people have been resuming their pre-earth- quake positions. Men and women have Post-Quake Recovery had to return to the roles they had before the earthquake. Importantly, new chal- lenges of social adjustment have been in Urban Kachchh posed to widows, due to the social norms allowing younger widows to remarry and Socio-economic changes in Kachchh after the 2002 Gujarat creating social isolation for older widows. earthquake have had a negative impact on the survivors. This has Apart from the participants in the study, been sharpened by class and caste distinctions in the distribution Thakkar (2001) and Maheshwari (2002) of compensation which have significantly affected the healing among other journalists and authors have noted that the corrupt practices of govern- process. This economic divide has also caused the collapse of the ment-appointed ‘assessors’ of loss of life social support network, which has further aggravated the sense and property have upset many people. The of estrangement and vulnerability. delay in town planning for the permanent resettlement of housing has created further KUMAR RAVI PRIYA The duration of each phase was about two discontent and frustration among urban months. Ethnography as a methodology survivors. he devastating earthquake that hit constitutes a set of methods. Analysis Let us now try to understand, in urban Kachchh1 on January 26, 2001 of the semi-structured interviews of the Kachchh, the dynamics of constructions, Tclaimed about 1,22,0002 lives. The participants led to new research concerns experiences and the support networks aftermath of the quake caused enormous and set forth the evolution of methodology associated with suffering and healing. socio-economic changes, which have [Priya 2002]. Focused group discussions posed a threat to the survivors’ recovery among the villagers and semi-structured Nature and Intensity of Suffering from trauma. This study looks at the extent interviews of journalists, writers and social of restoration of ‘normalcy’ for survivors, workers followed. Articles in local news- Dholakia (2001:2) gives a clear indica- especially in the urban areas of Kachchh. papers were analysed for triangulation and tion of the growth of the materialist cul- Among psychologists and social scien- other relevant information. ture, particularly in the urban areas of tists, Stacy (1988) strongly advocates the Four dimensions of the processes of Kachchh, in the last two decades due to incorporation of ‘culture-sensitive’ con- suffering and healing were explored. These the steady increase of capitalist forces in cepts that may examine the beliefs were emotional (grief and feelings), cog- the region. He has emphasised that such and practices in the domain of health and nitive (attribution and cognitive re- a culture is marked by longing for more illness. It would necessitate the use of construction of suffering), behavioural and more luxury and passivity towards terms and concepts that are not tied spe- (restarting work and usual household labour. Priya (2002) has described the cifically to the organisations, institutions, activities), and social (participation in general construction of happiness and or ideologies of a particular time and place. social and religious activities). health in the urban areas of Kachchh, on In accordance with the culture-sensitive Before understanding the psychological the basis of the interviews conducted with conceptualisation of terms in the domain impact of the earthquake, we study the several authors, journalists and social of health and illness, the term ‘suffering’ post-earthquake socio-economic changes, workers as ‘having material properties and here means the experience of pain or agony which constituted the context of suffering illness-free bodies’. J N Joshi, director, in crisis situations, which is assumed to be and healing. All India Radio, Bhuj, said the people of ‘shaped’ by one’s cultural belief systems In the wake of such a huge disaster, Kuchchh knew that the place was prone on illness and health [Klienman 1988; people discarded the boundaries of caste to earthquakes. There are even names of Palsane 1990]. Also, ‘healing’ is and class and helped each other in what- villages that signifies this. For example, conceptualised as gradual recovery from ever way they could – by pulling bodies the name of one village is Ludai, which such an experience of pain or agony. out of the rubble or consoling each other means ‘to swing’. Still, multi-storeyed The study was planned a few months by staying as a collective in open or under buildings were constructed there. after the quake. It explored the subjective tents. Maheshwari (2002) has indicated In the first phase of the study, Priya experiences of suffering and healing of the that such social conditions lasted much (2002) looked at the emotional, cognitive, survivors, the role of cultural beliefs as longer in rural areas than in urban areas, behavioural and social aspects of the factors influencing these experiences and after the quake. psychological impact on 18 families. It was their social constructions, and the signifi- Priya (2002:109) mentions the guilt, found that the psychological impact was cance of support networks (family, rela- among the adult males at Selari, of grab- deep and serious in 70-80 per cent of the tives, community or social group) in the bing more relief materials than they re- families. Almost a year had passed after healing process within the socio-economic quired. Khatri (2002) wrote several edi- the earthquake when the first phase of the context after the earthquake. torials (in the local newspaper, Kutchmitra) study was begun, but it was very difficult An ethnographic approach was followed imploring the people not to forget the for the people to contain their emotions in this longitudinal study of three phases generosity and honesty strongly associ- during our interaction as most of the (after one, two and three years of the disaster), ated with Kachchhi character. participants talked about the ‘emptiness’ in which survivors of around 20 families of Over the past three years, gradually, the in their lives after the loss of family Selari village and Bhachau town participated. norms and ethics of the social lives of members and property. It could be observed

Economic and Political Weekly September 18, 2004 4229 that there was a lack of motivation and much improvement was found in the emo- along with this frustration, there was an willingness among people to carry out tional, cognitive, behavioural and social apathy towards the members of their own their roles in their families. Addressing aspects, since the first phase of the study. family and community. Therefore, the grief such a ‘stagnation’ in their lives, Dholakia One change that did come about in some of of other survivors has found inadequate (2001:5) points out in his book, G-paanch the men was their serious interest in the social space for catharsis and further recovery. thi G-shunya taraf, ‘Jetli aaskit moti, tetlun comparison of the money received as ‘compen- Thus, in the three years after the quake, dukh motu laage chhe’, meaning, “the sation’ from the government. A marginal the nature of suffering has altered as several greater the ‘stagnation’, more will be the improvement in the behavioural and emo- socio-economic changes in the region have intensity of sadness or depression”. Only tional aspects of some of the participants added estrangement to loss-induced grief. two men participating in the study reported could be noted in the third phase of the to have ‘sometimes’ gone out to earn or run study, as they had started paying attention to Community Divide their small business. Social and religious their present-life situation. Some of the male activities (such as bhajans, satsang or col- members were trying to involve themselves In an interview with a journalist from lective prayers) were very infrequent but in their work. Some people (particularly a local newspaper in the first phase of the even these were not well-attended. Urban mothers) were able to attain ‘peace of mind’ study, it was revealed that concern for life had not provided the people with any due to the birth of a child as it provided other people was alive among the survi- constructive philosophy or belief system them with an avenue for projection and vors till the time that relief material from about life to lead them to a ‘cognitive re- feedback of positive emotions as a result all over the world arrived in the post- construction’ of the trauma faced by them. of genuinely relating with their child. earthquake scenario. Due to poor manage- Although the temporary resettlement Importantly, the second and third phases ment and distribution of these relief colonies where they lived were based on a of the study found two unique patterns materials on a caste and community basis, particular caste or community, they generally among the survivors existing simulta- the journalist said, this concern began to lacked the feeling of togetherness or simi- neously. In most families, it was mainly dissipate. Maheshwari (2002) has indi- larity of ‘loss’ suffered in the earthquake, the male members who were frustrated cated that the distribution of relief mate- perhaps because of their conditioning in with the fact that they were living in eco- rials along caste lines has led to an implicit the individualistic patterns of urban life. nomic deprivation, as all their material ‘community divide’, which has a telling effect Two years after the quake, the state of suf- property had been destroyed and they did on the healing process. He and Thakkar fering of the participants remained more or not receive the ‘relief package’ they had (2002) also mentioned that due to the less the same. In 10 of the 16 families, not been promised by the government. But inaction of the authorities and insensitive Call for Applications COUNCIL FOR SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT (Supported by ICSSR, Ministry of HRD, Govt. of India & Reserve Bank of India) Southern Regional Office Plot No. 230, Shiva Nagar Colony, Hyderguda, Rajendranagar Road, Hyderabad - 500 064 Tel. No. : 040 - 24016395 Tele-Fax : 040 - 24001958 E-mail : [email protected]

The Council is one of the premier Research Institutes devoted to Research and Training in the field of socio-economic development. It is looking for dynamic young male and female candidates who can take up research projects, carry out analysis and write up reports independently. They should also be capable of undertaking Training Programmes and organizing Seminars/Workshops. The candidates should have 3 to 10 years of research experience working in the area of social science research and familiar with the computer softwares. They must have Ph.D. in Social Science disciplines like Anthropology, Development Administration, Economics, Education, Psychology, Social Work and Sociology. Preference will be given to candidates who have demonstrated their writing ability by publishing articles in referred journals and bringing out independently authored books. The positions exist in the categories of Senior Fellow, Fellow and Associate Fellow. The selected candidates will be paid consolidated salaries ranging from Rs. 25,000 to Rs. 28,000 for a Senior Fellow, Rs. 17,000 to Rs. 20,000 for a Fellow, and Rs. 13,000 to Rs. 16,000 for an Associate Fellow. Initially the appointment will be for a period of three years, which can be extended for a further period on professional review. Interested candidates may send their detailed Bio-data to the Regional Director within 15 days from the date of publication of this advertisement.

4230 Economic and Political Weekly September 18, 2004 and corrupt officers there were gross ir- Even worse is the plight of widows who has vfound expression in the values of regularities in the assessment of loss of pro- have remarried and of women who are married survivors. EPW perty and distribution of relief-packages. to a man who had lost his wife. Under the This has resulted in the survivors experi- prevailing situation of ‘freestyle lives of Notes encing a strong feeling of intra-community males’ it is they who have to adjust to the [The author expresses his gratitude to survivors and intra-caste ‘economic divide’. demands of the new family they have joined. who took pains to participate in the study, Amrit The author’s interviews with the partici- Szasz (1960) has located mental illness Bhai and Vijay Bhai for the much needed help pants and Maheshwari (2002) have also in the socio-cultural milieu, where the in the field and Girishwar Misra and V K Srivastava for their encouragement and guidance in pursuing indicated quarrels within families over the symptoms are a communication of the this research endeavour. The author also expresses distribution of the package. The ‘economic struggle between one’s experiences and his gratitude to Ajit K Dalal for providing personal divide’ has thus severely damaged the social the social and cultural ethics. It is impor- and academic help needed in the study.] support network. In addition, Joshi (2003) tant to note that the suffering of most of 1 Kachchh is one of the districts of Gujarat. It has called for immediate initiatives from these women and widows has been aggra- is also spelt as ‘Kutch’ or ‘Kuchchh’. Although Bhuj is the district-headquarters of Kachchh, the government and non-government vated by the prevailing socio-economic this recent earthquake has frequently been organisations to tackle the frequent quar- conditions that have provided neither the quoted in literature as Bhuj earthquake. rels among the youth of various castes, safety and security needed for survival nor 2 Gujarat State Disaster Management Authority. who are largely illiterate and unemployed. a space for the emotions one associates According to Mead (1913, 1934), cited with having a healthy family life. References in Sahakian (1982), the perception of what It is clear from this discussion that in- Brison, S J (1997): ‘Outlining Oneself: Trauma, family members and related people might tense grief, avoidance of the recall of the Memory and Personal Identity’ in D T Meyers think about him/her generates a sense event and the estrangement induced by (ed), Feminists Rethink the Self, pp 12-39, Westview Press, Boulder, CO. of selfhood in a person. Severed social socio-economic changes among survivors Dalal, A K and N Pande (1999): ‘Cultural Beliefs relationships due to the economic divide in urban areas have impeded the process and Family Care of the Children with has resulted in loss of selfhood or estrange- of cognitive appraisal and acceptance of Disability’, Psychology and Developing Societies, 11, 55-75. ment among the survivors. suffering. Brison (1997), cited in Ellingson Dholakia, Haresh (2001): G-paanch thi G-shunya (2001), Dalal (1999) and Kohli and Dalal taraf…, Positive Attitude Training Centre, (1998) assert that the acceptance of suf- Bhuj. Sexual Aberrance Ellingson, L L (2001): ‘ “Then You Know How fering is the first step towards its cognitive I Feel”: Emphathy, Identification, and During the second and third phases of reconstruction and a process of healing. Reflexivity in Fieldwork’ in A Bryman (ed), the study it was noted that male youths Very few such cases have indeed been Ethnography, Vol IV, pp 52-74, Sage, London. Joshi, N (2003): ‘Bhukampe jan-malni sathe engaged in unrestrained behaviour, loiter- found during this study at Bhachau, where naitiktanunya patan notrayun’ in Kirti Khatri ing around residential areas without doing families have accepted their loss. In the case (ed), Kutchmitra Diwali-2003, pp 28-32, any work (sometimes in a drunken state), of Himmat Bhai, the acceptance of grief Kutchmitra Printing Press, Bhuj. eve-teasing and quarrelling. Not only in is reflected in a small poem written below Khatri, K (ed) (2002): Kutchmitra vishesh prakashan-2002, Kutchmitra Printing Press, Bhachau but in other devastated towns of the photographs of his dead wife and son Bhuj. Kachchh too, aberrant behaviour of male kept in their one-room temporary house. Klienman, Arthur (1988): The Illness Narratives: youth, including pre-marital and extra- In case of Shankar Bhai, who lost four Suffering, Healing and Human Condition, Basic Books, New York. marital sex, has been noted. Navin Joshi, family members, including a son and Kohli, N and A K Dalal (1998): ‘Culture as a who works for the local daily, Kutchmitra, daughter, he and his wife have found solace Factor in Causal Understanding of Illness: A indicates that investigation in two of four in caring for their only surviving child, a Study of Cancer Patients’, Psychology and Developing Societies, 10, 115-29. devastated towns has revealed such visually handicapped girl. Some survivors Maheshwari, M (2002): ‘Prakritinun rudra swarup, behaviour. He also mentions his interview like Shankar Bhai have been able to sym- tantrani butthi samvedna ane bhrasht tantroni with a gynaecologist in Bhuj in which she bolically express and receive the feedback boorai vachche bhukampgrastonan dusakan dabai gayan’ in Kirti Khatri (ed), Kutchmitra admitted that in the post-earthquake pe- of positive emotions blocked after the death vishesh prakashan-2002, pp 12-16, Kutchmitra riod, there was a sharp increase in the cases of their loved ones. But these examples are Printing Press, Bhuj. of abortion [Joshi 2003]. of a few individual efforts of survivors to Mead, G H (1913): ‘The Social Self’, Journal of Philosophy, Psychology and Scientific It comes as a shock to note that women recover from the trauma amidst wrecked Methods, 10, 374-80. who are left with no earning males in the support networks. – (1934): Mind, Self and Society, University of family have been forced into the flesh Taking a close look at the process of Chicago Press, Chicago Ill. Palsane, M N (1988): ‘Concept of Stress from trade. The prevailing socio-economic suffering and healing in urban Kachchh Traditional Indian Standpoint’ in Usha Ram conditions have in general forced women since the quake, one may be startled by (ed), Suffering and Stress Management: West into sexual victimhood. There are ‘other’ the negative impact of changing socio- versus East, pp 4-8, Deepa, Pune. ways in which the post-earthquake period economic conditions. This has posed se- Priya, K R (2002): ‘Suffering and Healing among the Survivors of Bhuj Earthquake’, has produced challenges for women. The rious challenges to the healing process Psychological Studies, 47, 106-12. money received by the families as ‘com- (already delayed due to their experience Sahakian, W S (1982): History and Systems of pensation’ has resulted in a lack of interest of ‘emptiness’ or ‘loss’) among survivors. Social Psychology, Hemisphere, US. Stacy, M (1988): The Sociology of Health and among the males to earn their livelihood. But it is clear that in the social structure Healing. Routledge, London. In some cases, it has also resulted in as observed while analysing the notions of Szasz, T S (1960): ‘The Myth of Mental Illness’, excessive expenditure on addictions like happiness and health in urban Kachchh, Americal Psychologist, 15, 113-18. Thakkar, S M (2001): ‘Laachaar praja, nishkriya drinking, and the mother or wife usually the same materialism and capitalism which vahivatitantra ane nishthur padadhikarioni bears the brunt of such behaviour. guides the global socio-economic order triveni sangam!’ Kutchmitra, pp 4-6, April15.

Economic and Political Weekly September 18, 2004 4231