This thesis has been submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for a postgraduate degree (e.g. PhD, MPhil, DClinPsychol) at the University of Edinburgh. Please note the following terms and conditions of use: • This work is protected by copyright and other intellectual property rights, which are retained by the thesis author, unless otherwise stated. • A copy can be downloaded for personal non-commercial research or study, without prior permission or charge. • This thesis cannot be reproduced or quoted extensively from without first obtaining permission in writing from the author. • The content must not be changed in any way or sold commercially in any format or medium without the formal permission of the author. • When referring to this work, full bibliographic details including the author, title, awarding institution and date of the thesis must be given. ‘Thomas Jefferson: Image and Ideology’ Gaye S. Wilson Degree of Doctor of Philosophy The University of Edinburgh 2012 2 DECLARATION OF OWN WORK I declare that this thesis is my own work and has not been submitted for another degree. Signed: ____________________________________ Gaye S. Wilson 3 ABSTRACT This thesis explores the public image of Thomas Jefferson as recorded in his major life portraits. It consults the traditions that surrounded eighteenth-century portraiture and the history of the portrait as a means of expressing authority, power, and personal interest. This study contends that Jefferson worked within these traditions and fashioned and refashioned an image that promoted his vision of American republicanism. Therefore, it places each portrait within the context of the socio- political environment in which it was created and considers Jefferson’s political motives and actions against these recorded images. This departs from previous works that stopped with an identification of the life portraits, a discussion of the artist, and an evaluation of the merits of the portrait as a work of art. Rather it builds upon these earlier studies to approach Jefferson’s use of the portrait to manage his image and advance his political and ideological aims for the newly formed nation. The goal of this thesis is to offer an enlarged and diverse assessment of this leading founder of the American republic through the public image he created in his life portraits. 4 TABLE OF CONTENTS Declaration of Own Work …………………………………………………. 2 Abstract …………………………………………………………………….. 3 Table of Contents …………………………………………………………... 4 List of Abbreviations ………………………………………………………..5 Acknowledgements ………………………………………………………….6 Introduction ………………………………………………………………… 8 Chapter 1. The European Experience and an Image for Diplomacy………... 21 Chapter 2. Return to America and an Image for Partisan Politics ………….. 52 Chapter 3. End of a Decade and an Image for the Election of 1800…………79 Chapter 4. The Presidency and an Image for Change……………………….108 Chapter 5. The Presidency and an Image as Statesman……………………..146 Chapter 6. Retirement to Monticello and an Image for History ………….. ..177 Conclusion ………………………………………………………………… ..209 Bibliography ………………………………………………………………. 215 Appendix A: Illustrations ………………………………………………… 227 List of Illustrations ………………………………………………… 228 Illustrations ………………………………………………………… 231 5 ABBREVIATIONS America’s Historical (Readex, division of NewsBank, 2009) Newspapers http://infoweb.newsbank.com. Note: this is a subscription database. APS American Philosophical Society LC Library of Congress JMB Jefferson’s Memorandum Books: Accounts, with Legal Records and Miscellany, 1767-1826, eds. James A. Bear, Jr. and Lucia C. Stanton, 2 vols. (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1997) Malone, Jefferson Dumas Malone, Jefferson and His Time, 6 vols. and His Time (Little, Brown, 1948 – 81) PTJ The Papers of Thomas Jefferson, eds. Julian P. Boyd el al., 38 vols. to date (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1950 - ) PTJ:RS The Papers of Thomas Jefferson: Retirement Series, ed. J. Jefferson Looney, 8 vols. to date (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2004 - ) TJ Thomas Jefferson ‘TJP’:LC ‘The Thomas Jefferson Papers at the Library of Congress’, at: http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/mtjhtml/mtjhome.html TJW Thomas Jefferson Writings, ed. Merrill D. Peterson (New York: Library of American, 1984) USMA United States Military Academy 6 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The choice of the University of Edinburgh to pursue my doctoral studies on American founder, Thomas Jefferson, might seem incongruous, but it proved a rich and rewarding experience. Much of this was due to my supervisor, Dr Frank Cogliano, who first encouraged me to consider the program at Edinburgh and then continued to support my research and writing with scholarly advice and direction as I progressed through the program. I owe much thanks to Dr Cogliano for his steady encouragement and guidance. My sincere thanks goes as well to my second supervisor, Dr Stana Nenadic, who provided invaluable direction in the reading and study of the British artists who so influenced the Americans painting the portraits of Thomas Jefferson. The combined knowledge of Dr Cogliano in the field of early American history and Dr Nenadic’s in art and material culture were invaluable for my research and study of the Jefferson image within early American politics. I must thank as well my colleagues at the Thomas Jefferson Foundation, who have encouraged my research and the completion of this degree. Former foundation president Daniel Jordan enthusiastically approved the initial sabbatical that launched my studies at Edinburgh and current president Leslie Green Bowman continued to support my progress. My immediate supervisor Andrew O’Shaughnessy, director of the International Center for Jefferson Studies, was equally encouraging and supportive. My work colleague, Mary Scott-Fleming, provided many acts of assistance when I was away in Edinburgh and willing listened during the research and writing process of this thesis. Many others have provided support and encouragement along the way. Specifically, I must acknowledge the initial confidence expressed by Drs Peter Onuf and Peter Nicolaisen, as they provided letters of recommendation supporting my application to the Edinburgh program and continued to offer assurances throughout my doctoral studies. My acceptance into the University was toasted by good friends and colleagues Linda and Keith Thomson, who on various occasions graciously opened their home during my research trips to Philadelphia, including a month-long fellowship at the American Philosophical Society. My research trips to USMA at West Point were greatly assisted by good friends Christine and Rob McDonald, who provided room and board and pointed the way to the special collections in the 7 USMA academic library. The McDonalds helped me connect with the Director of the West Point Museum, David Reel, who also deserves recognition for his very generous help with access to files and paintings in the Museum’s collection. I wish to recognize and thank as well my fellow students at the University of Edinburgh. Sonia Baker became a friend and special colleague from my very first days at the University, as we began sharing our research and writing experiences. Rusty Roberson and I began in the American history program at Edinburgh in the same term, and our mutual exchanges and encouragements along the way have been most helpful. A very special acknowledgement must go to my husband Jim, who often put his own projects on hold to accompany me to Edinburgh. The time we spent in Scotland and England are treasured, and I will always be grateful that he chose to share this experience with me. A special thanks as well to our good friend, Eleanor Winsor, who has been supportive in so many ways and to Stephanie Leap, who made the time away possible by her responsible care of our home and dog. My family deserves my gratitude for their continued concern and encouragement. In summation, this doctoral degree has been possible through the support, advice and good wishes of many people that I sincerely acknowledge and hold dear. 8 INTRODUCTION This study is about Thomas Jefferson as seen through his life portraits. More specifically, it focuses upon the Jefferson image within select portraits and proposes that he used this image to express a public self. These portraits span much of his public career and follow him into retirement. The major premise of this thesis is that Jefferson’s image within each portrait shows change that is more than just temporal or attributable to the varying style of each artist. It argues that the evolution in Jefferson’s self-presentation was calculated to correspond with his political objectives at the time the portrait was taken and was inspired by his goals and vision for the young nation. The use of portraiture as a means of putting forward a very controlled presentation of self was not unique to Jefferson. Throughout the eighteenth century the portrait was a familiar tool for honouring or memorializing important people and moments in time. It was a means of visually manifesting genealogy and fortuitous marriages or as pertains more directly to this study, creating a public display of national history through the images of its heroes. Jefferson both collected portraits of American heroes and was similarly iconized in other collections of eminent Americans. The tradition of galleries of worthies dated back in western history to Greece and Rome and was known to Europeans through the sculpted busts of deities, scholars, and important political and military leaders of