Hidden Authority, Public Display: Representations of First Nations Peoples at the Calgary Stampede, 1912-1970 By Susan L. Joudrey A thesis submitted to the Faculty of Graduate and Postdoctoral Affairs In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in History Carleton University Ottawa, Ontario © 2013 Susan L. Joudrey ABSTRACT This dissertation addresses the intersections of race, performance, and cultural representation in Canada’s prairie west by examining settler expectations of First Nations participation in the Calgary Exhibition and Stampede, 1912-1970. In North America, Aboriginal peoples have played prominent roles in historical pageants and Wild West shows, including the Calgary Stampede. These venues presented specific depictions of the North American indigenous population and reinforced constructed identities that were, at times, in conflict with one another. At the Calgary Exhibition and Stampede members of the Siksika, Kainai, Piikani, Tsuu T’ina, and Stoney Nakoda nations worked with (and sometimes against) Stampede organizers, Indian Agents, and city officials to lend authenticity to the western narrative. At the Stampede, First Nations’ participation was organized by public officials, businessmen, and Indian Agents to reflect (and repeat) specific ideas about the development of Calgary and the prairie west. Often “Indians” were situated in public events to draw a comparison between the progress of a modern city and the less civilized past. The depictions of Aboriginality on Stampede ephemera, as well as the involvement and performance of members of the Treaty 7 Nations in parades, street displays, and the Indian Village, shaped the memory of audiences and other performers. Stampede organizers and city officials portrayed Calgary as a “civilized” space which was no longer “wild,” and required signifiers of the past, such as First Nations men and women, to represent what existed before. In a rapidly modernizing society that was also experiencing intense ii immigration, Calgarians and settlers from the region attempted to make sense of their present by reminding themselves of what they no longer were. As mediums of memory, First Nations participants provided an “Other” against which “civilized” Calgarians could be compared. Popular cultural events like the Stampede replicated the power structures evident in what might be considered more overt colonial contexts like the reserve system or residential schools. There was a strategic attempt by white organizers to control expressions of Aboriginal identity and culture at the Calgary Stampede by regulating what was appropriate and inappropriate. Furthermore, the Department of Indian Affairs, which promoted a policy of assimilation and self-sufficiency, was concerned with the representation of “Indian” presented by the Stampede and its bureaucrats attempted to restrict First Nations involvement. However, the Stampede also provides an example of how members of the Treaty 7 Nations developed approaches for operating within oppressive frameworks. iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I had the exceptional fortune of receiving intellectual, social, and financial support from a diverse, compassionate community. The Social Science and Humanities Research Council of Canada and the Ontario Graduate Scholarship Program provided generous funding which made this project possible. The History Department at Carleton University offered an ideal space in which to think and learn. John Walsh, James Miller, Dominique Marshall, and David Dean were especially generous, offering both their time and guidance. The administrative staff merit thanks for reminding me of deadlines and keeping me on track. My supervisor, Dr. James Opp, deserves the most recognition for his willingness to guide this project through course work, comprehensive exams, and multiple drafts. He modelled the characteristics of an engaged academic, which was invaluable as I took on my own scholarly pursuits. Dr. Opp was always present when needed, provided valuable advice and direction in all aspects of my academic training, and nurtured my interest and excitement in teaching. I was surrounded by a caring and generous group of graduate students and friends who were always there to inspire me and laugh with (and at) me. These remarkable people included Jason Harris, Beth Robertson, Mary-Ann Shantz, Sara Spike, Dave Tough, Dave Banoub, Lisa Kilner, Katherine Akerman, Barry McCarthy, Stewart Joyce, Gary Miller, and the members of an outstanding recreational soccer team. Valerie Minnett deserves individual recognition for her insights, encouragement, and mixed cd’s. Her valued friendship kept me motivated at times when stopping seemed like a better option. A special “thanks” goes to Sam Bolton, who frequently acknowledged “history is hard” after reading and commenting on a number of drafts. He indulged my grumbling and provided much needed encouragement during the writing process. Without my family I would never have learned to question, research, debate, and laugh. Since the beginning, they have been my biggest cheerleaders. My father’s love of history, art, and Westerns shaped this project in ways neither of us will probably understand. My mother’s flair for storytelling and her uncompromising tenacity continues to be an inspiration. They, along with my sisters, always recognized value in pursuing this project, and for that I am very grateful. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS Abstract ii Acknowledgements iv Table of Contents v List of Illustrations vi Abbreviations xi Introduction 1 Chapter 1: Setting the Stage: The “Indian” in Stampede Promotion and Paraphernalia 41 Chapter 2: Dancing in the Streets: Parades, Displays, and Pageantry 106 Chapter 3: Pulling Back the Curtain: The Indian Village 159 Chapter 4: Disrupting the Performance: Cowgirls and Indians 217 Conclusion 272 Bibliography 281 v LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS FIGURES i.1. Postcard depicting Indian races at the Calgary Stampede (cs.001.19.48, CESA). i.2. Postcard depicting Indian races at the Calgary Stampede (cs.000.1.19.40, CESA). i.3. “Indian Chiefs in Full Regalia Impress Calgary Stampede Crowds,” The Calgary Daily Herald, 6 July 1926. Photograph by W. J. Oliver (NB-16-401, GMA). i.4. “Group at Calgary Exhibition and Stampede” 1912. Photograph by W. V. Ring (NA- 2376-1, GMA). i.5. “Group at Calgary Exhibition and Stampede” 1912 detail of top right corner. Photograph by W. V. Ring (NA-2376-1, GMA). 1.1. 1940 postal cachet featuring male Indian head as the sun (Stationary design Hicks Engraving Co., CESA). 1.2. 1956 windshield sticker depicting a “stoic Indian” (CESA). 1.3. 1958 Calgary Exhibition and Stampede stationary with Indian head (CESA). 1.4. 1958 Car windshield decal featuring an Indian head (CESA). 1.5. 1952 Director pin Indian head (CESA). 1.6. 1959 Director pin Indian head (CESA). 1.7. 1951 postal cachet depicting Indian head iconography (CESA). 1.8. 1925 Letter head for the Calgary Exhibition and Stampede “Red Letter Year” (Hicks Engraving Co., CESA). 1.9. Detail of bottom left corner of the 1925 Letter head for the Calgary Exhibition and Stampede “Red Letter Year” (Hicks Engraving Co., CESA). 1.10. 1943 Invitation, “Indian Smoke Signal Inviting You to the Calgary Exhibition and Stampede” (Hicks Engraving Co., CESA). 1.11. 1941 postal cachet featuring man and aeroplane (CESA). vi 1.12. 1963 patron pin featuring woman with travois (CESA). 1.13. 1946 postal cachet tipis and aeroplane (CESA). 1.14. 1953 Stampede Official pin featuring tipis on the landscape (CESA). 1.15. 1959 Calgary Exhibition and Stampede envelope featuring tipis (CESA). 1.16. 1924 Calgary Exhibition and Stampede envelope, featuring an Aboriginal woman as the sun (CESA). 1.17. 1939 postal cachet featuring an Indian village (CESA). 1.18. “Law and Order,” back cover of 1912 Official Stampede Program (lithographed and printed by the Herald Western Co. Ltd., CESF, M2160/29-3 GMA). 1.19. 1940 Calgary Exhibition and Stampede windshield sticker (design by Hicks Engraving Co., CESA). 1.20. 1942 Windshield sticker featuring RCMP officer and First Nations man (CESA). 1.21. 1962 Windshield sticker featuring RCMP, First Nations participant, and cowboy (CESA). 1.22. Postcard ca. 1931 First Nations participants in the parade (Calgary Photo Supply Company, cs.99.12.1, CESA). 1.23. Postcard 1924, four First Nations men on horseback (The McDermid Drug Co., cs004.40.657, CESA). 1.24. 1929 postcard, First Nations participants in the parade. Photograph by W. J. Oliver (cs.004.40.914, CESA). 1.25. Postcard ca. 1923 First Nations man on horseback (Calgary Photo Supply Co., cs.004.40.222, CESA). 1.26. Postcard 1912 “At ‘The Stampede’ Calgary 1912,” Aboriginal women in front of tipis. Photograph by M. B. Marcell (cs.004.40.35, CESA). 1.27. Detail of 1936 Calgary Exhibition and Stampede poster. Photograph by Calgary Photo Supply Co. and coloured by A. Nichol (CESA). vii 1.28. Detail of 1935 Calgary Exhibition and Stampede poster, “Constables R. MacLeod and A. A. McPhedran of the Royal Canadian Mounted Police, Calgary, and Minor Chief James Starlight, Sarcee Indian R.C.M.P. Scout.” Photograph by W. J. Oliver (CESA). 1.29. Detail of 1939 Calgary Exhibition and Stampede poster. Photograph taken at the Calgary Stampede, reproduced courtesy of the Canadian Pacific Railway (CESA). 1.30. Detail of 1940 Calgary Exhibition and Stampede poster, “Their Majesties, King George VI and Queen Elizabeth...” Photograph by W. J. Oliver, colour treatment by A. Nichol (CESA). 1.31. Detail of 1942 Calgary Exhibition and Stampede poster, “Betchum nickle cayuse bukum whiteface off!” Photograph by H. Richardson (CESA). 2.1. Rev. John McDougall and First Nations participants, 1912 Stampede parade (NB-16- 167, GMA). 2.2. Indian section of the 1912 Stampede parade (NA-4355-2, GMA). 2.3. The Stampede parade route, The Calgary Daily Herald, 4 July 1925, 32. 2.4. Detail of the Stampede parade route, The Calgary Daily Herald, 4 July 1925, 32. 2.5. “Surrounded by whooping Indians, Calgary’s chief executive fell first victim to the raid on city hall Thursday morning.” Photograph by W. J. Oliver (NA-3985-22, GMA).