WINTER SKILLS Chapter 14

WINTER SKILLS

Introduction

Some of the most demanding searches and rescues carried out by Mountain Rescue Teams occur during the snow and ice filled months of winter. On such occasions the challenges and risks to the rescuers multiply in direct proportion to the increasing severity of the weather and conditions. To meet these higher demands a foundation of competent basic winter skills is essential if the rescuer is to be able to move confidently and safely through the mountains, whilst still retaining the ability to give aid to others whenever and wherever it may be required.

Extra Equipment for Winter

In winter conditions, more equipment and clothing are required to survive and operate in what is often a hostile environment. Ice axes and are essential items and are to be carried within your MR kit from the time decreed by your Team Leader. It must always be remembered that all MRTs, regardless of the climate and conditions within their own area of responsibility, have the potential to be moved to areas of snow and ice for SAR operations. Other items of extra equipment such as goggles, spare clothes, extra emergency rations and batteries will also be required.

Clothing

A Mountain Rescue Team member has available to him a wide range of clothing. Fully equipped, he should be able to withstand the most severe weather conditions - but only if he utilizes that equipment wisely. The present manner of mountaineering dress is based largely on multiple layers of clothing, rather than thick single garments. When preparing your clothing and equipment for a winter activity the following 3 golden rules are worth considering:

a. Rule No 1. “If you’ve got the right kit use it!” On many occasions individuals walk around cold, wet and miserable with the means of remaining warm, dry and happy - within their rucksacks. Remember, it’s far easier to stay dry in the first place than to get dry, once wet.

b. Rule No 2. “ Organize your equipment for the day and not the season.” Your rucksack should obviously carry the stated minimum contents decreed by your Team Leader; but after that, any additional items should only be decided on after seeking advice on the activity planned, the forecast weather and the group equipment carried. Carry enough, but not a kilo more.

c. Rule No 3. “Broken zips can kill.” Treat your equipment and clothing with respect. Look after your gear and it will look after you.

Ice Axes

The is the only piece of equipment that can be used in the winter mountains for balance, support, ascending, descending, traversing, cutting steps, arresting falls, building survival shelters and many other tasks. It is the “Swiss Army Knife” of the winter mountaineer and without it ... problems are to be expected!

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Although ice axes have changed shape, size and construction since their adaption from the of over 200 years ago, they still share the same basic elements of design. Teams are issued with 2 types of axe; one suitable for general mountaineering and another more specifically fashioned for technical . Once you become the proud owner of your first ice axe, you will quickly become aware of its balance, weight and condition. Check out the following design features: See FIG: 158.

FIG:158 The General Mountaineering Ice Axe

a. The Wrist Loop. Used to give a secure fit to a gloved hand and adjusted to the length of the shaft for a good swinging action. It should also be easily removable.

14-1 WINTER SKILLS b. The Pick. The pick is the toothed blade at the head of the axe. The angle of the droop and the number of teeth will reflect its climbing pedigree. The steeper the angle and the more numerous the teeth, indicate that its design is directed to more vertical ground. Although the pick is one of the most used features on an axe, there is no need to maintain it in a razor sharp state. Even the sharpest of picks will not stick into rock, despite many a novice’s attempts - it will, however, tear clothing, rucksacks and flesh if not protected at the appropriate times!

c. The Adze. The adze is the area of the axe opposite the pick that is used to shovel, shape and climb soft snow. For UK conditions the broader designs are more suitable than the narrower alpine types, which are of more use in icy regions. As with the pick, over sharpening should be avoided.

d. The Shaft. The shaft of the axe is where your hand grasps when swinging the axe. It should therefore provide a comfortable grip with a rubber sleeve that will insulate against impact shock and cold during normal handling. Modern, metal-shafted axes are tremendously strong compared with the older wooden-shafted models.

e. The Spike. The spike is at the end of the ice axe shaft and gives support when the axe is used like a walking stick. Like the pick and the adze - it does not need to be razor sharp.

Now that you are familiar with your axe, make sure you have it marked as yours and it is stored safely within your RAF Team holdall when not required. When the axe is removed for use, it should be stowed securely in the vehicle used for travelling to the mountains, and must not be attached to your rucksack until arrival. Once on the hill, its accessibility can be improved by changing its location by placing the axe between your shoulder strap and your back (sounds impractical and painful, but is simple in practise).

Walking with the Ice Axe and its Uses

As mentioned, an ice axe is an essential item of winter equipment. Nevertheless, a confident and proficient mountaineer will have the ability to move around some areas of snow and ice without the need to use his axe (although he will always carry one in winter), other than to provide an occasional point of balance. This ability is derived from a mixture of technique and confidence. Steps can be kicked and cut with the toes, sides and heels of stiffened mountaineering boots. Once made, such steps (if the body weight is kept over the feet) will offer secure placements, although the exact method will depend on the steepness of the slope and the hardness of the snow. Walking, therefore, should be treated as a skill - practised and perfected throughout your mountaineering career.

Carrying the Ice Axe

The ice axe is normally carried by grasping the head of the axe, with the pick pointed to the rear, allowing the axe to be used for support when crossing awkward ground. If the ground is sloping, it should be held in the uphill hand and the use of the wrist loop considered. See FIG: 159. If the ground steepens more, the axe can be rotated and the pick can be pushed forward into the snow to provide extra security. When traversing, the axe head can be transferred to the downhill hand, while the shaft of the axe is held across the body, and the spike held against the slope for balance. In some situations, particularly when descending, the axe shaft plunged into the slope offers greater security.

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FIG: 159 Holding the Ice Axe when Walking

Cutting Steps

Step cutting is a basic skill that allows a mountaineer to move over isolated areas of steep snow without the need to constantly put on and then take off a set of crampons; thus saving time and avoiding frequent stops. The technique of cutting steps up, down and across a slope is best taught practically, and requires economy in effort, rhythm, balance and concentration - plus the ability to work with your weaker hand. The pattern and type of steps used for ascending or descending a slope will depend on the size, angle and shape of the slope and the consistency of the snow or ice. If faced with large or steep areas of ice at any time - a retreat should be made and crampons fitted. A variety of step cutting methods are shown at FIGS:160-164.

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FIG:160 CUTTING SLASH STEPS. Note the pendulum action and follow through when viewed from the side

FIG:161 CUTTING SIDE STEPS. The side step is enlarged by cutting subsequent steps into the previous hole i.e. from heel to toe

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FIG:162 CUTTING SLAB STEPS. Two initial cuts are made with the pick and the adze is then used to remove the snow between these cuts

FIG:163 STEP PATTERNS ON VARYING SLOPE ANGLES

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FIG:164 CUTTING SLASH STEPS IN DESCENT. In this case the left leg should be moved down first, followed by the right. Two more steps are then cut and the movement repeated

Arresting a Fall

It is a sad fact that most people killed in the mountains die as a result of a slip. In winter especially, the consequences of a slip can be very serious due to the speed one can quickly reach once control is lost. We are all prone to slips; it is wise therefore, to become competent and proficient in the techniques required to prevent a potentially fatal outcome.

Ice axe self-arrest procedures are usually taught and practised in very controlled circumstances, with no crampons or rucksack worn. A safe area with a good run-out and clear of protruding rocks or dangerous drops is selected, and all falls are premeditated. These sessions are essential to develop the skills required, but a crucial message to retain is:

In the first seconds of any slip, hit the slope with the first available part of your ice axe, that may stop a fall developing.

This may be the pick, adze or spike. Do it instantly and the need to complete a full arrest may be avoided.

Self-arrest techniques can seem very confusing to a novice when described in theory. However, one basic requirement must be stressed and that is the need to achieve a standard braking position (see FIG:165) from any body position or orientation, QUICKLY. To avoid further confusion, no attempt is made to describe all of the various techniques – this is best left for practical teaching sessions on the

14-1 WINTER SKILLS mountain. However, novice and expert alike would do well to heed the following points:

a. Every Winter Dust off the Skills. Irrespective of your experience, at the beginning of every winter session take the first opportunity to practice once again your self-arrest skills.

b. Do it Right, Do it Quickly. Should you fall, you must do the right thing quickly and correctly to have the greatest chance of stopping without injury. Anything less will reduce the effectiveness of the arrest and may increase your speed and the length of the fall.

c. Mentally Prepare. When you are in a potential fall area, take the precaution of mentally rehearsing your reactions and keep your axe in the best possible response position.

FIG:165 THREE VIEWS OF THE BASIC ICE AXE BRAKING POSITION as seen from: a. underneath, b. the side, c. an oblique angle. Note the axe is held firmly with the lower hand positioned just above the spike to prevent possible injury and that the weight is concentrated on the pick of the ice axe and the knees, which are bent to keep the feet (and crampons!) clear of the slope

The Fitting of Crampons

Another essential part of your winter equipment will be your crampons. These will complement your ice axe and allow safe movement in most snow and ice conditions. Normally you will be issued with a pair of “step in” crampons to match your winter boots. These crampons employ a ski type binding and offer a quick and easy method of attachment – once they have been adjusted to size. Other types of “strap on” crampons are available for use with either leather or plastic mountaineering boots. See FIGS:166a and b.

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The initial sizing and fitting of your crampons should be completed in a warm and sheltered environment with the assistance of an experienced MRT member. Don’t leave it until you need to use them - because crampons can be extremely difficult to fit, particularly if you are faced with howling winds or a piercing cold that turns your fingers to wood. After completing the following procedures, your clip-on crampons should fit securely onto your boots:

a. Match the front of the crampon to the front of the boot, and check that the metal bale lies along and around the toe profile of the boot. Alterations to the boot and the bale can be made, under supervision, if the fit is poor. The front points of the crampons should extend 2-3 cm beyond the toe of the boot.

b. Match the rear of the crampon to the rear of the boot and check that the curvature of the crampon matches the curvature of the boot sole.

c. Adjust the length of the crampon and check that the heel fastening snaps into place securely and restricts any lateral movement.

d. The straps attached to the heel bindings are intended to prevent inadvertent release of the binding only, and should not be used to secure an unstable locking action.

FIG:166a Flexible General Mountaineering Crampon with “French Style” Neoprene Straps

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FIG:166b Rigid Crampon with “Step In” Binding for Steep Ice and

On the Hill

Once out on the mountain the fitting of your crampons also requires some thought and preparation. The key element is to fit them just before you need to use them and not wait until you are committed on steeper terrain and in an insecure position.

Find or prepare a firm, flat area where your foot can be placed comfortably. Unless you are very dexterous when wearing gloves or mitts, it is usually quicker to take them off for one minute, than fumble for 5 minutes with your hands still covered. Take great care to clean off all visible snow from the soles and welts of your boots. The front bale of the crampon fits onto the boot first, followed by the heel binding, which should snap securely into place. A simple test of a good fit is to walk over the nearest rocky ground that will twist and turn your feet.

Walking in Crampons

Each crampon offers 12 metal points that will give you a sound footing on most hard snow and ice. They also provide 24 extra opportunities for you to trip over. Therefore, once crampons are worn, a new method of walking is advised. The simplest method is to adopt an open-stance gait, after ensuring that trousers and gaiters are well tucked in. By walking with the legs slightly more open than normal, the potential for a trip is greatly reduced.

Walking (in crampons) is once again a fundamental skill that should be practised and perfected throughout your mountaineering career.

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French Technique

As with all other cramponing methods, French Technique (also know as flat-footing) requires balance, confidence and commitment to your crampons. Once mastered however, it is a safe, quick and efficient method of travel over easyangled snow or ice, and can also provide a secure way to rest on steeper slopes.

At first the technique will seem awkward and unnatural, as the edges of the feet are not used; instead, the ankles are flexed and the feet kept flat, placing all of the downward-facing points firmly into the snow or ice. The ice axe should be carried in your uphill hand and is used only for balance; indeed, use of the axe on easy terrain can lead to a slip as it encourages poor body position by leaning forward or into the slope.

Ankles and knees should be flexed away from the slope as when traversing, with the toes pointing farther and farther downhill as the slope steepens. See FIG:167. It is easier and more comfortable to ascend diagonally in a zig-zag pattern when using French Technique on steep ground, holding the ice axe in the uphill hand and using it like a walking stick to aid balance. When changing direction, the ice axe should be planted firmly in the slope above, holding its head with both hands to give balance and the body facing into the slope. The feet are initially splayed and then, one at a time, are placed in the new direction of travel.

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FIG:167 MOVING IN CRAMPONS. “French Technique” in use on: a. easy angled b. moderate c. steep slopes

Descending

14-1 WINTER SKILLS On easy to moderately angled slopes, it is best to descend directly down the fall-line, facing out with the feet placed firmly against the snow so that all crampon points grip securely. Your weight should be kept over your feet with your ice axe being used either as a walking stick, or held in the braking position. See FIG:168. Beware of clothing or equipment that is dangling behind your knees, as it can easily catch in your crampon points when descending, causing a bad slip or tumble. As the slope steepens, you will find it is necessary to face into the slope and descend by front- pointing.

FIG:168 CRAMPON TECHNIQUE WHEN DESCENDING MODERATELY STEEP SLOPES. The knees are bent to keep weight over the feet and the ice axe is used for support

Balling Up

Under certain conditions, and particularly if the snow is wet, large balls of snow can collect and adhere to the base of the crampons. This extra weight is tiring to lift and, more importantly, prevents the crampon points from gripping properly, causing a potential slip. Such balling should be removed regularly by tapping the crampons with the shaft of the ice axe, or by gently kicking rocks. Rigid crampons are more prone to balling up than those that are hinged.

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Front Pointing in Crampons

Once the slope steepens to the degree where it is physically impossible or painful to flex your ankles to the gradient - front pointing is required. This technique is usually employed in conjunction with the use of the ice axe and places the forward points of your crampon into the slope. It is a fairly natural style of climbing and depending on the snow and ice conditions, does not normally require a vigorous kick with each placement. Simply placing and then weighting the foot is often enough. The feet should be placed at right angles to the slope to ensure that both sets of front points bite equally. A slight flex at the knees will help balance and eases the strain on calf and thigh muscles. A good rhythmic movement within your own fitness level is vital to avoid fatigue and mistakes when tackling snow slopes which tend to be bigger and longer than they look!

The technique for front-pointing on hard ice is very similar to that used for easier angled snow slopes. It is generally necessary to use a slightly more vigorous kick to ensure secure placements, and once placed, front points should be moved as little as possible to avoid any danger of them being levered or twisted out of the ice. The angle of the feet is critical when front-pointing on hard ice, although the same rules apply as when climbing steep snow - the feet should be kept at right-angles to the ice. Particular care must be taken when transiting from near vertical to less steep ice, when there is a tendency for the heels to lift and for the front-points to be levered out by the toe of the boot.

A conscious effort must be made to keep the heels low when in this position. See FIG:169.

FIG:169 FRONT POINTING - good and bad techniques

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Double Axe Techniques

Once you have gained confidence in all the basics of single axe and crampon techniques, you are ready to progress to the use of 2 axes. Normally this second axe will be different to the standard one by having its adze replaced by a hammer head. See FIG:170a. Ice hammers are used to place and

FIG:170a ICE AXE/HAMMER FOR STEEP ICE & MIXED CLIMBING. Note reverse curve or “Banana” picks remove rock and ice pegs and should normally be of the same length as the ice axe. Both axes must be fitted with correctly adjusted wrist loops (see FIG:170b) which allow the user to grip and swing both comfortably, and once the axes are in place, take some of the strain off the hands and arms.

The technique of double axing, in combination with front pointing, gives a very natural method of ascending steep winter slopes. See FIG:171. The axes are placed alternatively into the slope and used for balance while the legs provide the upward movement. Too much reliance on the axes is to be avoided - over-pulling on these can cause fatigue, poor crampon technique, and therefore insecurity. Take care not to place the tools too close together as any disturbance caused, especially when placing the second tool, may cause them both to fail. This is particularly important if the ice is brittle and prone to “dinner-plating”.

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FIG:170b A correctly adjusted Wrist Loop must be fitted to Ice Axes/Hammers intended for Climbing on Steep Terrain in Winter

When placing the axes, the first sense used should be your vision - by looking for the best place to aim the axe, and then hitting that with a smooth precise swing of the axe. Once the pick is secure, the shaft of the axe should be pulled away from the slope - this engages the teeth of the pick and positions the climber over his feet. The removal of the axe is completed by a combination of pushing the shaft forward and lifting the axe head out. Any side to side movement of the axe head is best avoided as this can lead to a fractured pick.

Technical expertise aside, the most important aspects of winter climbing are mental control and judgement. See FIG:173. You must strive to find the required calmness and composure, together with just enough boldness. It is very easy for the inexperienced to find themselves in a situation from which retreat is all but impossible.

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FIG:171 Use of Double Ice Axes and Front Points on Steep Ice

Belaying in Winter

The principles to be followed when constructing anchors in winter are much the same as when , although there are some major differences that should be considered. At a first glance it might appear that there are a great many more items of equipment available to the winter climber than the already wide range of chocks, slings and camming devices employed by the rock climber. Rock pegs, ice screws, deadmen and of course ice axes themselves, are all additional items to the climbers armoury that can be used to construct an system. (See FIG:172).

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This seemingly wide range of anchors is offset by the fact that anchor points in winter can be both difficult to find and of sometimes dubious quality. The very substance which allows us to gain purchase with our ice axes and crampons, can also be an obstacle in the location of good anchors. The rock may be plastered with snow or ice, hiding the cracks and spikes that might offer security, while further anchor points may be buried beneath several feet of snow. It is therefore necessary that

FIG:172 A SELECTION OF WINTER BELAY ANCHORS (not to scale) the winter climber is equipped so that he can safely anchor himself to the snow and ice itself. This is achieved in a variety of ways, using a variety of equipment and methods outside the scope of this publication. One important rule should be remembered however, that any anchor system set up using the snow or ice can only be as strong as the substance itself.

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FIG:173 The Winter Climber must be both Physically and Mentally prepared for the Conditions and Technical Demands which lie ahead

AVALANCHES

Mountains plus snow falls equal avalanches. A simple and true equation that has attracted a great deal of research and interest. Through these investigations a growing bank of knowledge is now available to help us to understand and avoid these natural phenomena.

Why Avalanches Occur

Avalanches occur when the internal bonds in the snowpack become over stressed and break. Two of the most common reasons for avalanches are:

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Weight of Snow. Large volumes of dense, wet snow and heavy falls of new snow can lead to the creation of dangerous slopes where the weight of the snow simply exceeds the holding ability of the slope.

Instability of Layers. During any winter which has frequent snow falls, a build up of several layers of snow can be created. Each layer of snow may be different in its degree of hardness and water content because the prevailing wind and temperature conditions have varied between each snowfall. It is the strength of the bond which exists between each layer and that which bonds the whole snowpack to the ground that determines the avalanche potential for that particular slope.

Warning Signs

The following weather conditions can indicate an increased avalanche risk:

During Thaws. If the temperature rises suddenly to above freezing.

After Storms. After a storm involving heavy snow fall, a 24-hour period should elapse before travel across any risk areas be considered.

After High Winds. Large areas of snow may have been blown and deposited on the slopes by the wind. This creates instability within the snow pack, because of the damage done to the individual snow crystals and forms areas of avalanche prone snow known as wind slab.

Avalanche Prediction

In a mountain rescue incident, team members may find themselves in situations where they have to operate in areas with a significant avalanche danger to carry out a search or rescue operation. Such actions should only be considered after a full assessment of the risk has been made. Good use of weather and avalanche forecasts will give an indication of avalanche risk areas before setting foot on the mountains. Once on the hill, a further essential element of the assessment process is the construction of a snow pit.

FIG:174a EXAMINING THE SNOW PROFILE. Note that any sharp differences in hardness or moisture between adjacent layers indicate instability and avalanche risk

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FIG:174b A SECTIONAL VIEW OF THE SNOW PACK. The slope illustrated would be likely to avalanche due to the marked difference in hardness (rated 1 and 4) between the second and third layers

Snow Profiles

Before you venture onto any potentially hazardous slope, an examination of the snow profile is highly recommended. Try to select a safe site which is similar in angle and aspect to the slope in question; but not one that is obviously avalanche prone! If you dig deep enough into the slope to expose the various layers of snow laid down over the winter, you will reveal a record of the climatic conditions surrounding each fall of snow. Stable slopes have an increasing degree of hardness, descending through the snow pack. Less stable slopes will consist of layers which differ significantly in hardness, moisture content and grain size. Dramatically contrasting layers, eg hard slabby snow on top of powder, or wet new snow on top of an icy crust, would indicate lower degrees of stability and a higher degree of avalanche risk. FIG:174a provides a scale of 1-5 which may be used when making an assessment of the snow pack, while FIG:174b gives an example of an unstable slope.

14-1 WINTER SKILLS Snow Pit Test

A further test can be done by cutting a shovel sized wedge into the back wall of the profile. This must be done carefully so that only the bonds at the side of the wedge are destroyed and not those between the adjacent layers. The shovel or ice axe is then used to prise the wedge out, the amount of force required giving a further indication as to the strength of the bonds between the layers. This is a “rule of thumb” test and only the experience gained from having performed the test many times before will allow you to form a realistic idea as to the snow’s stability.

FIG:175 shows a completed snow pit, in this case the slope would be regarded as safe as there are no marked differences between the layers. The table below the diagram gives an indication of the degree of avalanche risk in relation to the ease of releasing the test block with a shovel/axe.

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14-1 WINTER SKILLS Snowpack Stability Tests

Shear tests require practice. You are advised to experiment with them and see which test gives you the best feel for evaluating snowpack conditions.

Remember, in any one day, conducting a single shear test is not enough.

As you move around the mountains conditions change and as such you must keep evaluating the state of the snowpack, integrating your observations with weather and terrain clues.

When digging any snow pit, selecting the correct site is very important. It should be safe from avalanche danger and representative of the ground you wish to ascend, descend or cross. You should ensure that the snow you are testing has not been disturbed, as this will give an inaccurate result.

FIG:175a

14-1 WINTER SKILLS Walking Shear Test

This test has been devised by Avalex Cairngorm Avalanche Service and is based on the ski shear test using a similar scale of stability. It is illustrated at FIG:175a.

The angle of the slope must be at least 30 degrees.

Carefully isolate a block 1m x 1m down to a stable layer (ie melt/freeze).

Stresses are then applied by someone on foot to determine the stability level.

Start by carefully approaching the block from above.

Load the block in the following sequence, noting which stage produces a clean shear failure:

1. Fails whist isolating block - Extremely unstable.

2. Fails whilst approaching block (Next: Lying/sit down; shuffle feet toe-to-heel on to block) - Highly unstable.

3. Fails whilst shuffling on to block and rising up - Very unstable.

4. Fails with downsink – Unstable.

5. Fails with a soft jump - Potentially unstable/marginally stable.

6. Fails with hard jump - Relatively stable.

7. No failure – Stable.

Note As the column is smaller and foot penetration is greater, the block is likely to fail sooner and miss more near-surface weaknesses than in the ski shear test. Bear this in mind when making your evaluation.

Other Factors Affecting Avalanche Risk

In much the same way as an inspection is made of the snow pack, the underlying ground surface itself must be taken into consideration when making an assessment of avalanche risk. Smooth rock slabs, small scree and long grass can all provide “good” sliding surfaces for the snow above and are often the cause of full-depth avalanches, particularly in spring or heavy thaw conditions. Water may percolate down through the snow pack to run along the ground surface, thus breaking the bond there, causing the whole slope to slide.

The angle and shape of the slope are other factors which must be taken into consideration. Convex slopes are much more prone to avalanche than concave as their shape sets up a tension within the snow pack, whereas a concave slope forms areas of compression and therefore less likelihood of an avalanche. See FIG:176. The slope angle itself is also very important, with slopes between 30 degrees and 50 degrees being most prone to avalanche.

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FIG: 176 THE EFFECT OF SLOPE SHAPE ON AVALANCHE RISK. Convex slopes place the snow pack under tension and so present the greatest risk of avalanche.

Precautions to be Taken when Crossing a Suspect Slope

Although you should if at all possible avoid avalanche prone slopes, on occasion during a winter season it will be necessary to cross a suspect area. Providing the steps and procedures covered in the previous paragraphs are carried out prior to crossing, this act will at least be the result of an informed and considered decision. If such slopes are to be crossed, the following precautions should be taken:

a. Check that your avalanche transceivers are working and set to transmit.

b. Either ascend or descend the slope straight up or down the fall – line.

c. Cross one at a time using the rope for safeguard.

d. Dress for a potential burial.

e. Try not to cross in the same tracks.

14-1 WINTER SKILLS f. Loosen your rucksack straps and be ready to cover your mouth and nose.

If you are Caught in an Avalanche

If you are avalanched, the following advice has been gathered from a selection of avalanche survivors:

a. Try to delay your departure from your position for as long as possible.

b. Close your mouth and cover your nose.

c. Try to keep upright and move your arms and legs in a swimming motion. This may help keep you on the surface of the avalanche.

or

d. Roll vigorously to one side.

e. Nearing the end of the avalanche’s movement make a supreme effort to break out of it and create an air space.

f. Try not to panic. Attempt to conserve the limited amount of oxygen available. Do not shout, it will only waste oxygen and is not effective.

Avalanche Transceivers

All RAF MRTs are issued with avalanche transceivers (see FIG:177). These devices transmit an audible radio signal which can be detected and traced by other transceivers when buried beneath any avalanche debris. A practical lecture and demonstration should be arranged by your team as this is the most effective way to absorb the technique and knowledge required. However, some guidelines should be followed:

a. Learn about all Types of Avalanche Transceivers. There are various types of transceivers on the market so be familiar will all available types - not just the simplest to operate.

b. Transceivers Don’t Prevent Avalanches. The wearing of a transceiver will help to find an avalanche victim - but it will not prevent one.

c. Each Member of the Party must be Competent. All party members, not just the most senior, must be able to operate the transceivers and organise a co-ordinated search pattern.

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FIG:177 Ortovox X1 Avalanche Transceiver

If you Witness an Avalanche

When in the mountains there will always be the chance that you will observe an avalanche involving individuals, who may not be wearing transceivers. The survival time of any buried victim decreases rapidly after the first hour of burial. Only prompt and effective actions can provide any hope for the avalanche victim. These actions are:

a. Assess Further Avalanche Danger. Usually a slope which has avalanched can be considered disarmed and safe to search. However, if the area is at the centre of other avalanche-prone zones, sensible precautions of not committing everybody to the area and appointing look-outs are essential. Ultimately, if the risk is very high, do not endanger any further lives.

b. Mark the Main Points. Physically mark the position from which the victims were avalanched and also the last point at which they were seen.

c. Make an Immediate and Rapid Search of the Debris. Search the most likely spots first - looking for any signs of clothing, equipment, hands, blood and listening for any sounds.

d. Make all Searches Systematic. Probe the debris with axes, or probes if carried, in a co-ordinated manner and mark areas covered.

e. Keep Searching for at least One Hour. Maintain the search with all available personnel for one hour. To send others away for assistance immediately is not in the victims best interests.

f. When the Victim is Located. On locating an avalanche victim, clear the head and mouth of snow immediately and remove the weight of any snow that might constrict the chest. If the victim is not breathing, begin artificial respiration immediately – do not wait until the whole body has been uncovered.

A more detailed description of search techniques for avalanche victims can be found at

14-1 WINTER SKILLS Annex E to the Search and Rescue Operations chapter. EMERGENCY SNOW SHELTERS

One of the most important skills in winter mountaineering is the ability to survive if forced to ground. This can occur because of navigational errors, underestimating time, bad weather, SAR operations or just bad luck. Many Party Leaders with a strong group will choose a long walk out rather than spend a night in a cold shelter. Unplanned overnight stops in winter can be serious undertakings and the decision to stop should not be made without first considering all other options.

In high winds and blizzards the urgency to find shelter is increased. A 20-minute period is a time in which a single person should be able to construct, and be inside, an emergency snow shelter (see FIG:178). Single shelters are easier to build, but isolate individuals with some potential dangers that companionship, if available, can help avoid.

Type of Shelters - The Snow Cave

The type of shelter constructed will depend on the surrounding terrain, the depth of snow and the tools available. A slope covered in soft deep snow which can be quickly dug into with a lightweight shovel is the best situation. In less ideal conditions, what snow is available may have to be utilized, using the ice axe, dead-man plate plus your feet and hands to dig. To start in the ideal situation, you simply burrow into the slope to form an entrance - which should be big enough to allow movement for your arms and the cutting implement. Gradually, you will start to create a sheltered environment which may be enlarged at a less-frantic pace.

Three points to remember when digging a snow cave are:

a. Dig the entrance as far up from the bottom of the slope as possible, to allow any debris to fall down out of the way - but not so high to create a roof less than one foot thick.

b. Stow rucksacks and equipment to the side of your excavations, so avoiding the burial of your equipment whilst digging.

c. Wear a minimum amount of clothing beneath your waterproofs. This prevents overheating and stops your inner garments becoming damp.

Having dug a cavity large enough to place your upper body into, you will find you are already sheltered from the wind and snow and have a greatly improved survival rate.

All that remains for you to do now is to dig up, down and to the sides to enlarge the cave. Once installed and wearing your emergency clothing, the entrance may be blocked to give further shelter from the elements. Be sure, however to preserve some form of continuous ventilation. An air- tight shelter can become a coffin! See FIG:179.

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FIG:178 AN EMERGENCY SNOW HOLE. It should be possible to construct an effective shelter using your ice axe only, in around 20 minutes. Note that the shelter is dug at the top of the slope to aid removal of debris

FIG:179 A 2-MAN SNOW CAVE. In this case the front wall and entrance have been constructed from

14-1 WINTER SKILLS snow blocks created by the careful use of an ice axe or deadman plate Combined Snow Cave/Igloo

Finding the ideal snow bank is a major advantage, but this will not be always available. A less ideal slope may provide harder snow conditions which can vastly increase the construction time necessary. A solution in these situations is the construction of a combined snow cave/igloo. This requires the erection of walls and a roof over any hole on the snow’s surface. An important skill in this process, is the ability to form building blocks from the snow.

Initially a cave is dug as deep as possible, depending on the hardness and depth of the snow pack. Blocks are then made by developing a “quarry” area near to the shelter. The skill of creating blocks depends on locating a firm snow layer and patiently digging out separate blocks. The quality of the snow will dictate the potential size of these and their use as walls and a roofing material.

Snow Pit/Grave

If you are unlucky enough to get caught out on a plateau or flat area where there is a very limited snow cover, it may be impossible to construct a snow cave or even a cave/igloo combination. In these circumstances it will be necessary to construct a snow pit/grave, consisting of a body-size trench capped by a series of snow blocks as shown in FIG:180. You should remember however, that this is considered as a last-ditch shelter as it can very easily become covered by drifting snow and provides only the bare minimum of protection, while subjecting the occupant to both intense cold and claustrophobia.

FIG:180 Snow Pit/Grave

Some Sensible Precautions

The following precautions have been drawn from both training and actual emergencies:

a. Ventilation - don’t block off the entrance completely, especially if you are cooking. To do so will not only prolong the cooking time necessary - but the lack of air may ultimately remove the need for any nourishment at all!

14-1 WINTER SKILLS b. Stow all your equipment inside the shelter with you. Not only can equipment easily be lost if left outside to get covered with snow, but also, the instant availability of your boots, gloves and ice axe are crucial in any emergency.

c. Identify the position of your shelter with some form of marker. This helps you to locate the shelter should you have reason to go outside - and to warn others who may walk over your shelter.

d. Link any adjacent shelters with a “comms cord” ie a rope from each entrance. In some instances storms have caused snow caves to be completely buried and without any form of linking, their relocation would be difficult. It is wise therefore for radios and avalanche transceivers to be switched on at all times.

e. Be aware of thawing and changing weather conditions. Once inside a shelter it is very easy to become detached from the prevailing conditions outside. Drifting snow can very quickly fill in and cover the entrance to a snow shelter, making it difficult to exit and sealing any ventilation holes - it may be necessary to regularly dig out the entrance to prevent this happening. Also, an increase in outside air temperature can cause the shelter to sag and ultimately collapse. A similar effect may result from high temperatures inside the snow shelter, usually caused by cooking without sufficient ventilation.

WINTER NAVIGATION

In Chapter 11 you will have read about the various skills required to navigate around the mountains and moorlands of the United Kingdom.

When snow and ice covers the hills, many aspects of the mountains and navigation can change. Mountains take on different shapes as features such as streams and small lochans are buried under drifting snow; normally safe routes may become “out of bounds” due to avalanche risk, whilst corniced edges prevent their use as a navigational aid. Distances normally covered in summer are now difficult to achieve - pacing and timings calculations no longer work without revision, and the infamous whiteout”, where the sky seems to merge into the hill and all visual references are lost, waits to envelop you.

During the winter a mastery of all techniques is essential to combat the additional factors of:

a. Reduced Hours of Daylight. In the depths of winter only one third of the daylight hours expected in summer are available.

b. Severe Weather Conditions. In winter there is a marked increase in precipitation and wind speed. Consequently both the cloud base and the temperature will generally be lower than in summer.

c. Fatigue. The harsher prevailing weather conditions and the extra energy required to operate in those conditions can sap the physical and mental resources necessary to undertake reliable navigation. In many situations, the decision not to navigate but to press on, may be enticing, but can be dangerous.

Although these additional problems may make navigation seem a much more daunting problem than in summer, they can also provide those extra challenges which make the winter mountains so invigorating. We know that on good weather days the hills can be majestic and easily reward you for your efforts. But equally, on bad days, to be able to encounter navigational difficulties with confidence and the feeling of being aware of your position throughout - can offer great satisfaction. Having said

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that however, all you really need to do in winter is use the same techniques that a good summer navigator uses - only better. The development of a greater level of competence and understanding should therefore be pursued with effort and application.

Whiteout Procedures. During such periods, common sense and sensible route planning will pay dividends. An assessment of your position and possible danger areas should be made, and all the party should be made aware of route selection, bearings and objectives. The responsibilities of timings, pacing and compass work should be shared and not left to one individual. Your route should try to avoid any hazards, or at least they should be taken into consideration. Compass bearings to safe areas should be taken and followed, coupled with suitable timings or pacing. In extreme circumstances the party should be roped together. Other actions like throwing snowballs in front of the group to detect large drops, or leap frogging members of the group in order to establish a true course are all standard remedies. On most occasions during whiteout, good group leadership and sound, competent navigation will suffice.

Blizzards and High Winds. In these circumstances, the physical resources required to counter the forces of the winds are considerable. Nevertheless, navigation must not be neglected, and full advantage of any available shelter should be taken to ensure that accurate bearings and distance calculations are gained. At the same time clothing, map and compass should be arranged for protection and access. Intended routes may need to be altered to allow for the wind, and the temptation to put your head down and press on regardless should always be resisted.

Conclusion. Mountain Rescue personnel walk many hundreds of miles over the hills each year - an activity involving countless man-hours. It would therefore seem wise to invest the effort required to raise your navigational ability to the highest level. The reward for such an investment would be to achieve the ultimate navigational objective - the confidence and ability to “find anything at any time, anywhere”. It could not only save y our life - it may also save the life of others.

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