A Survey of Medicinal Plant Usage by Folk Medicinal Practitioners in Two Villages Adjoinin

349 American-Eurasian Journal of Sustainable Agriculture, 4(3): 349-356, 2010 ISSN 1995-0748 This is a refereed journal and all articles are professionally screened and reviewed

ORIGINAL ARTICLES

A Survey of Medicinal Plant Usage by Folk Medicinal Practitioners in Two Villages by the Rupsha River in Bagerhat District, Bangladesh

1Department of Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering, University of Development Alternative, Dhanmondi, Dhaka, Bangladesh. 2Present address: New York City College of Technology The City University of New York 300 Jay Street, Brooklyn, NY 11201, USA.

1Md. Ariful Haque Mollik, 1Azmal Ibna Hassan, 1Tridib Kumar Paul, 1Mariz Sintaha, 1Himel Nahreen Khaleque, 1Farjana Akther Noor, 1Aynun Nahar, 1Syeda Seraj, 1Rownak Jahan, 2Majeedul H. Chowdhury, 1Mohammed Rahmatullah: 1Md. Ariful Haque Mollik, 1Azmal Ibna Hassan, 1Tridib Kumar Paul, 1Mariz Sintaha, 1Himel Nahreen Khaleque, 1Farjana Akther Noor, 1Aynun Nahar, 1Syeda Seraj, 1Rownak Jahan, 2Majeedul H. Chowdhury, 1Mohammed Rahmatullah

Abstract: Bagerhat district is in the southern portion of Bangladesh and contains a portion of the world’s largest mangrove forest, the Sunderbans. The Rupsha River flows through the district and falls into the Bay of Bengal after passing through the Sunderbans forest. Because of the coastal position of the district and the presence of the Sunderbans forest, the plants occurring in this estuarine region are considerably different from the plants in other districts of Bangladesh. The occupations of the people of the villages adjoining the Rupsha River are mainly agriculture, agricultural laborer, and extracting timber and other forest products from the Sunderbans forest. In absence of modern medicinal facilities, the people rely on folk medicinal practitioners for treatment of their ailments. It was the objective of the present study to conduct a survey among the folk medicinal practitioners (Kavirajes) in two villages on the banks of the Rupsha River, namely Chanpur and Andabaaz, to learn about the medicinal plants used. The Kavirajes rely almost exclusively on medicinal plants for treatment of diverse ailments. Since the plant species of the Sunderbans forest are unique to the region, it was expected that the medicinal plants used by the Kavirajes of the two villages surveyed would be distinct from plant species used by Kavirajes in other regions of Bangladesh. Our survey revealed that 50 plant species and one mushroom species distributed into 32 families were used by the Kavirajes of the two villages. The Euphorbiaceae family provided 5 species, followed by the Araceae family with 4 species, and the Asteraceae, Combretaceae and Fabaceae families with 3 species, each. Even though the number of plant species used was small, a wide variety of ailments were treated by the Kavirajes. The highest number of plant species, twenty five, was used for treatment of gastrointestinal disorders. Skin disorders were treated with 22 plant species; respiratory tract disorders with 14 plant species, and sexual disorders treated with 11 plant species. Because the inhabitants of the two villages work often in the Sunderbans forest, they are exposed to snake and tiger bites. Ten plant species were used for treatment of snake bites, and six for treatment of tiger bites. Other ailments treated included heart disorders, sexually transmitted diseases, malaria, helminthiasis, rheumatoid arthritis, encysted dropsy, tuberculosis, hemorrhoids, hepatic disorders, cancer or tumor, fever, cuts and wounds, burns, epilepsy, anemia, obesity, menstrual disorders, gynecological problems, leprosy, inflammation, chicken pox, diabetes, paralysis, fistula, eye disorders, hypertension, typhoid, tooth problems, rabies, headache, and typhus. Three plants were used as astringents, four plants as tonic, one plant for treatment of vitamin C deficiency, three plants as antidote to poisoning, five plants as stimulants of the central nervous system, and one plant as an abortifacient. Two plants used to be prescribed for treatment of small pox, when the disease

Corresponding Author: Professor Dr. Mohammed Rahmatullah, Pro-Vice Chancellor University of Development Alternative House No. 78, Road No. 11A (new) Dhanmondi R/A, Dhaka-1205 Bangladesh Email: [email protected] Fax: 88-02-8157339 Am.-Eurasian J. Sustain. Agric., 4(3): 349-356, 2010 350

was still prevalent. Given the number of diseases treated and the uniqueness of a number of the plant species used for treatment, we conclude that it is important to conduct further scientific studies with these plants. Such studies have enormous potential towards discovery of novel drugs for treatment of a number of ailments, which cannot be treated currently with allopathic medicine.

Key words: Folk medicine, medicinal plants, Bagerhat, Bangladesh.

Introduction

Human beings have a long history of medicinal plant usage for treatment of various ailments. This can still be observed in the traditional medicinal practices of practically every country of the world, including Bangladesh. Bangladesh has several systems of traditional medicinal practices, which still continues in the country. The various traditional forms of medicine practiced in the country include homeopathy, Ayurvedic, Unani, and folk medicinal system. The latter is practiced by folk medicinal practitioners, otherwise known as Kavirajes and the patients include both the rural as well as the urban population. Several factors have contributed to the prevalence of folk medicinal practice in Bangladesh. The Kavirajes use simple formulations of medicinal plants, which are easy to be taken by the people. Affordability is another important factor, for overall, the population of Bangladesh is poor, and a substantial number of people cannot afford the price of modern medicines. The villages do not have modern medical clinics, hospitals, or allopathic doctors; lack of adequate transport facilities, moreover, make it difficult to bring people from the rural areas to the cities, where modern hospitals and clinics may be present. A further factor is that since the Kavirajes reside in the villages side by side with the rural population, the villagers find it more convenient to discuss their medical problems with the Kavirajes rather than a distant city doctor. The advent of modern allopathic medicine has to some extent, side-lined the traditional medicinal practices. In recent years, however, traditional medicine is making a major come-back on the basis of the realization that a number of allopathic medicines have serious side- effects, or resistance to those medicines have grown, particularly among the microbial population. It has been additionally recognized that quite a number of allopathic medicines have been discovered through observances of indigenous medical practices (Cotton, C.M., 1996; Gilani, A.H., and Rahman, A.U., 2005). The list of such allopathic medicines is enormous and includes anti-malarials, anti-diabetes, anti-cancer, as well as medicines for hypertension and heart disorders. We have been conducting ethnomedicinal surveys among folk medicinal and tribal medicinal practitioners in various regions of Bangladesh for quite some time (Hossan, M.S.,2010; M. Rahmatullah, 2009). Our studies, thus far, have indicated strongly that not only there exists considerable diversity in the applications of plants by Kavirajes of different regions, but also such folk medicinal applications, when they have been studied by modern scientific methods, has resulted in validation of a number of plants in their folk medicinal uses. Among the 64 districts of Bangladesh, the southern coastal districts of Satkhira, Khulna, and Bagerhat are somewhat unique in their containing the Sunderbans forest, which is the largest mangrove forest in the world. The estuarine habitat present in these three districts has resulted in a number of plants, which grow exclusively only in this region. Since a portion of the Sunderbans forest lies within Bagerhat district, mangrove plants can also be found in this district. The Rupsha River flows through Bagerhat district including the Sunderbans forest. Several villages exist by the banks of the Rupsha River in close proximity to the Sunderbans forest. Because of the remoteness of these villages, the villagers almost exclusively rely on Kavirajes for treatment of their various ailments. Given the different nature of plant species in these villages, the objective of the present study was to conduct a survey among Kavirajes of two villages by the banks of the Rupsha River and document the use of medicinal plants by the Kavirajes for treatment of various ailments.

Materials and Methods

The present survey was conducted in two villages of Bagerhat district in close proximity to the Sunderbans forest, namely the villages of Chanpur and Andabaaz. Both villages were located on the banks of the Rupsha River. Limited agriculture was conducted by the villagers. The main occupations were cultivation of the saltwater shrimp Penaeus monodon and extraction of forest products like timber, fish, honey and wild plants from the Sunderbans forest region. Mawalis and Bawalis were the collective names given to the groups of people engaged in extracting forest products. The two villages had a total of four Kavirajes, namely, Marium Bewa, Sagar Ghosh, Bilash Kumar, and Sukanto Debnath. One of them was female (Marium Bewa), the rest being male Kavirajes. Informed consent was obtained from all Kavirajes prior to any interviews. The Kavirajes were informed as to the purpose of the survey and that the information obtained may be disseminated nationally and internationally. The Kavirajes had no objections to provide information on medicinal plants and Am.-Eurasian J. Sustain. Agric., 4(3): 349-356, 2010 351

ailments treated but objected to publishing the formulations on thr ground that this may jeopardize their professional interests. Interviews were conducted with the help of a semi-structured questionnaire and the guided field-walk method as described by Martin ( Martin, G.J., 1995.) and Maundu (Maundu, P., 1995). In this method, the Kavirajes took the interviewers on guided field-walks in the daytime through areas from where they collected their medicinal plants, pointed out the plants, mentioned their local names, and described their uses. All interviews were conducted in Bengali, the language spoken by both Kavirajes and the interviewers. Plant specimens were photographed, collected and dried in the field, and later brought back to Bangladesh National Herbarium at Dhaka for complete identification.

Results and discussion

A total of 50 plants and one mushroom species were observed to be used by the four Kavirajes of the two villages surveyed. The mushroom, Agaricus albolutescens belonged to the family Agaricaceae. The 50 plant species came from 31 families. The Euphorbiaceae family was the largest family contributing 5 species, followed by the Araceae family with 4 species. The Asteraceae, Combretaceae, and Fabaceae family contributed 3 plants each. The results are summarized in Table 1. Contrary to most other parts of Bangladesh where we have conducted ethnomedicinal surveys, whole plant constituted the major use by the Kavirajes of Chanpur and Andabaaz. The percent use of whole plants was 37.3, followed by leaves at 13.3%. Fruits and seeds each constituted 12.0% of total uses. Barks constituted 7.2% of total uses, while roots constituted 8.4% of total uses. The results are shown in Table 2. Gastrointestinal disorders comprised the major group of ailments treated by the Kavirajes. Twenty five plants were used for treatment of various forms of gastrointestinal disorders. Skin diseases formed the next major group of ailments treated by the Kavirajes, and twenty two plants were used for treatment of this group of ailments. Fourteen plants were used for treatment of respiratory tract infections. Because of the lack of suitable drinking water, proximity to the forest, and general lack of sanitary facilities, and the presence of unhygienic conditions of living, the above three groups formed the major ailments treated. The forest contributed in a major way to two other forms of ailments, namely snake bites and tiger bites. The Sunderbans forest is the abode of the Royal Bengal tiger, and people who work in the forest are continuously exposed to tiger and snake bites. Ten plants were used for treatment of snake bites, while six plants were used for treatment of tiger bites. Eight plants were used as insect repellents, there being numerous insects because of the proximity of the forest. Other ailments treated by the Kaviarjes included sexual disorders, heart diseases, sprains, pain, sexually transmitted diseases like gonorrhea and syphilis, helminthiasis, tuberculosis, hemorrhoids, malaria, hepatic disorders (jaundice, hepatitis), cancer, tumor, night blindness, wounds, fever, epilepsy, anemia, obesity, menstrual disorders, gynecological problems, hemorrhoids, leprosy, inflammation, chicken pox, burns, baldness, diabetes, sunstroke, paralysis, fistula, eye disorders like conjunctivitis, hypertension, typhoid, tooth problems, giddiness, rabies, headache, and typhus. One plant was used to increase energy, while five plants were used as stimulant for the central nervous system. Three plants were used as anti-spasmodic, one plant as emetic, one plant as blood purifier, one plant for treatment of hunched back, four plants as tonic (which was defined by the Kavirajes to keep somebody in sound physical and mental health), three plants as astringent, two plants for treatment of encysted dropsy, four plants as sedative, and one plant for vitamin C deficiency. Three plants were used as antidote to poison, one plant as an antiseptic, and one plant as an abortifacient. Two plants used to be prescribed for small pox when the disease was present. Overall, the number of diseases treated by the Kavirajes appeared remarkable given that only 51 species were used for treatment of all the above ailments. In general, a single medicinal plant was used by the Kavirajes for multiple ailments. Whole plant of Colocasia esculenta was used as an astringent and as an emetic (i.e. to induce vomiting), and for treatment of dermatitis, bloating, tiger bite, and helminthiasis. Even a single plant part could be used for treatment of multiple ailments; for instance, the tubers of Lasia spinosa were used for blood purification, rheumatoid arthritis, encysted dropsy (abnormal collection of serous fluid in any sac or cyst), and eczema. We did not observe any instance of combination of several plants being used by the Kavirajes for treatment of any specific ailment. An interesting feature was the use of the mushroom (Agaricus albolutescens) for treatment of sexual disorders, heart disorders, snake bite, tiger bite, and as an energy increaser. In other areas of Bangladesh surveyed by us so far, we have not observed folk medicinal practitioners of the mainstream population or tribal medicinal practitioners to use any mushroom species for treatment of ailments. The species of mushroom in use by the Kavirajes interviewed in the present survey is considered highly edible by some people, while others believe consumption of this mushroom leads to deleterious side-effects. A number of plants were observed to be used by the Kavirajes in the present survey, which are not generally used by Kavirajes of other areas surveyed by us. These plants include Dracaena fragrans, Swintonia floribunda, Richardia scabra, Syngonium podophyllum, Caryota mitis, Livistona chinensis, Centratherum punctatum, Emilia sonchifolia, Quisqualis indica, Cycas revoluta, Cyperus Am.-Eurasian J. Sustain. Agric., 4(3): 349-356, 2010 352

alternifolius, Heliconia rostrata, Malphigia coccigera, Cecropia peltata, Thyrsostachys siamensis, and Cissus hastata. As mentioned earlier, the Sunderbans forest form the abode of a number of plant species not found anywhere else in Bangladesh. It is apparent from the present survey that the Kavirajes have been quite successful in the recognition of medicinal plants within the plant species exclusive to the Sunderbans forest. Foeniculum vulgare is also cultivated for use as spice or chewed as a breath freshener. Curcuma longa is extensively cultivated in Bangladesh for use as a spice; the boiled, dried and powdered rhizome, known as turmeric in English, is practically used in every vegetable, fish or meat dish of the country. Colocasia esculenta is often cultivated for consumption as a vegetable. Terminalia chebula, Emblica officinalis, Ficus racemosa, and Syzygium cumini are also cultivated for their edible fruits.

Table 1: Medicinal plants used by the four Kavirajes of Chanpur and Andabaaz villages in Bagerhat district, Bangladesh. Serial Number Scientific Name Family Name Local Name Part utilized Ailment/Symptoms treated 1 Agaricus albolutescens Zeller Agaricaceae Bang chata Whole plant Sexual disorders, energy increaser, heart disorders, snake bite, tiger bite. 2 Dracaena fragrans (L.) Ker Gawl. Agavaceae Dracaena Whole plant Insect repellent, dermatitis, sprain. 3 Swintonia floribunda Griffith Anacardiaceae Sivit, Boilam Leaf, bark Central nervous system stimulant, pain, insect repellent. 4 Foeniculum vulgare Mill. Apiaceae Mouri Fruit, seed Gastritis, central nervous system stimulant, constipation, bronchitis, expectorant, gonorrhea. 5 Rauwolfia serpentina (L.) Apocynaceae Shorpogondha Leaf, root, Snake bite, tig er bite, Benth.ex Kurz flower, seed sedative, cough, anti- spasmodic, malaria, dermatitis. 6 Colocasia esculenta (L.) Schott Araceae Kochu Whole plant A s t r i n g e n t , d e r ma t itis, bloating, tiger bite, helminthiasis, emetic. 7 Lasia spinosa (L.) Thwaites Araceae Kalo kata Tuber Blood purification, rheumatoid arthritis, encysted dropsy (abnormal collection of serous fluid in any sac or cyst), eczema. 8 Richardia scabra (L.) A. St.-Hil. Araceae Raaz-biit Whole plant Constipation, hunched back, bronchitis, tuberculosis. 9 Syngonium podophyllum Schott Araceae Kochu Whole plant Tonic, skin eruptions. 10 Caryota mitis Lour. Arecaceae Chowga Root, fruit Laxative, hemorrhoids, loss of virility, rheumatoid arthritis. 11 Livistona chinensis (Jacq.) R. Br. ex Mart. Arecaceae Pakha pata Whole plant Laxative, bilious (liver dysfunction, specially excess secretion of bile associated with nausea or vomiting), sexual disorders. 12 Centratherum punctatum Cass. Asteraceae Mourmure shak Whole plant To increase libido, pain, bloating, snake bite, tiger bite. 13 Emilia sonchifolia (L.) Wight. Asteraceae Chadho Whole plant Snake bite, expectorant, cancer, night blindness, influenza, wound. 14 Eupatorium odoratum L. Asteraceae Phooler chori Whole plant Insect repellent, to increase libido, dermatitis, wound, stomachic (digestive tonic), febricity (fever). 15 Quisqualis indica L. Combretaceae Rail lota Whole plant Indigestion, tumor, colic, eczema, menstruation control. 16 Terminalia arjuna (Roxb. ex DC.) Wight & Arn. Combretaceae Arjun gach Bark, fruit Heart disease, gynecological disorders, central nervous system stimulant, leprosy, gonorrhea. Am.-Eurasian J. Sustain. Agric., 4(3): 349-356, 2010 353

Table 1: Continue. 17 Terminalia chebula Retz. Combretaceae Horitoki Bark, fruit, Lack of appetite, malaria, skin of fruit hepatitis, sexual disorders, indigestion. 18 Argyreia speciosa (L.f.) Sweet Convolvulaceae Bidda dharok Whole plant Syp h ilis, inflammation, colic, dermatitis, chicken pox. 19 Ipomoea aquatica Forssk. Convolvulaceae Kolmi shak Whole plant Snake bite, hemorrhoids, indigestion, burns. 20 Coccinia grandis (L.) J. Voigt Cucurbitaceae Telakucha Leaf, fruit Baldness, diabetes, sunstroke, scar. 21 Cycas revoluta Thunb. Cycadaceae Cycas Whole plant Paralysis, indigestion, snake bite. 22 Cycas rumphii Miquel Cycadaceae Shorpo moni Whole plant Gynecological disorders, sore throat, tuberculosis, pain. 23 Cyperus alternifolius L. Cyperaceae Sata ghash Whole plant Tonic, rheumatoid arthritis, insect repellent, sprain. 24 Emblica officinalis Gaertn. Euphorbiaceae Amloki Fruit, seed Fistula, vitamin C deficiency, lack of appetite, hepatitis, diarrhea, dysentery, cold. 25 Euphorbia hirta L. Euphorbiaceae Dudh kura Whole plant Conjunctivitis, infertility in men or women, hypertension, paralysis. 26 Euphorbia milii ‘Lutea’ Hort Euphorbiaceae Dudh kata Whole plant Indigestion, snake bite, tiger bite, dog bite. 27 Putranjiva roxburghii Wall. Euphorbiaceae Joiton, Jiyapoti Whole plant Typhoid, lack of appetite, insect repellent, dermatitis, indigestion. 28 Trewia polycarpa Benth. & Hook. f. Euphorbiaceae Mera gach Stem, bark Toothache, dermatitis. 29 Clitoria ternatea L. Fabaceae Nil oporajita Leaf, root, Insect repellent, giddiness, flower, seed eczema, placebo. 30 Sesbania sesban (L.) Merr. Fabaceae Dhonche Leaf, bark, Rabies, cancer, influenza, flower, seed infertility in men or women, antiseptic. 31 Uraria picta (Jacq.) DC. Fabaceae Rahu chondal Whole plant Hemorrhoids, snake bite, tiger bite, astringent. 32 Heliconia rostrata Ruiz & Pav. Heliconiaceae Heliconia Leaf, seed Tonic, headache, sprain, pain. 33 Ocimum sanctum L. Lamiaceae Tulshi Leaf, root, Gastritis, asthma, conjunctivitis, flower, seed infertility in men or women, burns. 34 Crinum asiaticum L. Liliaceae Shuk dorshon Whole plant Bilious, pain, bronchitis, burn. 35 Cuphea hyssopifolia Kunth Lythraceae Rani phool Whole plant Tonic, insect repellent, dermatitis. 36 Malpighia coccigera L. Malpighiaceae Malpighia Whole plant Antidote to poison, skin eruption, sedative. 37 Cecropia peltata L. Moraceae Jongli udal Whole plant Obesity, giddiness, burn, snake bite, gonorrhea. 38 Ficus racemosa L. Moraceae Joggo dumur Leaf, root, fruit Headache, small pox, relieving flatulence, cancer, dermatitis, burn. 39 Myristica fragrans Houtt. Myristicaceae Joifol Seed, fruit, To increase libido, paralysis, skin of fruit asthma, malaria, rheumatoid arthritis, leprosy, colic. 40 Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels Myrtaceae Kalo jaam Bark, fruit, seed Hepatitis, diabetes, appetizer, burn, anemia, bloating, injury. 41 Piper cubeba L.f. Piperaceae Kabab chini Whole plant To increase libido in men and women, fistula, hepatitis, expectorant, boils. 42 Saccharum spontaneum L. Poaceae Kash phool Whole plant Asthma, typhus, eczema, jaundice, giddiness. 43 Thyrsostachys siamensis Gamble Poaceae Thai bash Leaf, stem, root Antidote to poison, wound, carminative, itch. 44 Persicaria odorata (Lour.) Soj. Polygonaceae Bish katal Whole plant Insect repellent, pain, dermatitis, inflammation, for gargling to keep mouth fresh. 45 Hedyotis corymbosa (L.) Lam. Rubiaceae Khet papra Whole plant Malaria, central nervous system stimulant, appetizer, indigestion. 46 Glycosmis pentaphylla (Retz.) Corr. Rutaceae Dathon Whole plant Toothache, jaundice, diabetes, skin disorders, sedative, typhus. Am.-Eurasian J. Sustain. Agric., 4(3): 349-356, 2010 354

Table 1: Continue. 47 Datura metel L. Solanaceae Dhutura Leaf, root, Hypotonic (lacking normal fruit, seed tone or tension in muscles or arteries), helminthiasis, snake bite, sedative, anti-spasmodic, burn. 48 Solanum surattense Burm.f. Solanaceae Kontikari Whole plant Night blindness, bronchitis, colic, encysted dropsy. 49 Trema orientalis (L.) Blume Ulmaceae Jibon Whole plant Helminthiasis, pneumonia, central nervous system stimulant, gonorrhea, epilepsy. 50 Cissus hastata Miq. Vitaceae Laal agniwora Whole plant Astringent, abortifacient, antidote to poison. 51 Curcuma longa L. Zingiberaceae Holud Leaf, rhizome Jaundice, tumor, sprain, dermatitis, conjunctivitis, small pox, colic.

Table 2: Percent use of various plant parts by Kavirajes of the two villages surveyed by the Rupsha River bank in Bagerhat district, Bangladesh. Plant part Percent use Whole plant 37.3 Leaf 13.3 Stem 2.4 Bark 7.2 Flower 4.8 Fruit 12.0 Seed 12.0 Root 8.4 Rhizome/Tuber 2.4

Scientific studies have been conducted with only a few of the plant species reported in Table 1. The cardioprotective effects, particularly of bark of Terminalia arjuna (used by the Kavirajes for treatment of heart disorders) are well known. Such effects include reported protective effects of plant bark against doxorubicin- induced cardiotoxicity (Singh, G., A.T. Singh, 2008) reported significant inotropic and hypotensive effect of bark, also increased coronary artery flow and protection of myocardium against ischemic damage, reviewed by Dwivedi ( Dwivedi, S., 2007) reported protection of rabbit heart by bark against ischemic-reperfusion injury (Gauthaman, K., 2005) reported cardioprotective effect of alcoholic extract of bark in an in vivo model of myocardial ischemic-reperfusion injury (Karthikeyan, K., 2003) reported efficacy of the plant in chronic stable angina (Dwivedi, S. and D. Gupta, 2002; Bharani, A., 2002) reported beneficial effects of bark of the plant in isolated ischemic-reperfused rat heart (Gauthaman, K., 2001) and reported beneficial effects in coronary artery disease (significant reductions in anginal frequency) (Dwivedi, S. and R. Jauhari, 1997). Another plant used by the Kavirajes for treatment of diabetes and bloating among other ailments has also been reported in the scientific literature to have effects validating the folk medicinal use of the plant. Reported anti-diabetic activities of the plant include anti-hyperglycemic, anti-hyperlipidemic and anti-oxidant effects in streptozotocin diabetic rats for a polyherbal formulation, Dihar containing extract of the plant (Patel, S.S., 2009) inhibition of adenosine deaminase activity and reduction of glucose levels in hyperglycemic patients by aqueous extract of leaves (Bopp, A., 2009) anti-oxidant activity for leaf extracts, which can have beneficial effects in diabetes (Ruan, Z.P., 2008) therapeutic effect of ferulic acid isolated from an ethereal fraction of ethanolic extract of seeds against streptozotocin diabetic male rats (Mandal, S., 2008) a-glucosidase inhibitory activity for seed kernel in vitro and in Goto-Kakizaki rats (Shinde, J., 2008) decrease of blood sugar on administration of ethanolic extract of seeds in alloxan diabetic albino rats (Singh, N. and M. Gupta, 2007) anti-hyperglycemic effect for dried bark when administered to mice (Villaseñor, I.M. and M.R. Lamadrid, 2006) high phenolic content and anti-oxidant activity in seeds (Bajpai, M., 2005) hypoglycemic effects found with defatted seeds and water soluble fiber from seeds in alloxan diabetic rats (Pandey, M. and A. Khan, 2002) reduction of tissue damage in diabetic rat brain for aqueous and alcoholic extract of seeds (Stanely Mainzen Prince, P., 2003). Tannins extracted from the bark reportedly also demonstrated gastroprotective effects against HCl/ethanol- induced gastric mucosal injury in Sprague Dawley rats (Ramirez, R.O. and C.C. Jr. Roa, 2003). Notably, the bark, fruit, and seed of the plant is used by the Kavirajes of the present survey areas in their treatment. The fruits of Emblica officinalis (used by the Kavirajes to ameliorate vitamin C deficiency) has been shown to have high ascorbic acid content (Majeed, M., 2009; 36. Scartezzini, P., 2006) again validating its folk medicinal use. Since most of the plants used by the Kavirajes are yet to be examined for their relevant pharmacological activities, it is possible that more plants will be found after appropriate scientific inquiries to validate their medicinal uses by the Kavirajes. It is therefore of the utmost importance that such pharmacological studies be conducted as quickly as possible, because many of the plants reported in the present survey are rapidly getting Am.-Eurasian J. Sustain. Agric., 4(3): 349-356, 2010 355

endangered. It is expected that more scientific studies conducted with these plants can lead to discovery of lead compounds and newer drugs.

References

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