View metadata, citation and similar papers at core.ac.uk brought to you by CORE provided by University of Waterloo's Institutional Repository Biconfessionalism and Tolerance: The Peace of Augsburg in Three Imperial Cities by Istvan Szepesi A thesis presented to the University Of Waterloo in fulfilment of the thesis requirement for the degree of Master of Arts in History Waterloo, Ontario, Canada, 2016 © Istvan Szepesi 2016 I hereby declare that I am the sole author of this thesis. This is a true copy of the thesis, including any required final revisions, as accepted by my examiners. I understand that my thesis may be made electronically available to the public. ii Abstract In contrast to the atmosphere of mistrust and division between confessions that was common to most polities during the Reformation era, the Peace of Augsburg, signed in 1555, declared the free imperial cities of the Holy Roman Empire a place where both Catholics and Lutherans could live together in peace. While historians readily acknowledge the exceptional nature of this clause of the Peace, they tend to downplay its historical significance through an undue focus on its long-term failures. In order to challenge this interpretation, this paper examines the successes and failures of the free imperial cities’ implementation of the Peace through a comparative analysis of religious coexistence in Augsburg, Cologne, and Nuremberg during the Peace’s 63- year duration. This investigation reveals that while religious coexistence did eventually fail first in Nuremberg and then in Cologne, the Peace made major strides in the short term which offer important insights into the nature of tolerance and confessional conflict in urban Germany during the late Reformation era. iii Acknowledgements During the process of writing this thesis, I received a great deal of support and advice from my supervisor, Dr. Greta Kroeker, as well the encouragement of friends and family, in particular from my parents, for which I am extremely grateful. iv Table of Contents Author’s Declaration …………………………………………………………………….……… ii Abstract …………………………………………………………………………………………. iii Acknowledgements ……………………………………………………………………………... iv Table of Contents …….………………………………………………………………………..… v Introduction ……………………………………………………………………………………… 1 Early Modern Doctrines of Heresy and Toleration ……………………………………………… 5 The Free Imperial Cities during the Reformation Era …………………………………………. 12 Historiographical Perspectives on Article Twenty-Seven ……………………………………... 19 Contested Tolerance in Augsburg ……………………………………………………………… 22 Stifled Tolerance in Cologne …………………………………………………………………... 43 Besieged Intolerance in Nuremberg ……………………………………………………………. 64 The Peace of Augsburg in Three Cities ………………………………………………………... 79 Bibliography …………………………………………………………………………………… 98 v Introduction Although by and large the Reformation era more than earned its reputation as a period of bitter conflicts between various Christian confessions and general intolerance of the religious other, some exceptional areas adopted a policy of religious pluralism. The free imperial cities of the Holy Roman Empire stand as one such example, as they conceded the right for both Lutherans and Catholics to live peacefully within their walls in the Peace of Augsburg. This unprecedented compromise between the otherwise antagonistic faiths stands as one of the first instances of official religious pluralism in early modern Europe, but at the same time, the uneven record of free imperial cities in their attempts to implement the terms of the Peace within their own particular social and political contexts raises its own series of questions. Most crucially, it illustrates the wide range of possibilities between the achievement of true toleration, in which followers of different religions could live peaceably alongside one another in full acceptance of each individual’s right to worship freely, and an environment of intolerance enacted through active persecution and religious exclusivism. As such, the implementation of the Peace in the free imperial cities provides a highly significant case study in the development of toleration in the western world, both in its successes and its failures. Therefore, this study examines to what extent the Peace of Augsburg made room for genuinely peaceful coexistence and toleration of the religious other in the free imperial cities. In order to answer this question, this paper investigates the three largest of the free imperial cities, namely Cologne, Nuremberg, and Augsburg. These three represented a wide range in religious demographics, as at the onset of the treaty their respective populaces consisted of a strong Catholic majority, a Lutheran-dominated citizenry, and a more even mix of the two confessions. In addition, they stood among the most influential urban centres of the day, which 1 meant that their religious policies not only impacted their own citizenries, but also had the potential to sway the opinion of other leaders who faced similar decisions. In the peaceful period between the adoption of the Peace of Augsburg in 1555 and the outbreak of new hostilities in 1618, these three cities chose and developed their own responses to the injunction for coexistence. Legal codes do not tell the whole story, however, for while some city authorities diligently enforced their official religious ordinances, others left infractions unpunished as long as they did not have any critical impact on the polity. Communal attitudes also played an important role in the realities of religious toleration, as they determined the ease with which religious minorities could integrate into society. This study therefore explores how each of these factors played out in three very different environments over the same span of time and highlights the extent to which the Peace of Augsburg influenced religious toleration in the free imperial cities. Though historians have long noted the stark contrast between the example of the free imperial cities and the experiences of religious coexistence in the German principalities, the subject remains underrepresented in the historiographical record, especially in the period prior to the Thirty Years’ War. While many historians have studied either the development of the Reformation in the free imperial cities or the wider history of religious toleration in early modern Europe, few have directly examined the connection between the two topics, much less studied the specific ramifications of the Peace of Augsburg. Those that have done so focus almost exclusively on the examples of Dinkelsbühl, Ravensburg, Biberach, and Augsburg, the four Swabian free imperial cities whose biconfessional status endured through to the adoption of the Peace of Westphalia and beyond. Therefore, an important gap remains as to how the experiences of the other cities compares to those of the Swabian cities and what that reveals about the 2 effectiveness of the Peace. This study uses both the more studied example of Augsburg and the less examined cases of Cologne and Nuremberg to fill this void in the understanding of the early modern period and the development of current ideas of religious toleration. Such a redress of the gaps in the historiographical record is only possible due to the wide breadth of primary sources available to scholars of the Reformation era. In particular, studies of the free imperial cities benefit from the extensive municipal archives maintained by the largest of these cities, including those of Augsburg, Cologne, and Nuremberg. The most relevant records come in two main varieties: the official documentation produced and preserved by the city itself, such as council declarations and criminal proceedings, and personal accounts from public figures who resided in the cities, including councillors, religious leaders, artists, and popular writers. Together, these provide a comprehensive view of religious life in the free imperial cities, from the official political stance of the leadership all the way down to the everyday realities of life as a minority group in the community, which plays a crucial role in this assessment of the Peace of Augsburg. As this paper will demonstrate, the Peace initially enjoyed a great deal of success in promoting religious toleration in the free imperial cities of Cologne and Augsburg, though it made little headway in their sister-city of Nuremberg. The flaws of the treaty, however, especially its failure to specify which cities it applied to and how they ought to institute and protect biconfessionalism, eventually led to its failure in the face of external pressure from the increasingly aggressive religious factions of the Empire. In particular, the stark differences in how both officials and society handled religious minorities for the first several decades after the implementation of the Peace and in how they treated the same minority groups in the years just prior to the outbreak of fresh hostilities in the Thirty Years’ War demonstrates its fragility. Thus, 3 the Peace of Augsburg failed to create a durable and long-term peace between confessions, but it did succeed in giving new life to the conceptual power of religious toleration within the general populace of the free imperial cities, which would later play an important role in the achievement of true religious pluralism, albeit only in the four Swabian biconfessional cities and only after another war fought over religion. 4 Early Modern Doctrines of Heresy and Toleration The wider attitude of early modern European society towards