sign in sign up
<<
Home , Christian film industry, Copyleft, Creative Commons, Creative Commons License, Essay, Fair use

Centre for the Study of Communication and Culture Volume 26 (2007) No. 3

IN THIS ISSUE The Movement: Creative Licensing

Sharee L. Broussard, MS APR Spring Hill College

AQUARTERLY REVIEW OF COMMUNICATION

ISSN: 0144-4646 Communication Research Trends Table of Contents Volume 26 (2007) Number 3 http://cscc.scu.edu

The Copyleft Movement:Creative Commons Licensing Published four times a year by the Centre for the Study of Communication and Culture (CSCC), sponsored by the 1. ...... 3 California Province of the Society of . 2. ...... 3 Copyright 2007. ISSN 0144-4646 3. Protection Activity ...... 6 4. DRM ...... 7 Editor: William E. Biernatzki, S.J. 5. Copyleft ...... 7 Managing Editor: Paul A. Soukup, S.J. 6. ...... 8 Editorial assistant: Yocupitzia Oseguera 7. Practices Encouraging Creative Commons ...... 11 Subscription: 8. Pros and Cons ...... 12 Annual subscription (Vol. 26) US$50 9. Discussion and Conclusion ...... 13 Payment by check, MasterCard, Visa or US$ preferred. Editor’s Afterword ...... 14 For payments by MasterCard or Visa, send full account number, expiration date, name on account, and signature. References ...... 15 Checks and/or International Money Orders (drawn on Reviews ...... 17 USA banks; for non-USA banks, add $10 for handling) should be made payable to Communication Research Journal Report ...... 37 Trends and sent to the managing editor Paul A. Soukup, S.J. Communication Department In Memoriam Santa Clara Michael Traber ...... 41 500 El Camino Real James Halloran ...... 43 Santa Clara, CA 95053 USA

Transfer by wire: Contact the managing editor. Add $10 for handling.

Address all correspondence to the managing editor at the address shown above. Tel: +1-408-554-5498 Fax: +1-408-554-4913 email: [email protected]

The Centre for the Study of Communication and Culture (CSCC) is an international service of the established in 1977 and currently managed by the California Province of the Society of Jesus, P.O. Box 519, Los Gatos, CA 95031-0519.

2— VOLUME 26 (2007) NO. 3 COMMUNICATION RESEARCH TRENDS The Copyleft Movement: Creative Commons Licensing Sharee L. Broussard, MS APR [email protected]

1. Introduction

The 2006 Pew Internet and American Life Project disregard for rules. Lawlessness in the e-frontier can study notes that “Internet penetration has now reached take many forms, from blatant to subtle, and the legal 73% for all American adults” (Madden, p. 1). This marks system simply cannot keep up. After all, legislation and an astounding growth. In the summer of 1995, Pew adjudication typically occur after the fact. researchers found less than 15% of U.S. adults were Among many other forms, one form of rampant online (p. 3). Because of its explosive growth and the lawlessness on the Internet consists of copyright types of activity that can occur online, many have likened infringement, that is, the unauthorized copying and the Internet to the 19th century U.S. Wild West: it forms distribution of material created and owned by others. an e-frontier of endless possibility, where communities Given the scope of the problem, a number of move- form, cultures grow, and lawlessness flourishes. ments to mitigate on the Not unlike the Wild West, groups with similar Internet have begun. One such movement involves belief systems and interests find one another through the use of digital tools and legal action to prohibit the amazingly interconnected web of newsgroups, net- copyright infringement. Another movement, copyleft, works, sites, blogs, , and other individual and/or seeks to build a richer and change the group digital communication vehicles. They band assignment of rights from the automatic “all rights together, share information, learn from one another, reserved” to a more egalitarian version dubbed “some protect one another at times, and exhibit other signs of rights reserved.” At the forefront of this second move- community—even though their relationships may only ment is Creative Commons, a web-based exist in the digital world. Not unlike the Wild West, schema developed by a consortium members of these communities are enculturated to fol- headed by Professor of Stanford low group norms. Members develop their own ways of School. doing things: , style, substance, and so on. This review begins with an examination of the Each person’s values, beliefs, and opinions are shaped ways that existing copyright and practices com- by others in the group. Additionally, as in the blogos- pare with the Creative Commons Legal Code. It then phere [the collection of weblogs and online commen- explains how this of copyleft works, how it began, tary], influence is hierarchical and shaped by others’ and why its proponents encourage its widespread use to willingness to forward and build upon information of satisfy the disconnect existing between current intel- common interest. Not unlike the Wild West, existing lectual property laws and common Internet practices. rules do not always fit activities occurring on the The concludes with a discussion of the pros and Internet, which in turn generates lawlessness and/or cons of the system.

2. Copyright

Copyright law protects the expression of , of Literary and Artistic Works established the interna- not the ideas themselves. Solutions or ideas find their tional importance of recognizing and protecting intel- protection under applicable law. First estab- lectual property and rights. Today, the lished in 1886, the for the Protection World Organization, headquar-

COMMUNICATION RESEARCH TRENDS VOLUME 26 (2007) NO. 3 — 3 tered in Geneva, Switzerland administers. the Berne 3. The right to distribute the work publicly. Convention treaty and five other international intellec- 4. The right to publicly perform a work. tual property treaties. 5. The right to publicly display a work. The World Intellectual Property Organization was 6. The right to transmit a sound recording, such as a formed in 1967 to “promote the protection of intellec- CD, through digital audio means. (pp. 429-431) tual property throughout the world through cooperation The Berne Convention also introduced the con- among states and in collaboration with other interna- cept of , also known as Free Use or Fair tional organizations,” (WIPO, about). WIPO member- Dealing. As defined by Title 17 of the U.S. Code, “the ship includes 184 nations. fair use of a copyright work, including such use by Article 2 of the Berne Convention protects liter- reproduction in copies or phonorecords or by any other ary and artistic works defining them as “every produc- means specified by that section, for purposes such as tion in the literary, scientific, and artistic domain, what- criticism, comment, news reporting, teaching (includ- ever may be the or form of its expression,” ing multiple copies for classroom use), scholarship, or (WIPO, Understanding, p. 8). Additionally, the Berne research is not an infringement of copyright” Convention, Article 6b, requires that member countries (Association, 2007, ¶ 16). grant to authors the right to claim authorship of the U.S. and international law allow Fair Use of work (right of paternity) and the right to object to any copyrighted information according to “1) the purpose distortion or modification of the work (right of integri- and character of use, 2) the nature of the copyrighted ty) (p. 12). work, 3) the amount and substantiality of the portion Generally, since its inception, copyright is a used, and 4) the effect on the plaintiff’s potential mar- property right attempting to balance the rights of the ket” (Trager, Russomanno, & Dente-Ross, 2006, pp. producer with the rights of society to build upon that 441-445). work. According to the WIPO, copyright exists for Though there are consistencies among nations’ two reasons: intellectual property laws, each has separate and dis- One is to give statutory expression to the moral tinct laws and regulations about copyright. The World and economic rights of creators in their cre- Intellectual Property Organization summarizes each of ations and to the rights of the public in access- its member states’ intellectual property laws on its ing those creations. The second is to promote website. These summaries appear in parallel formats; , and the dissemination and applica- the WIPO keeps them current for reference purposes. tion of its results, and to encourage fair trade, The interested reader can access them at http:// which would contribute to economic and social www.wipo.int/about-ip/en/ipworldwide/country.htm. development. (WIPO, Understanding, p. 6) Because the author of this essay resides in the The World International Property Organization U.S., a brief summary of U.S. copyright law follows. explains the rights that an owner of a work can either As part of the U.S. Lanham Act, since 1976 prohibit or authorize: copyright applies to “original works of authorship” that are “fixed in any tangible medium of expression” 1. Its reproduction in various forms, such as printed and belong to the work’s creator by default. U.S. copy- publications or sound recordings; right law was established in 1787 when the original 2. The distribution of copies; States adopted Article 1, Section 8 of the U.S. 3. Its public performance; Constitution, stating that Congress has the authority to 4. Its broadcasting or other communication to the “promote the progress of science and the useful by public; securing for a limited time to authors and inventors the 5. Its into other ; to their and discoveries.” The 6. Its adaptation, such as a into a screenplay of 1790 laid the foundation for U.S. (Understanding, p. 9-10). intellectual . It “granted American authors Similarly, Trager, Russomano and Dente-Ross the right to print, re-print, or publish their work for a (2006) enumerate the six exclusive rights recognized in period of 14 years and renew for another 14” U.S. copyright legislation: (Association, 2007, ¶ 3-4). Congress has repeatedly 1. The right to reproduce the work. revised the U.S. Copyright Act, often to keep pace 2. The right to make derivative works. with communication technology or other social devel-

4— VOLUME 26 (2007) NO. 3 COMMUNICATION RESEARCH TRENDS opments. In 1831, the term of protection was extended protection to the life of the author plus 50 years and, in to 28 years with the possibility of a 14-year extension. the case of works for hire, to 75 years from their dates In 1909, Congress expanded the scope of protection to of publication. In a work for hire, the employer is con- all works of authorship and extended the term of pro- sidered a work’s legal author, not the employee who tection to 28 years with the possibility of a one-time received compensation for his or her service and cre- renewal of another 28 years. According to the ative expression. Association of Research Libraries’ Copyright The most recent changes to U.S. copyright law Timeline, Congress attempted to balance public inter- occurred in 1998 and 1999. The Sonny Bono Copyright est with proprietary rights, as demonstrated in this Term Extension Act (CTEA) of 1998 further extends 1909 reference to : copyright protection to the author’s lifetime plus 70 years and for works for hire to 95 years from their dates The main object to be desired in expanding of publication. The 1998 CTEA applies to all works copyright protection accorded to music has been to give the composer an adequate return for the under copyright when it was enacted. (Challenged as value of his , and it has been a seri- too broad, the 1998 CTEA was upheld by the U.S. ous and difficult task to combine the protection Supreme Court in Eldred v. Ashcroft (2003) because of the composer with the protection of the pub- even though the term has been lengthened, it is still lic, and so to frame an act that it would accom- “limited” as delineated by the Constitution.) Another plish the double purpose of securing to the com- 1998 law, the Digital Millennium Copyright Act poser an adequate return for all use made of his (DMCA), banned “ and hardware that allows composition and at the same time prevent the circumventing copyright protection technology” formation of oppressive monopolies, which (Trager, Russomanno, & Dente-Ross, 2006, p. 445) might be founded upon the very rights granted to and brought the U.S. law in line with WIPO Internet the composer for the purpose of protecting his Treaties by establishing safe harbors for online service interests (H.R. Re. No. 2222, 60th Cong., 2nd providers, permitting temporary copies of programs Sess., p. 7, qtd. Association, 2007, ¶ 13). during computer maintenance, and other minor revi- Written almost 100 years ago, this demonstrates the sions (Association, 2007, ¶ 39-41; 15 USCS §1141). general conundrum of copyright—balancing public The Digital Theft Deterrence and Copyright Damages interest/rights with the rights of the owner—no mat- Improvement Act of 1999 (H.R. 3456) “increased the ter what the “fixed form,” be it printed, recorded, minimum statutory damages for infringements from broadcast, programmed, online, multimedia, or any- $500 to $750 and increased the maximum from thing else. $20,000 to $30,000. The maximum for willful infringe- The most sweeping revision to copyright in the ment increased from $100,000 to $150,000” U.S. Code came in the . This (Association, 2007, ¶ 44). major revision was enacted for several reasons: first, to Essentially, before the 1976 Copyright Act, a U.S. keep up with changing technology and, second, to author had to proactively guard his or her material. bring the U.S. into compliance with international copy- Since 1976 for the U.S. and prior to that for many right law in ways that permitted the U.S. to join the nations, every creation receives copyright by default. Berne Convention, which the U.S. signed in 1988 and In order to secure the maximum level of protection, joined in 1989, more than 100 years after the interna- U.S. authors should include a copyright alerting state- tional treaty’s initial adoption (Trager, Russomanno, & ment (for example, “© 2006 John Smith”) and register Dente-Ross, 2006, pp. 423-424). the creation with the Library of Congress. The changes in U.S. law allowing entry into the Copyright by default, Management Berne Convention included increased protection for protections (see Section 4), and increased fees for will- proprietors, new copyright relationships with 24 coun- ful infringement coupled with the explosion of content tries, and the elimination of the requirement of copy- in the blogosphere and throughout the Internet have right notice for copyright protection (Association, yielded a potentially volatile situation. Internet and 2007, ¶ 21). Because the Berne Convention required related actionable offenses arising from the duration of copyright be the life of the author plus the current copyright code could easily collapse the not less than 50 years after his or her death, the U.S. U.S. and international legal systems under the quantity Copyright Act of 1976 extended the term of copyright of cases. This does not happen for several reasons,

COMMUNICATION RESEARCH TRENDS VOLUME 26 (2007) NO. 3 — 5 most primarily the cost of copyright defense and the begun to consider the Digital Media Consumer’s sheer impracticality of defending every creation exist- Rights Act, which would allow consumers to “dupli- ing in fixed form. However, the industries dependent cate digital material and move it around their various upon intellectual property do defend their property players as long as their use of the material is otherwise rights both arduously and frequently. The 1909 legal” (Lileks, 2006, p. 13A). Congress was forward-thinking to worry about “the In short, Internet- and digital media-related prob- formation of oppressive monopolies, which might be lems seem to grow faster than the political-legal system founded upon the very rights granted to the composer can react. How can someone using an item obtained for the purpose of protecting his interests” when it first from the Internet ask for permission if an owner cannot extended protection—though the con- be identified? How can he or she know when a copy- cept applies to much more than music. righted item is eligible to enter the public domain? And more issues exist. In 2005, the U.S. What if every content producer attempted to defend his Copyright Office began studying the proliferating or her work through the legal system for every problem of “Orphan Works: works still under copyright infringement? If someone legally owns something, whose owners cannot be located. . . . [And] Lamar why should he or she not be able to access it in various Smith . . . introduced H.R. 5439, the Orphan Works Act formats? Usage questions are growing as fast, or faster, of 2006,” (Association, 2007, ¶ 81). Congress has than technology advances.

3. Protection Activity

Anecdotally, it appears that the general consen- right, as shown by clear expression or other sus toward Internet content in all its forms is that if affirmative steps taken to foster infringement, is something appears online it is available for free use. liable for the resulting acts of infringement by This is obviously an incorrect assumption. Most third parties. (¶ 15) Internet users probably have no idea how far copy- Based upon publicity surrounding recent actions right protection could conceivably reach into their against peer-to-peer file-sharing networks and individ- day-to-day lives. Such possibilities for abuse have uals by powerful industry interests such as the grown over the years. According to a 1990 Jessica Recording Industry Association of America, many peo- Litman article, “Technology, heedless of law, has ple who use the Internet typically understand that free developed modes that insert multiple acts of repro- music downloading is illegal (Guth & Marsh, 2005, p. duction and transmission—potentially actionable 333). For example, a 2004 Pew Internet and American events under the copyright statute—into common- Life Project study of music downloading and file-shar- place daily transactions,” (Lessig, 2006b, ¶ 40). ing found “14% of Internet users say they no longer Today, because people download and share music download music files” (Rainie, Madden, Hess, & and content even though they know it is wrong, the Mudd, 2004, p. 1). entertainment industry frequently seeks judicial and Though the music industry has most publicly technological remedies for its infringement problems. defended its intellectual property rights, other media In Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer v. Grokster (2005), the U.S. and entertainment industries are quickly following Supreme Court ruled in favor of MGM. in the their lead. The recent acquisition of YouTube Court’s opinion, Justice David Souter explained: included a provision that “12.5% of the equity The question is under what circumstances the [Google] paid for YouTube, or roughly $200 million, distributor of a product capable of both lawful was subject to escrow for one year to cover indemnifi- and unlawful use is liable for acts of copyright cation claims,” specifically in relation to copyright vio- infringement by third parties using the product. lation such as the $1 billion claim filed by We hold that one who distributes a device with Viacom International, Inc. on March 13, 2007 the object of promoting its use to infringe copy- (Shableman, 2007, ¶ 6).

6— VOLUME 26 (2007) NO. 3 COMMUNICATION RESEARCH TRENDS 4. DRM

To thwart infringers’ digitally pilfering others’ Additionally, without an initial purchase, a user has no work, new technological methods of intellectual file access. According to the website fileinfo.net, an property protection have appeared on digital media .spdf file is an “Acrobat document that has been sealed, and throughout the Internet. Technological Protection or locked, using the SealedMedia Sealer; [it] can be Measures (TPM), known alternately as Digital Rights opened by users with sufficient rights [and] authoriza- Management or Digital Restriction Management tion rights are stored on a Server, which also (DRM) software, protects files, images, music, and so tracks usage of the document” (n.d., ¶ 4). on by preventing copying or only allowing limited There are many more DRM systems, including use (for example, only on one machine or only for a Apple’s FairPlay (Lileks, 2006; Braiker, 2006), which given period of time). Internet users have encoun- limit access, number of copies, or devices upon which tered these over and over again, from locked images a user can store a copyrighted item. Other, newer, less and graphics to locked files. As hackers try to gain intrusive, and more customer-friendly versions of access, programmers attempt to stay one step ahead intellectual property ownership protection software with inhibiting software. for broadcast content include Philips’ vTrack for set- An example of just one DRM protection used by top boxes, Thomson’s NexGuard content protection an academic publication resource consists of selling technology, and Cinea’s Running Marks watermark- only hard copies or sealed digital documents. A Sealed ing technology for video-on-demand services Acrobat Document (.spdf file extension) allows a pur- (Rosenblatt, 2007, ¶ 2-4). chaser to download and print a copy of a document; the Unfortunately, DRM software can expose users’ document itself can be stored on the purchaser’s com- computers to security threats. In April 2007, Sony puter for a limited time. The supplier cautions the pur- BMG settled a U.S. Federal Trade Commission suit chaser to print a copy because when the time has regarding its CD DRM software that not only limited expired, the purchaser no longer has access to the dig- access, but also monitored usage and fed information ital version of the file “no matter where it is saved.” back to the company for marketing purposes The file becomes corrupted if the user tries to save it as (Current, 2007, ¶1). simply a .pdf file or as some other document format.

5. Copyleft

According to Lessig and others, every time an of copyright. If the law of copyright protects the individual prints something from the Internet, electron- exclusive right to “copy,” then as digital tech- ically forwards a document, cuts and pastes something nologies make copies with every use, there is no from any Website, saves files for later use, or forwards use of a creative work in a digital network that an e-mail, he or she is breaking the law because the does not trigger the law of copyright. (Lessig, 2006b, ¶26) owner has not granted explicit rights of use: According to Lin (2005), the ease of duplication and In the analog world, the regulation of copyright the anonymity of Internet browsing make it possible to is the exception. In the digital world, the regula- tion of copyright is the rule. . . . [I]n the analog more easily “infringe the behind a digital world, there are many “uses” of creative work work, but also to make precise digital copies that may that never trigger the law of copyright. In the be far less likely to pass muster under a fair use analy- digital world, there is no use of creative work sis than copies made from real-world originals (¶ 21). that does not, technically at least, trigger the law

COMMUNICATION RESEARCH TRENDS VOLUME 26 (2007) NO. 3 — 7 Largely because copyright’s reach has the Copyleft is the term that is now commonly used potential to impact millions of Internet users, a protest to designate the or free initia- movement has attracted a building momentum among tives. Those movements have coined the term bloggers, and those who develop mass quantities of copyleft in opposition to copyright to emphasize Internet content and free or open-source software. that contrary to a traditional exercise of the Branded copyleft, this movement encourages the dis- copyright, the author in copyleft gives up her right in the work and leaves it to the public. tribution of software and other content at no charge Actually, the copyright is not properly given up for noncommercial users. The term was originally or left to the public, but the author authorizes a used by the to describe its broader right to use her work than what is tradi- free license. According to its web- tionally granted. (2006, supra note 1) site: “Free software is a matter of liberty, not price. To understand this concept, you should think of free as in Therefore, content placed online with distinctions free speech, not as in ” (Free Software such as “some rights reserved” using Creative Foundation, 2006a, ¶ 3). Begun in 1984 and responsi- Commons licensing, a GNU General Public License, ble for encouraging free software innovations like the a GNU Free Documentation License, or other similar operating system, the Free Software labels is the product of a content or software produc- Foundation website explains: “Copyleft is a general er who takes part in the copyleft movement. GNU method for making a program or other work free, and are developed by and accessed through the requiring all modified and extended versions of the Free Software Foundation. The general public license program to be free as well” (Free Software is for software and the general documentation license Foundation, 2006b, ¶ 1). is for general content. Perhaps the most widely recog- However, as Dusollier explains, the term has nized example of offered under the copy- come to reference much more than free software: left ideal is , which uses the GNU Free Documentation License.

6. Creative Commons

Creative Commons (CC) launched a set of copy- without asking permission—because permission right licenses free for public use in 2002. Inspired by has already been granted to everyone. (CC, the Free Software Foundation’s GNU General Public “Legal,” ¶ 8) License, free software, and open-source initiatives, its This movement clearly attempts to yield more singular goal is “to build a layer of reasonable, flexi- cultural fodder for the public domain. “Culture itself is, ble copyright in the face of increasingly restrictive and has always been, . . . [this] . . . potential is default rules” (CC, “About,” ¶ 3). Creative Commons amplified by technology . . . yet, this form of speech— licenses are not designed for software, only for cre- remix using images and sounds from our culture—is ative works: websites, scholarship, music, , pho- presumptively illegal under the law as it stands” tography, , courseware, etc. (¶ 4). Science (Lessig, 2004b, ¶ 23-24). Similarly, Trager, Russo- Commons and the Open Educational Resource manno, and Dente-Ross quote U.S. Federal Appellate Commons soon followed with initiatives for scientif- Judge Alex Kozinski’s opinion in White v. Samsung ic and educational discovery, use, and re-use. While Electronics of America (9th Cir. 1993): some believe that widespread use of any commons results in its depletion, commonly referred to as the creativity is impossible without a rich public tragedy of the commons, the Creative Commons domain. . . . Culture, like science and technolo- attempts to prove otherwise: gy, grows by accretion, each new creator build- ing on the works of those who came before. An idea is not diminished when more people use Overprotection stifles the very creative forces it. Creative Commons aspires to cultivate a com- it’s supposed to nurture. (Trager, Russomanno, mons in which people can feel free to reuse not & Dente-Ross, 2006, p. 434) only ideas, but also words, images, and music,

8— VOLUME 26 (2007) NO. 3 COMMUNICATION RESEARCH TRENDS Similarly, according to Moody, “Indeed, it is not too According to the Creative Commons website, the much of an exaggeration to say that until the Internet more specific the author is when selecting his or her came along, the right to access public domain works license and applying it to his or her work, the more spe- was more theoretical than real, and depended on pub- cific the protections delineated by the lawyer-readable lishers—such as Dover Publications and Eldritch Press, code and metadata. This matters because the embedded two of the plaintiffs in the Eldred case” (2003, ¶ 5). metadata helps to make searches more productive. The Creative Commons Foundation administers Browsing and searches can begin from the Creative both Creative Commons and Science Commons. The Commons website itself under “find” and its search Open Educational Resource (OER) Commons is a joint engine allows users to limit their search by type of con- project with the Institute for the Study of Knowledge in tent (audio, video, text, interactive, image, etc.) and by (ISKE). The Creative Commons’ board of the different licensing options. The directors and technical advisory board form impressive includes a key reminding the browser what each graph- lists of lawyers, bloggers, intellectual property schol- ic means and it links to a program called ccValidator ars, venture capitalists, filmmakers, and the like, with that can display the license metadata. Creative Lessig as the organization’s chairman. A professor of Commons offers an RSS feed (Real Simple law at Stanford Law School and a frequently published Syndication, a program that delivers updates to a per- legal scholar, he has authored Code and Other Laws of son’s computer automatically via a feed reader or Cyberspace (1999), The Future of Ideas: The Fate of aggregator) for the whole site and for its blog. The site the Commons in a Connected World (2001), Free also contains news, interviews, and more. Yahoo! even Culture: The Nature and Future of Creativity (2004a), “offers an advanced search option to restrict results to and Code Version 2.0 (2006a); he has coauthored sev- those with CC licenses. There are literally millions of eral works, including Freedom of Expression: works currently under CC license including , Resistance and Repression in the Age of Intellectual sound recordings, , and lots of web pages” Property (McLeod & Lessig, 2007). He also writes a (Crawford, 2006, p. 44). highly-ranked blog (consistently in Technorati’s list of There are six basic licenses, each represented by 100 favorite blogs), and he unsuccessfully fought the a graphical element illustrating the permissions grant- 1998 Sonny Bono Copyright Term Extension Act by ed by the author (see Figure 1, p. 10) and each backed representing Eldred in Eldred v. Ashcroft (2003). by contracts in the three formats (human-readable, The Creative Commons Foundation, a nonprofit organ- lawyer-readable, and machine-readable). The Creative ization, employs about 20 people worldwide. It is fund- Commons Foundation has recently introduced three ed in part by a major grant through the Center for the music-related licenses as well. The current Creative Public Domain (Conhain, 2002, p. 52) and is sustained Commons licenses are: through donations. 1. Attribution Non-commercial No Derivatives Based upon existing copyright law, Creative (by-nc-nd). This is the most restrictive license Commons licenses “apply to all works that are protect- allowing redistribution. It allows others to down- ed by copyright law” (Creative Commons, “Things,” ¶ load works and share them as long as they men- 9). They incorporate legal themes of both property and tion and link back to the author. contracts (Elkin-Koren, 2005) or, as Dusollier explains, 2. Attribution Non-commercial Share Alike (by- Creative Commons licenses are effectively illustrating nc-sa). This license lets others use, change, or the parable of the Master’s Tools being used to disas- build upon work non-commercially as long as semble the Master’s House. Similar to Digital Rights they credit the author and license their work Management software, “Creative Commons licenses under identical terms. Any derivatives will also attach to the work,” but unlike DRM, they “authorize be non-commercial. everyone who comes in contact with the work to use it 3. Attribution Non-commercial (by-nc). This consistent with the license” (Dusollier, 2006, ¶ 11). The license lets others use, change, or build upon licenses are free to use and each has three different for- work non-commercially as long as they credit the mats: the Commons Deed (human-readable code), the author. They do not have to license their deriva- Legal Code (lawyer-readable code), and the metadata tive works on the same terms. (machine-readable code) (¶ 12). Creative Commons 4. Attribution No Derivatives (by-nd). This license licenses are non-revocable (¶ 14). allows for redistribution, commercial and non-

COMMUNICATION RESEARCH TRENDS VOLUME 26 (2007) NO. 3 — 9 Widely-used copyleft symbol

Frequently used Creative Commons symbols. These may be used alone or in combination. These alert users that content is protected under digital and other CC licenses.

Creative Commons Marks: Used to indicate presence of “machine readable, human readable, and lawyer readable” CC licenses.

Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication Mark.

Creative Commons By button: Indicates attribution is required.

Creative Commons Non-commercial button: Indicates commercial use is prohibited.

Creative Commons Share Alike button: Indicates that content may be shared with established restric- tions passed down to the end user.

Creative Commons No Derivatives button: Indicates that derivatives of the work are prohibited.

Figure 1: Signs and symbols of note commercial, as long as users pass along the work 9. Noncommercial Sampling Plus. This license unchanged and in whole, with credit to the author. allows others to transform pieces of a work for 5. Attribution Share Alike (by-sa). This license noncommercial purposes only, including the allows others to use, change, or build upon work entire work. (CC, “The sampling”) even for commercial reasons, as long as they The Creative Commons registration website also credit the author and license their new creations allows an author to select from eight other licensing under identical terms. All new works will carry attachments, including public domain, , music the same terms, so any derivatives will also allow sharing, GNU General Public License, and so on. commercial use. Works licensed for use via Creative Commons 6. Attribution (by). This is the most accommodating include a “some rights reserved” alerting statement, license. It lets others use, change, or build upon graphic, or both in place of the standard ©. It is impor- work even commercially, as long as they credit tant to note that authors choosing to protect their work the author (CC, “Creative”). through Creative Commons typically do not totally 7. Sampling. This license allows others to use and relinquish their work to the public domain. Before transform pieces of a work for anything other including CC work in new work, the person borrowing than . Copying and distribution of an it must understand that by downloading the material, entire work is also prohibited. for whatever use, he or she must accept the restrictions 8. Sampling Plus. This license allows others to use placed on the work by the license selected by that and transform pieces of a work for anything work’s author. Therefore, viral Internet activity, such as other than advertising. Noncommercial copying copying for future use, transforming, and/or adapting and distribution of the entire work is also material into a separate website or blog initiates a viral allowed. contract with next user and with the end user.

10 — VOLUME 26 (2007) NO. 3 COMMUNICATION RESEARCH TRENDS 7. Internet Practices Encouraging Creative Commons

In addition to limiting exposure to copyright Another factor encouraging the Creative enforcement, a Some Rights Reserved approach to Commons approach comes from the massive e-content building Internet content provides a tremendous bene- projects underway for the Internet. One is the Google fit to professional e-content producers. Some blogs, Book Search, “a system of providing full-text indexing wikis, and social networking sites receive millions of to current books submitted by publishers, typically visitors per day. The authors of some of these most-vis- showing one or two pages in context and providing ited sites have abandoned outside employment in favor ways to order the book or find it in a library” of self-employment, building reputation in a scenario (Crawford, 2006, p. 44). The other is the Google that leads to book deals and sales of advertising on Library Project—a plan to digitize, as part of Google their high-traffic sites (for example, Matt Drudge, Cory Book Search, the entire print collection of the Doctorow, Michele Malkin, etc.). The e-content indus- University of Michigan libraries and large portions of try has expanded exponentially. Dave Sifry, CEO of the New York Public Library and the libraries of Technorati (a real-time search engine that tracks activ- Harvard, Stanford, and Oxford . Public ity in the blogosphere), explains that influence and rep- domain works will be completely readable on-screen utation drive the blogosphere overall, and some blog- and, similar to Google Book Search, portions of copy- gers become important niche influencers on smaller righted works will be available with links to obtain the topics (Spencer, 2005, p. 2). There is even a Content entire work (p. 44). A similar project, announced in Management Professionals organization that hired its October 2005, bears the name the Open Content first executive director in May 2005 and a Pro Bloggers Alliance (OCA). “OCA is a collaboration between Association (Gahran, 2005). Yahoo!, the , and a number of other Leaders in the blogosphere have established organizations including the University of California, themselves as trusted sources. These experts analyze Prelinger Archives, European Archive, National and aggregate massive amounts of information from Archives (UK), the University of Toronto, O’Reilly various sources on a daily basis. They cut and paste and Media, HP, Adobe, and RLG” (p. 44). The OCA proj- direct their followers to interesting, useful sites and ect will not scan anything under copyright without per- software while helping to build community through mission from the copyright holder. In facilitating a common interests, personal thoughts, and language. As commons, OCA encourages the use of Creative widely published as Lessig is, he is more widely known Commons licenses whenever that makes sense, there- for his work on the Lessig Blog and Creative fore making more e-content “available to all without Commons Foundation than he is from law reviews or injury to any” (p. 44). Eldred v. Ashcroft. Another Internet tool for information sharing is a In a scenario similar to but much quicker than wiki. Wikis are collaborative websites that can be edit- academic scholarship, the massive growth of e-content ed by anyone with access to the site. Some wikis production is possible because people are willing to license their work via Creative Commons; however, allow others to re-use their work in exchange for attri- Wikipedia’s use of a different schema, GNU Free bution. Attribution builds reputation, and reputation Documentation License, illustrates that general incom- leads to book sales, advertising, and lucrative consult- patibility can and does exist. ing contracts. The bloggers work is possible, in large A relatively new Internet phenomenon is Social part, because of the freedoms allowed through Creative Networking. Sites like MySpace and Facebook allow Commons licensing. It is widely used by influential users to create their own sub-sites and post informa- bloggers, and each author does not have to seek per- tion about themselves and others. These users also mission to forward something interesting from other post large amounts of Internet content. Copyright authors if the original author has designated his or her infringement is rampant on these sites as non-profes- work as having “Some Rights Reserved” as opposed to sional content creators cut and paste data from all “.” over the Internet onto each others’ sites, typically

COMMUNICATION RESEARCH TRENDS VOLUME 26 (2007) NO. 3 — 11 without attribution and most assuredly without per- Facebook, MySpace, and YouTube users demonstrate mission. YouTube, the video sharing site, also num- daily the if-it’s-on-the-Internet-it’s-fair-game mental- bers among those sites that allow users to create and ity. These non-professional content creators typically post massive amounts of Internet content—vividly do not use Creative Commons or any other form of illustrating Lessig’s vision of a transformative cul- licensing. While some of their efforts would pass the ture remix. In attaching songs, photos, text, graphics, Fair Use or transformative tests, most probably multimedia, and other content to their own sites, would not.

8. Some Pros and Cons

Creative Commons and the copyleft movement Perhaps argued more simply, Ferguson clearly are popular topics among Internet enthusiasts, legal expresses some of the music industry’s frustration with scholars, and many in industry. According to Elkin- both Creative Commons and copyleft: Koren (2005), Creative Commons’ reliance on pri- vate-ordering is both a pro and a con. She defines pri- A is forever and you will never earn publishing royalties. . . . vate ordering as “self-regulation voluntarily under- [Creative Commons] licenses have some sort taken by private parties” (¶ 6). Additionally, she ques- of value in the world of Academia, where a cre- tions the validity, stability, and sustainability of its ator’s sole aim is to distribute his idea as wide- reliance on viral contracts (contracts embedded in ly as possible without any money changing programming and forwarded to and through each hands. For the world of music they are a point- user): “When Creative Commons relies on property less and damaging distraction which under- rights to advance its strategy, it reinforces the propri- mine the concept of copyright and create huge etary regime” (¶ 79). difficulties for music now and in the Throughout the literature, critics list lack of soft- future. (2005, p. 26) ware standardization and license incompatibility as Dusollier (2006) found a fundamental ambiguity primary cons for Creative Commons licensing, in Creative Commons’ ideology: “By grounding the because there are several derivations of CC. Licensing justification for a Creative Commons license in the and restrictions can potentially grow exponentially, expectations of the users rather than in the desires of resulting in incompatibility between licenses. Katz the creators, the agenda of Creative Commons is to (2006) explains: make the norm of free access to works the norm of a The viral growth and incompatibility . . . could , and the politically correct way for a cre- systematically restrict future creativity. . . . ator to exercise her rights” (¶ 56). Share Alike provisions are the most restrictive Gordon-Murnane (2005) identifies another of all CC licenses. By preventing derivative Creative Commons’ weakness: It has no comprehen- works from being licensed under any terms sive directory or database of content. However, she other than those in the original work’s license, encourages librarians to use its CC Search tools and they have the potential to block a wide range of Yahoo! Search to “identify content that patrons might potential uses in the future. These restrictions want to use in a , a mash-up, a , a video may frustrate the desires of creators who use contribution to a blog, a document, a presentation, or non-Share Alike CC licenses and want their whatever.” She adds, “Use it. Promote it. Share it. It’s works re-used by future creators of derivative works. And these restrictions may also cause all good” (¶ 26-27). dead-hand control problems, as today’s Share Similarly, Doctorow, an influential blogger and Alike licensors come to desire that their works co-editor of Boing Boing, frequently the most highly- be available on less restrictive terms in the rated blog on the Internet, provides this summary future. (¶ 42) statement:

12 — VOLUME 26 (2007) NO. 3 COMMUNICATION RESEARCH TRENDS Designers have always been collagists, building in the way of creation. The runaway global suc- libraries of tasty stuff, mocking up prototypes cess of Creative Commons is the leading edge of with clipped and scanned works from their a new movement—one that balances the needs peers. No pitch meeting can proceed without a of tomorrow’s creators with the needs of yester- pile of references. It’s important to pay creators day’s. (2006, p. 161) when it’s fair, but copyright law has often stood

9. Discussion and conclusion

While it may seem ideological, Creative Looking ahead to the year 2020, according to the Commons has survived its first legal . Kay (2006) Pew Internet and American Life Project’s Future of the explains that Adam Curry, an MTV personality, influ- Internet II, the second highest online priority should be ential blogger, and the person credited with the inno- “creating a legal and operating environment that vation of podcasting, posted photos of his daughter on allows people to use the Internet the way they want, the photo-sharing site Flicker.com. “A Dutch gossip using software they want” (Anderson & Rainie, 2006, magazine published the photos without authorization, p. iv). Additionally, the technology thinkers and stake- even though they were covered by ’s Creative holders responding to the Pew survey expressed con- Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-Share-Alike cern about policy growth and its ability to insure a cli- 2.0 license. Curry sued for copyright infringement and mate favorable to Internet expansion: “The center of the Dutch court ruled that a CC license is binding” (p. the resistance, they say, will be in the businesses anx- 34). Evidently, Lessig and the other thought leaders ious to preserve their current advantages and in policy who developed the Creative Commons licensing circles where control over information and communi- schema have produced a legally binding contractual cation is a central value” (p. i). These are telling state- system based on the assertion of property rights that ments because they incorporate the goals of the copy- has begun to prove its merit. left movement’s proponents. Creative Commons licensing is not a perfect rem- Jost (2000) succinctly summarizes the brewing edy to online copyright infringement maladies nor for issue of copyright and the Internet: the lag between Internet practice and the law nor for The recording and movie industries claim that the lag between technological advancement and the the Internet-based services amount to ‘.’ law. However, it allows copyright owners a choice But the computer and consumer groups say between All Rights Reserved and No Rights Reserved. copyright law needs to adapt to new technolo- This Some Rights Reserved approach to copyright is gies that make it easier and less expensive to dis- much more in sync with the way online communities seminate creative works. (¶ 1) operate. From pings (fundamental technology enabling RSS feeds) to pokes (greetings among Facebook The issue has clearly not subsided. In a Wild West-like e- users), empowering creators of original or truly trans- frontier, Creative Commons and its proponents seem to formative works to say what others can or cannot do be attempting to bring a bit of order to a chaotic environ- with their creation seems more likely to contribute to ment. At the forefront of a social movement, they have culture than restrictive and expanding copyright. chosen to work within the existing political-legal system Creative Commons licensing, therefore, does not in an attempt to effect change both peacefully and mean- compare to copyright; it is a derivative of copyright. It ingfully. Conhaim (2002) explains that Creative clearly forms part of the copyleft movement that has Commons responds to two perceived needs that appear arisen in protest against the entertainment industry’s to be widely felt in many creative communities: and others’ influence over intellectual property laws in 1. The public domain must be honored and the U.S. and abroad. It is an international movement replenished, as it has been depleted over the advocating sharing and use rather than a strictly pro- years due to repeated extensions of the copy- prietary culture. Unlike copyright, copyleft is volun- right law and the automatic provision of copy- tary and, in no small way, an online experiment. right since 1976.

COMMUNICATION RESEARCH TRENDS VOLUME 26 (2007) NO. 3 — 13 2. There is a need for a continuum of options for Technological advances exacerbate the rapidity and creators between the two prevailing poles of intensity of potential conflict. Conflict breeds interest. complete control of one’s work within copyright Worldwide, there is much left to consider regarding and placing work totally in the public domain. property rights versus public rights. The copyleft (pp. 52, 54) movement and Creative Commons have become Though widely used in the blogosphere and now increasingly effective in educating the interested, proven in at least one court, whether Creative active, immersed, and passionate Internet users Commons can accomplish its lofty goals remains to be throughout the world about intellectual property laws, seen particularly because balancing public interest and thereby initiating public discussion and even beginning property rights has been difficult throughout history. to influence policy internationally.

Editor’s Afterword

Professor Broussard notes that many commenta- building on that work except in the most constrained tors have likened the current state of the Internet to the way. Some arrangement for free use is therefore need- “Wild West,” both in its vibrant growth and in its ed in order to create an intellectual environment con- prevalent lawlessness. The question of copyrights is genial to progress. always at least annoying to a who feels his or Creative Commons licensing is an attempt to do her creative urge driving towards borderlines where that by establishing various levels and forms of protec- others may have ventured before. For the scrupulous tion that can be claimed by an author, leaving a “com- this may be dispiriting enough to hinder or even block mons” portion of the work accessible to others for their literary productivity. The less scrupulous might sim- free use. This and similar approaches recognize the ply drive on, committing in the hope of fact that what is most important to an author, at least to never getting caught. an academic author, often is simple attribution rather But, like the building of a nation in a newly-civi- than direct financial gain, since attribution helps build lized part of the world, rules are essential for the order- reputation. In the academic world, reputation has a ly development of cyberspace, just as they have proven value that exceeds that of immediate financial gain, necessary for the orderly development of the world of and, in fact, may ultimately yield significantly greater print media. Undeterred theft of others’ original work financial gain than any demand for direct payment for inevitably would have a chilling effect on original pro- the material’s use. But much depends on the type of ductivity. Continuing the “Wild West” parable, Why material. Music obviously is different from academic would a ranch owner go to the trouble of raising calves texts, and its value to the composer may demand a from their infancy, feeding them, nursing the sick ones, more immediate compensation. However, even a com- protecting them from severe weather, and bearing all poser might profit more from an enhanced reputation the many other trials and expenses necessary to bring based on “borrowing” of his or her works than from them to a marketable size if someone else could rigid demands for immediate compensation. Authors brazenly steal them at that mature age, market them, of may expect more immediate financial gain and deprive the owner of any profit? from their works and thereby be more like the musical On the other hand, many kinds of influences or composers than like academic writers. less restrictive relationships can intervene between the The above comments reckon without the just outright piracy of a literary or musical work, for exam- expectations of publishers. They usually have a greater ple, and a new work which contains only remote traces financial investment in any work than either authors or of borrowing from an original. Nothing is ever written composers. In fact, they are likely to lose more due to or composed in a vacuum without any reference to its piracy than even the author or composer. antecedents in the same . A prohibition on any These various factors should enter into ethical and all use of copyrighted material would therefore judgments about the use of published material. obviously prevent later authors or composers from Copyright is a complex subject, and it may appear to

14 — VOLUME 26 (2007) NO. 3 COMMUNICATION RESEARCH TRENDS the casual observer to have few moral implications. Retrieved September 30, 2006 from Lexis-Nexis Nevertheless, intellectual and artistic property rights Academic Universe. can have no less moral significance than material Elkin-Koren, N. (2005). What contracts cannot do: The lim- its of private ordering in facilitating a creative com- property rights. mons. Fordham Law Review, 74(2), 375-422. —W. E. Biernatzki, S.J. Retrieved October 20, 2006 from Lexis-Nexis General Editor Academic. Ferguson, D. (2 May 2005). Creative Commons licenses undermine copyright. MusicWeek. Retrieved References December 10, 2006 from Business Source Premier Anderson, J.Q. & Rainie, L. (2006). The future of the (AN16003554). Internet II. Pew Internet and American Life Project. Fileinfo.net. (n.d.) .spd file extension definition. Retrieved Retrieved Ocober 3, 2006 from http://www.pewinter- December 9, 2006 from http://www.fileinfo.netexten- net.org. sion/spd Association of Research Libraries. (2007). Timeline: A his- Free Software Foundation. (2006a). Free software definition. tory of copyright in the . Retrieved July Retrieved December 3, 2006 from http://www.gnu.org 5, 2007 from http://www.arl.org/pp/ppcopyright/copy- /philosophy/free-sw.html. resources/copytimeline.shtml. Free Software Foundation (2006b). What is copyleft? Braiker, B. (20 November 2006). Music: Fans mad at anti- Retrieved December 3, 2006 from http://www.gu.org piracy DRM. Retrieved December 3, 2006 from /copyleft/copyleft.html#WhatIsCopyleft. http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/15818852/site/news- Gahran, A. (January 19, 2005). New Pro Bloggers week/. Association: I’m on the Board. Contentious. Retrieved Conhain, W. W. (2002). Creative Commons nurtures the July 13, 2005 from http://blog.contentious.com public domain. Information Today, 19(7). Retrieved /archives/2005/01/19/new-pro-bloggers-association- October 3, 2006 from Business Source Premier (AN im-on-the-board#more-504. 7007246). Gordon-Murnane, L. (2005). Generosity and copyright. Crawford, W. (2006). Building the Econtent commons. Searcher, 13(7), 16-24. Retrieved October 3, 2006 Econtent magazine, 29(2), 44. Retrieved October 3, from Business Source Premier (AN 17751977). 2006 from Business Source Premier (AN 1997166). Guth, D. W. & Marsh, C. (2005). Adventures in public rela- Creative Commons. (n.d.) About us: “Some rights reserved”: tions: Case studies and critical thinking. Boston: Building a layer of reasonable copyright. Retrieved Pearson/Allyn & Bacon. November 26, 2006 from http://creativecommons.org/ Jost, K. (2000). Copyright and the Internet: Should con- about/history. sumers download music and movies for free? CQ Creative Commons. (n.d.) Baseline rights and restrictions in Researcher, 10(33). all licenses. Retrieved November 26, 2006 from Katz, Z. (2006). Pitfalls of open licensing: An analysis of http://creativecommons.org/about/licenses/fullrights. Creative Commons licensing. IDEA: The Intellectual Creative Commons. (n.d.) Creative Commons licenses. Property Law Review, 46(3), 391-413. Retrieved Retrieved November 26, 2006 from http://cre- October 3, 2006 from Lexis-Nexis Academic ativecommons.org/about/licenses/meet-the-licenses. Universe. Creative Commons. (n.d.) Legal concepts. Retrieved Kay, R. (22 May 2006). Creative Commons. Computer- November 26, 2006 from http://creativecommons.org/ world, 40(21), 34. Retrieved October 3, 2006 from about/legal. Business Source Premier (AN 20970633). Creative Commons. (n.d.) The sampling license. Retrieved Lanham Act. 15 USCS § 1127. November 26, 2006 from http://creativecommons.org/ Lessig, L. (1999). Code and other laws of cyberspace. New about/sampling. York: Basic Books. Creative Commons (n.d.) Things to think about before you Lessig, L. (2001). The future of ideas: The fate of the com- apply a Creative Commons license to your work. mons in a connected world. New York: Random Retrieved November 26, 2006 from http://creative- House. commons.org/about/think. Lessig, L. (2004a). Free culture: How big media uses tech- Current Developments. (2007). Copyright. The Computer & nology and the law to lock down culture and control Internet Lawyer, 24(4), 47. creativity. New York: Penguin Press. Dictionary.com. (n.d.). Copyleft. Retrieved December 3, Lessig, L. (2004b). Free(ing) culture for remix. Utah Law 2006 from http://www.dictionary.com. Review, 4, 961-975. Retrieved November 26, 2006 Doctorow, C. (May/June 2006). Some rights reserved. Print, from Lexis-Nexis Academic Universe. 60(3), 160-161. Retrieved October 3, 2006 from Lessig, L. (2006a). Code: Version 2.0. New York: Basic Business Source Premier (AN22432033). Books. Dusollier, S. (2006). Master’s tools v. the master’s house: Lessig, L. (2006b). Re-crafting the public domain. Yale Creative Commons v. Copyright. The Columbia Journal of Law and the Humanities, 18 (supplement), Journal of Law and the Arts, 29(3), 271-293.

COMMUNICATION RESEARCH TRENDS VOLUME 26 (2007) NO. 3 — 15 56-83. Retrieved September 30, 2006 from Lexis- Rainie, L., Madden, M., Hess, D., & Mudd, G. (2004). Pew Nexis Academic Universe. Internet and Comscore Media Metrix data memo: The Lilekis, J. (29 November 2006). Just because it’s unautho- state of music downloading and file-sharing online. rized doesn’t mean you won’t do it. Mobile Press- Pew Internet & American Life Project. Retrieved Register, 13A. December 3, 2006 from http://www.pewinternet.org. Lin, A.R. (2005). Who owns the cow when we give away the Rosenblatt, B. (April 14, 2007). Developments in water- milk for free? Fair Use and the protection of web- marking and IPTV security. DRM Watch. Retrieved posted materials. Buffalo Intellectual Property Law May 31, 2007 from http://www.drmwatch.com Journal, 3. Retrieved November 26, 2006 from Lexis- /drmtech/article./3671336. Nexis Academic Universe. Shabelman, D. (March 14, 2007). Viacom sues Google over Madden, M. (2006). Data memo: Internet penetration and YouTube. The Daily Deal. Retrieved May 31, 2007 impact. Pew Internet and American Life Project. from http://web.lexisnexis.com.lynx.lib.usm.edu/uni- Retrieved Oct. 3, 2006 from http://www.pewinter- verse/document?_m=dd132b57b6f4012a0d9320d46c net.org. 8081a4&_docnum=9&wchp=dGLbVzz-zSkVb McLeod, K. & Lessig, L. (2007) Freedom of expression: &_md5=a44a63ff8cfa75ee9f0968ddc412a1a8. Resistance and repression in the age of intellectual Spencer, S. (May 17, 2005). A business case for blogging: property. University of Minnesota Press. Thought leaders on marketing blogs, Part 1. Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer Studios, Inc. et al. v. Grokster, Ltd. MarketingProfs. Retrieved June 11, 2005 from (2005). 125 Supreme Court. Retrieved September 30, http://www.marketingprofs.com/5/spencer14.asp 2006 from Lexis-Nexis Academic Universe. Technorati (n.d.) 100 favorite blogs. Retrieved December 8, Moody, G. (6 February 2003). Seeding the creative com- 2006 from http://www.technorati.com/pop.blogs mons. Computer Weekly. Retrieved December 11, /?faves=1. 2006 from Business Source Premier AN9247662.

For further information WIPO Guide to Intellectual Property Worldwide: www.wipo.int/about-ip/en/ipworldwide/country.htm Copyleft Free Software Foundation, Copyleft: http://www.fsf.org/licensing/essays/copyleft.html GNU Project, Copyleft: http://www.gnu.org/copyleft/ Fundación Copyleft: http://www.fundacioncopyleft.org/ copyleftmedia (UK): http://www.copyleftmedia.org.uk/ Creative Commons Creative Commons: www.creativecommons.org Creative Commons, : http://creativecommons.org.au/ Creative Commons, Canada: http://www.creativecommons.ca/ Creative Commons, : http://fr.creativecommons.org/ Creative Commons, Germany: http://de.creativecommons.org/ Creative Commons, South : http://za.creativecommons.org/ Creative Commons, Spain: http://es.creativecommons.org/ Creative Commons, UK: http://www.creativecommons.org.uk/ Campaign for Digital Rights: http://uk.eurorights.org CAFE—Campaign for Audiovisual Free Expression: http://www.eff.org/cafe/ Digital Rights Management Watch: www.drmwatch.com Open Educational Resource Commons: www.oercommons.org Science Commons: www.sciencecommons.org Blogs blogcatalog: Copyleft blog entries: http://www.blogcatalog.com/post-tag/copyleft mediAgora: http://www.mediagora.com/ Technorati listing of blogs about copyright: http://technorati.com/blogs/copyright

16 — VOLUME 26 (2007) NO. 3 COMMUNICATION RESEARCH TRENDS Trager, R., Russomanno, J., & Dente-Ross, S. (2006). The Lessig, L. (Oct. 3, 2006). Interaction between culture and law of journalism and mass communication. Boston: policy. [email protected]. Retrieved May 30, McGraw-Hill. 2007 from http://www.technorati.com/videos/youtube U.S. Constitution, Article 1 § (8). .com%2Fwatch%3Fv%3D9xbRE_H5hoU (approxi- World Intellectual Property Organization (February 1, 2007). mately 60 minutes). Guide to intellectual property worldwide. Retreived June 5, 2007 from http://www.wipo.int/about-ip/en Lessig, L. (2006). Interview on Creative Commons by J.D. /ipworldwide/country.htm. Lasica. Retrieved May 30, 2007 from http://www.tech- World Intellectual Property Organization (n.d.) About. norati.com/videos/youtube.com%2Fwatch%3Fv%3D Retrieved September 30, 2006 at http://www.wipo.org AWxyx5iYdvI (approximately 8 minutes) World Intellectual Property Organization (n.d.) Under- McBee v. Delica Co., Ltd. (2005). 417 F.3d. 1st U.S. Court of standing copyright and . WIPO Appeals. Retrieved September 30, 2006 from Lexis- Publication No. 909(E). Nexis Academic Universe. McIntyre, P. (2007, May). Copyright and creativity: Changing paradigms and the implications for intellec- Additional reading tual property and the music industry. Media Bannerman, S. (2006). In the public interest: The future of International Australia Incorporating Culture & Canadian copyright law. Canadian Journal of Policy. Retrieved July 16, 2007, from Communication Communication, 31(2), 477-478. Retrieved July 16, & Complete database. 2007, from Communication & Mass Media Complete Mitchell, S. (2007). Reforming section 115: Escape from the database. byzantine world of mechanical licensing. Cardozo Arts Barron, A. (2006, March). Copyright. Theory, Culture & & Entertainment Law Journal, 24(3), 1239-1293. Society, 23(2/3), 278-282. Retrieved July 16, 2007, Retrieved July 16, 2007, from Communication & from Communication & Mass Media Complete data- Mass Media Complete database. . Pasquale, F. (2006). Toward an ecology of intellectual prop- Clark, C.S. (1996). Clashing over copyright: Is intellectual erty: Lessons from environmental economics for valu- property safe in the Internet Age? CQ Researcher, 6 ing copyright’s commons. Yale Journal of Law & (42). Technology, 9. Retrieved October 20, 2006 from Cohen, J.E. (2005). Panel I: Intellectual property and public Lexis-Nexis Academic. values: The place of the user in copyright law. Perritt, J. (2007, Spring). New architectures for music: Law Fordham Law Review. Retrieved October 20, 2006 should get out of the way. Hastings Communications from Lexis-Nexis Academic. & Entertainment Law Journal (Comm/Ent), 29(3), Ekstrand, V. (2006, Autumn). Protecting the public policy 259-358. Retrieved July 16, 2007, from rationale of copyright: Reconsidering copyright mis- Communication & Mass Media Complete database. use. Communication Law & Policy, 11(4), 565-588. Sirois, A. & Martin, S. (2006, March). United States copy- Retrieved July 16, 2007, from Communication & right law and digital sampling: Adding color to a grey Mass Media Complete database. area. Information & Communications Technology Law, Fekete, L. (2006, December). The of economic inter- 15(1), 1-32. Retrieved July 16, 2007, from actions in the network economy. Information, Communication & Mass Media Complete database. Communication & Society, 9(6), 737-760. Retrieved Vaidhyanathan, S. (2006, September). Copyright jungle. July 16, 2007, from Communication & Mass Media Columbia Journalism Review, 45(3), 42-48. Retrieved Complete database. July 16, 2007, from Communication & Mass Media Flint, D. (2005). Looking a gift horse in the mouth? Business Complete database. Law Review, 26(12). Retrieved October 3, 2006 from Business Source Premier (AN19382793) Frischmann, B.M. (2005) An economic theory of infrastruc- Book Reviews ture and commons management. Minnesota Law Arweck, Elisabeth and Keenan, William. (Eds.). Review, 89. Retrieved October 20, 2006 from Lexis- Materializing Religion: Expression, Performance, and Nexis Academic. Harper, S. (24 Feb. 2005). The digital age requires a more Ritual. Aldershot, Hampshire, UK and Burlington, VT: flexible approach to copyright. New Media Age. Ashgate, 2006. Pp. xvi, 242. ISBN-13 978-0-7546- Retrieved October 3, 2006 from Business Source 5094-2, ISBN-10 0-7546-5094-4 (hbk.). $99.95, Premier (AN 16284900) £55.00. Hunt, W. S. (2004/2005). The Supreme Court’s mixed mes- sages on the public domain: Cases interpreting Section 43 of the Lanham Act. Kentucky Law Journal, 93. The dividing line between communication and Retrieved October 20, 2006 from Lexis-Nexis the material aspects of religion often disappears, as Academic. becomes apparent when we consider questions such as whether art or music communicates, or whether the

COMMUNICATION RESEARCH TRENDS VOLUME 26 (2007) NO. 3 — 17 nonverbal aspects of worship (special clothing, types logical fashion, seem content to let what claims the of body movement, and so on) count as communica- title religious represent religion. tion. In fact, the media ecology approach argues that all The individual contributions (arranged alphabeti- of these material aspects of religion and religious prac- cally by author—not helpful for the thematically mind- tice are indeed communication. Under this heading, ed but providing delight for the serendipitously Materializing Religion, though researched and written inclined) explore chapels and former chapels in Wales from the perspectives of sociology and anthropology, ( 2), architecture of traditional and storefront has much to say about communication. Communica- churches (Chapter 3), the evolution of worship spaces tion, of course, runs beyond the material—as the spo- among Pentecostal groups (Chapter 6), and the use of ken word testifies—but at some point even that insub- space in traditional shrines such as that at Fatima stantial acoustic presence finds its way into more last- (Chapter 15). Other chapters introduce the tension ing physical forms. between concealing and revealing: wrapping, both lit- The editors present the initial premise in a eral and figurative among Nonconformists (Chapter 4), straightforward way. Every religious tradition, in virtue religious habits among Catholic religious communities of its connection to human life, must move from the (Chapter 9), and the place of (un)dress in Wicca, where spiritual to the material at some point. “Emphasizing worshipers “work skyclad” (p. 109, Chapter 8). Still the creative ‘agency’ aspects of material expressions of other chapters focus on the particular actions taking religion, we have chosen to employ the portmanteau place in Catholic festivals (Chapter 5), in religious term ‘artworks’ as useful for the diffuse and infinite dance (Chapter 7), and in Wiccan rituals (Chapters 8, range of phenomena whereby religions are given mate- 13). Finally, others wrestle with the marginal—not the rial shape and expression” (p. 3). And so we launch marginally religious, but the marginal places for the into considerations of how groups represent theology, religious—the Tibetan exile (Chapter 12), the religious not only in art but also in clothing, architecture, and imaginary and the persistence of artistic images across sound. But religion extends beyond theology, which, the centuries (Chapter 14), and questions of taste and no matter how privileged a spot, still represents only a music. Each chapter presents a wealth of observation small portion of the religious practices of cultures. and enough theory to provide a solid orientation, Spoiled by ’s preference for sacramentality though not surprisingly in a collection some authors and incarnation, the sociology/anthropology of religion devote more time to theorizing the material aspects must unlearn that theology in order to see the material they study than do others. Each chapter has its own, aspects of non-Christian religions. usually extensive, reference list. Inspired by “the 2001 Annual Conference of the The volume bears a dedication to Bernice and British Sociological Association Sociology of David Martin, two pioneers in the British sociology of Religion Study Group . . . this collection provides ini- religion. Both have chapters in the book and both pro- tial bearings to a field of social scientific enquiry vide a master class on what the sociology of religion which has huge scope and enormous span” (p. 6). For can teach about religion, about sociology, and—less the communication scholar, some studies/chapters intentionally perhaps—about communication. Bernice may compass strange territory, but for the most part, Martin (Chapter 10) sets out to explore the aesthetics of they provide an exhilarating tour of what many had Latin American Pentecostalism. She does so by rein- not suspected. The editors’ introduction helps orient troducing the aesthetic dimension of religion, particu- that tour by placing signposts directing attention to larly in the light of Weber’s 1948 essay, “Religious questions of matter and spirit (explored by Plato and Rejections of the World and their Direction.” Religious Paul, but also by Durkheim, Weber, and Simmel), as groups, according to Weber, face a tension with “the well as to the concerns of and its substitu- world” and the satisfactions with the world compete for tion of art for religion, and to the of attention with the satisfactions of religion. Herein lies material expression of religion into a consumer men- the seeds of conflict between art and religion and the tality (pp. 10-14). For the communication scholar, they roots of the contemporary separation of art from reli- note the passage to television evangelists, the televi- gion. Martin explores the ways in which sion and radio of prosperity, and even the Weber’s analysis poses a number of questions Church of Elvis. Less concerned with defining reli- about where the new Pentecostalism that is gion, the editors and contributors, in good anthropo- sweeping the developing world properly lies

18 — VOLUME 26 (2007) NO. 3 COMMUNICATION RESEARCH TRENDS within the parameters of his model. It is obvi- 2007, which explored similar flexibility in the recep- ously a salvation religion, patently and power- tion of “the religious” or the reception of media prod- fully an ethic of brotherhood, and so might be ucts as religious, even when producers and other media expected to veer towards the anti-art position. creators may not have intended any religious meaning.) On the other hand, Weber’s of Materializing Religion, then, provides a wealth of the elements of “magical” efficacy traditionally information and theory to show how people create and mediated through aesthetic practices employing re-create religious meaning and in turn find religious music, gesture, and dance also has persuasive application in respect of Pentecostal liturgical sustenance. This is, clearly, a communication process practices and charismatic performances, as well as a sociological or anthropological one. although the role Weber attributes to sacred But despite the value of this volume for commu- buildings and artefacts is less obvious in the nication study, communication scholars should beware Pentecostal case. (p. 141) lest they count everything as communication. Quite aware of the well-known axiom, One cannot not com- Martin faces this difficulty directly and draws from municate, we should still ask whether it makes sense to extensive field work in Latin America to sketch the view everything through the lens of communication. If outlines of a Pentecostal aesthetic, rooted particularly all is communication, then what have we discovered? in music but spreading also to styles of clothing and This volume should not, of course, attempt to even to church design. She notes that the way out of the answer such a question. But communication scholars “problem of aesthetic judgment” lies in deepening the should, and the area of religion and communication theories of aesthetics, unlearning the modernist provides fertile soil to cultivate such an investigation. approach to aesthetics, and, always, following the data In addition to the reference lists at the end of at hand. each chapter, the book has an index and a section David Martin’s chapter (Chapter 11) turns to about the authors. something more familiar to communication scholars: —Paul A. Soukup, S.J. reception studies, here applied to the music of Santa Clara University Handel and its role in the Evangelical movements of the 19th century. What makes music religious, Martin Falkheimer, Jasper and André Jansson (Eds.). asks. What makes a given composer accepted as a Geographies of Communication: The Spatial Turn in “religious composer”? These questions have much to Media Studies. Nordicom: Göteborg, 2006. Pp. 309. do with reception. The reception of Handel’s works ISBN 91-89471-36-9 (pb.). SFK280, €30. (Order from poses an interesting case study for it shows four www.nordicom.gu.se) kinds of influence: the rise and decline of Protestant expansiveness, Again, a book from Nordicom, who are most pro- the rise and decline of , the 20th lific in their publishing efforts. Falkheimer and century musical renaissance of the liturgical and Jansson, who both work in Sweden, attempt with this mystical, and the rise and decline of the sort of book to establish the relationship between space and reverence evoked by the Austro-German canon. communication, a relationship which is becoming All these rises and declines, set in intersecting more and more complex since the media have blurred graphs, are in the context of secularization as the boundaries between different spaces and the dimen- locus of the sacred shifted from Church to sions of space. Geographical territories are rearticulat- Symphony Hall (and of course Art Gallery) and ed, and chapters in the book reflect on spatiality and then encountered in the shifting sands of what some call postmodernity. (p. 163) (trans)nationality, tourism, urban culture, interactive media, and the networking of domestic space. They Martin uses this case study, drawing on historical doc- attempt to map what they hope will become a new sub- umentation to show that the boundaries of the religious field in media and cultural studies: the geography of have proven much more flexible than usually imagined communication. There is clear evidence, the editors by theory. In brief, much more has occurred than secu- state, that there is a spatial turn in media studies and larization. (An interesting parallel to Martin’s case they try to formulate the full potential of this spatial study can be seen in White’s recent issue of turn. They have one overarching question: how com- COMMUNICATION RESEARCH TRENDS, vol. 26, no. 1, munication produces space and how space produces

COMMUNICATION RESEARCH TRENDS VOLUME 26 (2007) NO. 3 — 19 communication (p. 9). They do not believe that this ical issues of space, place, and communication, posi- will lead to the abolition of media studies, but to this tioning himself in the retheorization of space that new sub-field. Their introductory chapter draws on deconstructs modernist thought. He suggests that work from Meyrowitz (1985), Virilio (1990/2000), action, performance, and interaction produce or consti- Castells (1996/2000, pp. 69-76), Mattelart (1996/ tute space; that space is transformed by a multiplicity 2000), and Bauman (2000), who has said that early of productions, practices, and performances and thus society shows an ongoing shift from solid cannot be considered in fixed sections or regular (or heavy) to liquid (light) modernity. Here, the authors geometries (p. 20); and, lastly, that there is a need for suggest that communication must be understood as reflexivity and discussion amongst the geographers of being both material and symbolic in its fluidity. Where communication, since they cannot be thought of out- industrialised society was space-based, “informational- side the production of space itself. Finally, in this sec- ization” demonstrates an extension of this bias (p. 11); tion, Jansson, develops a theoretical analysis introduc- hyper-space-biased communication shows a range of ing the notion of texture, which he believes is a way in spatial ambiguities that shake media studies’ epistemo- which social and cultural transformations in contempo- logical foundations (p. 11). rary society can be adapted, thus affecting the bound- Falkheimer and Jansson reflect on the results of aries between spatial materialities and symbolic struc- the mobility that enables one to consume media on the tures. It is this texture which he believes enables us to move, not only through what we hear, but through the think of space as being not a container or sign, but as a visual images that we consume. This relates, of course, term of communicative fullness (p. 20). to media technologies “attached to the moving body” The book’s second section considers the media- (p. 12). Boundaries, they consider, between the imagi- tion of space in chapters written by Anne Marit Waade nary, symbolic, and the material spaces are becoming on the tourist gaze—a type of hyper-tourism using the negotiable and volatile. We can also now be interactive example of a British travel series. Falkheimer’s chapter with these media. These new hyper-space-based char- looks at strategic communications, branding and mar- acteristics of media demand a rethinking of the cate- keting that make the world an empirical fact. He also gories of text and context. The rituals involved in con- considers place branding and takes a political perspec- suming ephemeral texts, contexts, and their relation- tive on this branding, the inclusion of media and cul- ship are no longer significant. We must, they suggest, tural theory into both theory and praxis. Thelander consider what Couldry and McCarthy (2004) call the makes an analysis of the visuals of advertising for “conceptual realm.” tourism. The author’s examples come from the Chapters in this book discuss communication as Swedish daily press and demonstrate how nature has spatial production, the obvious ideological and politi- come to be used as part of culture and so becomes a cal dimensions involved, and the textual and techno- commodity. She shows how the tourist and photogra- logical dimensions of what they intend to be an inter- pher, as well as the for the articles, may rene- disciplinary sub-field. Falkheimer and Jansson aim to gotiate and recode these images. The last article in this answer the question: What importance do media pro- section, by Inka Salovaara-Moring, combines theory duction, representation, and consumption have in the and empirical case study (she considers how the shaping of different spaces? They intend to map and has constructed the notion of “us” and analyse this “new” field and, to begin this work, “them”) to relate spatial and politically include chapters from Birgit Stöber on how media strategic discourse. Again, this article requests a closer geography has developed into human geography, uti- relationship between the human geographer and media lizing the work of human geographers. Göran Bolin and communication studies, explaining just why media writes of media landscapes as structures of both media studies have traditionally been averse to spatiality. technologies and media texts through a case study of The mediatization of space forms the topic of the cultural change in Sweden and Estonia. He argues that third section of the book. From the macro to the micro spatial and concepts aid an understanding of scale, Andersson, through the use of qualitative inter- late modern processes, pointing specially to social views, looks at communication geographies within the power embedded in media’s creation of “landscapes of home. He suggests that this most private area of our representations.” Richard Ek, like Stöber a human lives may also be a place where communication tech- geographer, discusses the ontological and epistemolog- nology connects our lives to the global—what he calls

20 — VOLUME 26 (2007) NO. 3 COMMUNICATION RESEARCH TRENDS “domestic globalization.” He demonstrates that such are neither real nor fiction, but somewhere in between. global influence may affect our lifestyles and even our Sunden suggests that rather than cybercultural studies notions of the home. Bengtsson again contemplates using a notion of universal space, they should instead the domestic and how we construct the boundaries, emphasise grounded place. both temporal and spatial, between our domestic and Finally, Orvar Löfgren adds a postscript that work lives. Not only does she perceive that media use explores the book’s arguments. He believes that there blurs these boundaries, once very separate for most is a need for a sensitivity to local histories and con- people, but that these categories are re-established in a texts, that the postmodern concepts of nomadism and more fluid notion of symbolic space. For my own part, fluidity should not be over-exaggerated, and that all I remember with some affection a time when, once of this should be incorporated into this spatial turn, away from one’s work place, it was rare to be tele- with which the book deals. He deems it better that our phoned (it had to be a real emergency) and email had experience of being somewhere, in a particular place not been invented. The concept of the home-worker in as well as in a media space, needs more ethnographi- many industries, although not a new concept, would cal study as it is through such studies that we will be evidently have import here. For Fornäs, it is the shop- able to grapple with these notions of re-spacing and ping mall that draws attention. The article builds on re-mediation. work done for the Passages project on consumption This is an interesting book that deals with empir- and communication in a shopping mall. The article ical case studies as well as developing theoretical con- considers these places, which I always think of as cepts. Each chapter has a wealth of references and bib- “non-places” in Augé’s term, as sites of contemporary liography. It would be of great assistance to anyone power struggle and of communication between people, moving into studies of space and place in a mediated texts, and institutions. O’Dell, in this section’s final world and I could see use being made of this by both chapter, considers a place about which I have never teaching staff and on a variety of courses. I seen anything written: the spa. He is an ethnographer look forward to further work in this sub-field. and demonstrates how old values and structures reap- —Maria Way pear in this new discourse. There is, he believes, a School of Media, Arts, and Design relationship between the radical logic of medicine, and University of Westminster, London of magic and mystery, which form a logical amalga- mation. References The book’s final section relates to a mediatized Bauman, Z. (2000). Liquid modernity. Cambridge, UK: sense of space. Here again, Larsen considers photog- Polity Press. raphy and tourism and the sense of the theatrical and Castells, M. (1996/2000). The rise of the network society. of imaginative geographies that he suggests are per- Cambridge, MA: Blackwell Publishers. formed and form an active framing. He deliberates Couldry, N. & McCarthy. A. (Eds.). (2004). Mediaspace: Place, scale, and culture in a media age. London: also on the ways in which digital photography has Routledge. added to this sense of the performance in touristic pho- Mattelart, A (1996/2000) Networking the world 1794-2000. tography. Lagerkvist also uses travel writing to look at Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. the ways in which Swedish travelogues constructed Meyrowitz, J. (1985). No sense of place: The impact of elec- America as a third space in the time between 1945 and tronic media on social behavior. New York: Oxford 1963. She contemplates how this writing related to the University Press. mediated images and the notions to which Swedes Virilio, P. (1990/2000). Polar inertia. London: Sage. were exposed at that time. She suggests that there was already a sense of post-tourism, which had become Galician, Mary-Lou. Sex, Love, and Romance in the part of the culture of Swedes in their everyday lives. Mass Media: Analysis and Criticism of Unrealistic For Jenny Sunden, the Internet is not a placeless medi- Portrayals and Their Influence. Mahwah, NJ and um; she scrutinizes relationships between “spatially London: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 2004. Pp. xxv, located media” and digital story telling. Her examples 252. ISBN 0-8058-4832-0 (pb.) $49.95. are taken from hypertext fiction, text-based virtual worlds, and computer games. These are places where The main goal of this book is clear from the very new virtual senses of place are created—places that beginning: It should dis-illusion its readers!

COMMUNICATION RESEARCH TRENDS VOLUME 26 (2007) NO. 3 — 21 As the author puts it: distance between utopia and reality. To kill our dreams can also be very unhealthy. Children need fairy-tales “False-love” images and scripts of coupleship put (Bruno Bettelheim) and so do adults. There are world- pressure on both women and men to measure up to media-myth. . . . Some media-constricted unre- wide 340 versions of the Cinderella motif in popular cul- alistic expectations can lead to depression and tures. That means that there is a demand for stories that other dysfunctions, and several can be downright tell the dream of a better life. It would be much healthi- dangerous” (p. x). The problem seems to be that er to sensitize people instead of disillusion them. Or “the mass media rarely present models of healthy, shall Harry Potter be banned from the movie because he realistic romance and love. (p. 5) is highly unrealistic? From an evolutionary point of view, entertain- The dismantling of the all-too-romantic portrayal of ment is a playing field (plays of illusion, pleasures of love and romance by the media starts with “Dr. Fun’s fantasy, dream worlds) with more or less serious virtu- Mass Media Love Quiz” that deals with stereotypes al experiments that deal with the solution of adaptive and myths that are perpetuated by the mass media and problems. Entertainment produces realistic and/or with the 12 statements of which only the answer utopian ideas of love, success, and security thus corre- “false” is right. Statement Number 12 aims again sponding with the need to confront the human condi- towards the main goal of the author: “Since mass tion and show various options, even unrealistic ones. media portrayals of romance aren’t ‘real,’ they don’t Following audience research in Europe, people are really affect you.” Since the right answer is “false,” the well aware that some portrayals of romance and love question now is: and how do they affect us? can be or are unrealistic. Nevertheless, they enjoy it! Sex, Love, and Romance in the Mass Media is —Louis Bosshart divided in two main parts, a first one that deals care- University of Fribourg - Freiburg fully with terms, concepts, models, tools of analysis, strategies and skills of media (the main pur- Houck, Davis W. and Dixon, David E. (Eds.). pose of which is “dis-illusioning”), and theories. The Rhetoric, Religion, and the Civil Rights Movement: second one is empirical in its approach and dissects 1954- 1965. Waco, TX, Baylor University Press, 2006. carefully every single myth of the love quiz. The theo- Pp. xvi; 1002. ISBN 978-1-932792-54-6 (pb.). $44.95. retical part is very comprehensive, sometimes leaving the reader with an embarrassment of richness. You may not know many of the names among the Sometimes a slight need for more synthesis can be felt, speakers whose works appear in Davis Houck and which on the other hand would save the book from David Dixon’s Rhetoric, Religion, and the Civil Rights being too redundant in some parts. Very useful is the Movement, 1954-1965. That’s because Houck and focus on Robert Sternberg’s “Triangular Theory of Dixon have sought out the less celebrated participants Love.” For him love is made up by three basic compo- in the civil rights movement by searching archives for nents: intimacy, passion, and decision/commitment. the catalysts of movement: the “local southerners— The book starts with a “STOP! Before you begin to both —who made the movement read this book, take Dr. FUN’S Mass Media Love Quiz move” (p. 3). In the same vein as Karlyn Kohrs on the next page” (p. vii) and it ends with an epilogue Campbell’s Man Cannot Speak for Her (1989), the “DON’T STOP! The End Is Where We Start From.” It is authors let the rhetoric do the talking. They compile correct to say that the Cultivation Analysis of George texts to provide evidence for how religion was funda- Gerbner did focus too much on violence. After the criti- mental to the movement, but they also recover “lost cism of Paul Hirsch and Horace Newcomb, the very nar- voices and texts” (p. 7) that transcend popular notions row approach of the early cultivation research has been of civil rights rhetoric attributed to Martin Luther King, opened and it is time now to study the impact of media Jr., Malcolm X, and Rosa Parks. stimuli on different areas of our lives, romantic love The rhetoric of the civil rights movement was at included. Empirical research in this field would also its core a religious message. Houck and Dixon’s col- benefit from concepts like para-social interaction, trans- lection of speeches traces the evolution of that message portability (life in as-if-worlds), flow, social comparison, from 1954 to 1965. The objective of the text is clearly and immersion. From this point of view the book of not to provide deep and provocative rhetorical analysis Mary-Lou Galician is a little bit too Manichean. A very (indeed the authors clearly state that they “make no important goal of fictional is to shorten the

22 — VOLUME 26 (2007) NO. 3 COMMUNICATION RESEARCH TRENDS claim to measuring [the] effects” of the speeches, p. 9), Bond), and white clergy (Theodore Hesburgh, President but only that they wish to reveal how the themes were of Notre Dame University). The collection presents used. The editors selected foundational texts from speeches from Jewish, Catholic, and Protestant religious speakers praised less frequently and publicly but who leaders; naturally, leaders of southern churches figure were significant to the movement. The texts themselves prominently in the texts. As the reader can surmise, the allow the reader to experience the rich rhetorical fabric volume includes some texts by speakers who do indeed created when speakers infused their arguments with go beyond the “local southerners” instrumental in the religious themes. movement, but whose words have been marginalized The editors listened to the sound recordings of from our collective memory of civil rights rhetoric. Chicagoan Moses Moon who recorded civil rights Houck and Dixon include more than one speech from meetings near the height of the movement in 1963 and some figures. 1964. Transcripts of the recordings not only provided I wonder about the future of anthologies given details of key speeches at the most rhetorically imme- the enormous power of the Internet to locate and com- diate levels, they also opened the researchers’ eyes to pile texts of a variety of sorts. Yet, this volume is the extent to which religious themes permeated civil reminder of the type of scholarship that can be so use- rights discourse. The editors, inspired by the Moon col- ful to scholars across academic disciplines. The lection, dug deeper to look for support for their hunch authors have worked diligently to canvass archives for that rhetoric of the civil rights movement was, at its complete texts of key speeches and to unearth texts essence, a call for the disenfranchised to meet its des- that are close to disappearing completely. They also tiny set forth by God. resorted to direct contact with family members or Houck and Dixon concede that decisions regarding speakers to enrich the contextual details that precede the organization of the volume were a challenge. The each speech. Scholars in religious studies, communi- result, a chronologically organized anthology of com- cation, history, American Studies, African American plete texts (there are no excerpts), seems to reveal the Studies, and other disciplines will find this volume an responses to key civic events that occurred during the excellent resource, whether as a required text through time period studied. For example, the volume opens with which one has access to primary texts, a companion a speech from Dr. Mordecai Wyatt Johnson, (former piece, or a reference book. But not only have the Baptist Minister and president of Howard University authors presented various disciplines with previously form 1926-1960) that occurred before the historic unknown speeches, they also will inspire scholars who Brown v. Board of Education decision. The next speech- should consider other areas where this type of research es in the 1954 section follow the Brown decision. The could be beneficial. The volume has a combined Murder of Emmett Till, the Civil Rights Act, and the author and subject index and an extensive bibliogra- March on Washington are examples of major events that phy organized by civil rights orator with both primary provide a backdrop for the speeches but, true to the and secondary sources listed. objective of the book, the speeches themselves carry —Pete Bicak their own weight; while certainly stemming from critical Rockhurst University incidents, the speeches exhibit a larger rhetorical trajec- tory that transcends any one event. Reference The natural flow of events through time present the Campbell, K. K. (1989). Man cannot speak for her, volume reader with view of the world as the speakers saw it. II: Key texts of the early feminists. Westport, CT: Short of hearing the speeches ourselves, experiencing Praeger. them as they occurred in time is most appropriate. Imposing artificial categorical limitations such as rhetor- ITEST. Globalization: Christian Challenges: ical or historical themes would only retroactively Proceedings of the ITEST Workshop. September 2003. place constraints on speakers which would have had no St. Louis, MO: ITEST FAITH/SCIENCE PRESS, influence on them at the time. The collection includes 2004. $19.95 [orders from [email protected]] speeches from a range of speakers (both black and white) and professions including, among many others, Globalization is a thorny topic. The number of journalists (P. D. East), physicians (T. R. M. Howard), published books that has the word “globalization” (or businessmen (Branch Rickey), educators (Horace Mann “globalisation” in UK orthography) in the title is legion. Is globalization good, bad, or irrelevant? Books

COMMUNICATION RESEARCH TRENDS VOLUME 26 (2007) NO. 3 — 23 coming from any of these viewpoints, together with aspects of globalization which, he reminded partici- many television and radio programs, keep coming at pants, is a multifaceted phenomenon. While he put for- us. This one is slightly different in that it contains the ward the notion that globalization might become an proceedings of an ITEST workshop held over a ideology with “both dedicated supporters and ardent September weekend in 2003. ITEST is the Institute for opponents” (p. iii), I would suggest that, since ideolo- Theological Encounter with Science and Technology, gy means only a collection of ideas, this has already based in St. Louis, Missouri. For the late Fr. Robert happened. There are few subjects that arouse passions Brungs, S.J., the founding Director of ITEST, the rela- more in certain academic circles than throwing the tionship between Christianity and globalization was word “globalization” into that ring. Leguey-Feilleux integral to the Church’s thrust. The Church stresses the importance, despite the evident weakness- has been a global entity since the apostles went out to es, of the United Nations and its various subsidiary pro- all nations to spread Christianity’s message of love. grams, in working towards more equality. He believes The book is formed on five essays. The first of that the Christian challenge is to develop an increasing these comes from Dr. Robert Collier, who is Head of sense of responsibility for the good of mankind as a the Animal Sciences Department of the University of whole. He does not think that the nation state will dis- Arizona, who sees science as a way to alleviate the appear and highlights the increased number of nation problems of hunger in the world. His, perhaps unpopu- states since the end of World War II. lar, suggestion is that transgenesis (utilizing genes from The book’s fourth essay is written by Fr. Stephen one species with those of another to, for instance, resist Rowntree, S.J., who spent much of his life training plant pests) will continue and will result in dramatic men for the priesthood in . From this view- increases in food production. He also highlights the point he draws attention to notions of religious, Church’s part in the early development of scientific social, and economic pluralism in globalized develop- method in farming and husbandry. A problem that he ment. Pluralism and multiculturalism, in my view, perceives is that the Church cannot now react quickly have become buzzwords in academic circles, but their enough to offer moral guidance to anyone looking for actuality on the ground has had differing results in guidance. One hopes that the 2007 conference on different countries. This may be what Rowntree “green” matters that the Vatican is hosting may help in intends when he indicates the dangers and challenges this regard. One might also point out that the world to all religions that may be incurred by globalization. produces enough food; it is just that much of it is either In his essay, he ponders on three reactions that reli- the wrong sort of food or is in the wrong places. With gious communities may have to the results of the phe- better transport facilities and a more selective approach nomena resulting from globalization. Groups may to food production, we might already be able to serve resort to fundamentalism, which manifests itself as an the world’s food needs. opposition to modernization; to conversation or dia- The second essay is written by Dr. Edward logue in and outside the denomination—interreligious O’Boyle, an economist from the Mayo Research dialogue, in fact; or finally, to consensus that, when it Institute, Louisiana. Dr. O’Boyle discusses norms that is possible, may help to enable a global ethic. During can evaluate economic globalization. His approach is the discussions that followed (which are printed in the personalist, differentiating between the “individual,” who book in an edited form), Rowntree discussed exam- is self-centered, and the “person,” as being one who is ples from his own experience in Zimbabwe and “other centered.” He draws attention to the Christian tra- exhorted Americans to approach developing countries dition of economics as a sharing of abundance—or of lit- to assist them in surviving, expanding, and flourish- tle—respecting human dignity. Free markets, he sug- ing in the global market. If Americans fail to do this, gests, if they have equitable and appropriate norms, Rowntree suggests, their lack of involvement will would help to establish respect at all levels. In most coun- result in their eventual isolation. tries of the world, there is a free market and we have not Jeffrey Jensen Arnett, from the Department of necessarily achieved any sort of respect. The editor Human Development at the University of Maryland, describes O’Boyle’s interventions at the conference as wrote in his essay about the role of the young in glob- “Economics 101 at a sophisticated level” (p. ii). alization. His own concept of “emerging adult- The third essay is written by Dr. Jean-Robert hood”—that age between the teens and 20s—is at the Leguey-Feilleux, who contemplates the political basis of his notion that globalization results in issues

24 — VOLUME 26 (2007) NO. 3 COMMUNICATION RESEARCH TRENDS around personal identity. These young people may the lens of its burgeoning television industry. What he have to develop an identity that is both local and glob- finds is quite a different picture from Anderson’s neat al and so bi-cultural. This may lead to some identity paradigm of imagined communities. Rather he finds a confusion. In drawing his paper into line with the set of complicated relations between the electronic cap- aims of the workshop, he makes the suggestion that italism of Indian television and the ongoing struggle to Catholics should go out to other religious denomina- define a national identity. The symbol of Indian nation- tions to counter the bad press that the Church has al identity begins with the father of the nation, undergone. This bad press was, I would suggest, per- Mahatma Gandhi, which still holds strong political haps particularly evident in the United States, but was meaning, but that meaning is challenged, sometimes also noticeable in Europe (even in Germany): directly, by the contents of the commercial and often when Benedict XVI was elected as pope in 2005, few globally driven television programming. The author secular newspapers put a positive gloss on his elec- tries to illuminate the struggle taking place in India tion. Arnett, who is not Catholic, believes that to non- between the modern commercialized media and India’s Catholics the Roman Catholic Church seems to be political and cultural national identity that seemed so extremely negative to scientific developments. The secure before the onslaught of global television after book shows that there was discussion around this the 1991 launch of satellite-distributed STAR TV over point, the general consensus being that the real chal- Asian skies. lenge was not the relationship between Catholic faith The book is divided into six chapters. The and science, but between Catholicism and applied sci- Introduction sets the methodological and theoretical ence. This is, of course, why ITEST is there in the grounds: first place. I analyze the scattered references to Gandhi’s The book, as I mentioned above, also prints edit- name and image as a way to interrogate the role ed versions of the discussions that followed the papers. that television plays in the articulation of nation- Fr. Brungs and Sr. Marianne Postiglione, RSM, of alism to electronic capitalism in postcolonial ITEST, say the input from young participants gave the India. I draw upon a range of materials [histori- older participants a greater understanding of what the cal, legal, policy, academic and journalistic]. young are looking for as they search for their own iden- The empirical evidence is illuminated by theo- tity, both as individual people and as . retical analyses that combine diverse approach- The book is one of a series of publications from es, such as cultural studies, poststructuralism, ITEST that have been published over a number of and postcolonialism. (pp. 19-20) years. It is indexed and has a list of the participants at Chapter 1 outlines the historical development of the the Workshop. This series of books perhaps deserves public television system in India (called Doordashan) greater distribution at a time when more, rather than from its beginnings in the 1950s as an educational and less, attention needs to be given to the intersection development enterprise through the rise of commer- between faith and its place in the modern world, with cialism within the agency in the 1980s to its changing the problems that beset the world’s population. nature in the 1990s with the rise of satellite and com- —Maria Way mercial television and finally to a reflection on what School of Media, Arts, and Design the “community” of Indian television might mean University of Westminster, London today as it tries “to articulate the nationalist ideals of public broadcasting to the rapid transformation of elec- Kumar, Shanti. Gandhi Meets Primetime: tronic capitalism” (p. 24). Globalization and Nationalism in Indian Television. Chapter 2 is long historical analysis of ads for Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 2006. television sets that follows the easing of original Pp. x, 240. ISBN 0-252-07244-8 (pb.) $25.00. restrictive policies of protectionism to a more flexi- ble to foreign manufacturers. In Chapter 3 Taking a cue from Benedict Anderson’s influen- the notion of development as it was conceived by tial study of colonial to post-colonial status of many Indian leaders, Gandhi and Nehru, is examined new countries in his 1991 book, Imagined together with their relation to the Cold War struggle Communities, Shanti Kumar tries to understand the between the United States and the Soviet Union. struggle of India to define a national identity through Whereas Gandhi argued for a much greater self-suf-

COMMUNICATION RESEARCH TRENDS VOLUME 26 (2007) NO. 3 — 25 ficiency, Nehru tended to emphasize a combination Still, this work deserves attention by readers of media of socialism and capitalism and a need to industrial- globalization literature. The book also contains copious ize. The chapter traces some of the critique of Daniel endnotes, , and a detailed index. Lerner’s vision of modernization and media as well —Emile McAnany as the West’s ideas of development through foreign Santa Clara University aid. The author traces the historical development of a national satellite system by Nehru’s daughter, Indira Lindvall, Terry. Sanctuary Cinema: Origins of the Gandhi when she was prime minister in the 1970s. Christian Film Industry. New York and London: New Chapter 4 deals with the contradictions of Indian York University Press, 2007. Pp. x, 303. ISBN 978-0- electronic capitalism. Kumar states a fundamental 8147-5210-4 (hbk.) $45.00. contradiction: “A naked truth of Pepsi’s transnation- al brand of consumption is fleetingly revealed [in the Most church communication professionals and saying ‘Gandhi meets Pepsi’], as the stark many church leaders, whether Catholic, Protestant, or between the insatiable hunger of the ‘haves’ and the Evangelical, have eagerly embraced the full range of hungry ‘have-nots’ is brought into relief by the vision new communication technologies (more recently of excess that economic liberalization has heralded in starting with cable and satellite television and moving postcolonial India” (p. 125). But having stated the on to the Internet and digital media) for education, contradiction, the author does not resolve it. evangelization, worship support, youth outreach, and In the last two chapters Kumar dwells at length on membership recruitment. Reading Lindvall’s history an incident on Rupert Murdoch’s newly introduced of the Christian churches’ encounter with the new Indian cable television programming in which Gandhi communication technology of the 1890s–1920s— is publicly insulted and STAR TV is challenged in film—would provide them with a welcome and fasci- court. The author takes this as a symbol of the compli- nating context for their work and their ambitions. cated and contradictory process of defining national Contemporary communicators do not form the first identity in an age of electronic capitalism in India. nor even the most innovative users of new technolo- Kumar, in the conclusion, attempts to summarize the gy. Without necessarily calling attention to it, argument of the book by quoting a number of authors Lindvall shows that early 20th century church leaders who hold contradictory positions on national identity and visionaries already anticipated most of today’s and the role of television. The problem with the chap- arguments for incorporating new technology (in their ter illuminates the problem of the book in that contra- case, film) into the mission of the church. And they dictions or contrasting positions are made central with faced the same scepticism and theological debates no attempt to define their meaning to the author and his familiar to so many today. audience. The author states this succinctly in the final Lindvall provides more than a history of film, page of the book: Rather he attempts to convey the context in which film became an opportunity for the churches. I have neither attempted to reveal the universal Though he acknowledges the need to limit his dis- logic of identity nor sought to revel in the infi- nite play of differences. Instead, I have relied cussion to the Protestant churches in the United upon a paradoxical formulation of unimaginable States (and in the early 20th century one could still communities that at once defines and defies the talk about the Protestant churches collectively), he limits of national identity and cultural differ- nevertheless mentions parallel Roman Catholic con- ences in Indian television. (p. 201) tributions where appropriate, though these might merit a book of their own. The Protestant churches, This book breaks some new ground in its he notes, had to overcome an ingrained bias against approach to Indian television and national identity. By images, rooted in the iconoclasm of the Reformation including a consideration of how original visions of the and seen most clearly in Zwingli and Calvin. To help nation by Gandhi and Nehru played out in public poli- the reader understand this, Lindvall devotes his first cy regarding television’s role in national development, chapter to an account of the image in the churches, Kumar has illuminated the complex and sometimes reaching back to the first bout of iconoclasm in the contradictory views by Indian politicians and intellec- eighth century and the theological response to it, tuals. Still, he leaves the reader somewhat dissatisfied, which justified using images as, among other things, if not confused, with his poststructuralist positions.

26 — VOLUME 26 (2007) NO. 3 COMMUNICATION RESEARCH TRENDS the of the poor. He also sketches the gradual further “recognized the cultural implications of film move within Protestantism in the United States narratives, embracing film’s as a social and towards images and eventually film, examining the educational tool in an industrialized urban society” landscape paintings of the Hudson Riven artists—a (p. 61). From him came the ideas of the incorpora- religious sensibility reflected in the early Westerns tion of visual images into sermons, the use of story- with their stunning images of the natural beauty of telling to attract and hold an audience, the recogni- the United States. tion of the power of film to show missionary work, and the church engagement with cinema as a means The artists of the Hudson River School empha- of participating in the larger culture (pp. 62-63). sized the transcendent, sublime images of God’s glory, hidden in creation, planting seeds for the Jump’s , The Religious Possibilities of the faithful to enjoy the visual gardens of God’s Motion Picture, published in 1910, is most likely the handiwork, even if at second hand. Underlying first near contemporary work in the growing area of the school was an aesthetic tradition of communication and theology. Jump proved a persua- Protestant Christianity that began with Jonathan sive advocate and many churches looked to incorpo- Edwards and Horace Bushnell, and culminated rate films, generating, as Lindvall documents, a in the theories of John Ruskin and Abraham good deal of discussion in both the church and pop- Kuyper. In this aesthetic tradition, physical real- ular press. ity itself offered a path to redemption in the The practice of film exhibition in churches creat- “Reality of the Unseen.” (p. 39) ed at least two kinds of mini-industries: groups design- From this follows an almost straight line of develop- ing worship services around particular films (or por- ment to the use of dioramas and slides in churches to tions of theatrically released films, with or without the the advocacy of film. intertitles) and companies specializing in equipping Early cinema added a line to the succes- churches and distributing films. Many pastors quickly sion of images and when that narrative echoed saw the benefits of showing films in order to bring new Protestant values, the films attracted religious audi- people, especially immigrants and children, into ences. The late 19th century provided the requisite pop- church; they also liked the idea of creating community ular culture to wed religion and film. centers as alternative recreation sites to bars and other gathering places. However, not surprisingly, many the- In his historical study of religion in film, Gerald ater owners and exhibitors resented the competition, Froshey argued that Hollywood’s religious film particularly where churches received an exemption genre had its origin in popular culture: from laws that otherwise shut motion picture theaters “Religious spectaculars grew out of two popular on Sundays. artistic traditions—the spectacular stage melo- drama and the popular quasi-religious of If the churches were to continue to use film, they the 19th century.” In the 19th century, the pro- faced the challenge of finding suitable films. Early film tocinematic evangelical novels paralleled the makers often turned to religious themes or to docu- artistry of the Hudson River painters, each medi- mentaries of religious spectacles, like passion plays, or um eliciting positive response from Protestant simply illustrations of the land of Palestine. These . Protestants were thus primed to wel- found a home in the churches. And, as most film stu- come an emerging technology that could wed dents know, in the early silent movie era Hollywood image and moral narrative. (p. 43) produced a number of religious films, led by directors After this examination of the theological and like D. W. Griffith and Cecil B. DeMille. These theoretical justification of moving pictures in the Hollywood productions often dramatized either bibli- religious life of Protestantism, Lindvall turns to the cal stories or 19th-century religious novels like Ben movement that advocated film in the churches. Here Hur. In many ways, the use of these films in and by the in Chapter 2 the reader meets the Rev. Herbert Jump, churches leads to a struggle over the “invention” of one of the earliest, if not the first, Christian apolo- motion pictures—of how people should appropriate or gists for film. Convinced of the religious potential of use the motion picture. Should films be mere entertain- the cinema, Jump argued that showing films in ment or should they have a higher purpose? Few churches was “an innovative way to draw the church writers articulated the question in this way, but unchurched into a moral environment” (p. 60). He

COMMUNICATION RESEARCH TRENDS VOLUME 26 (2007) NO. 3 — 27 they engaged in attempts to define the motion picture Christian film industry did find a start, and in it we can habits of a generation. discern very contemporary sentiments—an evangelical Lindvall deepens this history by introducing the purpose and a willingness to adopt new technologies. 1919 “Christian blockbuster,” The Stream of Life, In addition, Lindvall identifies several other themes: written and produced by the Rev. Dr. James K. The multifaceted historical relations between the Shields, “an Episcopal clergyman in the artistic tradi- image-icon, the theater, and the church laid the tion of fellow rector and celluloid inventor Hannibal foundations for the debates about cinema as a Goodwin” (p. 126). (Goodwin, a minister, held the means of effective religious communication, patent for the film stock that made motion pictures while the spiritual art of the Hudson River possible.) The Stream of Life found a solid place in painters and the economic phenomenon of the churches and revival meetings. Its success led to a evangelical novel at the end of the 19th century number of similar efforts, many produced by The provided narrative paradigms for a religious cin- Christian Herald (pp. 135-148). Other church affiliat- ema. Finally, and most importantly, church bod- ed groups (such as Sacred Films, Geographic Film ies took an active role in exhibiting, producing, Company, Christian Pictures, Inc., and the and utilizing films for their own religious goals, International Church Film Corporation) produced a to their ultimate disappointment. wide range of church suitable films. Few of these Paradoxically, the theatrical image possessed the potential of aiding the work of the church, efforts found financial success; some caused scandal, but carried equal potential as a rival. (p. 207) as when the International Church Film Corporation went into bankruptcy, taking with it the numerous The story encompasses more than the churches, small investments of widows and orphans (pp. 151- though. The link between film and religion also reveals 156). Lindvall concludes this part of his story on two a cultural shift in America, what Lindvall terms the upbeat notes. First, he introduces the Harmon “drift from a verbal culture to a visual one” (p. 212). It Foundation (p. 169), which not only backed films but also marked the move away from the Christian church- did research into the role of film in church. As films es as sole provider of images of salvation, a role that became more expensive, with the advent of sound, the Hollywood famously fulfills. Foundation moved out of film production. Second, Lindvall’s book provides a wonderful and wonder- Lindvall notes that the expense of sound also led fully readable history of this important period. Issues that many of the film pioneers to turn to another new tech- churches and those interested in communication, culture, nology—radio. This, as most know well, opens up a and religion wrestle with today turn out to have appeared very successful chapter in religious communication. almost 100 years ago. Anyone interested in film, religion, The fourth piece of the story of church and cine- theology, and culture should read this book. ma in the silent era comes at the end of the era. As film Each chapter has abundant endnotes. The book production costs soared, the churches abandoned their itself features both an index and a bibliography. brief production role and turned to attempts to influ- —Paul A. Soukup, S.J. ence the Hollywood industry through criticism and Santa Clara University “better picture movements” (p. 183). They recom- mended some films; they criticized others; they pres- Mody, Bella (Ed.). International and Development sured Will Hays and his office to clean up Hollywood. Communication: A 21st Century Perspective. London, The churches tried to provide a moral voice and they Thousand Oaks, New Delhi: Sage, 2003. Pp. xi, 304. succeeded at least in making Hollywood executives ISBN 0-7619-2901-0 (pb.) $44.95. “aware of the religious milieu in which they sold their products” (p. 203). This volume was first published together with Lindvall concludes that “the potential for the reli- cross-cultural material. As a separate volume focusing gious use and possibilities of the motion picture and the on international and development communication, it realization of the dream of a vibrant church market provides the reader with a rich historical review on a were inadequately achieved” (p. 204). The vision of number of important topics in both international and leaders like Jump and Shields never received sufficient development communication. Bella Mody, the editor funding, probably because enough other church leaders of the volume, provides a justification of putting questioned the value (and the morality) of films. But a together chapters on both areas by pointing out that

28 — VOLUME 26 (2007) NO. 3 COMMUNICATION RESEARCH TRENDS the original development applications “were initially these chapters may be the most applied, that on media foreign aid initiatives” (p. x) or the transfer of media corporations by Comor and the one on transnational technology internationally. Mody also ties together advertising by Viswanath and Zeng. much of the book with the currently compelling con- Part 2 on Development Communication contains cept of globalization. She indicates that her interest in six chapters and a brief introduction by the editor. The both international communication and development is first by Srinivas Melkote is the most ample in provid- centered on institutions and their role in the interna- ing a broad review of development communication the- tional and development communication areas. In her ory from modernization and diffusion, critical theory, introduction to the International Communication half participation to the most recent gloss in empowerment. of the book, she defines further her interests by indi- Melkote rightly argues that the theories need to be cating that the seven chapters in this section are “a grounded in the definitions of development and com- historical and critical analysis of how communication munication in social change. The problem brought up between nation-states has been studied over the past above that the compass of a brief chapter is not enough 70 years” (p. 1). She further elaborates that the “polit- to give sufficient latitude for in-depth understanding ical economy of state support for private firms has holds even more so for this chapter. A full length book grown stronger” over time (p. 1). (namely the book, Melkote and Steves, 2001) is packed The chapters in Part 1 on international commu- into 15 pages of text that makes for challenging read- nication address a variety of topics, begun, quite ing. The advantage is that a sketch of the various appropriately, by Steven McDowell’s historical approaches is given in outline form from which both review of theories and research that start with propa- the beginner and more advanced reader can benefit, but ganda studies and psych-warfare of the 1940s and end issues are necessarily left up in the air. The reader with current applications of global perspectives in a remains somewhat uncertain as to where a practical political economy of culture. The strengths and weak- approach to applying aspects of all theories is called for nesses of McDowell’s chapter are indicative of the and where a normative approach should take over to volume as a whole. The main weakness is the need to argue for a more restricted analysis. Other chapters are keep chapters brief (McDowell has a short 10 pages also helpful: Leslie Synder presents a data-based of text and 3 of bibliography), thereby making much approach in discussing information campaigns without discussion of important topics more a list of citations ignoring some of the theoretical challenges raised by than an in-depth treatment. The strengths are that the Melkote. Robert Huesca’s chapter admirably traces a book, like McDowell’s first chapter, covers the field history of the participatory paradigm but is critical of quite well and provides enough exposition in a clear practices that do not fulfill its basic theoretical dictates. style that students coming fresh to the field can bene- Both of these chapters also provide extensive citations fit. For scholars it provides a wealth of current refer- that are useful for further explorations. Karin Wilkins ences and sketches an historical overview that is describes some more recent approaches to thinking mostly absent in other volumes that attempt a sum- about development theory and practice by returning to mary like this one. McDowell does a good job in the issue of power that Melkote began with, but she touching on the theories that have underpinned the makes the analysis more practical by turning these into field in its first four decades (1950s through the explorations of how power is manifest today in global- 1980s) but devotes the last half of his review to the ization, privatization, new technologies, social move- introduction of globalization as the dominant para- ments, and sustainability. She also explores how devel- digm in the field today and indicates how political opment communication could use analysis of these economy has adapted to current concerns. manifestations as paths to practice. Other chapters in Part 1 deal with global media A final chapter by the late Everett Rogers and a corporations, how the old communication order debate colleague is important in the sense that Rogers was a has been reconfigured in the age of globalization stud- key part of the early development communication par- ies, transnational advertising, issues of war and peace adigm and contributed to this literature and related top- in globalized media, a review of research traditions in ics in information technology and entertainment educa- international media (somewhat overlapping with that tion. The summary of the history of both fields is thus of McDowell), and a look into the post-modern future informed by his long career of research. The outcome of international communication. The most practical of is less successful than expected partly because of page

COMMUNICATION RESEARCH TRENDS VOLUME 26 (2007) NO. 3 — 29 limitation and the very broad nature of the topic. Still, The book is divided into six chapters. The first it reflects a uniquely informed historical perspective of one “presents a typology for the media activism and both areas by one who lived through the five decades reform movement in the United States at the turn of the under consideration in this volume millennium.” Chapters 2 and 3 examine the processes The book has extensive in each inside the movement “using three years (1998-2000) of chapter, a complete author index, and an extensive sub- historical archive of the micro radio network (MRN) ject index. listserv.” Chapter 4 focuses on the analysis of the dom- —Emile McAnany inant newspaper coverage in the same period and, Santa Clara University finally, Chapters 5 and 6 examine “the governmental documents in which the micro radio discourse was cod- Reference ified” (p. 20). Melkote, S. & Steeves, H. (2001). Communication for devel- Bibliographical references and a subject index are opment in the Third World: Theory and practice for included. empowerment (2nd ed.). New Delhi: Sage. —Salvatore Scifo London Metropolitan University Opel, Andy. Micro Radio and the FCC: Media Activism and the Struggle over Broadcast Policy. Roberge, Gaston, S.J. (Ed.). Cyberbani: Being a Westport, CT and London: Praeger, 2004. Pp. 168. Human in the New Media Environment with an Essay ISBN 0-275-97914-8 (hbk.) $55.00. on Mediasports by Siddharth Kochar and a Note on Crecarity by Patrice Riemens. Gujarat, India: Gujarat Opel examines the struggle for micro radio in the Sahitya Prakash, 2005. ISBN 81-89317-02-4 (pb.) RS. U.S. by attempting “to understand how media activists 15.00, $16.00, €14.00. (order from www.gspbooks.org) have challenged current broadcast policy and how the government and the larger commercial and non-com- Gaston Roberge, a French Canadian who has mercial industry have responded to those challenges” worked in India for many years and is now an Indian (p. 1). He traces “the discourse generated by the micro citizen, has edited this book, which he has dedicated: radio activists as it moved from discussions within the movement, through the media, and eventually into “to our brothers and sisters Federal Communications Commission (FCC) policy” who live precariously (p. 1). The struggle for micro radio is seen as part of a and ‘pray’ wider social movement—the media activism and the great of this world reform movement—concerned about “the effects of for their subsistence concentrated ownership of media technology, the their daily work. prevalence of commercial media, and the lack of pub- lic access to local media outlets,” and is connected to Each has a face the “long history of media reform struggles throughout Each has a name the 20th century including the debates over (non) com- But together they constitute mercial radio in the 1920s and 1930s” (p. 2). Suffering multitudes Opel relates the importance of community media That have been called to “the concepts of localism, militant particularism, and The ‘precariat’” the public interest,” and to “the political and economic The book sets out to be a contribution to a pedagogy of restructuring associated with globalization”; in these the media oppressed. We, in the West, tend to think contexts he explores “micro radio as a site of media that new technologies are available to everyone. Even activism” (p. 6). The micro radio movement is in our own countries there are inequalities, but in the analysed through the lens of new social movement the- parts of the world where healthcare, food, clean water, ory, allowing the author “to place the tactics and strate- affordable and available power, and work are still lux- gies into the larger context of social movement in gen- uries, communication technologies are still only a eral” (p. 17) and demonstrate “the active presence of a dream for many—and that dream probably gives more diverse movement seeking to reconceptualize the role position to the possibility that those things in my list of media in society” (p. 141). above may be available first. Too often, the means of

30 — VOLUME 26 (2007) NO. 3 COMMUNICATION RESEARCH TRENDS transport in developing countries are such that it is of other stars. As Roberge points out, impossible to transport even food, medicine, and med- however, the fact that Bollywood is popular often ical personnel to those that need them. encourages a tendency (among academics at least) to India is an outstanding example of what can be think of it as consisting of “trash commercial” prod- achieved. When I was a child, I was always told to ucts—he adds, however, that he believes it is illogi- eat my meals because I had to “think of the starving cal, because the largest number of people should see children in India”—while there are many in India a good program (p. 102). In May, 2007, Doordarshan, who are still poor, an infrastructure has been devel- the Indian TV channel, will be available to British oped that has made the country a center for modern viewers who have cable or satellite and this will join technology, with many Indians becoming members a number of radio and TV channels that are produced of a booming middle class. Roberge notes, however, locally for those with Indian, Pakistani, or figures from 2000, which showed that only 378 mil- Bangladeshi origins. Yet there is still an imbalance, if lion people were using the Internet in the whole a decreasing one, in media flows, as Roberge himself world—only 1.5 million of them in India, about says (p. 4). There are differing viewpoints also. Do 0.16% of its population (p. 139). This compares with the media spread information or misinformation? Do figures for the same year that showed that in the they contribute to economic disparity or add to human USA 41.5%, in the UK 30.8%, and in Germany life? Here he says he does not attempt to share bal- 24.7% of households had home access to Internet (p. anced view, but those that are not balanced—his read- 140). Despite this difference, Roberge points out ers may then work on their own “balanced” reaction that India, which by 1995 had 120,000 Internet (p. 4). For anyone interested in widening their world- users, still had one of the “largest figures for a Third view, there is an interesting bibliography of those arti- World country” (p. 142). cles and works cited in the book, many of which (as Cyberbani puts forward what may be seen as a befits the subject) available online. “militant programme of media education, starting with The book’s first section deals with the theoreti- media awareness and leading to collective action in cal aspects of media—it does not set out to formulate cyberclubs” (back cover of book) and states its aim as a “new media theory” but suggests a reflection on the being “to bring about cultural revolution” (ibid). aspects of “new media” that form its “so-called reali- Roberge explains the derivation of the book’s title: ty” (p. 25). One of Roberge’s statements would likely cause discussion in any group of academics who have [Cyberbani] is a collection of sayings on the interests in the mass media. He says that radio and tel- cyber-world. The word “bani” [which means word, discourse, message, or, sometimes evision were developed to transmit to individual Saraswati, the goddess of knowledge and art, in homes and that there is nothing in their technology Bengali] is used in “akashbani” (sky-message), that makes their use as mass media inevitable—for the name of the Indian national radio. It is also Roberge, only “mandatory large group listening” such used in “chitrabani” (image-word), an expres- as that used in Nazi Germany (and, I would add, in sion proposed by Rabindranath Tagore to mean Fascist Italy) could truly cause radio to be described cinema. Chitrabani is the name of a communi- as a mass medium. His round up of theories relating cations centre located in Kolkata, and of a film to mass media would be a useful addition to any magazine. (p. 8) undergraduate course that deals with those media, but Roberge was the founding Director of the communica- he asks whether there is a need for fresh theories that tions centre. consider the “precariat.” Already, the Bollywood film industry has begun Roberge considers how we consider the world in to export its products worldwide—first to the diaspo- which we live; can I ask the questions along with oth- ra of those from the Indian subcontinent, and then to ers, or can I ask them only for myself? Does the world other cultures. In both Britain and the USA, have a center and is it a unified entity? If it is cen- Bollywood has become big business and last year, for tered, is it centered on one or more persons? These are the first time, Madame Tussaud’s showed the first deep questions that would probably require a book waxwork of a Bollywood star, Amitabh Bakchan. His each to answer. Here, the author attempts to answer presence in the display was greeted with considerable them from the viewpoint of a social activist—but he joy by British fans and has now been joined by figures warns of the dangers of bundling together “new theo-

COMMUNICATION RESEARCH TRENDS VOLUME 26 (2007) NO. 3 — 31 ries as if they were of one kind” (p. 59). The word of convergence may affect cultures in society, particu- “precariat,” he takes from an article written by the larly the web and e-commerce. The last section is a call Italian, Alex Foti (in Green Pepper, 2004, p. 22) and to mobilization and to the use of cyberclubs with some derives from notions rooted in the French word suggestions as to how such mobilization might happen. “Précaire,” which Foti sees as a form of work (that This book is a useful addition to the shelves of the performed flexibly and as taylorized [sic] service library. For once, we have a book that comes from a work without contracts of long duration) that goes developing country (even if written by somebody who along with the “Cognitaire” (those who perform cog- originally came from the First World). Roberge has nitive work, working primarily for a salary or on a lived in India so long that he is generally considered an contract that gives the results of this cognitive work to Indian. It could be used in many types of class at uni- his/her employer—usually those people who work in versity level in order to give some balance and some of media, research, education or advertising); however, its pages give meanings to words that we bandy about this means that, as Roberge says, a need for without considering their import. Flexicurity—flexibility minus the precarity (p. 61). It —Maria Way is pointed out that precarity has become a reality for School of Media, Arts and Design many—and not just those in the developing world. University of Westminster, London There is a tendency among media scholars to see the media as having perhaps a greater effect on socie- Strate, Lance. Echoes and Reflections: On Media ty than they actually do. As I said above, the academ- Ecology as a Field of Study. Cresskill, NJ: Hampton ic work on media tends (even when dealing with glob- Press, 2006. Pp. ix, 180. ISBN 1-57273-725-5 (pb.) alization) to talk from a particular center—the one $23.95. from which the author writes. Here, the writer sug- gests that in order to begin to know what the media Lance Strate’s Echoes and Reflections takes read- are to us, we must reflect on them while stepping out ers through different visions and versions of what of them. The media, he says, are not just technologies, makes media ecology the field that it is. Published as but are also cultures and ways of life and are also an part of the Media Ecology Book Series from Hampton arena in which power is fought (p. 75). It is difficult, Press, Echoes and Reflections is not your typical book as he points out, to deal with media as a generalized about media ecology. idea. Unusually, he discusses the theories of media The primary structure of the book is designated from a personalised viewpoint, grounding it extreme- as two parts, but it should really be four: the ly well, but he debunks some of the slogans that are Introduction, Part One, Part Two, and the Conclusion. often seen as givens in today’s more mediatized soci- Each of these parts is important as each focuses and ety; they are, Roberge suggests, harmful theories. One refocuses the reader’s perspective and draws those section of the book, written by Siddharth Kochar, important lines of connection within the areas of con- deals with the notion of an almost religious aspect to tent. While Parts One and Two are representative of sport, which is now highly visible in our media. works that Strate has previously published/presented, Pages 117–120 have a questionnaire that is bringing them together in one text casts them in a dif- designed to help readers draw up their own personal ferent light. Strate asks the reader to view these two profiles as media users. This might prove a useful tool parts as a dialogue between the general development in classroom situations—and would certainly engender and scholarship of the field, and a more specific and discussion. Section 3 of the book, “The Internet in personal case of identity construction. India” looks at civil society and governance, the com- While some readers might be tempted to skip the munication infrastructure and appropriate communica- short introduction and start in on Part One, the intro- tions technologies and also at notions of culture and duction establishes the frame of this work. The intro- identity and the Internet divide. It attempts to break duction clarifies the boundaries and rationales of how down Internet users in India into three groups. The and why Strate is situating this story, as well as the penultimate section deals with definitions of communi- different views that have come to construct media cation technology; how and technology con- ecology. In the introduction, Strate lays out not just verge and also at the convergence of computer, televi- the organization of the book, but the special features sion, and other technologies, and how these examples of the terrain that is to be covered. As Strate notes,

32 — VOLUME 26 (2007) NO. 3 COMMUNICATION RESEARCH TRENDS this is not about the concepts and methods of media Nothing. Gilman’s story is a metaphor not only of ecology, it is about how the field came to be—what how communication is often metaphorically tied to Strate calls a grammar, as it is focused on the rules, the ideas of cloth/fabric/weaving, but also a story of language, technology, and biases that have come to remediation, of how one medium can be utilized and create what we now call media ecology. In that spirit, transformed into another. Strate extends these ideas of Strate also notes that we are not to take these per- change and meaning in the following chapters, build- spectives in isolation, and the parts of this text deal ing on issues of identity and using the context of with the dialogical and dialectical negotiations that autism to ground his insights. The experiences of have grown into the field. This compass point is Sarah and the research which Strate presents demon- important for the reader to understand the perspec- strate the various trajectories and interpretations of tives and views Strate is presenting. Without this ori- autism, and its constructions within the medical com- entation, readers will miss the connections made munity, scholarly community, and members of the between Parts One and Two, and how the Conclusion autism culture. Through these examples, Strate draws subtly brings them back together to comment on what in all the important concepts that have come to distin- media ecology is and what it does. guish media ecology—concrete and , orality Part One covers approximately three-quarters of and literacy, medium and message, echolalia and nar- the book’s content and is essentially the essay Strate cissism—hinting back at the echoes and reflections wrote for COMMUNICATION RESEARCH TRENDS from which we started. (Volume 23, No. 2) published in 2004. Though Strate The Conclusion briefly ties the parts together, notes that this section has only minor revisions, posi- reiterating that communication and change are interde- tioning it with the other sections of this book pro- pendent, and that media ecology helps us keep that per- vides the ground from which the later sections are spective in sight. In weaving these threads of research enmeshed. Part One, then, the general case, reviews together, Strate has given readers a much different view the important individuals, schools, and ideas that than is typical for a book about media ecology, or any constitute media ecology. Strate’s review moves field of study. Strate’s perspectives move us to rethink beyond a chronology of research to emphasize the and revisit this field to refresh our memories and reex- connections, overlaps, conflicts, and criticisms that amine the representations and mediations that still res- have shaped this field. Strate’s approach is ecological onate. In doing so we not only reflect on what has been in its nature and structure, providing the geography, and what is, but how we can use these insights to act, encounters, relationships, and research that have construct, and constitute our selves, our communities, been negotiated in the creation of media ecology. and our environments. Presenting the field’s development in this fashion The book has both an index of authors and a grounds the research and positions the scholarship in subject index, together with extensive bibliographic the times, environments, and contexts in which they sources. developed. This is very helpful in highlighting these —K. L. Long interactions and connections, and would help even Santa Clara University more if Strate would have included some kind of summary or closing comment to each chapter to help Sumner, David E. and Miller, Holly E. Feature & wrap up and set up the next chapter in relation to Magazine Writing: Action, Angle, and Anecdotes. what readers have just learned. Ames, Iowa: Blackwell Publishing Professional, 2005. Part Two includes and further develops the Pp. 312. ISBN 0-8138-0519-8 (pb.) $46.99. author’s work started as a Wilson Fellow and contin- ued over the last decade. It moves through issues of Normally I find textbooks wordy, dull, and identity construction using the case of Strate’s daugh- expensive so I rarely require them. I try to assign ter, Sarah, and her life with autism. Strate uses the readings that are livelier, more insightful and more in- case of autism and his family’s experiences to negoti- depth, to say nothing of being free either online or at ate and exemplify how media ecology helps us under- the university library. I usually suggest an optional stand communication, change, and meaning construc- text for those who like having a security blanket but tion. Strate begins Part Two, his specific case, with a 99% of my students realize “optional” means you’ll recounting of Phoebe Gilman’s story, Something from never need this.

COMMUNICATION RESEARCH TRENDS VOLUME 26 (2007) NO. 3 — 33 Feature & Magazine Writing by David People to Tell Stories,” “Introduce Tension,” etc. fill Sumner and Holly Miller is no security blanket these chapters. The authors list the “questionable textbook. By the end of two chapters, I had decid- leads” that make every writing teacher cringe—such as ed to adopt it for my fall feature writing class and pun leads, back door leads, hypothetical leads, and long then covered almost every chapter with notes on quote leads. They suggest alternatives such as scenario how I will use the information. It’s that rare text leads and indirect quote leads and tell readers how to that I wish I had written. write such leads. This is great because it gives students This book is a clear and lively explanation of how suggestions to replace the forbidden approaches and it to research and write different types of features then gives instructors alternatives to recommend. how to market them to print and online publishers. All A chapter on how to write anecdotes dissects the chapters include suggested activities, “Shoptalk” defi- art of storytelling, giving practical advice like stressing nitions of terms, and endnotes on sources. A “Back to specifics. Numerous examples throughout the book the Basics” appendix covers common grammar errors. provide models for beginning writers. The authors’ pre- The book has an index but no bibliography. scriptive approach may not please the “do your own The authors captured MY attention with their thing, don’t stifle my/their creativity” crowd. However opening chapter on “Capturing Your Reader’s it is enormously helpful to anyone who (a) wants to Attention” by citing the five biggest mistakes begin- improve his/her writing or (b) hopes to succeed in the ning feature writers make—such as being too vague competitive struggle to get published. and trying to cover too much territory instead of Part III explains how to create different types of exploring a single angle of a complex issue. YESS!!! feature articles including shorts, profiles, real life dra- Have Sumner and Miller also spent years judging high mas, “how-to” pieces, and inspirational articles. A use- school feature writing contests in which teens explain ful chapter goes into detail about opportunities to write the impact of global warming in 12 inches? Getting features related to seasons, holidays, annual events, students to follow Anne Lamott’s advice to write “bird and the like. No matter how well written a piece, most by bird” is the major initial challenge of any feature editors will not publish something that lacks a news writing instructor. angle, that is, a reason to publish a story in this publi- The authors state that good feature writing begins cation at this time. with reading, reading, and more reading (Thank you! The authors explain that getting published Thank you!) to enable writers to determine which ideas requires finding a good match of writer and publica- are fresh. How can you know what ideas have been tion and they tell readers how to locate potential overdone if you don’t read newspapers, magazines, and publishers. They also note that feature writers can even books? The authors demand rigorous reporting sometimes publish different versions of the same and several chapters offer good sources of data and material in magazines with differing focuses by ana- helpful portal websites of journalistic sources. lyzing the contents and styles of various publica- Other recommendations include seeking assis- tions. The chapter on inspirational writing states that tance from librarians in doing background searches such pieces must be well written as well as well (forgive me while I swoon) and accessing full text arti- intended. Piety is insufficient to crack the world of cles from newspapers and periodicals via the databas- religious publications. es that libraries subscribe to. Research librarians must Veteran writers should find the chapter on adapt- be the country’s most undervalued professionals— ing their writing for the Internet helpful. The chapter pros at uncovering information most writers would analyzes the similarities and differences in online and never find. print writing, then explains how to write online copy. Research suggestions scattered throughout this Suggestions include writing briefly and simply, and book should make it a valuable tool for free-lance writ- using short sentences and paragraphs and an everyday ers as well as students. Website addresses will help vocabulary. writers locate Internet publishers. Contact information The final unit explains how to pick publishing tar- for the major business media companies will guide gets for stories and how to sell them. A chapter offers them to potential print outlets such as trade magazines. sample query letters to help authors increase their odds Part II, “Writing Feature Articles,” is didactic. of connecting with a publisher and another chapter dis- Subheadings such as “Write with Action Verbs,” “Use cusses the changing world of copyright.

34 — VOLUME 26 (2007) NO. 3 COMMUNICATION RESEARCH TRENDS Creative writers who don’t want lots of rules will inarians (1986), and a brief history of communication not like this book. Students who feel they should be studies in Serampore affiliated colleges. free to express themselves without the impediment of One of Traber’s last major works before his death structures—and get an A for their efforts—will not be last year, the book includes his own call for curricula happy campers. Even someone who thinks that rules for communication studies in theological education and discipline are essential may get bogged down in all which are sensitive to the local cultural context: “Alas, the prescriptions, bullets, and checklists. But this is a this volume offers no ‘model curriculum,’ for there is modest complaint and caveat. no such thing as a single curriculum for use in Asia or The best feature writing requires a gift that only even India.” Instead, this book provides the perspec- God can give—an instinct for perceiving potential tives of teachers who are building communication stories then a talent for telling these stories in a way components into their courses and even curricula in that moves readers to laughter and tears—that even their respective programs. the best professor can’t teach. However people with A central premise of the book is that communica- more modest ability can publish regularly if they tion stands as a primary “confessional issue” for all work hard and follow the guidelines outlined in this faith communities, one that demands focus on mass book. There will never be enough stars to meet the communication in public debate because the socio-cul- copy demands of the thousands of publications seek- tural environment of all religious groups has been ing mundane articles. shaped powerfully over the last 40 years by media. This book is a valuable instructional tool for any- The chapters are grouped into three thematic one who wants to improve his/her writing. And I do areas: Foundations, New Directions, and Bible Studies, recommend it as a text—especially to other professors reflecting the organization of the conference. with strong professional writing backgrounds who are Traber’s contribution, “Why Communication inclined to believe their lectures are more effective Studies in Theological Education,” explicates the four than any boring text. This book will be my best friend dimensions he considers integral to the landscape: in teaching feature writing. humans as communicating beings, God who acts in —Eileen Wirth history through communicative acts, church as com- Creighton University munion, and the power of media to shape contemporary culture. To that end, he provides seven points essential Traber, Michael. (Ed.). Communication in Theologi- to constructing a curriculum of communication studies. cal Education: New Directions. New Delhi, India: In considering the interface between theology and ISPCK, 2005. Pp. 234. ISBN 9-788172148393 (pb.) communication, Joseph Palakeel posits that the iconic $12.00 Rs. 185. (Available from http://ispck.org.in) nature of modern media weans people away from logos and reason to the multimedia form. Christian theolo- This book, a compilation of papers from a con- gizing, he argues, should similarly move to an icono- ference in Bangalore on integrating communication centric perspective of God and the world. and theological education in India, takes on added Jose M. de Mesa takes a more cautious view of importance following the death of Michael Traber media’s cultural power, arguing that as a profound last year. shared sense of things among people, culture may be The book, Traber’s final contribution to a long list touched by media on the surface but remains unmoved of books and writing on communication, journalism, in its depth. He calls for more study of the impact of the press in the Third World, and theological education, media on culture, particularly its influence on indige- comprises 14 papers delivered at a conference in nous cultures. One of his concerns is that making com- Bangalore on the situation of communication in vari- munication central to the study of theology may con- ous theological programs in India, but the underlying stitute making communication as a soteriology. principles have much broader application to those Daniel Felton proposes five types of relationships weighing cultural adaptation of media studies to local in the “unavoidable dialogue” between theology and context. The book also contains three appendices: the communication: theology and communication, com- Seoul Manifesto (WACC), excerpts from the Vatican municative theology, systematic theology of communi- document on social communication education for sem- cation, pastoral theology of communication, and

COMMUNICATION RESEARCH TRENDS VOLUME 26 (2007) NO. 3 — 35 Christian moral vision of communications. These rela- nant culture and amplifies the sense of self. In appro- tionships point to a complementarity of the two fields. priating freedom songs, popular culture severs the A pragmatic examination of pastoral practice by connection to domination, transmuting the message J. Daniel Kirubaraj and Kavito Zumo included a sur- into entertainment. In the cultural sphere of India, vey of pastors who had studied in Southern India. rock music remains inaccessible to subaltern groups Kirubraj identified seven curriculum modules present who lack the money for the hardware or the software in Protestant seminaries. Zumo, lodging his analysis of popular music, even the freedom songs created by on adaption to the diverse cultures of India calls for slaves to express their subaltern status. This reality communication education to begin in the context of requires communication in theology to consider how local culture and employing those theories and cultural and religious figures can be cast to articulate aspects of communication which are relevant to issues of justice in contemporary societies with subal- Christian ministry. tern groups. The section, New Directions, opens with an arti- The section on bible studies contains three rela- cle by Pradip Thomas who urges inclusion of the eco- tively brief articles: “ ‘Ephphatha’: Opening Channels nomic and political dimensions of information technol- of Communication (Mark 7:31-37),” “Learning to Tell ogy in a global context because of the uneven distribu- the Authentic Story of God,” and “Listening to the tion of control identified in the New World Order of Cries of the People.” In the miraculous cure of the deaf Communication report of UNESCO. man, Jesus symbolically collapses the communication P. Solomon Raj calls for revitalization of the tra- barriers, opening up a lease on life for the hopeless and ditional role of Christian art through theology of art or helpless. It is, argues Marlene Marak, a paradigm for theology of images to fit the cultural patterns of India. Christian communication. A biblical approach leads to Cinema, too, must be part of the educational pro- the conclusion that communication, establishing com- gram, A. Suresh Kumar argues, for cinema “not only munity, and leading to communion are everyday tasks defines culture, but also shapes its future trends.” In a of Christians. This calls for defining the obstacles to thorough review of film’s artistic and cultural role, those goals in contemporary Christian life. Kumar concludes by noting that the consumer society’s Dhyanchand Carr proposes the primacy of story emphasis on film as commercial entertainment over doctrine, because only when the story of God and obscures its more powerful role as an agent of social- his intentions resonates with one’s faith will the right ization and as a vehicle for propagating dominant con- values, convictions, and orthopraxis emerge. The ventions and meanings. The symbiotic relationship reverse pattern, Carr argues, legitimizes unjust beliefs, between film and viewers points to a more complex values, and practices. Editorial changes in Bible stories pattern of influence. over the centuries have altered their significance, and The section on New Directions concludes with recovery of the original meaning is inherent to telling two articles on music. Hannibal Cabral points out that the real story of God. Carr analyzes two excerpts from the role of music in building up a community and Paul’s Letter to the Romans and the story of Cain and engaging individuals in making music makes it part of Abel as illustrations. the communication concerns for theology. In express- —William J. Thorn ing the inexpressible and strengthening the bond Marquette University between God and humans, music is linked to the five central aspects of communication developed by the Von Feilitzen, Cecilia. (Ed.). Young People, Soap World Association for Christian Communication Operas, and Reality TV. Göteborg, Sweden: Nordicom, (WACC)—communication ethics; the right to commu- 2005. Pp. 255. ISBN 91-89471-28-8 (pb.). SEK 250; nicate; communication and religion; communication, €25; US$25.00. (Order from www.nordicom.gu.se) culture and social change; and communication educa- tion. Study of music is essential to theology as is the This book is actually a yearbook of juried articles need for innovation. on research within the umbra of the theme of its title. Etienne Rassendren uses the freedom songs of NORDICOM describes itself as a center for research on slaves to examine the communication strategies of media and communication in five countries of the subaltern groups, particularly the “repetition with Nordic region: Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway, and revision” pattern which mocks and resists the domi- Sweden. The center’s Clearinghouse on Children, Youth,

36 — VOLUME 26 (2007) NO. 3 COMMUNICATION RESEARCH TRENDS and Media which produced this book, is a global net- shifting meanings quite apart from an individual’s work of more than 1,000 scholars in 125 countries. social-cultural and experiential context. The focus on soap operas and reality television (2) Many youth watch soap operas, telenovelas, dra- programs was prompted by the emergence around the matic series, and reality programs, even from a world of these formats as a significant component of very young age, so these programs comprise a youth’s media diet, beginning at a very young age. Nor highly popular form of youth entertainment. is this pattern limited to television—it is identical for (3) Such programs have three general functions: enter- radio in places where television is unavailable or seri- tainment, information, and social. In particular, ously limited. Among the problems seen in program youth report learning about the lives of people dif- content are racism, bullying, and degradation; bad lan- ferent from themselves, and they report learning guage; promiscuity, nudity, and exhibitionism; self- about social interactions. Youth identify with one centeredness, voyeurism, and oppression or rejection or another character and the programs become top- (eviction) of others. Of particular concern to the ics of conversation. Clearinghouse were the following research questions: (4) Age differences account for substantial variation • What do children learn from such programs, partic- in the meaning youth make of TV content. ularly where the values and actions of principal Because youth tend to pick programs which relate characters run counter to those taught by family to their own lives, researchers reported content and school? readings deeply rooted in the individual’s context. • When are children too young to be exposed to such (5) Findings are mixed, even contradictory on the content? degree to which young viewers understand the • Are young people’s ideas and behavior influenced lack of reality in so-called reality TV. by the values and actions modeled by characters (6) Youth consistently report that they learn how other in these programs? people act and how to interact with others as a An international array of scholars was invited to result of watching soap operas and related content. contribute their research on these questions, and a (7) Youth quickly recognize those program content jury selected 19 research articles from the five coun- values which differ significantly from those of tries within NORDICOM and 11 others: Australia, their parents or teachers. Brazil, Chile, Cyprus, Germany, Hong Kong, Nigeria, —William J. Thorn South Africa, South Korea, Spain, and the United Marquette University Kingdom. Almost all of the authors are faculty mem- bers at universities in these countries. The yearbook Journal report includes both qualitative and quantitative studies, allowing reflection on cross-cultural implications but Nordicom Review not empirical conclusions. In addition, most studies Nordicom (the Nordic Information Centre for were exploratory or short-term. Media and Communication Research) provides both Although no American research is included, this regular and specialized reports on communication from volume is particularly salient for U.S. scholars, in part a European perspective. Two special issues of because some of the studies examine the impact of the Nordicom Review provide a good sample. Volume American media on other continents, but also because 25, numbers 1 and 2 (2004) publishes papers (in the issues are global and the findings mesh with the English) from the 16th Nordic Conference on Media larger body of research on youth and media. Anyone and Communication Research. The four plenary ses- familiar with U.S. research on media and youth will sions examined themes of entertainment, digitization, find these to be significant complements. identity, and rhetoric. The varied studies point to several general con- In the first, Astrid Söderbergh Widding (“Movie clusions: Rhetoric and International Politics”) and Rune Ottosen (1) Youth make meaning from television content (“Fiction or News? A Quest for Multidisciplinary through a set of filters originating in the program Research on the Entertainment Industry and Its Effect and its culture of origin and another set created by on Journalism”) both examine how entertainment and the viewer’s personal context. Thus, the same journalism merge, with (mostly Hollywood) films tak- program viewed in different cultures can have ing on political tones and propagandizing for or against U.S. foreign and domestic policies. The second plena-

COMMUNICATION RESEARCH TRENDS VOLUME 26 (2007) NO. 3 — 37 ry put the spotlight on digital aesthetics, with Vivian Behavioral Effects of Advertising, Political Campaigns, Sobchack (“Nostalgia for a Digital Object: Regrets on and Health Communication Campaigns”; Søren Frimann the Quickening of QuickTime”) and Tom Gunning Trads, “‘Take a Stand!’ On the Public Information about (“What’s the Point fo an Index? Or, Faking Danish Euro”; Guðbjörg Hildur Kolbeins, “The Non- Photographs”) exploring the consequences of new finding of the Cultivation Effect in Iceland”; Marko Ala- visual technologies. They revisit questions of memory, Fossi, “Worth More Dead than Live: US Corporate Radio the role of the image in memory, and the truthfulness of and the Political Economy of Cyber-Jocking”; and Epp the image—all thrown into doubt by digital tools. Lauk, “Children of Screen and Monitor: Estonian In the third plenary Stefan Jonsson (“Facts of Schoolchildren in the New Media Environment.” Aesthetics and of Journalism: The Logic of the The volume also has an appendix (pp. 349-355) Media in the Age of Globalization”) and Stig Hjarvard listing the working group papers in English. These (“The Globalization of Language: How the Media address topics such as media and global culture; the Contribute to the Spread of English and the Emergence structure and economics of mass media; mass media of Medialects”) examine how globalization, a global- history; film history; television research; radio ization amplified by and through the mass media, has research; political communication; journalism changed the values and face of journalism, communi- research; the sociology and aesthetics of news report- cation, and the cultures they serve. Finally, in the fourth ing; reception and audience studies; children, youth, plenary Christian Kock (“Rhetoric in Media Studies: and the media; media education; film and television The Voice of Constructive Criticism”) and Barry fiction; visual culture; the language and rhetoric of the Brummett (“A Counter-Statement to Depoliticizations: media; media constructions of gender; public relations Mediation and Simulational Politics”) bring rhetorical and purposive communication; mediated risk and crisis studies into a dialogue with media studies. Where Kock communication; digital texts (hypertext); sport and sees rhetorical critics shifting to media as the place of media; media and ethnic minorities; and media and public discourse shifts there, Brummett offers a theo- communication theory. retical possibility for the analysis of the intersection of A second special issue, a jubilee issue of the politics and rhetoric. Nordicom Review (Volume 28, 2007), examines media The rest of the 355-page volume consists of indi- structures and practices, reflecting on these from a vidual papers: Johan Fornäs, “Intermedial Passages in Scandinavian horizon. The issue honors Helge Østbye Time and Space: Contexts, Currents, and Circuits of and Lennart Weibull, two of the founders of communi- Media Consumption”; Kirsten Drotner, “Disney cation research in Sweden and Norway, on their 60th Dilemmas: Audience Negotiations of Media Globaliza- birthdays. The articles address three themes: tion”; Karin Becker, “Where is Visual Culture in Communication and democracy, Structures and prac- Contemporary Theories of Media and Communica- tices, and, more generally, Considering the field. tion?”; Sanna Valtonen and Sanna Ojajärvi, “Do the The first section examines the role of communica- Right Thing: Gendering Practices in Sports Media”; tion in democratic societies. It includes Helge Rønning, Henrik Örnebring, “Revisiting the Coronation: A Critical “Broadcasting Regulation vs. Freedom of Expression Perspective on the Coronation of Queen Elizabeth II in and Editorial Independence: A Contradictory Relation- 1953”; Hillevi Ganetz, “Familiar Beasts: Nature, Culture, ship?”; Martin Eide, “Encircling the Power of Journal- and Gender in Wildlife Films on Television”; Anne Marit ism”; Kent Asp, “Fairness, Informativeness, and Myrstad, “You, Me, and the Housework: Discussion of Scrutiny: The Role of News Media in Democracy”; the ‘Housewife Film’s’ Compère”; Kenneth Reinecke Jesper Strömback, “Marketplace of Ideas and Market- Hansen, “‘Reality’ in TV Journalism: Dramaturgy of the place of Money: A Study of Commercialism and the Motor: About the Relationship between TV Journalistic Swedish Election News Coverage in 1998 and 2002”; Production and Dramaturgy in Current Affairs Features”; and Sigurd Allern, “From Party Press to Independent Stian Slotterøy Johnsen, “News Technology: Decon- Observers? An Analysis of Election Campaign Coverage structing and Reconstructing News”; Bengt Johnasson, prior to the General Elections of 1981 and 2005 in Two “Mass Media, Interpersonal Communication or Personal Norwegian Newspapers.” Experience? of Media Effects among The second section, on media structures and prac- Swedish Politicians”; Magne Haug, “Do Campaigns tices, includes Monika Djerf-Pierre, “The Gender of Really Change Behavior? New Understanding of the Journalism: The Structure and Logic of the Field in the

38 — VOLUME 26 (2007) NO. 3 COMMUNICATION RESEARCH TRENDS Twentieth Century”; Knut Helland, “Changing Sports, the role of the journalist changed in the light of the dig- Changing Media: Mass Appeal, the Sports/Media ital revolution? The next section, “New Challenges for Complex, and TV Sports Rights”; Anker Brink Lund, Digital Journalism” continues this theme, with studies of “Media Markets in Scandinavia: Political Economy online newspapers, new models of journalism attempted Aspects of Convergence and Divergence”; Ingela by traditional media in the online world, the audience for Wadbring, “The Role of Free Dailies in a Segregated online periodicals, and even the legal boundaries of Society”; and Hallvard Moe and Trine Syvertsen, online journalism. The last section in Volume 1 rounds “Media Institutions as a Research Field: Three phases out this examination on online reporting by turning to of Norwegian Broadcasting Research.” “Blogs and Journalism.” How, for example, have blogs The last section includes Jan Ekecrantz, “Media redefined the public sphere? and Communication Studies Going Global”; Svennik The second volume groups papers and studies on Høyer, “Reminiscence of Intellectual Battles: Bygone creativity. “New Formats in Audio-visual Creativity” in Communications Research”; Knut Lundby, “Inter- looks at interactive media, experimental films, “video disciplinarity and Infrastructure: Mediation and Knot- jockeys” (a new variation on radio disc jockeys), and the working in Communication Research”; Kaarle democratization of documentary formats. “Creativity in Nordenstreng, “Discipline or Field? Soul-searching in Television Fiction” includes studies of cable television Communication Research”; and Ulla Carlsson, “Media series, fiction designed for mobile telephones, romantic and Mass Communication Research—Past, Present, fiction, new narrative forms, user-produced content, and and Future: Reflections from a Nordic Horizon.” “ego-fiction” as a response to reality television. Trípodos “Media, Creativity, and Limits” looks at how new Trípodos, the review published by the Facultat de forms deal with social construction; with troubling top- Ciències de la Comunicació Blanquerna, Universitat ics like obscenity, eroticism, and Internet racism; and Ramon Lull in Barcelona, presented a two-volume sup- with advertising’s drive to push the limits of public dis- plement to its 2007 volume, running over 1,000 pages, course. The last section, “New Formats in Advertising with papers from the conference on Communication Creativity,” presents studies of marketing research, the and Reality, “Communication crossroads: Limits and rhetoric of persuasion, using user-generated content, transgressions.” Each paper, whether presented in , and public relations. Catalan, Castillian Spanish, or English, has an abstract CIC in English. Researchers and presenters, while primari- Cuadernos de Información y Comunicación, pub- ly from Spain, also come from Belgium, England, lished by Facultad de Ciencias de la Formación; Estonia, Malaysia, Portugal, Romania, Sweden, Departmento de Periodismo III Universidad Complutense Thailand, Turkey, and the United States. Madrid, presented a theme issue marking 50 years of study The editors, Pere Masip and Josep Rom, divide of the political economy of communication in Volume 11 the papers into 11 groups. “Communication, Culture, (2006). Articles included G. Murdock, “Los agujeros and Counter-culture” presents essays examining popu- negros del Marximmo occidental. Respuesta a Dallas lar culture, fantasy, music, radio, popular films, and Smythe” [Blindspots about Western Marxism. A reply to youth culture. “Social Mobilization and ICT” focuses Dallas Smythe]; D. W. Smythe, “Réplica a Graham on both information technologies and the intersection of Murdock” [Rejoinder to Graham Murdock]; G. Murdock, mass media and social movements. “Journalism and “Bajo los adoquines, la playa. Mercancías, consumismo, Credibility” looks at the history of journalism, journal- contradicciones” [Under the beach, the paving stones: ism ethics, the role of the media in shaping public opin- Commodities, consumerism, contradictions]; C. Bolaño, ion, and the use of credibility in building audiences. “Tapando el agujero negro. Para una crítica de la Economía “The Spectacularization of News” examines the tension Política de la Comunicación” [Filling in the blindspot: between reality and fiction, whether in reality television Towards a critical review of the Political Economy of programming or in tabloid news formats, along with the Communication]; V. Mosco, “La Economía Política de la influences of new communication technologies. Comunicación: una actualizació diez años después” [The “New Professional Frontiers” also turns to new Political Economy of Communication: A ten year update]; technologies, not from their effects on audiences or cul- D. Schiller, “El legado de Robert A. Brady, Origenes tures, but from their effects on the communication indus- antifascistas de la Economía Política de la Comunicación” try and communication workers. How, for example, has [The legacy of Robert A. Brady: Antifascist origins of the

COMMUNICATION RESEARCH TRENDS VOLUME 26 (2007) NO. 3 — 39 Political Economy of communication]; J. Wasco, “La porâneas” [Public relations planning and strategic man- Economía Política del cine” [The Political Economy of agement in contemporary organizations]; A. Castillo, film]; M. Becerra and G. Mastrini, “Senderos de la “Investigación bibliométrica de las tesis doctorales economía de la comunicación: un enfoque latinoameri- españolas sobre relaciones públicas (1965-2005)” cano” [Some ways to the economy of communication: A [Bibliometric research of Spanish doctoral theses on pub- Latin American perspective]; J. del Rey Morató, “El lic relations, 1965-2005]; J. Xifra, “¿Es marketing todo lo enfoque filosófico de la Economía Política: audiencias, que reluce? La pluralidad de perspectivas conceptuales de mercancías, producción y consumo” [The philosophical las relaciones públicas” [Is marketing all that glitters? The approach to Political Economy: Audiences, commodities, plurality of the conceptual perspectives of public rela- production, and consumption]; B. Miège, “La concen- tions]; E. Ordeix i Rigo, “La gestió del compromís: con- tración en las industrias culturales mediáticas (ICM) y los struir la identitat i els valors a les organitzacions a partir cambios en los contenidos” [The concentration in media de les relacions públiques” [The management of commit- cultural industries (ICM) and the changes in contents]; H. I. ment: Building up the internal organizational identity and Schiller, “Augurios de supremacía electrónica global” values through public relations]; A. Castillo Esparcia, [Visions of global electronic mastery]; A. I. Segovia and F. “Las relaciones públicas internas como factor de gestión Quirós, “Plutocracia y corporaciones de medios en los empresarial” [Internal public relations as a factor of busi- Estados Unidos” [Plutocracy and media corporations in the ness management]; J. Risquete, “Gabinets de premsa i de United States]; E. E. Sánchez Ruiz, “Industrias Culturales, comunicació. L’ambigua frontera entre el periodisme i les diversidad y pluralismo en América Latina” [Cultural relacions públiques” [Press and communication offices: industries, diversity, and pluralism in Latin America]: G. The ambiguous border between journalism and public Tremblay, “Economía Política del espacio público y muta- relations]; A. Almansa Martínez, “Gabinetes de comuni- ciones mediáticas” [Political economy of public space and cación. Estudio sobre su presencia en las organizaciones” media mutations]; P. Agudiez, “La construcción de la [Press offices: A study of their presence in organizations]; Unión Eropea y la necesidad de consolidar una política de A. Arceo Vacas, “Las relaciones públicas y la evaluación comunicación europea” [The construction of the European de la imagen proyectada por los medios de comunicación Union and the need to consolidate a European communica- de masas. Las elecciones a la presidencia de la tion politics]; and R. Magallón, “Entrevista con Alain Comunidad Autónoma de Madrid y al Ayuntamiento de Touraine: Sociedad y globalidad” [Interview with Alain Madrid en 2003” [Public relations and the evaluation of Touraine: Society and globalization]. the image projected by the mass media: The presidential elections in the community of Madrid and for the may- Anàlisi oralty of Madrid in 2003]; M. T. Otero Alvarado, Anàlisi: Quaderns de Comunicació I Cultura, pub- “Relaciones públicas y gestión de públicos en eventos: los lished by Department de Periodisme I de Ciències de la principios rectores del ceremonial y el protocolo” [Public Comunicació, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, devot- relations and the management of publics: Guiding princi- ed Volume 34 to a special issue on public relations. That ples of the ceremony and protocol in events]; M. Vinyals issue featured the following articles: M. Parés I Maicas, I Corney, “El patrocini i el mecenatge cultural com a ele- “Las relaciones públicas, una ciencia social” [Public rela- ments estratègics de les relacions públiques” [Cultural tions: A social science]; J. E. Grunig, “Research in public sponsorship as a strategic factor of public relations]; G. A. relations: Current status and new directions”; D. L. León Duarte, “La comunicación organizacional en Wilcox, “The landscape of today’s global public rela- México. Enfoques, diseños y problemas en su desarrollo” tions”; A. Noguero I Grau, “Consideraciones acerca de las [Organizational communication in Mexico: Focuses, relaciones públicas en el siglo XX y su incardinación designs, and problems in its development]; D. Contreras actual en el fenámeno de la globalización: Lanfranco, “La gestión de crisis en la comunicación orga- [Considerations regarding public relations in the 20th cen- nizacional: el caso de Chile” [Crisis management in orga- tury and their current incardination in the phenomenon of nizational communication: The case of Chile]; A. globalization]; S. Magallán, “Concepto y elementos de las Koróchensky, “El PRnalism en Rusia: la dimensión ética” relaciones públicas” [Concept and elements of public [ Public Relations in Russia: The ethical dimension]; and relations]; J. L. Arceo Vacas, “La investigación de relac- M. Parés I Maicas, “Ética i deontologia de les relacions tiones públicas en España” [Public relations research in públiques” [Ethics and deontology of public relations]. Spain]; M. M. Krohling Kunsch, “Planejamento e gestão estratégica de relações públicas nas organizações contem-

40 — VOLUME 26 (2007) NO. 3 COMMUNICATION RESEARCH TRENDS In Memoriam In the last year, two great contributors and founders of COMMUNICATION RESEARCH TRENDS died. We remember them both with appreciation and gratitude.

Michael Traber 1929–2006

One of the major figures in both local church Back in Switzerland, Traber founded the book communication and the World Association for publishing house, Imba Verlag, and wrote about his Christian Communication (WACC) for more than 40 experience as a journalist and publisher in southern years, Rev. Michael Traber played an instrumental role Africa. In his first book, Switzerland and the Third in the debates about the New World Information Order, World (1971), co-authored with Hans Schmocker, and as then editor of Media Development. Through most of based on an ecumenical conference, Traber summa- the past three decades Traber also taught in universities rized the view which underlay his future work: “We in Africa, India, and Rome, and remained one of the fulfill our obligations to the Third World only when we leaders in ecumenical communication efforts despite understand the world in its complex form and the sharp criticism from some Catholic quarters. mutual dependence of its parts and then define anew In 2006 he reflected on his ecumenical approach: the place and the function of our nation, our churches, our economy, etc. as an integrating part of this world.” I consider myself a gift of the Catholic Church to In his next book, Racism and White Dominance the ecumenical movement. By participating in this movement I was in effect—and happily— (1972), Traber explored the enduring racism he found in under the authority of Protestant Churches. One southern Africa even as the old colonial system disinte- of my tasks has been to bear witness to the seam- grated. He further explored the topic in his third book, less and undivided garment of Christ, or to the Revolution in Africa (1972). Traber returned to Africa in ecumenical character of God’s Reign. A second 1973 as senior lecturer in journalism at the Africa task was not only to bear witness among my Literature Centre, Kitwe, Zambia, while also conducting Protestant friends, but, equally so among my fel- research in Ethiopia, Ghana, Malawi, Uganda, , low Catholics. In that sense, I am also a gift of the and Zambia. In 1976 he joined the staff of WACC to ecumenical movement to the Catholic Church. head development of the periodical unit and edit the Following his ordination as a in the Swiss quarterly journal, Media Development. As part of order, The Bethlehem Mission Society, Fr. Traber earned WACC’s effort to assist South Africans in their struggle his Ph.D. in mass communication from New York against apartheid, he helped establish the Black Press University (1960). Because of the Bethlehem missionar- Fund (BPF) and he raised money to support both The ies’ extensive work in southern Africa, Traber became Voice, the newspaper of the South African Council of director of Mambo Press in Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe), Churches in Johannesburg, and Grassroots, a black which published books and audio-visual materials in community newspaper in Cape Town. both English and Shona, the native language of southern The success of BPF’s work in South Africa rein- Zambia and Zimbabwe. He also edited the Catholic forced his view of the essential linkage between First and weekly, Moto (Fire). As a church publication, Moto was Third Worlds, and it fit precisely with UNESCO’s con- freer to address injustice, racism, and the personal dehu- cern over the problems which rapid technological manization of colonial rule than the colonial press. advances in media posed for Third World countries. However, Moto was not completely free. Ian Smith’s When the MacBride Commission published its findings government, famous for intolerance and upset by Moto’s in Many Voices, One World: Communication and Society articles on colonial rule, banned the publication and Today and Tomorrow (1980), it called for a “new and deported Traber in 1970. more just and more efficient world information and com-

COMMUNICATION RESEARCH TRENDS VOLUME 26 (2007) NO. 3 — 41 munication order.” That line generated the acronym by When UNESCO refused to republish Many which the report soon became known: New World Voices, One World, WACC took up the task and reprint- Information and Communication Order (NWICO). ed it in 1989. That same year Traber helped found the Sean MacBride and his commission recommended, MacBride Round Table on Communication to keep the among several elements related to cultural respect, debate alive. In addition to teaching in Bangalore and licensing journalists and direct financial and professional working for WACC, Traber began to teach a one- support from First World media to Third World media. month course each year at the Pontifical Gregorian First World media leaders and journalists dismissed the University in Rome. Traber elaborated his basic prem- report as fundamentally incompatible with the free and ises in the chapter “Changes of Communication Needs open press of democratic countries and with the econom- and Rights in Social Revolutions” (Communication ic patterns of the West. Even among Catholic media pro- and Democracy, 1993). fessionals NWICO’s recommendations generated such In his last works Traber turned to ethics, first in conflict between First and Third World delegates at the the chapter, “Communication Ethics,” in Global Media World Congress of Union Catholique Internationale de la Debate: Its Rise, Fall and Renewal (1993), then in Press (UCIP) in 1980 that some African delegates threat- Communication Ethics and Universal Values, which he ened to walk out of the Congress. Despite these contro- co-edited with Clifford Christians (1997). He refused versies, Traber became one of the most articulate and to view media from only a theological perspective: tireless advocates for NWICO within religious commu- The mass media are not some curious gift from nication for the rest of his life. MacBride himself spoke heaven. They are what they are by virtue of spe- to the 1983 UCIP World Congress, defending the report cific historical processes which have been guid- to a much more receptive audience, ably assisted in the ed by specific political and economic interests. discussion by Fr. Michael Traber. As a result of extended work by WACC members on In 1995 Traber retired from WACC, which pro- integration of communication and theology, especially in duced the book Democratization of Communication in seminaries, a textbook was produced in Latin America. his honor. Traber continued to teach part-time in Traber took that material to India for a new position as Bangalore and in Rome until cancer forced him to return professor at United Theological College in Bangalore, a to Switzerland. As a faculty member at United position he kept full-time and part-time until 2004. He Theological College in Bangalore, Traber helped develop soon began working with WACC to develop Christian both a master’s and doctoral degree in communication principles of communication which would stand in sharp and theology. He regularly taught the introductory course contrast to the secular division between rich and poor, free on communication and media and the journalism course. and oppressed and against media manipulation of the As a leader in bringing together scholars of theology and masses. The principles were adopted by WACC in 1986 communication in India, Traber organized the conference and led to emphasis in subsequent work on the six main which produced his final book [reviewed on p. 35]. areas Traber had identified: communication ethics; the Traber also assisted the development of Church right to communicate; communication and religion; com- communications in various parts of Asia, especially munication, culture and social change; communication Indonesia, through his work with the communications education; and women’s perspectives. office of the Federation of Asian Bishops’ Conferences In his fourth book, The Myth of the Information (FABC). He explained his view on the conference and Revolution (1986), Traber added to his own writing a his work in Asia during the WACC ceremony granting set of essays that viewed NWICO from the Third him a lifetime membership in March 2006. World point of view. Traber’s contribution underscored I learned early on in life that public communica- the fact that while the debate over NWICO raged in tion, at least in Africa and Asia, ought to be ecu- Europe and America, Third World countries experi- menical in principle. I consider the churches' enced no technological advance or revolution; rather public communication not primarily as a service they worked with hand-me-downs at best. The book to the churches, but, more comprehensively, as called for a revolution of small media from the grass- an action centered on furthering the Kingdom of roots. The underlying : Christian communi- God. The church, after all, does not exist for its cation principles and the view of sociologist Robert own sake, but for the sake of the Kingdom. Park that media have the power to build communities. —William J. Thorn

42 — VOLUME 26 (2007) NO. 3 COMMUNICATION RESEARCH TRENDS Professor James Halloran 30 April 1927 – 16 May 2007 This past July 25, during the special congress of the IAMCR in the UNESCO headquarters in Paris, 900 members of the IAMCR (International Association of Media and Communication) celebrated the life achievements of Jim Halloran in communication research. This was a remarkable tribute to a man who grew up in a poor Irish coal mining family in North Yorkshire—and proudly maintained as much of the earthy North Yorkshire lilt as the situation would per- mit. He was elected president of the IAMCR in 1972 when it had only a handful of members and, during his

presidency from 1972 to 1991, built it into an organi- Photo courtesty of University Leicester zation of 2000 members in 70 countries representing the traditions of communication research in all conti- dreds of Third World students to Britain, and building nents of the world. a tradition of funding in the British government and Professor Halloran was one of the founding advi- private foundations. This was a model for the CSCC. Professor Halloran and others established the sory board members of COMMUNICATION RESEARCH IAMCR as a networking structure, and this was a basis TRENDS and, in fact, could be counted as one of the founders of the Centre for the Study of Communication for the research facilitating work that the CSCC, then and Culture (CSCC). When the Jesuits decided in 1976 in London, was doing throughout the world. When to establish the CSCC in Britain, many suggested that COMMUNICATION RESEARCH TRENDS was established, it Halloran’s Centre for Mass Communication Research at became a service for many of the members of the the University of Leicester, then the foremost such cen- IAMCR. Likewise, the book series with Sage Publica- tre in Britain, might offer some infrastructure for the tions, “Communication and Human Values” as well as Jesuit effort. Stefan Bamberger, S.J., the first director of other book series of the CSCC found support in the CSCC had long conversations with Professor IAMCR members. In the late 1980s I was elected to the Halloran about how to set up a research program. When governing council of the IAMCR, and had the chance I arrived to take up the role of research director in 1978, to work very closely with Professor Halloran and I went over with Professor Halloran the principles, Peggy Gray, his executive assistance, in organizing the guidelines, and criteria for research. He was immensely conferences of the IAMCR. helpful in defining the major issues of communication The IAMCR network opened up close relations research: justice, especially in the communication poli- with the International Communication Association cies of the developing world, the democratization of (ICA) in the United States, the Latin American Re- communication, and the solution to public communica- search Association (ALAIC), the African Council for tion problems through political-economic reform. As a Communication Education (ACCE), the East Asian young Catholic sociologist in the 1960s he was active in Research Institute in Singapore, and many other the Catholic social justice movement in Britain and research associations in various parts of the world. understood well the Jesuit commitment to social justice This helped COMMUNICATION RESEARCH TRENDS to net- as one of the fundamental goals of the CSCC. Although work internationally. the CSCC was finally located in London, it maintained As a final note I would like to take the occasion close contact with Professor Halloran and key lecturers to acknowledge and thank other recently deceased such as Peter Golding. Many of the students at the leaders of the communication research world who were Leicester centre began to come to London to work in the immensely helpful to COMMUNICATION RESEARCH library that the CSCC gradually built up. TRENDS. At the top of the list of, course, were George Professor Halloran was a pioneer in communica- Gerbner and Michael Traber. Also important were tion research in Britain: occupying the first Chair in Herbert Schiller, Paul Ansah in Ghana, Frank Ugboajah Mass Communication, introducing rigorous social and in Nigeria, and Francis Kasoma in Zambia. political science research methodology, attracting hun- —Robert A. White, S.J.

COMMUNICATION RESEARCH TRENDS VOLUME 26 (2007) NO. 3 — 43