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ABSTRACT GRASSO, BLAKE ANTHONY. Sheep in the Wolf Den

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ABSTRACT GRASSO, BLAKE ANTHONY. Sheep in the Wolf Den ABSTRACT GRASSO, BLAKE ANTHONY. Sheep in the Wolf Den: The End of the Struggle for the Upper Ohio in the Seven Years’ War, 1758-1759. (Under the direction of Dr. Megan Cherry). The French presence on the Upper Ohio during the Seven Years’ War was secured by their alliances with local Indigenous nations and bolstered by a resilient logistics network. With Lenape, Shawnee, and Mingo combatants leading offensives against the Middle Colonies and the Illinois Country providing sustainment via Ohio River convoys, the French position in the region remained robust into the autumn of 1758. However, by late November of that year the French surrendered the Forks of the Ohio and abandoned Fort Duquesne without firing a single shot in its defense. They were forced from their position through a combination of their own diplomatic failings and the shrewd machinations of an Anglophile faction led by the Lenape leader Tamaqua. From Tamaqua’s base at Kuskusky, he molded British peace overtures to make them palatable to his neighbors and worked to expand pro-British sentiment beyond his own Turkey subdivision of the Lenape. Tamaqua’s Anglophile group also undermined French confidence in the Ohio Franco-Indigenous alliance that had proved devastatingly effective in the previous three years of sustained warfare. The French maintained a large degree of support in the region, as evidenced by the combined force they assembled in the spring of 1759 to retake the Forks of the Ohio. However, Tamaqua and his group’s efforts convinced the French that local Lenape, Shawnee, and Mingo had abandoned the French alliance en masse as General Forbes’ British force limped to the Forks in November of 1758. The fall of Fort Duquesne was the direct result of Indigenous diplomatic efforts that obfuscated the level of French support in the region, and the subsequent violence of Pontiac’s Rebellion in 1763 can be explained in part by Francophile sentiment that had been concealed through Tamaqua’s efforts. Sheep in the Wolf Den: The End of the Struggle for the Upper Ohio in the Seven Years’ War, 1758-1759. by Blake Anthony Grasso A thesis submitted to the Graduate Faculty of North Carolina State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts History Raleigh, North Carolina 2021 APPROVED BY: _______________________________ _______________________________ Dr. Megan Cherry Dr. Judy Kertesz Committee Chair _____________________________ Dr. Keith Luria BIOGRAPHY Blake Grasso grew up in Kailua, Hawaii before moving to Virginia and graduating from Stafford High School in 2009. He attended the College of William and Mary and graduated with a Bachelor of Arts in History degree in 2013. After spending a year in Charleston, South Carolina working for an importation and shipping company, he enlisted in the United States Army as an Officer Candidate. Upon commissioning as a Second Lieutenant in the Armor branch, he was selected for an exchange program with the British Army and spent a year attending the Royal Academy Sandhurst in the United Kingdom. After he returned to the United States, he spent time at Fort Benning and Fort Stewart, Georgia before being assigned to Camp Hovey, South Korea. Blake left the Army and enrolled in North Carolina State’s MA in History program in 2019. He plans to graduate with a Master of Arts degree in History in May, 2021. ii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This thesis would not have been possible without the help and guidance of numerous individuals. Dr. Paul Mapp ignited both my interest in French North America and the pursuit of my studies beyond the undergraduate level. Major Stuart Clark and Colour Serjeant Collins both helped instill the discipline and work ethic I would need to complete a thesis during a work- from-home pandemic that stretched over a year. I also would like to thank the History Department faculty at North Carolina State. From Dr. Akram Khater’s patience with my early graduate school writing (a truly painful experience for any reader), to Dr. Judy’s Kertesz’s insights that changed the way I conceived of historical issues, to Dr. Keith Luria’s feedback on my first grasping attempts at approaching my thesis, this project could not have been completed without you. Most importantly, I owe an immense debt of gratitude to Dr. Megan Cherry. Her otherworldly patience as I remembered (and promptly forgot) how to use commas, adjusted to life as a graduate student, and worked toward my thesis was remarkable. Her knowledge, expertise, and work ethic inspired me to put forth my best effort even as pandemic fatigue drained my energy. To my parents Dominic and Barbara Grasso, thank you for helping me navigate a difficult life transition and providing a solid bedrock to fall back on if I ever need it. To Bear, Rusty, and George, thank you for keeping me sane during this pandemic. I couldn’t have made it without you laying at my feet. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF FIGURES .........................................................................................................................v Introduction ....................................................................................................................................1 Historiography .....................................................................................................................2 Methodology and Sources....................................................................................................7 Organization .......................................................................................................................13 Chapter 1. Horsemeat and Habitants ........................................................................................15 Forbes’ Campaign ..............................................................................................................16 French Patterns of Sustainment in the Ohio Valley ...........................................................19 Fort Duquesne’s Supply Situation in 1758 ........................................................................22 Gifts and Trade Goods: French Logistics and their Indigenous Allies .............................29 “Readiness to March at an Hours Warning”: Defeat from the Jaws of Victory ...............32 Chapter 2. You Have Disturbed Our Peace .............................................................................34 The Upper Ohio Country Before 1758: Paradise Lost and Found....................................36 Imperial Fulcrum ...............................................................................................................41 Martial Success: 1755-1758 ..............................................................................................46 Complicated Politics on the Upper Ohio and Christian Frederick Post .............................52 Chapter 3. The Upper Ohio in the Balance ..............................................................................76 “Peace” after Easton ..........................................................................................................78 The Fall of Fort Duquesne .................................................................................................84 Retreat ................................................................................................................................91 Reorganization and Resistance ..........................................................................................98 Counterattack ...................................................................................................................102 End of an Era ...................................................................................................................109 Conclusion ..................................................................................................................................112 Bibliography ...............................................................................................................................117 iv LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1 Territorial claims map ..............................................................................................14 Figure 2 Forts and invasion routes map ..................................................................................18 Figure 3 Supply route map ......................................................................................................25 Figure 4 Pre-European contact Lenape map ...........................................................................38 Figure 5 Lenape migration map ..............................................................................................53 Figure 6 Indigenous towns map ..............................................................................................89 v Introduction On November 23, 1758, the French presence at the Forks of the Ohio came to an ignominious end. Outmaneuvered by a détente between the British and Indigenous Ohioans and suffering from a lack of supplies that made further campaigning impossible, Francois-Marie Le Marchand de Lignery ordered the destruction of Fort Duquesne and the abandonment of the Forks of the Ohio.1 Beginning with the defeat of General Braddock in 1755, the fort had served as the symbolic axis from which three years of wildly successful offensives rolled back the Pennsylvania frontier to within a hundred miles of Philadelphia. The methodical expedition of 1758 under General John Forbes was the first major British effort to advance on the fort since Braddock’s
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