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1966 Washington University Magazine, Fall 1966
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WASHINGTON UNIVERS I TY
------WASHINGTON UNIVERSITY uHatJa;;ine u
FALL 1 966
Editor "The Potenti81 Is There" 2 Teaching the disadvantaged F RAN K O'BRlEN
Trib81 Counsel 8 A summer with the Sioux Assi~tant Editor ROBERT ARMBRUSTER Fresh Air Program 14 A family-to-family approach D es igner' P ETER GEIST The Many Meanings of 18 Some new definitions Integration of an emotion-lacien term
Photographer HERB WElTMA N Hoving Artists 23 Student painters and illustrators at work
Glaucoma/an Inherited Disease? 28 University researchers make key contributions
COVER: The 'Washington Uni Trans-Athmtie Professor 34 On the university-in versity Magazine's first gatefold America and Germany cover pre~ents a preview of the lead articles in this iss ue. Fea tured are photographs portrny Blues and the Abstract Truth 38 Jazz i11 the classroom ing education for the disadvan taged, Lee Curtis among the Siollx, the Fresh Air Program, Murder and the American 42 A British historian \Varren Lehman, author of "The Presidency examines the phe11ome11on l\-[any I\'!ean ings of Integration." Shortstop 48 Alum11tls in the PHOTO CREDITS: Page 23, infield Tom Stewart, McDonnell Com pany; Pp. 38, 39, Robert L3 ROllche, St. LOllis Po st-Dispatdl Getting. the Picture 52 Alum11i tour the PICTURES; P 44, The Bett Brit ish Isles mann Archive, Inc.; P, 40 (left) and back cover, John Oidtmnn; ,",Vasflil1gt.Ofl Ullivcrs'ify Magazine is published quarterly by \Vashington Univ ero; it~ /, St. Louis, all others by Herb ·Weitman. Missouri (1.')130. Second-class postage paid at Fulton. Mi ssouri 6.5251. Volume :)7, Nllmber 1.
j I' Was hington U nivenity'.! G)'c/(;/;ulte 1nstltllte of Eduu/tiOJl conducted an irntitltte fo)' tee/chen oj dile,dvantclged children thiJ jJcZJt summer. An ztnt/Hltll Jeeltm'e of the Institttte was thc/t it supplemented formal c()!.use work with classroom training. Forty-five teachers mOJtiy from St. Lottis .rchool districts took part) dividing their time betweenlectt/l'es and studies 012 the umzplll and teaching children at the Hamilton School in St. Louis. It turned out to be (/ stimulating experience for both the tee/chen and the 272 children who elttended the demomtration .rchool. By ROGER SIGNOR N ewJ Dept/rtm e//!
"THE POTENTIAL IS THERE"
wo S~(ALL HOYS, OBLIVIOUS to all ~lse, played baseball He smiled amI said, "v\Tho knows what vViIlie r.lays did T wIth a stIck and a chunk of wood III the cramped back to the Cardinals yesterday?" yard of a tenement, approximately one-half mile east of the Several boys in the class groaned. Washington University c'lmpus. The only distinguishing Belobrajdic vvalked over to the seorecard Oil the hlaek characteristics of the drab neighborhood were broken win board. "Well, the Cardinals beat them the (hy before. clows and litter in the streets. Today, let's make up our own game between the C n'dinals One block to the west, a three-story briek school build and the Giants." He explained that he would le t the chil ing with a flower garden in front stood at the edge of the dren decide the fate of each batter ancl everyone would encroaching slum. It was a typical hot and humid July keep score of the game as they went along. The game was morning and two other youngsters were imitating their to be played in San Francisco. The lead-off batter was Lou favorite big leaguers in a corner of the school yard, using Brock, the Cardinalleftfielder. a mop handle for a bat and a tennis ball worn down "Rose, what do you want Lou Brock to do?" Bclo to the inner lining. The school building was a typical urban brajdic asked. schoolhouse of 1918 vintage. Rose went to the blackboard and fill ed in the sign for a What was going on inside the building, howeve r, was single to left. A demure blond girl named Linda then far from typical. It houses the Hamilton School, wherc gave the next batter a three-base hit, and another girl kept demonstration classrooms for 272 Hamilton aml St. Roch's the rally going with a double. Three boys foilowcel the school childrell were being provided as pmt of \Vashing girls to the board and, feeling that the girls h:\d ennieel ton University's second "Summer Institute for Elementary home town loyalties too far, clisposcd of the fourth, Fifth , Tcachers of Disadvantaged Youth." and sixth batters with two strike ou ts nnel a pOp-lip. The In a fifth-grade classroom, two young teachers were game continued with lively disCllssion. taking aclv,mtage of the children's love of baseball to get Aside from manipulating a r:lther complic<\tC'cI set: of aerLlSS certain mathematical concepts. The children weren't symbols, the children speedily added up statistics. Their consciously aware of it, but the lesson also brought in homework assignment was to prepare a graph of the language development and geography. records of the National League teams. P aul Belobrajdic and Frank Carter, who were lead Most obvious was the mathematical vallie of the lesson, ing the class, passed out duplicates of scorecards which but also very important was the fact tha t the children had are used at the St. Louis Cardinals' stadium. They also generated a lot of uninhibited conversation. Getting the had drawn a large outline of a scorecard on the black children to express themselves was a major goal in lessons board. First, Belobrajdic went to a map of the United held throughout the Institute, which extended from June States and asked the children to identify the home cities ~O to August 6. and states of the National League teams. Then, he re Forty-five teachers, most of whom were from the city viewed the symbols uscd on the scorccards to describe of St. Louis, attended thc Institute. It was directed by Dr. what happens to caeh batter ill a game. Judson Shaplin, director of the University's Graduate Insti-
3 A meal worm bscinates children in sciellCfO cla ss. a t the Uni versity's Bronl\voods Judson Shaplin, director of the Graduate residential conference center Institute of Education, directed the summer near Lonedell, i'vlissouri. Institute a nd took an active part in the demonstration school and campus program.
~lrs. i\Ltrjorie l'ei, co-d irector of the Institute, cOlltiucled LillglLCige dcvelo[lillcllt sessiolls wlIiell dramati/.cd the difficulty malLY disadvantaged ch il dreJl klve ill learnillg wltat is to tltern a reiJtivcly "strange" l,lnguugc. "THE POTENTIAL IS THERE"
tute of Education. Funds to run it were secured through like the baseball lesson have been tried before for im a new National Defense Education Act program. The poverished children. In the regular school year, though, Institute's schedule was rugged, and it came at a time when you may have seven to eight subjects to cover, it is when most teachers prefer to take at least a short break. next to impossible to try something like this every day. But But those who attended were quite aware that their jobs it can be done as a special class at least every other week. demand all the special tools that they can get and were "We teachers tend to live in our own little worlds," he glad of the opportunity to be there. Dr. Shaplin and his continued. "We try hard and think we're doing our best. staff in turn gave the teachers their complete time and But we don't have the opportunity during the year to talk energy in conducting some 400 hours of lectures, demon to other teachers in a program setting. Here, you can see stration-school sess ions, and two weekend conferences. The that there are other ways of handling a lesson or a dis Institute was devoted to three areas: language develop cipline problem. Others evalu ate you, you evaluate your ment, science and mathematics, and social studies. (It self, and you're bound to enlarge your repertoire of teach should be pointed out that the Graduate Institute works ing methods. You should, because, after all, the im with Hamilton School on a year-round basis and not just poverished child is a very complex human being. The during the summer Institute; University professors co potential is there in these children, but yo u have to work operate with the school in their teacher-training programs harder to get results." and in curriculum planning for disadvantaged youth. ) Moreover, a teacher deeply immersed in coping with a broad range of problems often isn't aware that he may HAT SPECIFICALLY is a disadvantaged youth? Most inadvertently inhibit the disadvantaged child in th e criti people have a general idea of what the euphemism W cal area of language development. For instance, a child means, but the Graduate Institute attempted a more pre cise definition in a study of the Hamilton School attend may be so used to a kind of dialect spoken in his neigh borhood that English in school is strange and difficult; fre ance area. A few sentences from the study tell more than quently a teacher tends to forget this. the usual raft of statistics: "The average Hamilton child goes to school in a build Mrs. Marjorie Pei, assistant director in charge of ele ing that is new to him, for his family has come to the ment,ny education programs for the Graduate Institute, neighborhood only in the last year or two. He is a Negro. who served as the summer Institute's co-director, used a His class is growing and is already larger than most other shock approach to show the teachers what the disad classrooms in the city. The ch'lnces are only three to five vantaged child is up against when he tries to learn to that he has a father living at hom e. His mother works, at speak and write. Without explaining her motives, Mrs. Pei least part time, or he may be on Aid to D ependent Chil gave the teachers a series of lessons in Russian. At first, the dren with no working parent at all. If employed, his par teachers' progress naturally was slow and they had con ent is probably a laborer or in a service occupati on. He is siderable difficulty in speaking (;orrectly. They felt a cer probably behind in school at least one year and has a good tain amount of resentment toward Mrs. Pei for putting chance of losing another before he completes eighth grade. them through such a trial. After a while, they laughingly He will probably enter high school but may drop out admitted their frustration and resentment; ivlrs. Pei pointed before graduation. out that the situation was analogous to the way many of "The social worker and the school counselor, both part their own pupils feel about formal English instruction. time in Hamilton, have more problems than can be handled in the time allotted to them. The principal's heavy burden s THE RUSSI AN LESSONS were continued, the teachers of administrative problems denies him his proper role Aimproved their vocabularies and their confidence. Then of educational leadership. For instance, mothers who have again, quite naturally, they were enthusiastic.: and began left for work before their children leave for school jam the chatting and correcting each other in class. Mrs. Pei asked switchboard with calls every morning, phoning to find out them at the end of the lesson whether they felt their be if their children actually arrived at the school that day." havior as a c.:lass was acceptable. The teachers had to admit It doesn't require great insight to see that the dis that there had been much more talking than they would advantaged child will require more th an avera ge motiva have allowed in their own classes, but that the talking had tion in school. The teacher who copes with an over been helpful, even necessary, to their progress. crowded class-perhaps as many as forty children "The disadvantaged child tends to be very passive and most of whom are disadvantaged, knows this all too clear quiet, and it is difficult to get him to talk at all," Mrs. Pei ly. He also knows that the problem is easier to talk about said. "In his preschool years, he usually has had little op than to do something about. This fact was one very good portunity to express himself and comes to school very in reason for having a representative group of children from hibited in his speaking. The first big hurdle that a teacher the Hamilton School area attend a demonstration school bees is to get the child talking, however imperfectly, in as an integral part of the Institute. The demonstra tion order to identify his language problems and be able to school served both as an enrichment program for the chil remedy them through formal methods." A silent classroom dren and as an invaluable on-the-job training program may bring praise from the principal on the teacher's suc for the teachers to supplement th eir formal studies and cess as a disciplinarian, but it can often be a clear sign lectures at Washington University. that not much is being done for the child. Mr. Belobrajdic, who successfull y tried out the baseball The teacher of disadvantaged children in the upper technique in his mathematics lesson, commented, "Things grades also has the problem of motivating individuals to
5 ward better self-expression, although in more sophisticated It was plain, however, that Mrs. Gooden's relaxed si tuations. This was especiaJly dramatized on th at July manner and ability to lead the children to ask critical morning in Hamilton School in a class led by Mrs. Bertha questi ons were creating a good atmosphere for their Winingham. She was one of the I nstitute's six demonstra experimentation. After varying amounts of trial and error, tion teachers, all of whom regularly taught in disadvantagep the children figured out what to do. When they were neighborhoods. Her fifth -grade group had been studyin g sa ti sfied that they knew how many cups the containers the dilemma of a poor iV[exican family. The lesson was could hold, .ivIrs, Gooden asked them to place the con the first experimental trial of a so cial studies program tainers on a large piece of paper on the Boor. The paper which was developed by Dr. H arold Berlak of the Gradu was divided into vertical sections to serve as a graph to ate Institute. In the lesson, the Vegas family was barely indicate the relative capacities of the bottles. After the managin g to scrape out a Jiving on its small tract of land various bottles had been lined up, it was obvious to sev in rural iVIexico; the fathcr was eager to move to thc ci ty eral of the children that someone had misplaced a tall, although he had only a faint notion of what he would do narrow, aqua bottle. It had been placed next to some once he got there. At the point the children had reached wider bottles, and the children's consensus was that it in the social studies project, th e village near th e Vegas belonged a notch down on the graph. fa rm was planning a fi es ta. That morning Mrs. vViningham The aqua bottle had been put on the graph by a bright had decorated her room for a fi esta, and she and the little girl named Marilyn, who had been the first to fi gure teachers who were observing her class were dressed in native Mexican attire. out how to use the measuring tools. The children tried to convince her that she hadn't measured co rrectly, but she still felt that the bottle had a four-cup capacity. LSO DRESSED FOR THE FIESTA was a group of boys and A girls in the middle of the room. They were giving an But she decided to repeat her measurements for that impromptu play about the Vegas family. Mrs. Edna Cole, particular bottle, It turned out, with more careful measur one of the teachers, took the role of Mrs. Vegas. ing, that three cups was all the bottle could hold; Marilyn "But if we move to the city, you'll first have to be had guessed that it was a four-cup bottle the first time and trained for a job in a factory," iV[rs. Vegas said to the had unconsciously fudged a bit to make it come out that head of the family. way. But she still couldn't beli eve that her aqua bottle "Here 1 have to plough fi eld s," he said. actuall y held less water than the shorter bottles with the "\Vhat concerns YO Ll most, your family or yo ur work?" four-cup capacities. She argued th e point with l\'Irs. "But we need the money!" Schatz, who was Sitting nearby observing th e lesson. "You see," Mrs. Gooden said to one side, "you never "Don't V OLI sec, we would have to live in a very poOl section of the city until YOLl could earn enou gh money." \-vould have guessed that Marilyn really hadn't grasped the "Uocle Caesar will lend us the mone).·' spatial relationships from the way she caught on to every thing else so quickly. She's a very bright child, but it is ;v[rs. Vegas then poured out a sentimental argument typical of her to jump to conclusions. We often assume against moving which would have pLlt Sarah Bernhardt to that children understand something when they don't; and shame, and most of the Vegas children sided with her. But it is particularly easy to do this if you just go to the board Papa was adam'lIlt. and simply tell the children that this is the way it is." "Are vo u serious'?" asked one Veg,ls child. "Yes, 1 am serious!" replied the father angrily. .Mrs. \Viningham whispered to me, "And I've b (:'(:' n told y N OW MHS. SCHATZ had introduced Marilyn to cali that these children can't 'role play!' " B pers, and Marilyn gin gerly spread out the calipers to compare the girths of the two types of bottles in ques tion. Later that morning in a first-grade room, the setting This broke down her prejudice somewhat, and she went on wasn't as drama tic as in Mrs. Winingham's class, but the to measuring other bottles on the graph. Mrs. Schcltz asked teachers observing there were nonetheless in for an in if there was anything else she'd like to measure, and Mari structional tour de force. Mrs. Frances Gooden, also a lyn proceeded to meaSLHe the variolls teachers' waistlines. demonstration teacher, was preparing for a science and But this didn't extend the limits of the calipers, as the ob mathematics lesson. (The science a nd mathematics section servers were all quite trim. of the Institute was led by Dr. and Mrs. Albert Schatz, who had introduced several materials and methods to the "Vvho would make the calipers go all tbe way out'?" teachers. Dr, Schatz, profes sor of education, is the co asked Mrs. Schatz. discoverer of streptomycin, and Mrs. Schatz, research as "Mr. Poll ard would," said Marilyn (Mr. William Pollard sociate in education, also is a scientist. ) is the Hamilton School principal.) Mrs. Gooden passed (Jut trays with the following ob Mrs. Schatz led the way to Mr. Poll ard's offi ce and jects: a gallon milk carton fill ed with water; a couple of Marilyn followed with poised calipers. Mrs. Schatz des empty plastic so ap containers of different sizes; a funnel, cribed the problem to Mr. Pollard, and Marilyn got on a measuring cup; and a sponge. She explained simply that with the experiment. the problem was to find the capacity of the soa p contain "I get the idea," said Mr. Pollard, looking with mock ers; although the temptation was grea t during the ensuing concern at the yawning calipers about his waist. fl urry of questions, she carefully avoided telling the chil "So do II " exclaimed Marilyn, who rushed back to the d ren exactly how to go about making the measurements. classroom to report on her research.
6 "THE POTENTIAL IS THERE"
This class was one in which a new social studies program was tri ed for the first time; ~hs. Berth., '\' iningham, teacher in Mex ican costume, leads a classroom fi esta. In addition to dasswork, twenty-four Hnmilton school children attend ed a reading clinic led by Dr. Joan BC'::lning, instructor in education.
Dr. Albcrt Schatz, professor of educa tion, who introduced science teaching methods Mrs. Frances Gooden of Banneker School, one of six demonstration teachers for th e su mmer Institute, and ' Villiam Poll ard , principal of Hamilton School, discu ss all experiment with students. Three months on a North Dakota Indian reservation was enough to convince a student at Washington University's Law School that society's problems are not all urban prob lems, and that Supreme Court decisions relating to criminal justice are just as relevant in a small Indian village on the Western plains as they are in the nation's largest cities. TRIBAL COUNSEL HE STURDY OUTDOORSMAN'S BUILD, the untrimmed hair, the people-wonderful people, I discovered-appealed to Tthe faded Levis, even the casual slouch all seemed ap me. The whole experience turned out to be far more than propriate enough. But the obviously expensive flannel I had hoped for. shirt, the horn-rimmed glasses, and the cultivated speech "Even while I was driving up here, I had no clear idea of the young man seemed out of place. This was no Dakota of what I'd find or exactly what I would do. One thing cowboy in town for the week-end rodeo. I never anticipated was being able to practice in a court Lee Curtis stood on the steps of the Hangout Cafe, one room after only one year in lnw school, yet that is what I of five small structures on the main street of Ft. Yates, spent much of my time doing." North Dakota, recalling experiences of the preceding There were other surprises, too: three months and hoping aloud that he would be able to -the strange beauty of the naked land-rolling, deso return again next summer to this isolated community a late, dominated and changed constantly by conditions in thousand miles from his home. the omnipresent sky. ("Out here the sky is just nbout 50 A second-year student at vVashington University's School per cent of your experience," one Ft. Yates resident ob of Law, Curtis, 23, was winding up an internship spon served. ) sored by the Law Students Civil Rights Research Council, -the vast distnnces between towns on the reservation, whose vVashington University chapter is two years old. which covers 1,342 square miles- all of Sioux County in For the entire summer he had been helping to establish a North Dnkota and Corson County in South Dakota. legal services program on the Standing Rock Sioux Indian -the extent of poverty among the mem bers of the tribe. Reservation. Ft. Yates is the Tribal Council's headquarters (Over 95 per cent of the families at Ft. Yates receive and seat of the Tribal Court. One thing the summer at Ft. Yates meant to Curtis was monthly welfare payments.) giving up a profitab1e job in St. Louis as well as the com ''''hen Curtis first drove into Ft. Yates on a hot nfternoon forts of living ,1t home. (Lee is the son of Congressman last June, the pervasive poverty wns not apparent. Except and Mrs. Thomas C. Curtis of Webster Groves, Missouri.) for a handful of one-foom shacks on the outskirts of town, On the reservation he lived in one room of the Employees housing in Ft. Yates struck him as well mRintained, fairly Club, a red brick barracks-type building housing single new, and attractive. One-story frame homes, most of them employees of the various government agencies represented white, prevailed. He learned later that the occupants of at Ft. Yates. His salary from the Civil Rights Research the nicer homes were usually likewise-white: families of Council was $25 a week-"and sometimes it was a long employees of the Bureau of Indian Affairs or of the Public time between paychecks." Iienlth Service, which administers the up-to-d,lte hospital But Curtis has no regrets 8 bout his decision. "I kn ew I in the town. The Indians Jive in more modest, but far from would like going to a part of the country 1'd never seen dilapid'lted, single dwellings and in a handsome yeRr-old before, and the idea of trying to do something positive for apartment complex ;lIang the picturesqLle ;Vlissouri River. 9 Meeting Cheryl Johnson, a junior from Smith College, whose home is in Bismarck, North Dakota, and who worked in ;1 Project H eadstart nursery on the reservation, was one of the summer's bonuses for Curtis. Here they picnic on "Proposal Hill," overlooking Ft. Yates and the Missouri Ri ver. The ever-changing D akota sky, which became familiar to Curtis during slimmer internsbip, dominates farm scene on the reservation, ~'lo s t farm property is leased to white men by the Indians. TRIBAL COUNSEL Former Chief Judge Leo Cadotte befriended Curtis from the start, helped him become acq uainted with tribe's problems and traditions . Judge Cadotte worries about perpetuation of poverty on the reservation, says too few young people are willing to take th e chance of seek in g employment elsewhere. Ironically, poverty is a requirement for living i11 this above been that there was no counsel available, this despite the average public housing development. simple requirements for appearing before the bar: registra By the time Curtis found the Tribal Council Office, tion with th e co urt and two years of high school. housed with the BIA offices in a neatl y landscaped, one "When I a rri ved," Curtis explained, "the judge-a very story brick building at the corner of Fort Street and astute man who knows th e law well-was serving as prose Agency Avenue, his presence in town had already been cutor, counsel, and judge. No easy trinity to pby." noticed and reported. "The lawyer is here" is the way the Almost as soon as he arrived, Curtis began to serve as word had been spread as Curtis's beige Volkswagen made defense counse l. He spent much time in the jail , talking its way along the unpaved streets toward the BIA-Council with inmates awaiting trial, and a large part of each day building. Despite his later clarification about his student in the tastefully appointed courtroom observing prelim status, he remained to many "the lawyer from St. L ouis." in ary hearings and representing his "clients" at their trials. For whatever reasons--and one would have to loo k hard The Tribal Court handles only misdemeanors; felony cases to find plausible ones in the light of the Indians' treatment are tried at the Federal District Court in Bismarck. over the years-the Standing Rock Sioux exhibit a fi erce 'There's very little of what yo u'd call mnjor crime on the patriotism to the United States: few young men are draft reservation," Curtis pointed out. "Almos t no armed rob ed; most enlist. And elaborate V-J D ay celebrations, aban bery, for example." Besides traffic violations (332 last doned years ago in most parts of the country, are held on year), the leading offenses are assaul t and ba ttery (184), the reservation annuall y. Yet the complex busin ess of the failure to support dependent persons (155) , and, mos t courts and the fund,lmental rights protected by them are prevalent of all , disorderly conduct (1,571). not quite grasped by most of the Indians. Their awareness Curtis's successes before the bench were neither fre of those rights and of judicial procedure generally is defi quent nor spectacular. His first legal victory in fact took cient in the ex treme. place in the judge's chambers after the court had recessed . It was on this de fi ciency that Curtis focused during his That afternoon the trial of a man charged with assault three months on the reservntion. Because few of the Indi nnd battery had been postponed and the man returned to ans can afford professional legal counsel and because the his jail cell because the complninant had failed to appear. nearest city with a large concentration of attorneys is Curtis contended that it W8S the obligation of the com Bismarck, seventy miles to the north, most defendants plainant to be present, that this appeared to be more an ente r the court at Ft. Yates on their own. The cur annoyance complaint filed by an individual than a crime against society, and that the accused should be released. rent chief judge, William L. Gipp, ;1 middle-aged In dian whose great grandfather fought on Custer's side in Judge Gipp agreed and the man left jail that evening. the historic Sioux-Army conflict (but missed the massa \Vhat was significant about Curtis's work was the lesson cre), is meticulous about odvising every accused who that the Indians were learning from his repeated ap comes before him of his ri ghts to confront witnesses ond pearances at the jail and in court: that counsel sh oul d be to present witnesses of his own, to seek a change of venue, sought and could be helpful in protecting th e innocent. and to be represented by counsel. The trouble hac! always In order to complete the judicially right picture, Curtis 11 Curtis made frequent visits to jail He worked closely with members cells to talk over defense plans with of the reservation police department, Indians awa iting trial. Reservation especially Jai ler Cecil Whitebull court handles only misdemeanor cases. (leFt) and Captain Delmar Eastman. After preliminary hearing, Lee discusses possible defense with Indian charged with driving while intoxicated. TRIBAL COUNSEL Judge Gipp lectures Curtis on a point of law outside courtroom. The judge's fairness later in the summer prevailed upon a young VISTA work contribution he was making. His fai lure to fi nd even one pr, Dert Green of New York Ci ty, to help him in court. man interested in the job was his greatest disappointment. Green agreed, on the condition that he could be the de "There were two or three who showed interest, but fense counsel. So for a time Curtis became th e prosecutor they already had full-time jobs," Curtis reported. - "a villain's role; I didn't care much for it"- and his One of Curtis's recommendations to the Tribal Council, record of victories rose impressively. Not that his opponent with which he also worked during the summer, advising on was not worthy, but when members of the effi cient nine minor legal matters and assisting with the Code revision, man tribal police force made an arrest, they usuall y was to establish a salaried position of public defender for gathered sufficient evidence for a conviction. the reservation. W hether the Council will allocate funds Such efficiency, plus the extreme awareness of recent from the treasury remains to be seen. Supr('me Court rulings on the part of both Judge Gipp's "If it were a permanent job, I'm sure they could fill it court 13 \T enettn Thompson and Beth Golde sprint across th e front lawn of the Golde home in suburban St. Louis, where Venetta discovered the joy of li vin g where grass, trees, and open space abound. During the two weeks Venetta spent as a guest of alumnus Edward Golde and his family, the days between sightseeing trips arollnd the city were spent at home. By DOROTHEA WOLFGRAM oIJice of Publications FRESH AIR PROGRAM A two-way stream of fresh air is brought to a vital urban problem in a volunteer effort by faculty and alumni NTIL LAST SUMMER VENETTA THOMPSON had never lems. Netta seemed to adjust to us very quickly, faster in U been in swimming, never played sit-down games fact than my niece who visited a few weeks earlier. Our with friends, never tried her hand at crafts, never been biggest problem was that Beth, my six-year-old, was a on a family picnic. But for hvo weeks a new world opened little jealolls that Netta was officially the guest of Jill, to the Negro eleven-year-old. It was a friendly world full who is nine. So one night Beth took over Jill's bed to of new experiences, of warmth, of space, of fresh air, and share the room with the visitor." of often dreamed-of luxury. Venetta Thompson quietly Mark, in typical boy-of-twelve fashion, pretty much absorbed every breath of it. left the girls to themselves. When it came to baseball, Venetta lives in an apartment in the heart of what was though, Netta had to be respected not just as "a girl." once a St. Louis slum area and is now a multi-building Netta, who says she plays baseball all the time, is a whiz. urban resettlement project of high-rise apartments. Last With this common ground, her place in the Golde house summer, through a program initiated by a vV8shington hold was very quickly established. University computer engineer and his wife, Venetta spent Netta's visit was one of thirty-eight arranged last sum two weeks as a guest in the suburb81l home of alumnus mer by Mrs. Severo Ornstein and her husband, a research Edward (Ted) Golde, BSBA 52; his wife Cookie, and engineer at the University's Computer Research Labora their three children. tory. Of the thirty-five families recruited by the Ornsteins, Unlike many of the children who have taken part in many were connected with the University, either as alum the two-year-old "Fresh Air Program," Venetta comes ni , graduate students, or faculty. The visits and the visitors from a stable family. Her stepfather, Charles Sleet, is v8ried considerably. employed in a St. Louis thread factory; her mother does not work. :MEDICrlL SCHOOL PHOFESSOR and his wife took their "Netta doesn't lack love and care," Mrs. Golde says, A guest and their own six children out of town for the "But from us she needs warmth 8nd friendship and new period, spending two weeks at a vacation home not many experiences. The world we live in is completely new to miles from the city. Stacy Meggyesy, wife of Football her. I didn't realize how many things, material ,lnd non Cardinal linebacker and WU sociology student David material, we can give our children because of that world. Meggyesy, invited two children, despite the f,lct that her "I can spend much more time doing things with my husband was at Cardinal training camp for the period. A children, but my youngest is six, and Netta's mother has couple in Mehlville, Mo., who had just returned from an 18-month-old baby at home. And many days I'm just living in Ghana, invited a visitor because they felt their a chauffeur, exactly as all of my friends are, but by being childrcn would benefit from continuing friendship with a a chauffeur I widen my children's physical world im child of another race. Another child joined a couple who mensely. The physical bounds of Netta's life have been has eight children of their own. much more confined, so her world is that much narrower." In 1965, when the Omsteins initiated the program, While N etta was visiting, Mrs. Golde and the children modeled after a similar Ncw York City venture, they estab explored parts of St. Louis: the zoo, the botanical garden, lished a liaison with the Negro community through a pmks, flower exhibits, a band concert. Between active days clergyman th en working at an interdenominational center of swimming and bowling, they spent quiet cbys at home, near the Pruitt-Igoe housing center. This year's contact playing and working on special projects. ,mel liaison officer from the center W,lS Rev. Nelson Parnell, "Throughout the weeks, we just didn't have any prob an alumnus who received his degree from University 15 Venetta asked Mrs. Golde one morning while she was visiting if she could take care of the flowers. "Netta isn't a 'deprived child' in many senses of the term," said Mrs. Golde, "but she constantly astonished us by discovering things we take for granted." College in 1961. At the same time this year the program "My children play and go to school and associate with was expanded to include six underprivileged white chil children who are all just like themselves; but they need dren whose visits were arranged through another church to know that there are other children and other kinds of sponsored mission in north St. Louis. worlds. Knowing Netta, they know an individual, and "\'\Then we began," Mrs. Ornstein explains, "we faced besides finding that other worlds exist, they've learned a decision about the children we would invite. Rev. that being a Negro or being a member of another kind of Robert Mayo said to us 'You will have to decide whethcr world doesn't make her tick, that she is an individual." you want the children who are the most deprived and Though Netta's life was as strange to the Golde children perhaps need the program the most, or whether you want as theirs was to her, the children found common ground. the children who perhaps can benefit most from the pro The Goldes sent games home with Netta "so that she gram. They aren't necessarily the same, you know.' Actu would have something to do-to play inside." ally we didn't really decide because we believe that we At the end of the two weeks, Venetta didn't want her have something to offer in either situation." vacation to end, but it did and Venetta went home. It took The children are selected by the clergymen who work a few days for her to be caught up in the events of every in the ghetto areas. Mr. Parnell often consults mothers day life, but only a few, and for those days, she was p er whose children have already participated, as well as teach haps a sadder but wiser little girl. She had experienced a ers and principals, asking them to recommend children. vacation like many another vacation, too marvellous to "\'\Then the program grows, and the indications are last, but until then Venetta didn't know about vacations that it really will, we'll have to find another method, but like this because she had never had one. So to her reper now we can do it individuall y and personally, and that is toire of experience, along with the hundreds of other new what \.ve want," he explains. impreSSions, Venetta added one more. "The families who have hosted children sometimes find The innova tors of the program know this reaction of the situation frustrating at fir st, but no one feels that way pain does occur. "So what?" said one. "To think that these at the end of the two weeks," Mrs. Ornstein says. "I was children are unaware of the life that is led in white su b frustrated myself at times . It took Julia, our visitor, three urbia if they don't go there is kidding ourselves. Now they days to say a complete sentence to me, but it came. have experienced it and most of them have made lasting "I don't know really what Julia has taken away from friendships. They are invited back all during the year. this, but I do know what my children have gained. For vVe've shown them what they consider opulent living. Of the first time in their lives, they have been forced to course they are envious, but they've been a part of it from consider someone else's position." the inside, been received, and made friends. \;I,lithout that, Mrs. Golde talks with the same urgency about the inHu they aspire to a dream world, now they know some sort ence of Netta's visit on her children. of real world is possible." 16 FRESH AIR PROGRAM Netta responded eagerly to family routine, including an unspoken share-the-work rule for family meals. "Other mothers said they thoug}lt that they had made mistakes by treating their visitor as a guest, so Netta was treated 8S a temporary member of tIle family," 1\1ro5. Golde explained. The Golde children were as captivated by Venetta's singing as she was by their tape recorder. At ease with the family, she was nevertheless fearful of strangers and put off the children's invitations to meet their friends. The University's Steinberg Gallery was on the Gold e excursion list. Venetta had never been to a museum, although she had gone to the zoo with her family. 17 The term "integration" has many meanings to many people-Negro and white. In this artide} which grew out of an address before the Institute for Hmnan Relations Commissioners) Professor Lehnzcm gives four definitions of the term "integration" and attempts to identify each with a group of people. Professor Lehman} who earned his undergraduate and law degrees at the University of Chicago) has been actively involved in both the legal and sociological aspects of discrimination and the integration movement and has written many artides on the subject. The ultimate goal of inte grtttiofl, the author maintains) should be fun participation by the Negro in modern American life. By WARREN LEHMAN ASJistant Dean, School of Law The Many Meanings of Integration NeE U PON A TIME, I STARTED TO write some essays on of white liberals, although part or all of it is taken over O race relations that I hoped to get published as a book. by a few in the Negro co mmunity. An expressi on I once The remnants are still around my office. My reas on for heard from a liberal acquaintance typifies this view: "Just confessing failure to finish a project rd begun is to allow living next door to each other isn't enough." As far ,1 S I me to explain the title I had tentatively chosen for the am concern ed, it's plenty. If we get to the point in the book: Reflections of an Integrationist. I proposed to put North v"h ere Negroes and whites live next door to each that emotion-laden word integration ri ght in the title, on other as equals and on a continuing basis there will be no the assumption that it would get a strong reaction from major race problem. Bes ides, I don't want to have to like almost everyone, perhaps so strong thnt the book mi ght be m:' Negro next door neighbor any more than I feel com bought and rrad. I expected thM there would be those pelled to like my white next door neighbor. J\;Iore important who would read it to learn more about th e enemy, and than my mis 19 the fact that Negroes, too, will live there. Tha t has been taken to mean (and is used to mean) that which experi the experience in Chicago's Prairie Shores and Hyde Park ence indicated happens when Negroes move in. People developments, and in Laclede Town in St. Louis. I'll say "Integration is coming." What they clearly mean is wager it is generally true. "My neighborhood is about to go colored." On the other haml, even with open-occupancy legisla Few liberals, white or Negro, ever recognize this prob tion to ease the way, the movcment of Negroes to previ lem; they still go out to threatened white neighhorhoods ously all-white areas has been miniscule. Even around and talk about integration with no notion of what image very large cities with very large Negro populations, the they are conjuring up. In order to communicate success number of suburbs that can be called integrated, because fully, in a lower class white neighborhood, it is absolutely the Negro residents have not formed miniature ghettoes, essential to say that when you are talking about integrati on can be counted on the fingers of both hands. The number YOll are telling them of a dream such as they've never seen of Negro families that gives rise to the designation of any before; that a neighborhood changing from white to Negro , one of those su burbs as integrated can probably be counted as so many have, is exactly not what you are talking about; on the fin gers of a single hand. that the only way to prevent it from recurring is by integra tion, as you mean the term. Certainly, no such message is conveyed by Negro and HE SECOND VIEW of integration-that mixing is evil rath white militants marching through the ethnic neighbor er than good-is the characteristic view of the white T hoods of Chicago's southwest side. Those marches, and the racist, particlllarly the Southern racist, for it is in the effect they produce in tbe community, succeed in bring South that the taboos about intermarriage or extramarital ing legitimate Negro demands to the attention of a relations between whites and Negroes are the strongest. city's leaders. I am reminded of the lesson given a city The problem of the Southern white's view of the Negro slicker by a farmer on how to get a mule to go to work. is a special one that a Northerner ought to approach When the farmer hit the mule over the head with a two timidly. It seems clear, hovvever, that it is a more deeply by-four plank, the city-slicker asked why. "The fir st thing rooted psychological problem than is the prejudice of the you've got to do," said the farmer, "is to get the animal's Northern white. Strains of Southern-style racism are attention." It is a shame that Negroes must use two-by strongly expressed in tbe North only to give ideological fours, but it appears that they must. It is a shame because support to whites in immediate and practical conflict with the communities that are used by the marchers to attain Negroes over to whom a community belongs. their political ends are left less ready than ever to listen While the general racist view is characteristically South to the voice of reason. ern white, it is shared by at least some Negroes-the Black Muslim group includes the most well-known ex If th e view of integration among inner city whites can amples. The Muslims draw their membership quite ob be called "integration means segregation and it is a bad viously from among those Negroes who most strongly wish thing," the fourth view may be described as "integration that they were successful white Anglo-Saxon Protestants. means segregation and it is a good thing." This last, I am The Muslim doctrine, while describing the white man as convinced, is the view shared by most Negroes. the devil, encourages the black man to imitate the middle Long before the cry of "Black Power" became popular, class virtues-thrift, industry, monogamy, quiet demeanor I began asking Negroes, activ e in the civil rights move and dress-that are in popular mythology shared by suc ment, to define integration. The response has always been cessful whites but not by Negroes. a definition of equality, not of integration. No mention is \Vere tbe picture not so pathetic, it would be amusing. made of whites and Negroes living in the same communi On the one hand, the Black Muslims wish they were white ties; what is seen in some dim way is a society in which and able to control themselves by the Dick and Jane moral whites and Negroes live apart, but in which there is no itv attributed to whites. On the other, the most prejudiced discrimination in jobs, educational opportunities, access to whites wish to abandon those very constraints and live the public facilities, or opportunity to rise in the societv. The supposedly happy, an imal life of the lower class Negro. decision to live apart is purely voluntary. Restrictions on The third view, which may be called "integration as where Negroes may live would have been removed. It is separation," is accepted unthinkingly among many mem just that most Negroes choose not to live with whites. bers of the white community. It is the product of the ex Over the past few years, Negro leadership has become perience, in cities with growing Negro populations, of more knowing. The conflict in goals long hidden by the neighborhoods changing from white to Negro occupancy. word integration has become more obvious as the civil This perversion of the language developed because the rights movement's success has resulted in increasi ng pres liberal community espoused integration as its goal at a sure to give thought to the form of the new society. The time when there was no such thing as integration. There option taken has seldom been integration. To quote the had never been a stable community in which Negroes and Post-Dispatch again: whites lived as equals side by side. The one component clearly understood by lower and Asserting that "integration is irrelevant," Carmichael middle class whites was that integration meant Negroes seems to reject the fundamental concept of creating a moving into white neighborhoods. That has happened society that integrates Negroes to seek political and often. It has been followed almost inevitably by a complete economic power on their own, spurning any cooperation transition from \vhite to Negro. Integration was, therefore, with white society. 20 As the Negro community comprehends more cle:1rly what munity together and will long tend it is white liber:11s want, more Negroes will be forced to do so, regardless of the white to say that this is not what they vvant 8t al l. The cry of community's remova l of restrictions "Bl8ck Power" is bringing to an end the 8ge of innocence. that have in the P8st provided ex Choices have to be made. "',Ie can expect more Negroes ternaI pressure to stick together. to join Mr. Carmichael despite the fact that the experience It is bec8use of the existence of of working with whites in the civil rights movement may these forces that it seems to me perfectly fair to generalize encourage some Negro leaders to opt for integration . from my limited interviewing efforts th at the majority of One of the reasons we can expect most of the Negro adult Negroes are not actively interes ted in integration, in leadership to choose Black Power over integrati on is that the sense of a mixcd community. F or them, true integration many whites, even liberal whites, have never approved of means a utopia in which Negroes are separate, but genu :1 Negro saying he wants integration. 'When a Negro moves inelyequal. into a white neighborhood, he is permitted to say he moved Having said that much, I must add that mony in because he got a better house, or it is closer to his work; Negroes accept with part of their being the white liberal but he cannot say it is because integration is a good thing. ideol of integration after all. 1 believe that Negroes are Saying that is the right of the white man. Noblesse Oblige much more seriously interested in school integration for is , 8fter all, less a directive than a prerogative. their children than in residential integration for themselves. All the strictures against speaking out for integration do There are significant differences between the two situa not come from the white community, however. There 8re tions. Under certain common geographic and demographic strong ties holding the Negro community together that conditions, a school board can create by fiat instont inte cannot be felt by anyone who claims status as a leader of gration, so that no one Negro child has to be first and alone that community. For one thing, there is strong social pres in entering a previously all-white school. vVe cannot pro sure against the rejection of the Negro community that vide this same protection in housi ng, except in situations moving into a white neighborhood implies. Some may be that occur rebtively rarel y. It is significant for the housing able to overcome the opprobrium by rationalizing it not :1S problem that many Negro adults are willing, some even a rejection of the race but as an effort to :1dvance it; some eager, for their children to learn at 811 early age to live will feel their ties with the Negro community so weak that with whites, even if they cannot embrace integration them self-interest in better housing can neutralize any trace of selves. "'''henever I've looked into the bockground of feeling of racial solidmity. But for most Negroes, the op Negroes who have taken the plunge into suburbi8 1 have probrium, considered with other costs, is going to be too found them to have had relatively early and reasonably high. One of these other costs is the possibility of rejection, congenial contact with whites. They have not grown up, even of violence, by new white neighbors. as do so many Negroes, locked in the ghetto. The white community is, therefore, not so fearsome. Those whose goal is integrati on are confronted with ;\10RE SUBTLE BUT RELATED PROBLEM is the simple this dilemma: The easiest way to produce school inte A discomfort of moving from one subculture to another. gration is by creating residenti81 integration , yet we may The Negro community is different fr om the white commu properly infer that the Negro community, left to its own nity, if only because years of enforced separation have devices, is likely to try to move from school integration made differences inevitable. There are differences in speech toward residential integration when the generation grows patterns, values, diet, a thousand little things. In the white up that has known whites as equals in school. world, there will inevitably be discomfort and disorienta The only way to produce any extensive racial integra tion. And ignoring cultural differences, there is the prob tion in the schools of large cities (the problem is less lem of being on display. difficult in 0 small town ) is to abandon the neighborhood Even some quite sophisticated Negroes who have fre school idea. That approach is resisted by whites, and finds quent contacts with whites feel the pressure. The directors little support in th e Negro community. Many, if not most, of an inter-racial agency 1 once had contact with ran two Negroes would give integrated education a lower priority Christmas parties, one inter-racial and one for the Negro than the safety and convenience of having their children in members who wanted to get together and be Negroes a school re8sonably near home. Confronted with this dilem that is to say, be themselves. Among themselves they did ma, we can only make what appear to be h8lf-way not have to wonder continually whether what they did measures: efforts to keep all schools near the periphery of was the "right thing"; whether they might inadvertently the Negro community integrated, while 8t the same time make some slip that would be taken by a white person as doing what can be done to discourage further solid ex an excuse for once again condemning them. pansion of the Negro ghetto. (Whites could force Negroes There are also obvious economic reasons for self to integrate by refusing to move fr om areas peripheral to segregation. Any Negro who makes his living within the the ghetto, while at the same time making accessible to Negro community-a professional person, politician, or Negroes housing beyond the ghetto's edge.) H8lf-way as businessman-cannot afford the appearance of rejecting they are, such measures are the on ly ones that have a the Negro community, although it is just these profes reasonable chance of helping us toward our ultimate goal. sional people who could most easil y move into white \Ve have been proceeding on the ass umption that some neighborhoods and be accepted. watered-down form of the white liberal's goal of integra These are the kinds of things that hold the Negro com tion defines the world toward which we should be work 21 Tl1e Many Meanings of Integration ing. I would not be treating my responsi bility adequately The argument of leadership loss cuts two ways. It was if I did not at least try to outline the arguments for and always possible for a Negro to make it in the Negro com agai nst that assumption. munity. The trouble is that making it in the Negro com The position I hold, at least right now, is that integra munity is small potatoes. The real power and the real tion-Negroes distributed more or less at random through money is in the white community. To say that able out the society-is a good thing. It seems to me that there Negroes should stay in the Negro community is to say is little ques tion that it is a good thing from the white that the level of aspiration of the Negro is to remain the viewpoint. All whites, rural or urban, should have an same as it has always been. One cannot readily conceive interest in the health of the cities in which they live, or on of a Negro member of the board of directors of a national which they depend. The abandonment of these cities to a corporation returning at night to the ghetto; nor can one poverty-stricken, poorly educated minority would be in the readily conceive of the kind of people who return to the best long-run interests of no one-certainly not of the ghetto a t night reaching such positions . .It is possible to whites. break out of the ghetto, and those who do so encourage others by their example. T IS ARGUED, HOWEVEfI, that the dispersion of Negroes is This is not to say that those of us who are concerned I not a good thing for Negroes. Those who are dispersed should limit our activities to encouraging integration and are those who could have been the most effective leaders forget about the ghetto. Anything that can be done to of the Negro community. The white community skims the improve the lot of those who remai n in the ghetto is worth cream and leaves behind only the most incompetent and doing, for escape will be easier. Some of the things that socially disorganized products of centuries of discrimina should be done in the ghetto are exactly the things that tion. To change the metaphor, the process leaves a mass would be recommended by those who argue that Negroes without leaven. should be made independent and th en integrated. We Those who share this view wou ld prefer to see Negroes should attempt to make ghetto life a stable existence, as it encouraged to develop a strong, free community, whose was for European ethnic groups. We should design our members, with a newly won self-respect, would be able to credit laws so that poor Negroes are not trapped in a deal as equals with whites and to choose integration on circle of debt, job loss, moving every few months to keep their own when the time comes. This argument provides ahead of the landlord and bankruptcy. We should design such intellectual justification as there is for the Black our welfare laws so that they do not put a premium on Power movement. The argument is supported by com paternal irresponsibility. W e should provide the best parison of the Negro experience with that of other ethnic education we can, even if it means that teachers must give groups in America, each of which had in a common up some of their freedom of job choice. We should give religion, a distinctive cultural pattern, and close family training for jobs, and if training for jobs will not actually ties, strong bonds to support its members until they be produce jobs, we should make them by reviving the came acclimated to their new society. With the support of W.P.A. so that Negro fathers can resume their responsi these bonds, it was possible to develop appropriate and bilities as family heads. We should restrict ou r urban helpful institutions; mutual aid societies, educational insti renewal projects so that we do not continue to disrupt tutions, labor unions, political organizations. The power any burgeonings of community feeling among Negroes, that these immigrant groups achieved eventually brought a while destroying occupational opportunities for them. vVe recognition of equality. Once equality eliminated the need should encourage an increase in the housing supply so that for the transitional institutions, or even for the ethnic th e market will improve the quality of housing while re ghettos, they began to disappear. ducing its costs. But can we wait long enough to duplicate for the Negro the experience of other ethnic communities? The UT ABOVE ALL, WE NEED a voice directed to the Negro very cultural bonds that would provide the basis for the B community that says integration is the ideal and the really ghettoized existence of the Negro do not exist. The goal. So as to avoid the problem with language, I once bonds that hold the Negro community together are not suggested the slogan "full participation." Someone should those that united the Germans or the Poles or the Italians. be saying that the Negro will not be truly free until he is There is no common Negro religion and no distinctive a full participant in American society. It's true. It would culture from which to draw strength. The Negro is an be bes t if some Negro organizations were saying it. American, if a member of a slightly different subculture. Full participation means no separate political parties, It w01Ild be entirely synthetic to attempt to create a sep no separate unions, no separate businesses; in a word, no arnte identity among Negroes, it would require a great power for Negroes as a group. \A' hat it does mean is the deal of time, and it would be going in the opposite direc opportunity for every individual Negro to realize himself tion from integration. fully and to be genuinely free. 22 ROVING ARTISTS OR YEAllS IT HAS BEE1\' common to see students from Reinhard t's class) and illustrators (from Robison's) can, Fthe University's School of Fine Arts positioned at the two in structors feel, benefit from working in the action picturesque points on the campus, sketching or painting world as opposed to the studio--and on the same subjects. tbis flow ering redbud tree or that ivy-covered building. The meth od also emphasizes student initiative; it is tb e During the sprin g semester of last year, however, art student's responsibility to choose a subject, milke arrange students began to appear with sketch pads and easels in ments for visiting the class or laboratory, ilnd then follow places less obviously pictorial than the quadrangle a'· through with a completed project by a giV('(} date. Olin Library's courtY8rd. They showed up in classrooms, "The University was an ideal place to start," Heinhardt 18boratories, faculty offices, even in a biology greenhouse. '-;<1),5. "There are so many visually interes ting things hap The in creased movement about campus by the young pening and so many individual faces l-o choose from_" artists was P81t of a new empirical approach to painting Altbougb much was accomplished, a preponderance of and illustration in struction being pioneered by two Art faculty portraits indicated that some ambitious student School faculty members, Robert S. Robison, professor of plans an nounced at the outset had been abilndoned; left fin e arts and head of the design-illustration department, on the idea sheet were the low-temperature physics lilbora and Siegfried Reinhardt, in structor of nne arts. The iden tory, thc cyclotron, and a concert in Graham Chapel. came from another fa culty artist, Associate Professor Rich ""Ve started rather late last year- second semester, in ard H. Brunell. fact," Robison explains. 'This year we'll start earli er." Described by Robison as "an exploratory visual look at ''''bethel' the main projects will center again on the the University," this where-the-action-is approach repre University campus or elsewhere in the St. Louis com sents an attempt by the two faculty members to prevent munity remains to be determined. But again in 1966-67 what they consider a stultifying kind of compartmentali za some 35-40 juniors and seniors studying under Reinhardt tion on th e part of their students. Both painters (from and Robison will tilke part in the collaborative program. 2:3 Dana Wendell, a senior, picked a botnny research laboratory in Busch Hall for her on-the-spot painting. Senior Karan vVinter chose popular English Professor Alexander M. (Sandy) Buchan as a portrait subject. Brookings Hall's towers and arch, favorite subjects of many of the area's professional painters, were selected as a class project by Michael Bruckdorfer, a senior. ROVING ARTISTS 4l Judge William H. Hastie of the Third Circuit Court of Appeals was subject of painting by Su sa n Stoehr, a senior student in Reinhardt's class. Judge Hastie was on bench at Moot Court at the Law School. An interesting perspective of a scene familiar to art students, the senior design studio in Bixby Hall, was drawn by senior Garrett Reese, one of Robiso n's students. "The students \vere excited by the idea, and so were rights march and Pope Paul's visit to the Holy Land. Robbie and I," Reinhardt says, "and we're satisfied that His words were completely in tune with what Robison the first attempt was well worth the effort." and Reinhardt were attempting to show their students: "There's too much talk today about divisions in the arts :\OTHER ASPECT of the illustration students' program, between commercial and non-commercial, about one as A instituted by Robison a few years ago, is the periodic serious and the other as non-serious art.. . I prefer to be appearance in class of a visiting professional. The most involved with the actual event. recent visitor, widely published illustrator Franklin Mc "I think you gain from that interaction, from the pres Mahon of Chicago, contributed significantly to the Rein sures and the excitement. It doesn't lessen the art; it adds hardt-Robison roving-artist technique when he suggested a dimension of immediacy. vVorking nt the moment, you taking the entire class off campus to McDonnell Aircraft feel that interplay of attitudes, your own and those of the Corporation, manufacturers of military aircraft and space others involved in it, and you see it from several sides." vehicles. Together, McMahon and the students spent a McMahon sees in such assignments a kind of challenge day at ~fcDonnell , sketching a wide variety of space often missing in studio work: "If nn editor sends me 2,000 oriented scenes. Samples of work done that day and miles to do a series of drawings of a political event, that's throughout the semester appear on the following pages. what I've got to get, to the best of my ability. I can't get McMahon himself is an artist-reporter who has there and then decide that, that day, I would rather draw "covered" such events as the Selma, Alabama, civil a bowl of flowers." 25 ROVING ARTISTS Renowned illustrator Franklin McMahon of Chicago visited art school class, accompanied students on sketching mission at St. Louis' McDonnell Aircraft Corporation pl;mt. \ ( ~ Skilled pen of professional 1,'» McMahon is evident in line drawing done during vis it to McDonnell. -;:7; " Colorful interior of space vehicle undergoing tests at McDonnell was created by student Garrett Reese. McMahon's versatility and thoroughness were 27 in spiration to students. This MclVlahon drawing is of a test facility at lvlcDonnell. View of a patient whose visual fi eld is being measured by an instrument called a perimeter. The patient describes the progress ion of points of light which are brought in from various angles in an evenly lighted sphere, enabling the doctor to detect blind spots, which may be a sign of glaucoma. Washington University's Department of 0 phthalmology is at the forefront of basic and clinical research on one of the most prevalent and serious diseases of the eye: glaucoma. Dr. Bernard Becker, chairman of the department and leader of the glau coma research group, hopes soon to establish a model center at McMillan Hospital for the diagnosis, treatment, and study of this disease. Dr. Becker and his colleagues have produced data which strongly Stl ggest that glaucoma is an inherited trait. GLAUCOMA/An Inherited Disease? I "I HAVE GLAUCOMA? But I didn't have any symptoms Dr. Becker, a calm and mild-mannered man despite a -I just came in to have my glasses checked." work schedule that would make practically any harassed The above reaction is typical of a man in his fifties who executive wince, has an office on the second Boor of Mc goes to his ophthalmologist for a routine check-up and Millan H ospital ( the Department of Ophthalmology, which finds to his great surprise that he has "chro nic simple is housed in the hospital, numbers some 100 members, in glaucoma." cluding staff ophthalmologists, residents, research fellows, The term glaucoma itself is enough to scare the wits and technicians) . The office resembles a large, cheerful I out of anyone, ancl chronic glaucoma is in fact a serious living room; on one side is Dr. Becker's desk; a secretary I condition. A leading cause of blindness, it is responsible works in one corner; colleagues stroll in and out with I for more than 50,000 cases of blindness in this country various questions. Beneath Dr. Becker's informality is an ancl for some loss of vision in another 2,000,000 cases. intensity of purpose which is obvious in the way he de The disease is so insidious, bringing about clamage to scribes the problems of glaucoma, worrying aloud about the eye without symptoms over a period of years, that the formiclable questions that remain to be answered. even physicians 'will present themselves for examinations, unaware that they have the disease. Fortunately it can E EXPLAINED THAT THERE are four general types of be controll ed if it is detected before the damage is too H glaucoma, and that the type known commonly as extensive. Thanks to advances in ophthalmological research chronic simple glaucoma is by far the mos t prevalent. "I over the past twenty years, early detection is possible and don't know why it is called simple-this is far from the vision can be preserved for a patient's lifetime with daily case. Actually, we prefer calling it 'primary open angle medication. glaucoma: but that's not much of an improvement," he One of the men who deserves substantial credit for ad added. vances in controlling the disease is Dr. Bernard Becker, In all forms of glaucoma there is an elevation of pressure head of Washington University's Department of Ophthal in the eye which damages the optic nerve, resulting in mology, which is one of the nation's fin est b'aining and loss of vision. There is a congenital form of glaucoma in research centers in diseases of the eye. Dr. Becker and his infants, which is quite rare; secondary glaucoma, brought colleagues, who have made contributions to both the diag on by tumors, infections, or injuries ; and acute glaucoma, nosis and treatment of glaucoma, are presently gathering which is caused by abnormalities in the shape of th e front If! data that show great promise of clarifying th e basic nature part of the eye. These forms comprise some 30 per cent of the disease. of glaucomas, and the symptoms are obvious and severe, 29 ------~-----__ ~ ______~~~====~~~~~~~fl GLAUCOMA Dr. Bernard Becker, head of thee Department of Ophthalmology, and his associates have helped to lead the way in several recent advances against glaucoma. Pressure in the patient's eye i~ about to be measured by an applanation tonometer, the most accurate Ii instrument for this purpose. Glaucoma produces press ure, which, over a period of years, causes irreversible damage to the optic nerve. '~T ith early diagnosis, however, the pressure can be rehevecl and further loss of vision prevented. I including pain, inflammation, and nausea. Chronic glau Ophthalmologists have long been able to measure the coma, the cause of which isn't known, accounts for 70 per pressure in the eye with a tonometer, a small instrument cent of glaucoma cases and its subtle progression makes it which is placed directly over the eye. About fifteen years the most serious problem in this class of diseases. The term ago, Dr. Morton Grant of Harvard University Medical glaucoma is derived from the Greek word meaning "sea School reported the development of a sophisticated tech green"; in ancient times all glaucomas ended in blindness nique, used in conjunction with the tonometer, which and the pupil turned a greenish hue. would actuall y measure the resistance to th e outflow of fluid. In the early 1950's Dr. Becker, then at Johns Hopkins HRONIC (;LAUCOMA, Dr. Becker pointed out, is remark University, was one of the first men to use the new tech C ably common. Most estimates of its prevalence are at nique clinically and describe its operation in medical 4 per cent, or more, of the population. It is most prevalent journals. This enabled ophthalmologists to determine in people over 50 years of age, and will become more of whether a patient had abnormal resistance to fluid out a problem as life expectancy goes up. Because of the flow before he had elevated pressure. One important ap asymptomatic nature of the disease, the need for yearly plication of tonography is to use it when a patient exhibits eye check-ups-including measurement of intraocular pres borderline press ure and evidence of some damage to th e sure-is essential, especially when an individual reaches optic nerve; readings indicating high resistance to out the age of forty. flow would point to glaucoma. To understand how the disease produces damage to the optic nerve, it is necessary to review the process by which s FAR AS MEDICAL TREATMENT is concerned, a variety the front part of the eye is nourished. The clear fluid called A of drugs is used successfully to relieve pressure. The aqueous humor, which nourishes the eye, is secreted at drugs may be used singly, or in combinations, depending on a given rate into the eye and emerges through the pupil. the patient's response or possible side-effects. One sllch drug, The fluid leaves the eye (eventually to be drained off which halves the rate at which aqueous humor is secreted through blood vessels) by way of an intricate system of into the eye (thereby decreasing pressure) was first ap pores known as the trabecular meshwork. The pressure plied clinically by Dr. Becker at Johns H opkins and Wash in the eye is maintained by the resistance to the fluid as ington University. Pressure may also be relieved by operat it passes through this meshwork. In chronic glaucoma, this ing on the eye to create drainage canals. Since one or res istance is increased for an unknown reason. Only a another drug usually is effective ill controlling most cases relatively modest increase in resistance will, over the of chronic glaucoma, surgery is a last resort. years, produce a pressure that deforms the endings of the Cortisone-like drugs, unrelated to the treatment of glau optic nerve at the back of the eye. coma, have in recent years provided clues toward under 31 standing the basic nature of the disease. In the late 1950's, significant elevations in pressure and resistance to outflow. various physicians began reporting an unusual phenomenon The rest did not. resulting from the use of steroid drops in the treatment of In addition, Dr. Becker found that of the 30 per cent eye inflammations. The drugs significantly increased pres who responded, about 4 per cent developed very high sure in the eyes of some pati ents or, in effect, induced levels of pressure. This rang a bell. Over the years, many in glaucoma. Also, there was a number of more serious in vestigators have estimated that approximately 2 to 4 p er cent cidents with the steroids. "For instance, some doctors and of the general population has glaucoma. Furthermore, the nurses had been using these drops to treat themselves," statistical breakdown of the test very closely approximated Dr. Becker recalled. "They would come in for an eye the Mendelian ratios which would indicate that the disease check-up, it would be found that they had glaucoma, and was due to a recessive trait. In other words, a recessive that they actually had added to the destruction of their glaucoma gene from each parent would be required to vision by using the drops. Of course, an immediate warn· give an offspring a disposition to the disease; theoretically, ing was put out on this particular use of steroids." all children of one glaucoma patient and one normal parent would inherit a recessive gene and therefore react to the UT THE EFFECT OF THE STEROIDS SUGGESTED a very in test. B teresting possibility to several investigators, including Two years ago, Dr. Becker and his associates reported Dr. Becker. For many years, it has been debated whether this study, which created quite a bit of excitement; for, if glaucoma is an inherited trait. Did the steroid drops induce the theory that glaucoma was a recessive trait could be a response related genetically to glaucoma? In 1962, Dr. proven, it would be one of the few prevalent diseases Becker directed the first large study to test this notion. where one could detect both carriers and potential victims. (Careful dosage in nonglauco ma patients presented no The final proof won't be in, however, until extensive dallger of inducing damage.) One hundred normal volun follow-through studies determine, among other things, teers were studied in the Washington Univers ity test, and whether the potential victims ac tually develop the disease. their response to the drops was measured each week for six Data collected since 1964 in tests of 500 individuals, in weeks. Approximately 30 per cent of the volunteers showed cluding offspring and siblings of glaucoma patients, still 32 GLAUCOMA In "tonography," an electronic tonometer is connected to a recording device which transcribes resistance to the out-Row of the Ruid in the eye. The cause of glaucoma actually is an increasc in this resistance, which in turn el evates pressu re in the eye. fall into the Mendelian pattern. In addition, recent tests sity studies in this field since 1953. The center, which have revealed provocative evidence that there may be a would handle approximately 1500 patients a year, would genetic relationship between glaucoma, diabetes, and near serve several purposes: to follow through with several sightedness. But these tentative correlations need consid basic research projects; to demonstrate that there is no erable testing before any conclusions can be reached. reason for a glaucoma patient to lose additional vision "I don't think that general use of steroid tests outside a when proper treatment is used; to evaluate methods for carefully controlled clinical setting is advisable," Dr. early detection and develop better methods of treatment; Becker said. "Some communities have used the tests in so and to train a wide variety of skilled persons- ophthalmol called 'G-Days' to uncover potential cases. This worries ogists, nurses, biochemists, technicians, and medical social me, as indiscriminate use of these drugs can damage the workers-in the study and management of the disease. eye. Also information from the tests could have a bad NE GREAT HOPE FOR FUTURE RESEARCH, Dr. Becker em effect. A patient might develop an unreasonable fear of phasized, will be to correlate current knowledge about going blind, and there might be a great temptation to O glaucoma with the biochemical process which probably un administer anti-glaucoma drugs before they are needed. derlies the disease. "Our guess is that it is a deficiency of an Practically all glaucoma patients could be detected through enzyme or a defect in a chemical system controlling an routine eye examinations by ophthalmologists. I would enzyme," he said. "It must be a peculiar type of defect. rather see detection done in this way than through mass testing." Otherwise, why does it manifest itself so late in life? Very few diseases have been solved at the molecular level, MAJOR PART OF THE FOLLOW-THROUGH studies on the and this is what we'd like to do more than anything else. A heredity hypothesis will be carried out in a pro It might not necessarily follow, but, if this puzzle were posed model world center for treatment and study of glau solved perhaps the disease could be prevented." coma which is being planned at McMillan Hospital by the "We need a better lead than we have now. Maybe it Department of Ophthalmology. Application for finances to will come through a chance happening, Or perhaps some help support the center has been made to the National In young researcher will have a brilliant insight along the stitutes of Health, which have backed Washington Univer way." 33 I,! For l170re than ten yean, Dr. Dietrich Gerhard haJ been teaching at umven2tJes an ocean apart alternating between Washington Univenity in his adopted land and the Universities of Cologne and Goettingen in his native Germany. Professor Gerhard, who earned his degrees at H eidelberg and the University of Berlin, joined Washington University's history department in 1936, and ac cepted the position of director of the Institute of American Studies in Cologne in 1955. In this article, he cOJ1zpares and contrasts univenities and the university's place in America and Germany. REFLECTIONS OF A TRANS-ATLANTIC PROFESSOR By DIETRICH GERHARD William Eliot Smith Professor Emeritus of History N 19,54, I WAS OFFERED the newly established professor arrange ment has allowed me to act as sort of a bridge I ship in American Civilization, with its main emphasis between them. on American history, at the University of Cologne in Ger In our modern world of technology and applied social m;)ny. I accepted with the understanding th at I would science, universities in all countries ;)re bound to resemble maintain my American citizenship, my resid ence in St. each other more and more. The university reform which is Louis, ;)nd my connection with \,vashington University. taking place belatedly in Germany profits from increased A complicated schedule resulted which often made it contacts with this country. It attempts to improve the necessary for me to teach three consecutive terms because teaching functions of the university and to provide more the German second term la sts from tv!ay through Jllly. professorships, especially in previously neglected fields. However, at times I was replaced for a term at Cologne In short, it hopes to make the university more flexible by a substitute and could teach the entire academic year and to loosen the rigid, traditional structure of an au at 'Washington University. tonomous association of scholars in the service of the state. Basically, this schedule remained unchanged when I On the other hand, in the United States, in part because retired at Cologne and took on the direction of the modern of German influence, graduate education began to be history section at the Max Planck Institute of History at added to the college about one hundred years ago. The Goettingen. At the same time, in addition to this work at college's primary aims had been general education and, the research institute, I began teaching American history like all American in stitutions, it stressed communal life. at the University of Goettingen. The college, as I see it, remained the nerve center of the I admit that this way of life seems frightening. It has university. In our own time, the demands of professional been most difficult for my family, but at times this trans and pre- professional training have become ever more Atlantic connection has proved advantageo us. It would exacting. By necessity, the emphasis on research is con have been impossible had it not been for the full co-opera stantly increasing. Consequently, universities of very differ tion of Washington University, both of its administration ent origin are today approaching each other in purpose and of my colleagues in the department. The compensa and are bound to become more similar. tion has not been financial. It has, rather, been the constant Nevertheless, to an annual commuter the differences stimulus I have derived from teaching under two different remain considerable. One of the advantages of the trans systems in two countries: Germany, the country of my Atlantic commuter's life lies in his constant adaptation to birth, and the United States, which has adopted me. This two different systems : what he learns on one side is mean 35 ingful to the other. This holds true particularly for the the universities when they aim at facing their tasks in the historian, who wants to lead his students to an under modern world. It is this tradition which still influences standing of the background of a civilization and of a one's position at a German university. national tradition. My own purpose in teaching and How then does the American professor who is part of a research is precisely this: to analyze certain permanent German university feel? To judge from my own case, by features in the European social and institutional structure instinct he is in line with the "reforming" wing, usually a before the French and Industrial revolutions, to find out younger group in their thirties and forties. to what extent they have been abandoned or transformed Certain limits are set by the structure of the university in America, and to try to learn whether, or to what extent, and by the nature of the curriculum, particularly in the they have persisted, or have been remodeled, in Europe humanities and the social sciences. Only recently a time up to the present day. The research program I am directing limit has been set on what is essentially graduate study, at Goettingen is focused on problems of this kind. and intermediate examinations have been introduced. Course examinations are still anathema, however, and no HE EUROPEAN SCENE IS CHANGING rapidly everywhere, collateral reading can be required. Last summer I talked Tand particularly in Germany, where the effects of a Goettingen bookshop into a fairly large order of a book urbanization and revolutionary technological changes are on American history, which I recommended to students. felt strongly. The village as a way of life hardly exists any I feel sure that the bookshop regards this investment as more; often three-fourths of its inhabitants commute to a failure. Even an opponent of our course-obsessed and neighboring cities. Strip-farming is disappearing, to be credit-ridden system like myself has to admit that the replaced by a few mechanized and consolidated farms. German system of academic freedom is going too far. Instead of footpaths or dirt roads winding through the A professor has leeway, however, to loosen the rigid quiet countryside, nowadays a few hard-surface roads cut structure of the academic lecture if he wishes. When he is through to accommodate heavy machinery. In old towns favored, as I was at Cologne and Goettingen, to direct like Goettingen, a nucleus of narrow streets within the institutes or departments or limited size, he can experi former city walls-inconvenient for present day motorized ment with a rather democratic setup, sometimes not quite traffic-is surrounded by new developments: apartment without injections into the German student body from this houses and large buildings for university institutes. side. In this changing world, the universities still exist in their As early as 1950, when I was a guest professor at old forms, and have found it hard to adapt themselves to Muenster, one of my visiting GI students from St. Louis new conditions. Campuses and campus life were formerly created quite a stir in a discussion of American institutions. non-existent; it is difficult to establish them where space Afraid that I might turn once more to him for an answer, is lacking and ground is so frightfully ex pensive. The old he shouted at me: "Go on! Go on!" Even more outspoken community of scholars and students on which the German was the reaction to German surroundings of another university relied, so long as disciplines were few and the American student, a Swarthmore graduate who attended number of students limited, vanished a long time ago. the Cologne Institute for a while. Rather annoyed at my However, the structure or a university originally designed having included some "subliterate" products in the library, to serve an elite changes very slowly and few of its basic in the interests of an objective presentation of the Ameri features can be done away with easily. can mores, he put his feet on the table in the reading room. Most continental universities are still based on individual His explanation for this unheard-of violation of German professorships. When the professor, formerly in charge of custom was: "If Professor Gerhard is so interested in one field exclusively but now often sharing the honor and American folkways, I can make a contribution." burden with his colleagues, accepts a "call ," he negotiates 'Within the given framework of a German university, the with the Ministry of Education, not with the university. professor's contributions will be less dramatic but perhaps Although the call is initiated by the faculty, which must more lasting. At Cologne my assistant was an extremely make many decisions autonomously, each professor is less intelligent German postgraduate of conservative inclina a member of an active community than in this country and tion. She was not only helpful in steering me through the stands much more by himself. academic waters with the necessary regard for formalities; In 1874, an intelligent observer returning from two years she also provided by instinct, whatever the topic of the of study in Germany summarized his experience in this seminar, a strongly Hamiltonian point of departure for way: "The university is a law unto itself, each professor is interpretation, which happily balanced my own Jeffer a law unto himself, each student revolves on his own axis sonian leanings. Instead of magisterial direction, we had at his own speed." This tradition presents an obstacle for a dialectic beginning, with good effects on the participants. 36 REFLECTIONS OF A TRANS-ATLANTIC PROFESSOR I, I! This proved all the more important since the size of the tion," which \vas tried by the the American occupation classes constantly hinders direct contact with individ authorities in the immediate postwar period, often enough ual students. Although American history is a rather periph neither tactfully nor successfully. eral subject, by no means required for the examination, Under such circumstances, and in view of the rather the seminars had about thirty members and the lecture rigid traditional structure of German universities, I am not courses averaged about sixty. Every departure from the inclined to overestimate the results of a dozen years of traditional procedure is welcomed by students, and from academic work like my own. Except for newly opened time to time discussions enliven the formal lecture course. fields like SOCio logy and political science, the study of the At the Max Planck Institute for History at Goettingen, United States is still far from integrated into the educa a research institute composed of postdoctoral scholars, tion of young Germans. The establishment of chairs in mutual co-operation and recognition of each of the partici American literature and American history is helpful; more pants as an equal is of the very nature of the Institute. In important is a full recognition of the role of the United the Modern History section which I direct, the li vely dis States and its institutions and society in the development cussions resulting from the program received the special of our modern wo rld. My own presentation has been fo compliment (although with the cautioning remark "not to cused on these problems. From numerous remarks of Ger be broadcast" ) of one of our guests of long standing, a man and American students, I know that comparing and Ph.D. candidate from Washington University, that the contrasting th e United States with different phases of intellectual climate reminded her more and more of an European development has met with th e greatest response. American university. Certainly in my own thought and research these view As a matter of fact, the climate at German universities points have been paramount. And what could have been in general is changing. A cri tical appraisal of the perform more helpful to clarify them than my trans-Atlantic teach ance of the professors is being tried in student newspapers, ing and living? not always in the most considerate way. The emergency It follows naturally that I have also been interested in situation in which the universities found themselves a year paving the way for others to go in the same direction. It ago, because of inadequate financial support by the gov has been my good fortune for years to have been associated ernment, led to public demonstrations by professors and with the work of the Fulbright Commission in Germany students. Recently, a small group of students bas even and of the Conference Board in Washington, as well as carried the message of university education, which on the with the U.S. Information Service. Thanks to these con wbole is tuition free, to remote villages. In this way, they tacts, I have been able not only to arouse a greater interest are trying to overcome the reluctance of teachers to en in the United States in students and young teachers and courage their pupils to cnter high school in order to pre scholars, but also to help them to go abroad. My prefer pare for the university. ence, of course, has been vVashington University, although because of lack of special funds for foreign students the GOOD E XAMPLE OF T HE POLITICAL interest of an ar placement often has been rather difficult. A ticulate and well-informed minority was given on I am convinced that living and studying in a foreign the occasion of a visit to Goettingen in the summer of country is essential to the training of educators and schol 1965 by the American ambassador. It was a pleasure to ars, particularly of historians. The whole trend toward ever listen to the long discussion between the ambassador and greater specialization has to be balanced by an interest in the spokesman for the student demonstrators against the the meaning and purpose of the whole discipline, and of Vietnam war. vVhen informed of the percentage of the its place wi thin the general context of learning. To pene students the spokesman represented, the ambassador re trate the traditions of other countries and civilizations marked drily, "In America it would have been larger." opens up new vistas and reBects on the scholar's work, For a long time, appeal to the public and public concern even jf it has no direct relationship to the other country. with the universities met with the distrust of the academic He realizes the relativi ty of his old outlook and of the community. Even now, German intellectuals often regard institutions with which he has been familiar. Aware of open criticism of academic institutions as an indication of their limitations, he recognizes their value all the more. "Americanization ," in their language rather a derogatory At least, this has happened to me every time I have term . To my mind, such criticism is a sign of the democ returned to this country. If I had my way, I would make a ratization of modern society which Tocqueville foresaw. stay abroad of at least several semesters a requirement for It is true, however, that American example is frequently all future teachers of history, provided they were fully cited in Germany. Besides, in the minds of many of the equipped linguistically. I certainly hope that experiences old(~ r generation, memories linger on of the "re-educa like my own will not remain an isolated case. 37 BLUES: Instruments poised, members of the jazz class sponsored this su mmer by the Universlly, Department of iv[u sic listen attentively as Oliver Nelson, noted jazz composer, arranger, and performer expl~ins a tri cky passage in a new arrangement. Nelson has arranged fo r D uke Ellington and Count B ~s i e. I. ~I LlND THE ABSTRACT TRUTH AZZ, THAT VAGUELY DISREPUTABLE, faintly illegitimate J Tom Jones of the Family of Culture, has had a most difficult time finding a place in the academic world. There is room in the college curricula, classrooms, and galleries for all kinds of non-European art, no matter how primitive or alien; all good universities now offer courses in Asiatic and African languages and culture. It is only in the realm of music, it seems, that an art form must demonstrate its roots in conventional European culture to be taken seriously. Washington University has an exceptional Department of Music. To the campus each year it brings composers and performers and theorists in every branch of music from the Baroque to the Computer; but until this summer it all centered around the mainstream of European music. Jazz was beyond the pale. This summer, a key change was made: Oliver Nelson, a former Washington University student who has gone on to become one of the top jazz performers and arrangers in the business, conducted a jazz course on the campus. Nelson spent six weeks on the campus, conducting an "improvisation clinic," and developing, training, and inspiring a student "big-band" concert jazz orchestra. Enrolled in the course were young jazz professionals, hurrying from class to regular jobs in St. Louis nightspots; music majors from Washington University and other area schools; and even a couple of members of the St. Louis Symphony Orchestra. Chosen the top-ranking performer in the Twelfth International Jazz Critics Poll conducted by Downbeat magazine, Nelson commanded his students' respect as a virtuoso, as well as a composer, arranger, and teacher. The final exam might have caused as much anxiety among the students as a conventional examination, but it was more fun. To test their skills and to demonstrate their progress, the class presented a concert of Nelson arrangements from the Beaumont Pavilion stage in the Quadrangle. Before a large audience of friends, relatives, students, faculty, and local jazz fans, the 21-piece student group delivered an exciting program of big-band jazz. Nelson conducted the band, soloed on the soprano saxophone, and delivered the program notes in a supremely casual fashion. The program ranged from III I I the Ellington-Strayhorn classic "Raincheck" to Nelson's own highly complicated "Blues and the Abstract Truth." l, .39 A recognized virtuoso on his instmment, Nelson was able to back up his lectures with most practical and inspiring demonstra tions. Clark Terry, with trumpet and Buegelhorn, was one of the outstanding jazz musicians Nelson brought to the campus for a special concert. Student Les Scott, who has played with the St. Louis Symphony, doubled on flute and saxophone in the student jazz band. 40 BLUES AND THE ABSTRACT TRUTH , "Final examination" for the jazz class took the form of a concert in Brookings Quadrangle. With Nelson conducting, the 21-piece student band played a polished performance of special Nelson big-band arrangements. Alto saxophonist Dave Sandborn, Iowa University student, was one of the featured solois ts at the student concert. Nelson and Robert Wykes, professor of music, listen to the tapes of a student performance after class. vVykes, composer and professor of advanced music theory, worked closely with Nelso n. Eight attempts-successful and unsuccessful-have been made on the lives of American Presidents. In the Assembly Series address on which this article is based, Professor Cunliffe attempts to deter mine if there is a pattern in this phenomenon and to assess its significance. A noted English author and scholar of American history, Dr. Cunliffe has written several books and many articles on Ameri can subjects, including The Nation Takes Shape and George Washington: Man and MOlZument. 11'1 /' II MURDER AND THE AMERICAN PRESIDENCY By MARCUS CUNLIFFE Professur of Ameri((/Il Studies UniverSity of Sussex l\·IO:\C THE UNSTABLE N ATIOi'lS of the modern world, markable quality, was ::l lso a shock of am::lzement that A few heads of state can afford to discount the risk of such a thing could happen in the United States. The assassination. Indeed, it has been a risk in most nations for United States was assumed to be a stable country, with a the past hundred years or more. There w ere three attempts much firmer political system than other nations have en on the life of Queen Victoria in the early years of her joyed; one with the oldest written constitution in the reign, between 1840 and 1842; someone tried to kill a world; ::l country in which there was a great deal of talk French emperor, Napoleon III, in 1858; and Bi smarck was about consensus and very little about basic ideological shot in the chest in Germany in the 1880's. differences. Nevertheless, the President was murdered. These were unsuccessful attemp ts, but the score What made the death all the more horrible and amazing mounted up. In the late years of the 19th century in was th at John F. Kennedy seemed perfectly to embody Serbia, King Michael Obrenovitch was killed and his son the virtues of the United States: He was youthful, likable, after him in H.ussia in 1881, Tsar Alexander II was killed energetic, neat, moderate, shrewd, good-looking, and re by terrorist bombs. Anarchist attempts accounted in 1894 luctant to give offense. in France for the life of President Carnot; in 1898 in I want to consider not why John F. Kennedy was killed Austria, for the death of the Empress Elizabeth; and in but what significance, if any, there may be in the many 1900 in Italy, for the death of King Humbert 1. attempts on the li ves of Presidents. For in spite of th e In recent years, successful or unsuccessful murders have dreadful unexpectedness of the death of Kennedy, assas been attempted in India and Ceylon, where the heads of sination attempts on American Presidents have b een fairly state, Ghandi and Bandarnaike, were murdered; in Latin common. There have been eight attempts, four of them America ; in the Middle East; in Africa; even in France, successful: Lincoln in 1865, Garfield in 1881, McKinley in where there have been several attempts on the life of 1901, Kennedy in 1963. But apart from these four murders President de Gaulle. and the first of the attacks on Andrew Jackson in 1835, an But the shock produced by the death of President attempt on the life of Theodore Roosevelt was made in John F. Kennedy, though in part a tribute to his re October, 1912, just before the election of that year. He 43 was not President at the time, but he was an ex-President who was the nominee of the party campaigning for re election. Franklin Roosevelt, too, \-vas attacked- in Feb ruary 1933, when he was President-elect-and an attempt was made on the life of Harry Truman in November, 19.50. There have been eight attempts on the Jives of Presi dents-eight murders or near-murders out of thirty-five Presidents, excluding Johnson. So the actuarial chances are more than one in five that somebody will attempt to kill an American President, and about one in nine that the attempt will be successful. The chances could be argued to be even greater. No one made a serious attempt on the lives of the first Presidents, from Washington through John Quincy Adams. So omitting the first six Presidents, and adding Lyndon Johnson, brings us to the present moment. '<\Ie can take thirty Presidents into account and say that the odds on so meone trying to kill them stand at more than one in four. F WE LOOK FOR EXPLANATIONS, we find little help in lit I erature. People have written about the horror and the melodrama of assassination attempts, but usually they have concluded that in the nature of the situation there was no explanation, except that the individuals who tried to kill a President have been unhinged people who haven't really been involved in an ideological clash. They couldn't be called terrorists, like the anarchist groups who system atically were tryi ng to kill heads of state in Europe in the thirty years before the first world war. There has been a tendency on the part of recent his torians to say that there is no real homicidal conspiracy in America. Louis Filler says that one should really em phasize the rarity of such instances, not merely attacks on the lives of PreSidents, but on governors or other senior pol iticians. His explanation is that authority in the United States is not only mild, but diffused. You don't know who is in charge, he says, so you have no sense that you can change anything. Therefore, these assassination attempts have no meaning at all in a strict sense. They are random events. I think we can agree that American political history in comparison with that of other countries has been non-ideological for a fairly long time-that ultra radical groups have had almost no institutional importance in American history as a whole, nor has the President been a tyrannical figure because Presidential power is hedged in. Commenting on what Eisenhower would dis cover about the nature of the Presidency, Truman pre dicted, "He will say 'do this' and nothing will happen." From 'Vashington's time, there has been a strong con vention that the President ought not to hold office for more than two terms. The two-term convention has been broken only once, and has since been restricted through a constitu tional amendment. Even two terms seemed too long to some Presidents. Early in his tenure of office, Andrew Jackson suggested the wisdom of an amendment which would limit the President to one term. Theodore Roose velt and Truman both reached the White House from the vice presidency on the deaths of McKinley and F.D.R., respectively. Neither had two full terms in office, but both declared nevertheless that they felt it to be wrong to run again for what might be construed as a third term "The foulest crime of the new century" was the original caption on this artist's conception of the assassination of President McKinley at the Pan-American Exposition in 1901. in office-although Theodore Roosevelt later changed his MURDER AND THE AMERICAN PRESIDENCY mind and did nm again. These men don't sound in any way like autocrats. Why then should anyone want to kill them for anything that we could consider a semi-rational, row Wilson, Franklin Roosevelt, and probably Truman conspiratorial motive? and Kennedy. This is the explanation which denies a pattern of any There have been assassination attempts at one stage 01' kind; the assassins and would-be assassins were simply another in the careers of all those men except Polk and unhinged. The man who tried to kill Andrew Jackson Woodrow Wilson. One can generalize very little about believed himself to be the heir to the throne of America Garfield, a President who was shot at when he had been in and thought that Jackson stood in his way. Booth was a office for only four months, yet it was felt at the time that wild and ranting man. Guiteau, the office sceker who killed Garfield, a President who was attacked when he had been in Garfield, was a man who had a weirdly unsuccessful career President, a man challenging a powerful wing of his party with moments of religious exaltation. Leon Czolgosz, the and resisting the pab'onage expectations of many people. man who killed McKinley, believed himself to be an anarchist, but was not accepted by any of the anarchist NOTHER FEATURE WHICH IS perhaps of some Significance groups as one of their number. Guiseppe Sangara, who A is that several Presidents have been attacked not long took a shot at F.D.R. in 1933 in Florida, had come down before or after their inauguration or re-inauguration. Such a from New Jersey filled with hate and obscure complex list would include Lincoln, Garfield, McKinley, and Theo grievances. Lee Harvey Oswald was a classic case. dore Roosevelt, if we assume that in 1912 the latter was If one were looking for a little more in the way of an on the eve of an election which he might have won; F .D.R. explanation for the relatively numerous attempts on Ameri in February, 1933; Truman, possibly (he had been re can Presidential life, one could fall back on the argument elected in 1950 when the attack occurred); and Kennedy, that there is a good deal of violence in American life; that who, we can say for the sake of argument, was certain of there have been times of great stress, despite all the talk renomination and very likely indeed to be re-elected. of consensus; and that this is a society with a very high We could put this a little differently and suggest that murder rate and strong traditions of vigilantism. Bacon one finds a tendency to attack Presidents who have been said that revenge was "a kind of wild justice" and this is a re-elected for a second term. Jackson is the first name that notion that is inherent in American life. occurs. The second term for a President was not a novelty When a character in one of William Gilmore Simms's in the 1830's when he was re-elected, but Jackson did say novels in the 1840's is about to hang somebody who before his re-election that he was against a second term. has committed a crime, he explains to the victim that he He recommended in his State of the Union speeches a is doing this because "every man in America is a standing constitutional amendment restricting the President to one army to resist injustice." This idea seems to give curious term. After Jackson, there was no second-term President sanction to the private wild justice, which is individual until Lincoln. After Lincoln, there was a second-term and takes very little account of a formal pattern of some President in Grant, but he was widely felt to be a weak thing imposed from on high. There are also the obvious PreSident, a man who was not extending the force of the features of the availability of lethal weapons in this country Presidential office. Cleveland had two terms, but these and of the accessibility of the President. The campaigning were not consecutive. McKinley, like Jackson and Lincoln, necessity, the need to thrust oneself into public life, to was attacked after he had been re-elected for a second shake innumerable hands in large crowds; all these seem term. All this suggests that the odds are much higher on to thrust this head of state into an ex traordinary promi an attack when the President is strong, and when he nence, which almost invites disaster. consolidates his strength through re-election. There are obvious truths in these explanations as far as \Ve can learn something interesting from the attack on they go, and they do tell us something about the nature Andrew Jackson in this respect. The Presidents who are of the American situation, which in part accounts for the admired, who figure in the lists of the great and the near attempts on the lives of Presidents. But can we go any great, are admired precisely because they have enlarged further than this? the powers of the Presidency. This has been equated with There may be one or two patterns, however. \Vhile a growth in American power and responsibility generally, they are elementary and one can object to them, they are, and a growth in the national concern for the poor and the nevertheless, a little more than coincidental, though none victimized. You can find this sort of statement in favor of of them is a perfect pattern. If you look at this list of the the enlargement of executive authority admirably put by eight persons who have been attacked, it may occur to you Arthur Schlesinger in his books on Jackson and F.D.R. that it is the great, or near-great Presidents who are much According to this story, which I think is the dominant one more in danger of assassination than the others. If we in American historiography, the extension of executive were to take one of those lists of presidents who are authority has represented a cumulative victory over local deemed to be great or near-great, the definition of great ism, states rights, primitivism, bigotry, and white suprema ness or near-greatness is usually taken to mean Presidents cy. Conversely, the failures among Presidents are deemed who have extended the executive authority, If we were to to be those who were lazy, na'ive, or maladroit; who sur list such men since the time of Andrew Jackson, we ,"vould rendered power to the states or to Congress; or who, find Polk, Lincoln, McKinley, Theodore Roosevelt, \'Vood perhaps like President Eisenhower, cherished dreams of 45 - being non-partisan heads of state, above party and with [licked his successor, Van Buren; that he rode over Con ceremonial rather than executive significance. Theodorc gress and the judici8rY; and that hc was a sword-waver. Roosevelt made a distinction between wh,lt he cfllled the Arthur Schlesinger and others tend to discredit this and "Lin coins" and the "Buchanans" in the Presidency, with say thflt after all Jackson was no wild tyrant-that it is himself, of course, flS a Lincoln. He said that the Lincolns ridiculous to liken him to Caesar-and yet, at the time were the strong Presidents, the men who really helped for this view was seriously held and with some justification. ward the United States, while the Buchanans hampered it. I believe that there was a real alarm at the time of Jackson , John F. Kennedy, in a speech in January, 1960, said and that although it has diminished and changed, it isn't that Wilson discovered that to be a big man in the White altogether negligible. It is a real alarm at what a man may House inevitably brings cries of dictatorship. So did accomplish in high office, and a confused and complex feeling that the President ought not to assume too much Lincoln and Jackson and the two Roosevelts. Perhaps power. I think this was fl belief held by some Presidents this view, that America has gained in strength, maturity, as n mntter of principle and not of indolence. is correct; but it is inadequate as history because it slights N THE VOCABULARY OF CRlTlCISJ\J, n key word is "usurpa the strength and persistence of other elements in American I tion." Governor Root talks about the "usurpations of a sentiment: local pride and the dislike of authority. It is despot." Theodore Roosevelt, defending his conception also inadequate as psychology because it fails to take into of the Presidency, said in a letter to an English fri end, account the resentments which are engendered by this "I have used every ounce of power there was in the office extension of authority. Historians and political scientists and I did not care a rap for the criticisms of those who ,)11 know and recognize that Presidents have been abused spoke of my usurpation of power, for I knew that the talk as well as praised. Louis Brownlow, in a book on the was all nonsense and that there was no usurpation." He Presidency, said: "Every President of the United States, said in another document, "I did not usurp power, bu t I with but one exception, has been denounced as a despot, did greatly broaden the use of executive power." a tyrant, a dictator, as one who is using the power of "Encroachment" is another key word. The President is the government to further his own personal ends and said to be seizing power from other people. He may be flc hieve his own personal ambitions. The only President taking it from Congress or from the states, or, in the case not so denounced WflS \;Villiam Henry Harrison. He lived of Tackson , from the federal judiciary. Moreover, he is only one month after he was inaugurated." acc~sed of encroaching because he is extending the dura This criticism of the President as a tyrant and a des tion of office. Note here once again the correlation between pot is usually dismissed as mere political rhetoric or de re-election and attempted assassination. Somebody tried liberate exaggeration, borrowing its vocabulary and its to shoot Theodore Roosevelt in 1912 when he was on anecdotes from episodes in history which have no real a platform making a speech. He was hit in the chest relevance to the United States. We all know that F. D. R. but finished his speech with wonderful Bullmoose energy. was not the despot, tyrant, or dictator he was called. vVe The man who shot him shouted out "third term!" with a all know that Lincoln wasn't either, although he was often feeling, however insane or complex, that Roosevelt was attacked for acting like one. How then can we take seri breaking some kind of rule of American life, that he was ously the attacks on Andrew Jackson, whose enemies seeking to take power which was not his. called him "King Andrew" and described him as a military Another element in this notion of usurpation is that the chieftain? At the end of 1833, Jackson was vigorously President is assuming authority of a symbolic nature over criticized in the Senate. Henry Clay cried out, "We are in the whole nation when he is only a party head. This is the midst of a revolution-blooclless as yet-but rapidly the dual aspect of the Presidency. The President, unlike tending towards a total change of the pure republican the British sovereign, is both the ceremonial and the character of the government and to the concentration of executive head of government, as if he were the sovereign all power in the hands of one man." and the prime minister rolled into one. Ambrose Bierce, Govemor Root of New York wrote to Clay shortly in his Devil's Dictionary, makes one of his characteristical afterward, praising him for his speech and flsking, "When ly cynical definitions of the President which is nevertheless will the mad career of the military chieftain be checked, interesting: "PreSident, noun: The leading figure in a small or is it never to meet with a check?" Calhoun, supporting group of men of whom it is positively known only that Clay in the Senate, read a striking passage from Plutarch immense numbers of their countrymen did not want any descriptive of Caesar forcing himself, sword in hand, into of them for President." I don't think it is altogether fanci the treasury of the Roman commonwealth. "We are in the ful to suggest that within the nature of the Presidcncy is same stage of our political revolution, and the analogy a feeling that here is a man who has thrust himself into between the two cases is complete, varied only by the authority, who has usurped authority. Here is a man you character of the actors and the circumstances of the times. didn't vote for, but who claims to speak for you. The senator said truly, and let me add philosophically, If Henry Cby and Calhoun called somebody an usurper, that we are in the midst of a revolution." a Caesar, then it's possible to unclerstand why Lawrence, The grievance here, of course, is that Jackson had who shot at Jackson in 1835, felt that he was simply acting removed deposits from the Federal treasury; that he had, according to some kind of imperative. Remember his claims after saying that he was not in favor of a second term, that Tackson had killed his father and that Jackson was secured one for himself; that he had apparently hand depri~ing him of the rightful title to the thrones of Amer 46 MURDER AND THE AMERICAN PRESIDENCY ica and England . I don't know where England comes in to be popular, so everyolle would know who is Lee Harvey except that Lawrence was of British origin. Here is King Oswald." Oswald's mother complains th at her new posi Andrew, the false king then, whom a madman tries to tion isn't appreciated. "1 am an important person; I under kill, but who can feel that he has so me justification within stand that I will go down in hi story too." You remember the rhetoric of the time, a rhetoric which isn't altogether th at she says, "I am responsible for two Presi de nts." She crazy. There is one other little interesting feature in this complains that President Johnson has shown her scant vocabulary. vVilliam Jennings Bryan refers to the President courtesy. "He should remember that I'm not ju st anyone as a "hired man." The Presidency is a role of great author and he is only President of the United States by the grace ity and yet one can see that Bryan's reference might have of my son's action." With an extraordinary aplomb she a kind of relevance for people who feel that this person, hands out press releases to reporters. Jack Ruhy, Oswald's who has inordinate symbolic :)!1d real authority, is a executioner, tells a psychiatrist that the act has made him false person, a perso n who is there only because he has a "big guy" instead of a nonentity: ''I'm above everybody. been put in and who is really making excessive claims. They cannot move me." Oswalcl tells American officials in A great deal has changed in American life, but th e kind the Moscow embassy, "It's the fas hion to hate people in of person who might kill a President has remained the the United States." same. Although their vocabulary no longer includes terms One could go on to speculate more fancifully still about like "despot" and "tyrant," the preoccupations of these the sense in which the Ameri can President is a sacrificial lonely, anonymous people are stronger than ever. It is a figure: a man who disappears finall y from public life if he sort of parody of American democracy in which one can survives, and a man who has very often in a strange way see paranoiacs developing. Every man can become a been preoccupied hy the possibilities of being killed. Lin President; at any rate every man can kill a President. John coln was supposed to have dreamed shortly before his Adams, an American public mall who envied other puhlic death that he saw a coffin in the White H ouse, surrounded men, saw long ago that the washouts and nonentities are by a crowd weeping, and that he was told that this was sick of their anonymity. He said in the 1790's, "The poor thc coffin of th e President. Garfield, a few days before he man feels himself out of the sight of others, groping in the was killed, said to Lincoln's son, "Tell me all about the dark. 'tvlankind takes no notice of him. In the midst of a assassination." Kennedy himself was well aware of the risks crowd he is in as much obscurity as he would be in a of assassination and in a strange way one might argue, if garret or a cellar-to be wholly overlooked, and to know it, on e were, say, Norman Mailer weaving a fantasy, that the is intolerable." President almost brings it upon himself. Finally, I believe that the risks of assassination attempts HE THEORY OF POPULAI\ SOVEHEIGNTY has triumphed T since then, but the actual degree of participation, the on Presidents are probably growing rather than diminish feeling that the individual matters, has dwindled almost to ing, partly because a President now is more visible th an nothing. It is a paradoxical business. The ordinary citizen ever before, partly becnuse he tends to he richer, and is flattered an d ignored- he is everybody and nobody; he partly because it's almos t impossible to get him out after h,lS the illusion of being consulted, of being privy to state one term. The disparity, thcrefore, between the lonely anonymous person and the lonely man in the vVhite House secrets ; statesmen appear to defer to him in his own home. becomes all the more intolerable to the p aranOiac. He can watch them being badgered in the impudent deferential camaraderie of the TV interview; vicariousl)! he W alt Whitman sensed the horror of the gap between the fnmous individu,ll and discontented persons in the crowd: becomes an expert on how to become a celebrity; he be comes an expert on the special techniques of publicity. If And I will make a song for the en rs of the he is an ordinary person, the make-believe aspects don't President, full of weapons with menacing points, trouble him. His curios ity a bout leaders is satisfied hy the And hehind the weapons countless dissntisfied faces. daily diet of intimate gossip. But if he is out of the ordinary, he is offended by what he interprets as sham and The gap has widened since \Vhitman's day. Even more then his dreams of glory tum into nightmares . His only than a century ago, the American President was admired and short cut to fame is notoriety, the poor man's equivalen t. derided, loved and hated to an extravagant and ominous Oswald's widow says of him, "He was a normal man degree. F or an y President who has been re-elected the hut sometimes people didn't understand him. He wanted tensions build up to an even greater degree. 47 Dal Ma xv ill has become one of th e bes t defensive shortstops in the game. H e has good range, sure hands, and an accurate arm. H e and Second Baseman Juli an Javier gave th e Cardinals a star doubJ epl ay combination. Dallays no claims to being a slugger, but he has developed into a smart hitter, able to punch the ball through the infield, poke it to the opposite field, and come through with key hits. SHORTSTOP HEN DAL MAXVILL WAS GROWING UP W in Granite City, across the river from St. Louis, his big hero was the Cardinals' great star Stan Musial. "For ten years, I even kept a picture of Stan over my bed," Dal admits. Stan Musial played his first game for the Cardinals when Dal Maxvill was only two years old; he played his last game twenty-two years later, and it was Dal's basehit in the fourteenth inning that won the ballgame. Dal, who received an electrical engineering degree from Washington University in 1962, had been an outstanding shortstop in high school and on the baseball Bears. He was signed to a Cardinal contract in 1960, after he had completed his lour years 01 eligibility in college sports, and spent the next two years playing in the minor leagues in the summer and finishing up in the winter the eighteen hours of work he still needed for his degree. He was called up to the Cardinals in the summer of 1962. For the first week 01 Dal's career in the big leagues, he sat on the bench. Then in a game against the Giants in San Francisco, he was sent in to hit for the pitcher in the ninth inning 01 a close game. Instructed to lay down a bunt, Dal promptly popped out. "Fortunately, Curt Flood then hit a game-winning home run to get me off the hook," Dal relates. For the rest of that season and all of the next, Dal was in and out of the lineup, filling in at shortstop and second base and pinch-hitting occasionally. When the Cardinals acquired the veteran shortstop Dick Groat in 1963, it looked as if Dal were destined to remain a utility player. Actually, the arrival of Groat helped the young shortstop in the long run. "I learned a great deal just watching Groat play," Dal says. "He did everything right and he was always willing to help me whenever I asked." In 1964, however, Dal was still riding the bench. behind Dick Groat. In the closing weeks 01 the season, with the Cardinals in an all-out drive for the pennant, the Cards' regular second baseman, Julian Javier, was injured. Dal was Maxie trots into the dugout to receive the collgratulations of his tea mmates after drivin g in n key rlln in an important game. Being a big league ballplayer means becoming a celebrity. Dal is gradually becoming adius ted to cop ing with autograph seekers after every game and with a regular How of fanmail from all over the country. SHORTSTOP called on to take his place and did so brilliantly. On the last day of the season, when the Cardinals clinched the pennant, Dal drove in two runs with two key hits. In the World Series, he fielded flawlessly and collected four big hits. With Javier back in action the next year, Maxvill was in and out of the lineup again, and he started this past season the same way. The Cardinals began the year badly, however, and Manager Red Schoendienst tried shaking up his lineup in search of a winning combination. When the lineup finally settled down again, Maxvill was established as the starting shortstop and he played the rest of the season as a regular. Playing every day, Dal not only steadied the infield and rounded off the defense, but began to develop as a good reliable hitter. As one St. Louis sportswriter remarked, "Maxie has developed a penchant for getting key hits." In his big league career so far, Dal has hit just one home run and that was a chip shot down the line at the old Polo Grounds. "They've torn down the only ballpark I was ever able to hit a home run in," Dallaments. The life of a big league ballplayer is a strenuous one, leaving little time for a normal home life. "When I first broke in, the travel was the best part of the whole deal; now it's just about the worst," Dal says. Even when the season is over, Dal is on the road in his winter job as a sales engineer for the Bussmann Manufacturing Company of St. Louis. From October to March, he travels to utility companies all over the country, giving sales presentations on a line of fuses. The Maxvill clan are all great Cardinal fans. Dal's mother and father attend home games regularly and his wife, Diane, attends as many games as she can with three small children to look after. The three children are Kathy, five; Dan, two; and Jeff, one. Dan has already broken into the big leagues. He came to bat and got a hit, too, in the annual Father-Son baseball game at Busch Memorial Stadium this summer. Off the field, Dallooks much more the sales engineer than the ballplayer. Soft-spoken and polite, he's a far cry from the old Gashouse gang. Dal Maxvi ll at home: From left, Mrs. Maxvill, with Jeff, age one; Ka thy, fi ve; Dan, with glove, two; and Dal. Professor Revard is a med ievalist, an authority on Chaucer. This past summer, he went on a modern Canterbury Pilgrimage, shepherding an Alumni Tour of the British Isles . Here are some of his impressions of that tour, the tour party, and the places they visited. 52 By CARTER REVARD /1JS oc1{1te ProjeJJ or oj ElI gli.rh GETTING THE PICTURE WAS ASKED TO GO ALO NG ON THE Alumni T our to Eng many ways. It will be, fOJ in stance, a lucky perso n whu I land because I "knew abou t England" from having sits next to one of us at lunch this yen r: we can describe studied two years at Oxford University. A very little tour \Vestminster Abbey to him, as it appeared on a day when ing, however, m"de clear that more than an Oxford degree the crowds being driven gawking through it (on foot, of is required tu produce ,\ guod tourist- ,lll d as for acquiring course) wel-e no less dense and stuporinc th an those leav the title of tour leader, 1 can only say tha t it has this in ing Busch St"clium after a game. At least, though, the co mmon with attaining one's Ph.D.: th ey both involve stadium cJ'Owd s would know thc score; going through taking a third degree. Westminstcr Abbey, we didn't even know the game. I Luckily, Jlowever, my youth h"c1 not all becn misspent think it was call ed Buying the Brookl yn Bridge. on formal educa ti on, for I was reared on a farm in Okla homa, and there- among pigs, chickens, and cattle-I ob EnJOU SLY, Tl101.JGl-l, lT \VAS FUN. '''.'e did fcc1 like cat served enough of herd behavior to provide me, each morn S tl e, and we did act like sheep, but we were pJ'Obably ing of our tour, with a rough knowledge of what to expect only people being tourists. We had a way of laughing at in the co ming day, if not always the gumption to cope with being so sheeplike, which satiris ts never allow their ani it. As all of our group agreed, however, the tour was part mals to know. As a matter of fact, after our fir st days in of our continuing education: what others learned is for Ireland we were already divided into the sheep and th e them to say, but one thing that came clem to me is that I goats; and before we got ou t of London there ,""ere even am about as much sheep as shepherd. some black sheep among us. W e will say nothing of black Still, we were no ordinary flock of sheep. vVe were sheep, but it must be said with so rrow that one of the goats 'Vashington University alumni; our baa's, so to speak, was our courier, Charley. He was a short, sad-eyed, bald were B.A.'s. Our guides were quite awed- or so they ing Frenchman with a rather fatalisti c attitu(le to ward lu g hinted-by such a high-class group, so much that we so me gage ilnd travel arrangements-which, of course, were times had to in sist on their telling us whcther the church exactly the matters he was supposed to be slightly we were passing at " given moment (we passed four paranoiac llbout. His goat-horns appeared just when he th ousand and three) WllS indeed by Christopher vVren took over our lu ggage and ti ckets (another person, a par:1 (fourteen were not), so that our bus could stop long gon, had had us in charge till th en) ; this was in the Shan enough for us to take pictures. "There isn't time," our non airpmt, 53 They turned to dcspair in Glasgow, whcre we found that a )'0U the gravy?"), and to sing us sad-sweet Gaelic SU llgS. suitcase and two overnight bags, belonging to three of our Yet the history of th ose places, whether real or fakc, was group, had failed to cross the Irish Sea. Their disappear not "our" history- and the people presenting it were "show ance could not possibly have been Charley's fault, but he people." Here in Edinburgh Castle, up high on a rock was at once blamed-converted, one might say, from mere overlooking a large and vcry lovely city, we looked down goat to scapegoat. vVe stood around whi,le he harangued from castle walls that had held people we knew of-~vlary the porters, rolled his eyes, clutched his forehead, and even Queen of Scots and her son King James; we were shown shrugged at various airline men, all in vain. the crown jewels of Seotland, and heard well told the At last he herded us onto the bus that was to take us story of how Oli,ver Cromwell had led his soldiers through from Glasgow to Edinburgh, and we found that the bus's Scotland after this crowlI and sceptre, in vain. One does public-address system was out of whack: 'Ve would have not feel until such a moment the enormous audacity of to pass the filthy scenes of Glasgow without being told Cromwell-the immense force of a man who would plunge what we were seeing. Back in America this might have deep into a hostile country to grasp the very symbols which been tolerable; but we were fres h from Ireland, where our that country's people most cherish: nor, until then, does bus tours had been splendidly guided, and we were one appreciate the shrewd, stubborn courage that a people hookcd on being sung Gaelic songs or lectured to about can show, as did that Scots cleric and the ladies who kept every bump in the road. Tension, therefore, began to build, Cromwell from fisting the honors of Scotland, though he ominous murmurs arose in the back regions of the bus, shattered those of England. and it soon became clear to me-who was supposed to be It was always pleasant, after facing classrooms of bored thc "tour leader"- how Captain Bligh must have felt. If, sophomores who would rather be playing bridge, to find that is, Captain Bligh had been chicken: for Charley ancl that our group really wanted to be told about literary mat I at once began playing pass-the-buck; and for much of ters. In fact, they were fiercely determined to be told th e trip to Edinburgh , one or the other of LlS would be about them; and so, on the train-trip from Glouces ter up to assuring some passenger who had come lurching grimly Stratford upon Avon , it happened that about a dozen of forward along the aisle, "He's in charge, not me!" Then our group had got into a non-smoking compartment to the passenger would go sourly back and the ripple would gether, and the cry went up: tell us about this fellow from spread, "He says it's not his job." Stratford. No teacher can resist such a cry, so I rose and Did I really say, three paragraphs ago, that it was fun? launched the lecture. That bus ride from Glasgow certainly wasn't fun. It now Unluckily, there were others besides our group in the seems a mere smudge on an expanse of bright days, but compartment, and among these was a British couple in then it seemed that the trip was falling apart, the group their late forties, who sat facing me from the most distant beginning to consider itself badly misled, not getting the seats of the compartment. At first I noticed only the face most out of Scotland, placed in the hands of incompetents of the wife, who was beaming and interested; she nodded, -and I was the chief incompetent. and smiled, and looked at our group happily. But just as I got onto the question of the second-best bed-or was it the TILL, TWINKLES APPEARED in the gloom. The first came Second Quarto of Ha.mlet?-I noticed the husband's ex S when Charley got cornered by one of the fiercer ladies pression. I have rarely seen such resigned misery. He was ( her suitcase was lost) , who demanded that he, or some looking politely out the window, but I could see how the one, must tell us the names of those factories we were pass British had withstood the Luftwaffe, just from his ex ing. He swung round in his seat, half rose in his place, and pression. 'Veil, I have faced such situations in classrooms proclaimed to the whole bus: "I am onlee a varee small many times, but at least the students (or their parents) man, I do not know Scotland so well for a guide, you are have paid to be lectured to: here was this poor fellow, university graduates and I am afraid to talk about these betrayed by his wife's obvious interest in cultural mattcrs, things, of which you know mudge more than I do." Then having to hear again what he quite possibly knew more he sat down and stared sadly out the window. .. , The about than I did, or what he had with all his British pluck other moment was when our bus had at last got out of managed so far never to learn-a trapped and captive Glasgow's grimy suburbs and onto a four-lane highway: audience. I can say only this: for the rest of the leeturc, Illy wife whispered, "Tell them this is called a Dual Car he stuck it out rather than go into the smoking compart ri;lgeway, so they'll know we've been here before." Un ment. Perhaps he had ;l very bad allergy to tobacco smoke. fortunately I had not fini shed shouting this news to the I tried, as we all got off the train, to apologize for his being back seats when we passed a large green white-lettered trapped, but his wife intercepted: "Thank YOll very much sign reading DUAL CARRIAGEWAY. -I'm sure \ove know all about Shakespeare now!" and they Edinburgh, luckily, more than ransomed this first after walked away, he head down, she cheerfully striding. noon in Scotland. I think it was Edinburgh Castle that did Our tour was to have its last guided day in Canterbury; the trick. We had been to "castles" in Ireland: Bumatty, and, since I am one of the medievalists at W ashington near Shannon, a reconst.ructed fifteenth-century one; and University, and have often taught Chaucer's Ca.nterbury Dromoland, a nineteenth-century one now used for a hotel. Tales, I was looking forward to it. Yet to travel at sixty And we had been entertained well: sweet mead and hot miles an hour down a Dual Carriageway, reciting the spiced claret, and bright-costumed colleens to serve us General Prologue to the Tales, was strangely unsatisfac fooel, to call us "Noble Lord" and "Noble Lady" ("No tory; and by then, most of us had had our fill of literary ble Lord, would you move your elbow so I can give comments over the microphone. It was a great relief when 54 Now, I cautioncd, Ch;lucer's tale was not reall y about actual people and places, so we mustn't expect to sec the brook, the brioge, an d the mill just as he ( through thc ch;1racter of his Reeve) clescribecl them; and of course, thc village was likely to be a suburb or a crossroads now. Perhaps the reader knows already what w e saw when we turned off the main road and drove into Trumpington. There was the little brook, th ere was the bridge, and there beside the bridge was a mill. W e had stopped, after turn our gUide for thflt day proved to have grown up in the ing off the highway, and asked a villager in a narrow Kentish countryside, so that while we zoomed P<1 st the street whether there was a mill in Trumpington. He hao flpple orchmds he could tell us, now and then, that we pOinted the way to the mill, and we found i,t easily. I were passing an orchard of Cox's Orange Pippins, or one of wonder what he thought we were after? So far as I know, the many other kinds of English apples. (If you have never no tou ri sts ever stop there : (md all we did was chive up, eaten a Cox's Orange Pippin, you do not understand ap look, turn aroune!, and drive back to the highway. As for ples, and your tongue has tastebuds it hasn't used. ) It was the little village itself, it prob'lbly does not really have also n great relief to find that Canterbury town and cathe thatched co ttages, yet I seem to remember them there. dral were not so j<1mmed with people like ourselves as other si tes had b een, so we could walk peaceably around the HERE MUST, OF CotJRSE, be an Epilogue. This one narrow streets, have lunch not expensively in a good Tshould have certain members of our group in it: Mr. restaurant without queueing up, and wander through a D ...... , spry, funny, a Republican version of Harry cathedral properl y dim, still , and echo-murmurous. Truman; R..... C ...... , chemical engineer and soi Anyhow, we had already touched the ghost of Chaucer gnee theatre-goer, who taught us to gamble and lost ap -not in London, and not in Canterbury, but in a little vil palling ,1mounts in the process, and who got us out of lage on the the way to Cambridge-and, as with all good the elevator that stuck between fl oors for twenty minutes things, it W;1S unplanned and not really expected. After in the hotel in Torquay; th e J ...... youngsters, frisking two and a half weeks of riding, walking, picture-taking, up the steep trails to Arthur's Seat overlooking Edinburgh, worrying about the airline strike, wondering whether and comin g cheerfully down with the gloomy rest of us as Charley would ever find the lost luggage (he never did), we were caught in a cold heavy storm of rnin (I had for and just wallowing in tourism, a goodly number of our gotten how marvellous it is to he soaked all through one's group were still g;lIne for the trip to Cambridge. clothes by a rainstorm ). There were, after ;111 , thirty-six It was a two-hour drive from London, but we were un of US, and it is ridiculous to write a piece like this that usually lucky in that day's guide, who (he said ) was does not give room to their appearance, b ecause so much understudying Sir Ralph Richardson in Shaw's You Never of any tour is dominated b y th e presence of one\ fellow Can Tell and sunlighting while waiting for Sir Ralph to tourists. break a leg. H e knew a great deal about London, and Let the Epilogue, th en, have a different fi gure in it. about Cambridge, and about the points in between, and I t might be the Jet Plane, for no one since H omer's gocls he had a fine quiet fl ow of excell ent English to address has travelled so splendidly as now the tourist-class pas us in. From idle curiosity, as w e pulled out of London, I senger to Europe travels by jet: to go up over a great city mentioned to him that I was a medievalist, and that one by night, to feel the broad wings dip and the plane slowly of Chaucer's Canterbury Tales ( that told by the Reeve) bank, to look down on what lately was a caterwaul of cms was set in a little village near Cambridge, to which I had and see it spread out into an action painting of light (the never been. Its name was Trumpington: did it still exist, fin est civic sculpture would be done jn neon tubing, and and would we be going anywhere near it? Our guide said would mark the cities more splendidly than ever Athens it did still exist, our road led quite close to it, ano he was marked); or to come down through misty clouds in would ask the driver to turn aside a little to visit it. the morning light and hreak out below them to the decp greens of Ireland; is this an ordinary thing? Or, ;1S the That was enough: I seized the microphone and rashl y opposite sort of figure, we might have the Trailways told our group about the Reeve's T ale, which concerns Bus which, owing to the airline strike, we were forced two young Cambridge students who tangle with a burly to charter to get us from New York back to St. thieving miller ane! his wife and daughter in a fashion that Louis, and which rocked and rolled us, in our sweaty I am sure no modern alumni would want a student to socks and so il ed collars, for twenty-two hours, leavin g know about, and which I will not here describe. This New York at midnight and reaching St. Louis at ten fictional encounter had taken place, I said, in a little vi,l the next night. But on the whole, I think this final la ge called Trumpington, and we would be going near it, figure should be the one that we saw from the Illinois so we would see whether it looked at a ll as Chaucer had shore of the MiSSissippi River, waking from our la st pnf}'y descrihecl it at the beginning of the Reeve's Tale: slumbers to the joyful croak of those in the fro nt of the At Trumpington, nat fer fro Cantebridge, bus, staring wildly around and seein g it loom gr,111 dly up Thcr goeth a hrook, and over that a bridge, in the fog with its winking red light: the Gateway Arch. U pan the whiche hrook the I' stant a me ll e I look forward to riding up it, one day soon, and seeing And this is verray soo th that I you tel Ie . at its top N ikita Khrushchev and wife, with cameras. 55 Comment / After F oLlr Years wo YEAHS ACO CIlANCELLOll ELIOT began thc prac years," he Silid, " has been the marked growth of a stlldent T tice of appearing before the campus community once spirit of self-help. The initiative of the Academic Commit each semester as the Wednesday Assembly speaker in tee of the South Forty is an example. Another is the P.S. Graham Chapel. He comes there to report on current Program [a series of informal meetings among professors policies, practices, and problems; to review events of the and students], which I hope w ill continue and expand. past six months; to tryout new ideas and suggest new Another-and a brand new one- is the soccer club." approaches; and to answer questions from the audience. In attempting to look to the future and to summarize When the Chancellor appeared on the Assembly Series the Universi ty's main goals for the years ahead, Chancellor this fall, it was the fourth anniversary to the clay of his Eliot quoted a short passage from his inaugural address inauguration. He chose the occasion to give what that sums up best, perhaps, the long-range and basic amounted to an informal State of the UniverSity Address purposes of the University: a review of the four years since his inauguration and a "Achievemen t, evidenced by the creative research of preview of what the next four years might bring. its scholars and the quality of its graduates, is the ultimate Mr. Eliot began his address by expressing his feeling measure of a university's greatness. 'We meet our broadest that the first great postwar transition at \Vashington U ni obligation when new discoveries of truth are made in our versity is now completed. The change from a local to a libraries and laboratories and whcn young men and nationa1 institution has been made, he feels, in terms of women leave \Vashington University armed with a zest students, faculty, and national reputation. " \Ve arc no for learning, a growing capacity for judgment, and the longer scrambling to accomplish it ..." he said, ". . we ability and determination to serve their fellow man." have reached a firm footing, solid ground upon which we call move forward steadily and see where we are going." ISCUSSINC THE LEVEL OF QUALITY that \Vashington He then turned to the major goals he laid down in his D University students have reached during the post ilJC\ugural address four years ago and attempted to mea war transition period, MI". Eliot cited one statistic : the sure how much progress has been made toward achieving achievement of last year's seniors in the national G raduate them. He pOinted ou t that one of the most important, the Record Examinations. Over 80 per cent scored above the need to give major emphasis to undergraduate education, national mean and 2.5 per cent ranked in the top three has been implemented in many ways: the new freshman percentiles. advising program, the commitment of the University's Speaking of statistics, an examinati on of the record of leading scholars and scientists to undergraduate teaching, one freshman, Sam Lewis of D allas, Texas, reveals some and above all, the limitation of the size of undergraduate interesting figures. Sam ranked first in his high school enrollment. "The function of a university is to expand class of .526 and recorded some of the highest College knowledge," he said, "but it is also the function of a uni Board scores we've seen around here for years. Not only versity to expound it.. . ." that: in his first start with the Battling Bears, Quarterback Another major goal was to concentrate on the prepara Sam Lewis completed 15 passes in 23 a ttempts for 2.5S tion of skilled college teachers to meet the ever-increasing yards. demancl. Singling ou t the special doctoral program in his tory as a Significant advance in this area, he called for the exploral ion of other fresh approaches, including the FTEI1 NOON TI1AFFIC ALONG FOllSYTH BOULEVAflD slowed possibility of an intermcdiate graduate degree for the A to a crawl for several weeks recentl y as passing incipient college teacher. motorists stmcd incredulously at the Battling Bears prac Referring to the goal laid out four years ago to put tice field. There, every afternoon, a collection of giants increased emphasis on area studies, Mr. Eliot reported, wearing red jerseys and white pants have been shaking "vVe ha ve made a great deal of headway in the concept the ground with their tackles, getting off booming SO-yard of regional studies, each student ha.ving a base in a par punts, and throwing 50-yard bombs. If you looked closely, ticular discipline yet being exposed to a wide variety of however, you could spot little cardinals on each player's courses and faculty members deeply versed in the various helmet. It wasn't the Battling Bears after all, but the St. facets of life in different areas of the world. \Ve have Louis Football Gardinals, the Big Red of the National developed considerable expertise, both with respect to Football League, using our facilities for weekly practice. the Orient and Latin America." 'We wonder what would havc happened if a representa Discussing the renaissance of the performing arts on tive of one of the Battling Bears' opponents bad happened campus over thc past four years, the Chancellor em to arrive a couple of days earl y and had spotted those phasized that the real drivc bas come very largely from goliaths in red and white uniforms. vVe might have won the students themselves. by forfeit. "One of the happiest things about these last four -FO'B 56 The old meets th e new at The Station, a 1908 Missouri Pacific depot recently converted into a women's clothing shop. Loc,lted in \Vebster G ro ves, JV10. , The Statillll is th e brainchild of two enterprising former \Vashingtoll University students, Donna and Harvey Kassehaum. All the decoration a t The Station, from the gaslights out front to tI l(' wood-hurning stove il1 the " Baggage lloom ," reHects the lifc of 60 years ago when the railroad was th e major form of transporta tion. Thc Kassehaum.'> have been faithflll ill preserving the olel-time fl avor of the depot, accenting it with hurr icane lmnps, oil callS, and a gold spittoon. Scattered throughout The Station, various pieces of lu ggagc are usecl fo r decoration. Symbolic of people going places, th ey seem especially at home in the adventuresomc atmosplwre of T he Statioll. :£(r mU1:x:J (/II-' .... r 3:0'1> Ov.>CJ I'UHLICATlONS ()l'nCE Z:x:JCJ WASHINGT O N U N I VEHSITY .... 0 m ST. LOUiS, Mr8..S()UfU (; ~ I:11I .-. (/I r- .... ~ r co r ~:::r: ~ r I> ..