le Devoir. Le budget des Jeux n’attend que l’approbation du fédéral. (1973, January 19). Pellerin, Jean. (1972, April 8). Pour ou contre les Olympique. La Presse. Le Devoir.

Doug, Gilbert. (1972, April 10). City Architect. The Gazette. La Chambre de commerce de Montréal. Elle appuie les Jeux olympiques de Montréal. (1973, January 20). Montréal Matin. Les Jeux olympiques de 1976 favorisent le développement de l’est. (1972, April L’autorisation du gouvernement fédéral. Une nouvelle qui a réconforté les 11). Flambeau. délégués. (1973, February 3). Montréal Matin. Balkely, Arthur. (1972, April 14). Drapeau Olympic Finance Claim. Trudeau Se taira-t-il ? (1973, February 18). Dernière Heure. Smells a Rat. The Gazette. Déclaration en faveur des Jeux. (1973, February 21). La Presse. Poirier, Peggy. (1972, April 14). Drapeau's Olympic Not for Here. The Gazette. Camirand, Richard. (1973, February 28). Les Jeux olympiques doivent servir de Revolutionary Construction Concepts. Stadium Designer Talks. (1972, April 22). tremplin vers l’avenir. Montréal Matin. The Montreal Star. Les Jeux olympiques. Appui solide pour Drapeau. (1973, March 1). Montréal Au sujet des Jeux olympiques. Le Parti municipal demande un referendum. (1972, Matin. April 24). Montréal Matin. Les Jeux olympiques 1976. Appui de la Chambre de commerce du Canada au Québec commence à tâter le pouls du sport et de l’olympisme. (1972, May 6). La COJO. (1973, March 8). La Presse. Presse. Les Jeux de 1976 n’ont qu’un défaut : Jean Drapeau en est le promoteur. (1973, Boudron, Joseph. (1972, May 8). Quand la base manifeste. Montréal Matin. April 1). Québec Presse.

Munro croit les avantages culturels et financiers des Jeux '76 exagérés. (1972, May Pinard, Guy. (1973, April 5). 12 conservateurs à la défense des Jeux olympiques. 9). La Presse. La Presse.

Will the Public Benefit from the Olympic Facilities. (1972, May 27). The Montreal Pinard, Guy. (1973, April 14). Les jeux, trois ans après Amsterdam. Pas assez Star. d’information et trop de politique. La Presse.

Le sport et la récréation au Canada. (1972, July 3). Le Journal de Montréal. Pinard, Guy. (1973, April 14). Pour appuyer les Jeux. Appel lancé à toute la Stewart, Jim. (1972, July 15). Drapeau Vision for '76. The Montreal Star. population du pays. La Presse.

Drapeau, Jean (1972, July 18). Les Olympiques, c’est la fête de tous les athlètes du Les Jeux de 1976. L’heure de vérité sonnera en mai, déclare Willis Daume. (1973, monde. La Patrie. April 19). Le Devoir.

Tardif, Germain. (1972, July 18). Drapeau le répète tout sera prêt pour les Jeux. Nous saurons en mai si les Jeux ‘76 auront bien lieu à Montréal—Daume. (1973, La Presse. April 19). Montréal Matin.

Montréal n’a plus qu’un choix : Innover... à bon marché. (1972, September 14). Daume fait confiance au COJO. (1973, April 21). Le Devoir. Le Petit Journal. Sortie de Drapeau contre La Presse : “il faut être malade ou de mauvaise foi pour Share, E. (1972, September 15). Suggest Montrealers Should Decide for or Against rédiger de pareilles sottises !” (1973, April 21). Montréal Matin. Holding Olympics. The Gazette. Pas de problèmes pour l’organisation des Jeux ‘76—Lord Killanin. (1973, Pinard, Guy. (1972, September 16). L’esprit des Jeux, c’est la politique. La Presse. May 4). Montréal Matin.

Saint-Amant, Sylvio. (1972, September 16). Montréal a accepté de relever un lourd Contraventions aux camionneurs. Arrêt de travail spontané sur le chantier défi.La Voix de l’Est. olympique. (1973, May 25). Montréal Matin.

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Le chantier du Stade est de nouveau paralysé. (1973, May 25). La Presse. Sneyder, Brodie. (1974, July 18). Olympic Park Model Unveiled, the Real Think Comes Next. The Gazette. La préparation immédiate des Jeux nous aide à construire l’avenir—Simon Saint-Pierre. (1973, June 6). Montréal Matin. La maquette du Parc olympique peut maintenant être examinée par le Montréalais. (1974, August 8). Flambeau. Dufresne, Jean V. (1973, June 14). L’expert de Munich. Montréal a de l’avance, mais reste cachotière. Le Devoir. Les Jeux olympiques... c’est pas encore joué ! (1974, August 16). Le Journal de Montréal. Lettres au Devoir. Du pain d’abord, des jeux ensuite... (1973, August 9). Le Devoir. Le chantier olympique est paralysé. (1974, September 19). Le Devoir. Lettres au Devoir. Haro sur Drapeau. (1973, August 9). Le Devoir. Rousseau croit que tout n’est pas perdu dans l’ouest pour la loterie. (1973, August Pour les Jeux, rien n’est planifié—Le conseiller Robert. (1974, September 21). 10). La Presse. La Presse.

Duhaime, Colette. (1973, August 21). Camionneurs en grève au chantier Desjardins, Jean-Marc. (1974, September 25.) On vous boude, M. le Maire ? olympique. Le Journal de Montréal. Le Jour.

Le PQ réclame le départ de Desrochers du COJO. (1973, August 21). Le Devoir. Pinard, Guy. (1974, October 16). Le complexe olympique. Les premiers plans sont rendus publics. La Presse. Les 70 camionneurs des Jeux olympiques quittent le chantier. (1973, August 21). La Presse. Fontaine, Gaëtan. (1974, October 18). Selon Michel Bourdon. Entente secrète Drapeau-FTQ. Le Journal de Montréal. Selon Marcel Léger, les Jeux olympiques marquent un point tournant d’une politique du loisir au Québec. (1973, August 29). Flambeau. Pinard, Guy. (1974, November 5). Notre complexe olympique sera unique au monde, mais il n’est pas canadien. La Presse. Storey, Red. (1973, September 2). Les Jeux olympiques sont l’affaire de tout le pays. Le Petit Journal. Beaugrand-Champagne, Paule. (1974, November 7). Un quartier à la recherche d’une identité. Rosemont : des gens heureux, une organisation pauvre, des loisirs Desrosiers, Réal. (1973, November 28). Jeux olympiques. “Éviter le gigantisme.” déficients et la fièvre olympique. Le Jour. Le Journal de Montréal. Drapeau prend ses précautions. (1974, November 10). Dimanche/Dernière Heure. Camirand, Richard. (1973, December 10.) Le Québec aura son Institut des sports. Montréal Matin. Il n’y aura jamais de grève sur le chantier olympique—Drapeau. (1974, November 10). Dimanche Matin. Gerber, Alain. (1974, February 28). Jeux demain... Jeux de vilains ? Le Jour. Les installations olympiques. La CSN et la FTQ disent tout ignorer d’un pacte de non-grève. (1974, November 11). Le Devoir. Aucoin, Jean. (1974, March 8). Mérite-t-on les Olympiques. Montréal Matin. “Pacte de non-grève” sur le site des Jeux : seul Drapeau semble être au courant. À cause de bisbille syndicale. Les Jeux olympiques risquent d’être “cimentés” (1974, November 11). La Presse. pour un bout de temps. (1974, May 8). Le Journal de Montréal. Le chantier olympique paralysé à 50 %. À leur tour les menuisiers exigent Arpin, Claude. (1974, May 10). Union Squabble Threatens $1.5 billion in Projects. “l’indexation.” (1974, November 13). Le Journal de Montréal. The Montreal Star. Les menuisiers gagnent au Stade olympique. (1974, November 18). Montréal Beliveau, Jules. (1974, May 10). Grève du ciment : les constructeurs demandent à Matin. Québec d’intervenir. La Presse. La FTQ est d’accord. L’indexation dans le bâtiment ou le chaos, prévient la CSN. Francoeur, Gilles and Jean-Pierre Charbonneau. (1974, May 10). La violence (1974, December 6). Le Devoir. éclate sur le chantier. Le Devoir. La grève des ferrailleurs. (1974, December 9). Le Devoir. Pinard, Guy. (1974, May 10). Quatre ans après Amsterdam, la minute de vérité du COJO. La Presse. Gariepy, Gilles. (1974, December 12). Une loi spéciale pour le bâtiment. La Presse.

Pinard, Guy. (1974, May 15). Montréal paie $600 000 dollars en un an à Taillibert. L’échéance des Jeux : le maire Drapeau cherchera-t-il à conclure un pacte La Presse. avec les syndicats et entrepreneurs ? (1974, December 30). Montréal Matin.

Pinard, Guy. (1974, May 15). Un stade olympique montréalais apprêté à la MacNeil, Al. (1974, December 30). Retards et déficit n’y font rien. Les française. La Presse. organisateurs de ‘76 demeurent optimistes. Le Jour.

Giroux, Rose-Marie et al. (1974, May 30). Face à l’attribution sans soumissions Pinard, Guy. (1974, December 31). Le coût des Jeux. La valse des millions. des contrats des Jeux olympiques. Les pensées des conseillers municipaux. Le La Presse. Jour. Pinard, Guy. (1975, January 10). Drapeau semble accorder plus d’importance aux Pinard, Guy. (1974, June 12). Les Jeux de 76. L’échec du vélodrome, handicap monuments prestigieux qu’à l’esprit olympique. La Presse. pour le COJO. La Presse. Robidoux, Normand G. (1975, February 9). Jean Drapeau aura ses jeux. La Patrie. Olympiques. (1974, June 14). Le Journal de Montréal. Dubuc, Jean-Guy. (1975, February 15). Pour qui sont ces Jeux. La Presse. Marcotte, Gastoné. (1974, July 28). Les Jeux seront une faillite, si... Montréal Matin. Ce que nous pensons des Jeux olympiques. (1975, March 27). Le Jour.

April, Pierre. (1974, July 18). Les installations olympiques. Tout sera prêt avant le Pinard, Guy. (1975, April 23). Détroit : un stade avec toit pour $56 millions. temps—Jean Drapeau. Montréal Matin. La Presse.

Descôteaux, Bernard. (1974, July 18). Le Parc olympique sera prêt à temps, jure Laurent, Rene. (1975, April 30.). City Deal Attacked. Firm Guaranted $16 million. encore Drapeau. (Media unknown). The Gazette.

140 Docomomo Québec | Montréal Olympic Park Heritage Study 13. Bibliography

Blanchard, Gilles. (1975, May 10). La croisade olympique de Jean Drapeau. Une Doug, Gilbert. (1976, January 13). Mayor Tries to Get Back Games Role. The guerre de 12 ans pour douze jours de paix. La Presse. Gazette.

Pinard, Guy. (1975, May 10). Les cinq ans de l’aventure des Jeux. La Presse. Gilbert, Doug. (1976, January 14). Stadium Problems Pile Up. Olympics Are Facing Cancellation. The Gazette. LeBlanc, Gérald. (1975, July 11). Bon vendeur, mais sans conscience sociale, dit le RCM. Le Devoir. Pinard, Guy. (1976, January 22). Dès 1972, Trudeau évaluait les Jeux à un demi- Ryan, Claude. (1975, July 11). L’histoire se répète. Le Devoir. milliard. La Presse.

Selon le Rassemblement des citoyens. Les Jeux coûteront un milliard de dollars. Leclerc, Jean-Claude. (1976, February 7). Éditorial. L’enquête olympique. Le (1975, July 11). Le Jour. Devoir.

À un an des Jeux, la hausse des coûts n’a rien de surprenant, dit le maire. (1975, Quand le projet était modeste... (1976, February 11). La Presse. July 14). Le Devoir. Vennat, Pierre. (1976, March 12). La FTQ à la Régie des Jeux. “Ralentissez ou Drapeau optimiste. (1975, July 17). Montréal Matin. on ralentira.” La Presse. Forest, François. (1975, July 17). La parole aux ouvriers du chantier olympique. “Maudit, que c’est beau, puis que c’est bien fait.” La Presse. Wildgust, John. (1976, April 9). Taillibert: “I Want to Talk about Technique.” The Montreal Star. La presse étrangère. Ces maudits journalistes. (1975, July 17). La Presse. Thomas, Dave. (1976, April 10). Fees no Business of Public: Taillibert. The Les inquiétudes s’estompent. (1975, July 17). Montréal Matin. Gazette.

Pinard, Guy. (1975, July 17). Des Jeux très chers... D’un budget trop bas à la valse Doug, Gilbert. (1976, April 17). Olympic Countdown. An Elephant We Are Not des millions. La Presse. Likely to Forget. The Gazette.

Pinard, Guy. (1975, July 17). La petite histoire du milliard. La Presse. Foglia, Pierre. (1976, July 13). Les Jeux. La Presse.

Ryan, Claude. (1975, July 17). Les Jeux olympiques. Dans un an aujourd’hui ! La Jean-Drapeau mérite d’emblée que le Stade porte son nom. (1976, July 31). Le Presse. Journal de Montréal.

Mort à l’olympisme. (1975, July 30). Le Jour. Cousineau, Louise. (1976, August 2). Finies les belles images, il reste la note ! La Presse. Descôteaux, Bernard. (1975, October 30). Un “contrat de rêve” pour le Stade, selon le RCM. Le Devoir. Le Village olympique fut un grand succès ! (1976, August 2). La Presse.

Chouinard, Marcel. (1975, October 31). Taillibert empocherait près de 40 Pinard, Guy. (1976, October 20). Taillibert n’aura pas $10 millions—Rouleau. millions $ Le Devoir. La Presse.

Descoteaux, Bernard. (1975, October 31). Le RCL réclame l’annulation du Pinard, Guy. (1976, December 6). La somptuosité excessive des équipements ne contrat. Le Devoir. se retrouve qu’au parc olympique même. La Presse.

Leclerc, Jean-Claude. (1975, October 31). Éditorial. Les millions de Taillibert. Le Pinard, Guy. (1976, December 6). L’héritage des Jeux. Le Québec continuera de Devoir. payer le déficit olympique bien après 1983. La Presse.

Provencher, Norman. (1975, October 31). Highest Ever in North America. O’Neill, Pierre. (1977, July 3). Le vérificateur propose une enquête royale sur le Architect's Fee May Hit $40 millions for Games. The Montreal Star. coût des Jeux. La Presse.

Le contrat professionnel du siècle ? Texte intégral du projet de convention Recommandations du vérificateur. Enquête royale sur le dossier des Jeux. (1977, olympique entre la Ville de Montréal et l’architecte Taillibert. (1975, November July 4). La Presse. 1). Le Devoir. Bauch, Hubert. (1977, July 5). PQ Must Relish Olympic Probe. The Gazette. Le COJO dresse une liste des éléments essentiels. (1975, November 21). La Presse. Low, Richard. (1977, July 5). Olympic Construction on Cabinet Agenda. The Star. Pinard, Guy. (1975, November 21). La Régie est créée sans la collaboration de Drapeau. La Presse. Olympic Cost Inquiry Would Waste Time, Money, Builders Say. (1977, July 5). The Globe and Mail. Bercier, Réal and Marcel Desjardins. (1975, November 29). Inquiets des finances de Montréal et de la CUM. Les prêteurs américains ont amené Québec à investir Pour les entrepreneurs impliqués dans les constructions olympiques, une dans les Jeux. La Presse. enquête serait du temps perdu. (1977, July 5). Le Soleil.

Le bureau de Trudeau dément la rumeur. Montréal demanderait un prêt de $600 Selon deux entrepreneurs. JO : l’enquête serait une perte de temps. (1977, July millions à Ottawa. (1975, November 29). La Presse. 5). La Presse.

Taillibert parle ! (1975, December 15). Le Journal de Montréal. À regret dit Levesque. Enquête publique sur les Jeux. (1977, July 8). La Presse.

Laprise, Huguette. (1975, December 16). Les vols au chantier olympiques. Les Bonhomme, Jean-Pierre. (1977, July 14). Le comité Marsan pourrait policiers poursuivent leur enquête. La Presse. recommander de parfaire la tour du stade mais sans le couvrir. La Presse.

April Pierre. (1975, December 24). Les Jeux s’autofinanceront ! — Jean Drapeau L’Heureux, Daniel. (1977, July 15). L’enquête sur le Jeux se terminera juste avant (1972). Montréal Matin. les élections de Montréal et le référendum... La Presse.

Farquharson, Durat. (1975, December 27). Monument Will Outlast Debt: Games Installations Cost $922.1 millions Quebec Report Says. (1977, August 4). Taillibert. The Gazette. The Globe and Mail.

141 Docomomo Québec | Montréal Olympic Park Heritage Study 13. Bibliographiy

Pinard, Guy. (1977, August 4). Le rapport du vérificateur général. Les coûts du Duguay, Jean-Luc. (1986, November 22). Tiens, toit ! Le Devoir. Village et du parc au 31 octobre 76 : $922 millions. La Presse. Cayoutte, Pierre. (1986, November 27). Dix ans et $ 1,2 milliard plus tard. Monsieur Marsan, la tour doit être complétée. (1977, October 23). Dernière Heure. Le Devoir.

Rapport du comité Marsan. Un sondage favorise le mât Taillibert au Stade. (1977, Farber, Michael. (1986, November 27). Homecoming for Big O'S Prodigal Roof . October 23). Dimanche Matin. The Gazette.

Jean-Claude Leclerc. (1977, October 27). Éditorial. Le Stade inachevé. Le Devoir. Workers Race the Calendar to Top off Olympic Stadium. (1986, November 27). The Gazette. Guy Pinard. Le rapport Marsan et l’avenir du mât olympique : la seule solution valable : respecter le plan Taillibert. (1977, October 31). La Presse. Goguean, Gisèle, and Éric Trottier. (1991, June 28). Les vents déchirent la toile du Stade. La Presse. Descôteaux, Bernard. (1978, February 8). Le toit du stade : oui mais plus tard. Le Devoir. Trudel, Jean-Pierre. (1991, June 28). L’orage fait de nombreux dégâts à Montréal. La toile du Stade éventrée. Le Journal de Montréal. Le RCM opposé au parachèvement du Stade. (1978, February 8). Le Devoir. Winds Took Stadium Roof by Storm. Thousands Left Without Power as Gusts, Le mât olympique est-il prioritaire ? (1978, February 10). Le Journal de Montréal. Trees Knock Down Lines. (1991, June 28). The Gazette.

Le milieu universitaire s’élève contre le projet du mât du stade olympique. (1978, Chartrand, Yves. (1991, June 29). Pendant que la toile bat au vent... Tout le monde February 14). Le Devoir. se cache. Le Journal de Montréal.

Le mât : la SEBJ étudiera le concept Taillibert. (1980, November 1). Le Devoir. La question du jour. Devrait-on enlever la toile et mettre un vrai toit. (1991, June 29). Le Journal de Montréal. James Bay Form to Help Finish Big O. (1980, November 1). The Gazette. Bris de la toile du Stade. La RIO fait appel à des experts. (1991, July 4). Le Soleil. Leclerc, Jean-Claude. (1980, November 3). Un mandat biaisé. Le Devoir. Lavalin va réparer la toile du Stade. (1991, July 28). Le Soleil. Logique de ministre. (1980, November 4). La Presse. Parent, Rollande. (1991, September 14). Chute d’une poutre de béton de 50 Toit du stade olympique. Un comité d’ingénieurs de la SEBJ est déjà au travail. tonnes. Le Stade olympique fermé. Le Droit. (1980, December 18). Le Devoir. Parent, Rollande. (1991, September 14). La saga du Stade olympique se poursuit. Une poutre de 50 tonnes se détache. Fermeture cinq jours. Manque à gagner 3,5 À cause des taux d’intérêt élevés $3 milliards pour les Jeux. Rejet du concept millions. Le Nouvelliste. Taillibert pour terminer le stade. (1981, August 6). La Presse. Parent, Rollande. (1991, September 14). Le Stade perd un morceau de 50 tonnes. Pinard, Guy. (1981, August 6). Les Jeux : le cap des $ 3millards a été franchi. La Fermé pour une semaine. La Tribune. Presse. Taillibert nie toute responsabilité dans les événements survenus au Stade. (1991, Girard, Michel. (1981, August 7). Faiblesse dans la base du mât du Stade. L’étude September 14). La Tribune. de faisabilité selon le concept Taillibert est suspendue. La Presse. Le Stade rouvert le 23 novembre ? (1991, October 3). Le Journal de Montréal. Laprade, Yvon. (1981, August 7). Toit du stade. La solution Taillibert plus que sérieusement compromise,—Lucien Saulnier. Le Journal de Montréal. Gingras, Pierre. (1991, October 4). La toile a vieilli plus vite que prévu. La Presse.

Stadium May Not Get its Roof. New Problems Make Stadium Roof Doubtful. Stade : les experts n’ont pas de solution. Sa réouverture pour l’hiver semble (1981, August 7). The Gazette. compromise. (1991, November 20). La voix de l’Est.

Pinard, Guy. (1981, August 8). La RIO prend une sage décision. La Presse. Gingras, Pierre. (1991, November 23). L’Est de Montréal a hâte de retrouver le Stade olympique. La Presse. Mayor Nostradamus. (1981 August 17). The Gazette. Gingras, Pierre. (1991, November 25). La RIO croit qu’une entente à l’amiable Duddin, Jean-Maurice. (1986, November 15). La fierté a un chantier : le mât. Le avec Taillibert pourrait ne rien coûter. La Presse. Journal de Montréal. Van de Walle, Michel. (1991, November 25). Sondage Léger et Léger. Une Gervais, Raymond. (1986, November 16). Lavalin reporte la levée du caisson de réouverture rapide du Stade est souhaitée par 76 % des Québécois. Le Journal 380 tonnes. La Presse. de Québec.

Richer, Monique. (1986, November 16). Mât : le hissage de la poutre géante a failli Soumis, Laurent. (1991, November 26). SNC-Lavalin à nouveau juge et partie du avoir lieu. Le Journal de Montréal. toit olympique. Le Devoir.

Fanning n’est pas inquiet. (1986, November 18). Le Journal de Montréal. Soumis, Laurent. (1991, November 26). Vallerand donne le feu vert à la réouverture du Stade. Le Devoir. La foule voulait voir ça. (1986, November 18). Le Journal de Montréal. Duddin, Jean-Maurice. (1991, November 27). Les experts du Groupe SNC Le Stade olympique. L’enfant devient adulte. (1986, November 18). Le Journal de recommandent d’ouvrir le Stade. Le Journal de Montréal. Montréal. Lessard, Denis. (1991, November 28). Le stade rouvre après 77 jours. La Presse. Le grand dérangement pour la toile. Elle prendra la direction du stade samedi. (1986, November 20). La Presse. Lefebvre, Robert. (1991, November 29). 3,2 millions pour vérifier si le Stade est sécuritaire. Le Devoir. Le transport de la toile du stade. Le chargement le plus long jamais vu en Amérique du Nord. (1986, November 20). Le Journal de Montréal. RIO go into more than $13 million deficit. (1992, April 21). The Gazette.

142 Docomomo Québec | Montréal Olympic Park Heritage Study 13. Bibliography

Opinions des autres. La toile du stade. (1992, April 27). Le Devoir. Editorials. Time to Bury the Big O. (1999, January 20). The Gazette.

Fitterman, Lisa. (1992, May 30). Raising the Roof. Stadium's Top to Be Lifted, but Kalogerakis, George. (1999, January 20). Stadium Won’t Reopen till Roof What Happens after, Big O's Cover Is Blown? The Gazette. Certified Safe. The Gazette.

Chouinard, Marie-Andrée. (1996, September 5). La RIO penche pour une toiture La saga du Stade se poursuit. Une assurance de 50 M$ pour indemniser la RIO, souple et fixe. Le Devoir. le Salon de l’auto et l’Exponautique. (1999, January 20). Le Journal de Montréal.

In Brief. New Roof Urged for Big O: Report. (1996, September 5). The Gazette. Le Stade est fermé. (1999, January 20). La Presse.

Blanchard, Gilles. (1996, September 7). On a tout tenté pour sauver la toile du Malboeuf, Marie-Claude and Hugo Dumas. (1999, January 20). La RIO parachute. La Presse. appréhende une pluie de poursuites. La Presse.

Blanchard, Gilles. (1996, September 7). Taillibert raille. “On continue d’aller Noël, André. (1999, January 20). Les pompiers exigent quatre rapports avant de chercher la monnaie des Québécois. La Presse. rouvrir le Stade. La Presse.

Taillibert est déçu. (1996, September 7). Le Journal de Montréal. Lachapelle, Judith. (1999, January 21). La déchirure. Pas question de démolir le stade, même si plusieurs Québécois le souhaitent. Le Devoir. Toit maudit. (1996, September 7). La Presse. Malboeuf, Marie-Claude and Hugo Dumas. (1999, January 21). L’Ordre des Richard, Maurice. (1996, September 8). Il faut vivre avec le Stade olympique. La ingénieurs fait enquête. La toile se déchirait pendant la pose, racontent à La Presse. Presse des installateurs. La Presse.

La RIO a décidé. Le toit sera souple et fixe. (1996, September 10). Nouvelles de Malboeuf, Marie-Claude. (1999, January 21). Le Stade olympique évacué. l’Est. L’opération déneigement de la toile commence. La Presse.

La ministre Dionne-Marsolais suspend les travaux du nouveau toit du stade. Auger, Michel C. (1999, January 22). De Mirabel au Stade. Le Journal de Montréal. (1998, October 18). La Presse. Cloutier, Marc. (1999, January 22). La RIO subit de lourdes pertes. Les Les travaux au nouveau toit du stade... suspendus. (1998, October 18). Le Soleil. contribuables n’auront rien à payer, dit la ministre Louise Harel. Le Devoir.

Authier, Philippe. (1994, October 20). Quebec Committed to Roof for Big O, Le Stade est là pour rester, affirme Jean Charest. (1999, January 22). La Presse. Minister Says. The Gazette. Malboeuf, Marie-Claude et al. (1999, January 22). La RIO s’interroge sur l’avenir Cantin, Philippe. (1998, October 20). D’abord une vocation sportive, précise la de la toile de Birdair. La Presse. ministre. La Presse. Cherry, Paul and Kalogerakis, George. (1999, January 23). No Work till Big O Cantin, Philippe. (1998, October 20). Le Stade : une question de coûts. La hausse Gets OK. As Rips Grow and cables Shit, Safety Boards Wants Roof Deemed rapide de la facture préoccupe Mme Dionne-Marsolais. La Presse. Sound before it’s Repaired. The Gazette. Duddlin, Jean-Maurice. (1998, October 20). Toit du stade : Dionne-Marsolais Dubuc, Alain. (1999, January 23). Raser le Stade ? La Presse. craint que les coûts doublent. Le Journal de Montréal. Lachapelle, Judith. (1999, January 23). La saga du Stade olympique. Pro et anti Fortier, Renaud. (1998, October 20). Quand se côtoient légitimé et démesure. Le Taillibert s’entredéchirent. Le Devoir. Devoir. Girard, Marie-Claude. (1999, January 25). Le toit du Stade ne sera pas déneigé Girard, Norman. (1998, October 20) RIO. La ministre Dionne-Marsolais se avant cinq jours. La Presse. donne un mois. Le Journal de Québec. Berger, François. (1999, January 27) Le salon de l’habitation ira au Stade quand Mackie, Richard. (1998, October 20). Olympic Stadium Roof Decision Closing on même. La Presse. PQ. The Globe and Mail.

Marsolais, Claude-V. (1998, October 20). Le toit fixe pourrait faire éclater la Trottier, Éric. (1999, January 27). Des architectes outrés que la RIO fasse appel à structure de béton, selon un expert. La Presse. des étrangers. La Presse.

Stade olympique : Québec veut revoir les estimations. (1998, October 20). Le Semenak, Susan. (1999, January 27). Big O Is our Eiffel, City Architect Says. Journal de Québec. Landmark Is Now “Part of our Heritage.” The Gazette.

Editorial. Revisiting City's White Elephant. Roof Delay Offers Chance to Pelchat, Martin. (1999, January 28). Bouchard refuse de lancer les Bulldozers à Rethinking Big O's Future. (1998, October 21). The Gazette. l’assaut du Stade. La Presse.

Larose, Michel. (1999, January 19). La toile du Stade cède encore. 37 M$ plus tard, Duddin, Jean-Maurice. (1999, February 5). Les structures du Stade et du mât le cauchemar recommence. Le Journal de Montréal. sont sécuritaires. La Presse.

Sweet, Doug. (1999, January 19). Five Injured when Water, Snow Rip through Big Lecavalier, Charles. (2015, June 16). Au moins 700 M$ pour démolir le Stade O Roof. The Gazette. olympique. Le Journal de Montréal.

Berger, François. (1999, January 20). Le Stade fermé jusqu’au 15 février. Le Paquette, Catherine. (2016, June 14). Se réconcilier avec les Jeux olympiques. déneigement du toit est nécessaire. L’ouvrage Birdair présente des “problèmes de Nouvelles d’Hochelaga-Maisonneuve. drainage”, croit-on chez SNC Lavalin. La Presse. Paquette, Catherine. (2016, June 21). Le Parc olympique veut rejoindre Cherry, Paul. (1999, January 20). Other Roofs Failed, Too. Birdair Says It Had Hochelaga-Maisonneuve. Nouvelles d’Hochelaga-Maisonneuve. Problems with 4 or 5 Out of 500 It Built. The Gazette. Dion, Jean. (2016, July 11). L’aventure mouvementée des Jeux olympiques de Duddin, Jean-Michel. (1999, January 20). Démolir ? Le Journal de Montréal. 1976. Le Devoir.

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Ménard, Réal. (2016, July 11). Les quatre legs des Jeux olympiques de 1976. Le Devoir.

Ménard, Sylvain. (2016, July 12). Finalement, ce bon vieux stade... Métro.

Corriveau, Jeanne. (2016, July 16). Les Jeux olympiques, coûte que coûte. Le Devoir.

Corriveau, Jeanne. (2016, July 16). Le Stade toujours mal aimé. Le Devoir.

Corriveau, Jeanne. (2016, July 16). Village olympique. De la grande visite en ville. Le Devoir.

Durocher, Pierre. (2016, July 16). Un très bel héritage pour Montréal, selon Dick Pound. Le Journal de Montréal.

Todd, Jack. (2016, July 18). Drapeau's Baby from First Bid to Final Billion-Dollar Bill. Montreal Gazette.

Tremblay, Marc. (2016, July 18). 40 ans après les Olympiques. L’héritage empoisonné. Montréal semble encore assommé par la saga des jeux. Le Devoir.

Hickey, Pat. (2016, July 19). Olympic Village “Guest” Revealed Securit Gap, Montreal Gazette.

Hickey, Pat. (2016, July 19). Swim Cheats Cost Canadian Women Moment of Triumph. Montreal Gazette.

Poulet, Denis. (2016, July 22). Jeux olympiques de Montréal. Un peu de modestie, s’il vous plait ! Le Devoir.

Tremblay, Marc. (2016, July 25). Jeux olympiques : l’héritage empoisonné. La Presse.

Brousseau-Pouliot, Vincent. (2016, July 29). JO : Montréal, record des dépassements de coûts. La Presse.

Todd, Jack. (2016, July 29). Love-Hate Relations with Big Owe. Montreal Gazette.

Boshra, Basem. (2016, August 1). Yes, It Was Fun, But Never Again. Montreal Gazette.

Editorial. Hosting the Olympics. (2016, August 4). Montreal Gazette.

Fournier, Guy. (2016, August 4). Montréal a sonné le glas des Olympiques. Le Journal de Montréal.

144 Docomomo Québec | Montréal Olympic Park Heritage Study 14. Credits and Figures

14. Credits and Figures –

Andrew Stevenson, flickr.com, 7478316274_78398031cf_o: 15; Municipal archives of the city of Deauville, ACD-4Fi1612: 23; Roger Taillibert archives: 2 1, 24, 26, 28, VI, VII; Archives de la Ville de Montréal: 4 (Service d’urbanisme, photography), 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 (R. Leonard, photographer), 11 (Michele, draftsman), 18, 19, 20, 27, 30, 37, II, III, IV: BAnQ Vieux-Montréal, COJO 76, E46, S301 (52-CV- 170_002): 35; Cité de l’architecture et du patrimoine / Musée des Monuments français: 25 (Gaston Bergeret, photographer); François Dallegret: 38; INSEP iconothèque, INS_006_PL33d: 22; Cédric Bonel, photographer: 46; MAXXI, Fonds Pier Luigi Nervi, F259, F292: 13, 14; Museum of Finnish Architecture, 47-200: 12; Montréal Olympic Park: 2, 3, 29, 31, 32, 33, 34, 36 (1976/International Olympic Committee (IOC)), 40, 41, 42 (Stephane Bügger, photographer), 43 (Jean-François Hamelin, photographer), 44, 47 (Jean-François Hamelin, photographer), 48, V, VIII, IX; Philippe Legris: 45; Pierre Lahoud, photographer: 1; SAAI, Fonds Günter Behnisch et associés, 2016-04-22-005 (Behnisch & Partner and Christian Kandzia, photographers): 17; Société historique d'Hochelaga-Maisonneuve-Mercier: I; Succession Jean Paul Riopelle, SODRAC, Archives de la Ville de Montréal (Philippe Dumais, photographer): 37;

UNAM, Fond Augusto Pérez Palacios, Estadio olímpico_009: 16.

145 Docomomo Québec | Montréal Olympic Park Heritage Study 15. Appendices

15. Appendices –

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE | May 12, 2016

The Montréal Olympic Stadium, an Architectural Masterpiece Organized by Docomomo Québec, in collaboration with the Régie des installations olympiques (RIO) as part of the Acfas 2016 congress.

9:00 a.m. Introduction

For the Olympic Park — Lise Bissonnette, chair, UQAM Board of Directors, and chair, Comité-conseil sur l’avenir du Parc olympique (2012), Montréal

The Olympic Park, 40 Years Later — Michel Labrecque, CEO, RIO, Montréal

9:15 a.m. Background

Session chair: Soraya Bassil

Hiring of Architect Roger Taillibert to Design the Montréal Olympic Facilities — France Vanlaethem, emeritus professor, École de design, UQAM, and chair, Docomomo Québec

Parc des Princes in Paris: Architect Roger Taillibert’s Major Accomplishment — François Goven, architect, inspector general of historical monuments, Ministry of Culture and Communication, Paris

The Olympic Stadium Project in Montréal’s Maisonneuve Park — Ulisses Munarim, researcher in residence, Docomomo Québec, Montréal

11:00 a.m. Pause —

11:15 a.m. International Perspective

Session chair: Maristella Casciato, senior curator of architectural collections Getty Research Institute, Los Angeles

The Adventure of Large Reinforced Concrete Stadiums (1920-1975) — Franz Graf, professor and director, and Giulia Marino, researcher, Laboratoire des techniques et de la sauvegarde de l’architecture moderne (TSAM), École polytechnique fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL)

From Civil Engineering to Architecture: The Sports Facilities of Pier Luigi Nervi — Christophe Pourtois, director, Centre international pour la ville, l’architecture et le paysage (CIVA), Bruxelles, in collaboration with Cristiana Chiorino, scientific consultant, Association Pier Luigi Nervi Project

12 : 30 p.m. Lunch Break —

146 Docomomo Québec | Montréal Olympic Park Heritage Study 15. Appendices

2:00 p.m. Technical Culture, Architectural Culture

Session chair: Philippe Lupien, professor, École de design, UQAM

Architecture and Civil Engineering in France in the 1960s — Christel Palant-Frapier, professor, École nationale supérieure d’architecture de Versailles

From Prestressed Concrete Cantilever Bridges to Montréal’s Olympic Stadium — Munzer Hassan, senior engineer, CIMA+, Montréal

The Olympic Facilities in Montréal’s Maisonneuve Park Defy Construction Logic — Richard Pleau, professor, École d’architecture, Université Laval, Québec

3:30 p.m. Pause —

3:45 p.m. Round table

Moderator: France Vanlaethem

Maurice Landry, vice-president, construction and maintenance, RIO, Michel Langlois, structural engineer, RIO, Yves Lefebvre, president, Conseil du patrimoine culturel du Québec, the speakers and the session chairs.

4:45 p.m. Closing remarks

147 Docomomo Québec | Montréal Olympic Park Heritage Study 15. Appendices

STUDY DAY | September 29, 2017

Results of the Montréal Olympic Park Heritage Study Montréal Tower Auditorium

9:00 a.m. Results of the Study

Michel Labrecque, CEO, Olympic Park Stéphanie Quantin-Biancalani, curator responsible for the modern and contemporary architecture collection, Muséee des Monuments français, Cité de l'architecture et du patrimoine, Paris France Vanlaethem, emeritus professor, École de design, UQAM, and chair, Docomomo Québec

10:00 a.m. Discussion on the Olympic Park’s Heritage Value

Catherine Mathys, journalist and author of the book Stadorama Serge Bouchard, anthropologist, writer and Québec radio host Jean-Luc Brassard, Olympic champion in freestyle skiing and communicator Nathalie Dion, architect and president of the Ordre des architectes du Québec

12:00 p.m. Lunch —

1:00 p.m. Guided tour of Montréal’s Olympic Park

148 Docomomo Québec | Montréal Olympic Park Heritage Study 15. Appendices

THE OLYMPIC PARK IN FIGURES

• Estimated cost of the initial project according to Jean Drapeau: $180 million • Estimated cost of the modified project: $382 million • Final project cost in 1976 – without the Tower and Kevlar roof: $922 million • Cost to complete the facilities –1986 to 2006 (including the Stadium, the Tower and the installation of the retractable Kevlar roof): $448 million • Transformation of the Velodrome into the Biodôme in 1992: $50 million • Second Birdair roof (1999) – cost, net of claim: $39 million • Total cost of facilities currently managed by the Régie des installations olympiques – in real dollars: $1.2 billion • Value of current facilities managed by the Régie des installations olympiques – in 2017 dollars $.4.1 billion

By attraction −

• Olympic Stadium: $2.7 billion • Sports Centre: $0.2 billion • Tower: $0.5 billion • Parking: $0.5 billion • Esplanade and outdoor areas: $0.2 billion

149 Timeline –

1844 The Olympic Club, founded in 1842 in Montréal, organizes Olympic Games.

1896 The first modern Olympics are held in Athens.

1910 Fig. II. Master plan of Maisonneuve Sports Center, May 1956, Clarke & Rapuano. The City of Maisonneuve creates Maisonneuve Park.

1928-1929 1967 Montréal submits a bid to host the 1932 Olympic Games. The City Montréal presents a bid for a major baseball franchise, promising to would make five more attempts for the Games, in 1932, 1939, 1949, 1966 build a covered stadium for the 1972 season. The City is awarded the and 1969. franchise in May 1968.

1938-1939 September 7, 1968 Construction begins on the Centre sportif de l'Est with a view to The Canadian Olympic Association (COA) backs Montréal’s project to hosting international sports competitions, Frederick G. Todd, landscape host the summer Games of the XXI Olympiad in 1976. architect, and Emmanuel-Arthur Doucet, architect. May 21, 1969 The Canadian government supports Montréal’s bid for the 1976 Summer Olympics but states it will not contribute financially.

December 4, 1969 Montréal submits its candidacy for the 1976 Summer Olympics.

February 11, 1970 Architectural firm Webb, Zerafa, Menkes is retained to draft the Olympiade 1976 project in support of Montréal’s bid.

May 12, 1970 The president of the IOC announces that Montréal will host the Summer Games of the XXI Olympiad, from July 17 to August 1, 1976.

Fig. I. Master plan of Centre sportif de l’Est, January 18, 1939, F. G. Todd and Emmanuel-Arthur Doucet.

1954-1971 Montréal’s Service des parcs organizes the Olympiade des parcs every summer.

1956 Maisonneuve Sports Center project, Clarke & Rapuano, engineers and landscape architects, New York.

1960-1961 Inauguration of the Maisonneuve Sports Center and the Maurice- Fig. III. Model of Maisonneuve Park and the Olympic installations, circa May 1970, Richard arena, planned by Clarke & Rapuano and built respectively by Webb Zerafa Menkès, architects, created by the Service d’urbanisme et architects Paul Lambert and Jean-Julien Perrault. d’aménagement urbain. March 17, 1971 Charles-A Boileau, director of the Montréal’s Service des Travaux publics, and municipal engineer Claude Phaneuf meet with architect Roger Taillibert in Paris and visit the construction site of the Parc des Princes stadium.

March 20, 1971 The COA appoints the first members of the Organizing Committee of the Olympic Games (COJO).

April 1971 Engineer Claude Phaneuf is tasked with preparing the program for the Olympic facilities, work that would be carried out with Roger Taillibert. Fig.V. Master plan of the Olympic Park and its link to Maisonneuve Park, May 5, 1972, Roger Taillibert, architect. August 3, 1971 Roger Taillibert presents his accomplishments to senior officials of April 24, 1973 Montréal’s Service des travaux publics. Montréal’s Executive Committee approves retaining Roger Taillibert as consulting architect to André Daoust, the architect of the Olympic Park November 1971 at the City’s Division du Parc olympique. Montréal is chosen to host the World Cycling Championships in 1974. April 27, 1973 March 7, 1972 The City votes on the first appropriations to fund the Olympic Park’s Roger Rousseau is appointed COJO President and Commissioner- excavation. General for the 1976 Summer Olympics. April 28, 1973 May 6, 1972 Groundbreaking ceremony of the Olympic Park; joint venture Désourdy The City of Montréal unveils the project for the Olympic facilities Construction-Simard-Beaudry-Dumez (Canada) begins the initial in Maisonneuve Park. Architect Roger Taillibert is on hand for the excavation work. announcement. May 11, 1973 February 3, 1973 The City begins hiring engineering consultants; the hiring would be Canada’s Prime Minister announces upcoming legislation for the approved by the Executive Committee on June 29. financing of the Olympic Games. May 14, 1973 March 16, 1973 Preliminary design for the Olympic facilities by Roger Taillibert. The City creates the Division du Parc olympique and appoints Claude Phaneuf as its superintendent. July 27, 1973 Legislation on the financing of the Olympic Games is adopted: the Olympics (1976) Act (Bill C-196).

Fig. IV. Model of the Olympic Stadium presented publicly on April 6, 1972, Roger Fig. VI. City of Montréal, Maisonneuve Park, longitudinal section, circa 1973, Roger Taillibert, architect. Taillibert, architect. August 27, 1973 May 1975 Construction of the Velodrome begins. Strikes slow down work for many months before an agreement is reached between the City and the Fédération des travailleurs du Québec January 10, 1974 on October 26, 1975. COJO unveils the outline of the Arts and Culture Program for the November 4, 1975 Olympic Games. Bill 81 is ratified, creating the Régie des installations olympiques (RIO).

November 20, 1975 The first element of the technical ring is installed in the Stadium. The last would be installed on March 29, 1976.

March 1976 Ten radiologists who acquired La Joute contact the Minister of Cultural Affairs, Jean-Paul L'Allier, to gift the artwork to the Government of Québec for installation at the Olympic Park.

June 6, 1976 The extension of the metro line serving the Olympic Park is opened.

June 13, 1976 RIO hands over the Olympic facilities to COJO.

Fig. VII. City of Montréal, Maisonneuve Park, 2.2' and 3.3’ cross-sections, January 9, June 30, 1976 1974, Roger Taillibert, architect. The Fonds spécial olympique (FSO) is created to collect money to repay the loans taken out to finance the nearly $700 million of work. February 22, 1974 Dr. André G. Légaré writes Mayor Jean Drapeau to offer Jean Paul July 16, 1976 Riopelle’s La Joute fountain-sculpture. The La Joute fountain-sculpture is inaugurated without fanfare.

July 26, 1974 July 17, 1976 Changes are made to the formal agreement between COJO and the City Opening ceremonies of the Summer Games of the XXI Olympiad. of Montréal in which the latter’s responsibility for the facilities is limited to municipal properties. August 2, 1976

August 1, 1974 COJO returns the Olympic Park to RIO, which would oversee its completion, management and operation. The City retains Désourdy-Charles Duranceau to oversee construction of the Olympic Park, excluding the Velodrome. August 12, 1976 August 5, 1974 The first non-Olympic event is held: Canadian Cycling Championship at the Velodrome. Work begins on the Stadium foundation.

August 7, 1974 The City retains the engineering consortium Les Consultants du Stade de Montréal and French consulting engineering firms Europe- Études and Société d'études et d'équipements d'entreprises (SEEE) as subcontractors.

November 24, 1974 Ironworkers go on strike.

January 21 and 22, 1975 The Québec National Assembly’s Commission permanente des affaires municipales et de l'environnement debates how to make the Olympic Games self-financing.

May 5, 1975

The first prefabricated elements are delivered to the Stadium site by Fig. VIII. City of Montréal, Plan masse, dallage général, December 6, 1974, Roger Schokbéton. Taillibert, architect. August 24, 1976 March 15, 1985 The Québec National Assembly’s Commission permanente des affaires Socodec Lavalin is awarded the contract to finish work on the Stadium municipales et de l'environnement holds a session on the Olympics file. mast and roof.

September 26, 1976 February 3, 1987 The Montréal Alouettes play their first game at the Olympic Stadium. The Stadium mast reaches its final elevation with completion of the steel portion. January 1977 April 11 and 16, 1987 The Québec government forms the Commission sur l'avenir du Parc olympique, chaired by Jean-Claude Marsan. The retractable Kevlar roof is installed.

January 15, 1977 April 20, 1987 The Olympic Park pools open to the public. The Expos play their first game in the covered Stadium.

April 15, 1977 November 21, 1987 The Montréal Expos play their first game at the Olympic Stadium. The Observatory at the top of the Tower officially opens.

June 1988 June 23 and 24, 1977 The Stadium’s retractable roof tears during a manoeuvre. The concerts organized for the Saint-Jean-Baptiste Day are the first ever to be held in the Stadium.

July 13, 1977 The Québec government creates the Commission d'enquête sur le coût de la XXIe Olympiade.

February 10, 1978 The Québec government decides that it will complete the Stadium according to Roger Taillibert’s plans but nevertheless imposes a one-year moratorium on the work.

June 1979 The Compagnie Les Formes du Québec/Sabrice consortium begins work to finish the mast. Fig. IX. Longitudinal section of the Olympic Stadium mast, circa 1985, Roger Taillibert, SNC-Lavalin, designers. October 1980 The SEBJ is tasked with studying the feasibility of the initial concept due August 17, 1989 to the stability problems encountered. Premier Bourassa announces the transformation of the Velodrome into the Biodôme ahead of Montréal’s 350th anniversary in 1992. December 1980 Construction of the mast is halted and the related contracts cancelled. June 15, 1990 RIO develops a master plan to turn the Olympic Park into a “Cité du June 3, 1982 sport, du loisir, de l'environnement.” Premier René Lévesque announces a moratorium on the work due to the 1990-1991 economic situation. The Stadium arena is remodelled following the sale of the Expos. 1982 June 27, 1991 The concrete surfaces of the consoles and thin web-like structure of the Stadium are waterproofed, along with sections of the swimming centre. The Stadium roof tears, leaving a 120-metre hole.

1984 September 13, 1991 Offices are built for RIO along Pierre-De Coubertin Avenue, under the A 55-tonne beam detaches from its anchors and crashes onto the overpass next to the Pie-IX metro station. Olympic Park esplanade.

May 1984 May 1992 The Regroupement des organismes nationaux de loisir du Québec moves The Comité international d'experts chaired by Robert A. Boyd concludes to the Stadium. that the Stadium roof has to be replaced. May 5, 1993 May 2011 The Conseil des ministres approves replacing the mobile roof with a The Comité-conseil sur l'avenir du Parc olympique is formed. The permanent steel-frame roof, a solution that would be challenged after advisory committee would submit a report in December 2012. the provincial elections. February 2, 2012 February 27, 1995 The first public event is held on the Esplanade Financière Sun Life, A committee is formed to make recommendations on how to most affirming the Olympic Park’s vocations as a “big, modern urban park.” economically replace the roof while respecting Roger Taillibert’s aesthetic vision. September 26, 2012

September 1996 A 2012-2017 master plan is adopted for the Olympic Park.

SNC-Lavalin and Birdair are invited to submit a proposal for a flexible April 6, 2013 permanent roof. The Planétarium Rio Tinto Alcan opens in the Olympic Park. 1998 May 17, 2015 A new roof is installed by Birdair. Desjardins Group / Accès D accepts RIO’s offer to lease space in the January 18, 1999 Montréal Tower. The Birdair roof tears. May 25, 2015 May 1999 The Sports Centre reopens after major renovations. Arbour et Associés submit a master development plan for the Olympic Park. 2015 A greening project is carried out on the Olympic Park site. November 17, 2000 October 26, 2015 Inauguration of the StarCité cinema complex. A business case is submitted to the government on a roof replacement May 2001 for the Olympic Stadium. Real estate developer BUSAC and RIO sign an emphyteutic lease for office space in the Montréal Tower, which is terminated in 2008 without the project coming to fruition.

2002 RIO draws up its first 10-year plan for managing the property.

2002-2006 Repairs are made to the concrete parking structure.

November 2002

Jean Paul Riopelle’s La Joute fountain-sculpture is dismantled and installed in downtown Montréal.

2003-2004 The copper roof cover of the Stadium bowl is replaced with a polyvinyl Fig. X. Olympic Park, Régie des installations olympiques right-of-way (in black and chloride membrane of similar colour. white).

September 29, 2004 The Expos announce they are moving to Washington.

2007 The Saputo stadium is erected on the Olympic Park site, at the intersection of Sherbrooke and Viau Streets.

2008 The Olympic Park’s technical networks and systems are modernized.

2010 The Institut national du sport du Québec (INS Québec) is created and sets up in the Olympic Park's Sports Centre. © Docomomo Québec, 2019 ISBN 978-2-9807921-8-2 (printed) (Original publishing: ISBN 978-2-9807921-6-8, Docomomo Québec, Montreal) ISBN 978-2-9807921-9-9 (PDF) (Original publishing: ISBN 978-2-9807921-7-5, Docomomo Québec, Montreal) ISBN 978-2-9807921-9-9 (PDF)