2020-3753-AJHA-ARTCUL

1 Repetitions and Variations: The Embodied Cultural Memory of 2 Ballet 3 4 5 The corporeal practice of ballet training, comprised of visual and aural input along 6 with kinesthetic awareness and sensation, serves to transmit and reify a specific form 7 of embodied knowledge. Passed from generation to generation and body to body, from 8 at least the mid-19th century to present-day, systems of ballet training and modes of 9 ballet performance have moved through history continually enacting and reenacting a 10 legacy of repertoire rife with collective/ cultural memory and meaning. Ballet training 11 methodologies have evolved, yet well-established vocabulary, syllabi, and curricula 12 continue to be followed as pedagogical foundations for developing technical and 13 artistic skills. And, while new choreographers expand the limits of the established 14 ballet vocabulary and the growing body of ballet repertoire continues to evolve, the 15 traditional classical ballets (think Swan Lake and The Sleeping Beauty) are enduringly 16 re-produced and celebrated as a valuable part of the heritage of ballet culture. Given 17 this continually evolving yet perennial nature of ballet, theories from the field of 18 performance studies provide an interesting lens through which we might examine 19 classical ballet and its repertoire. This presentation frames ballet as a living culture - 20 an ever-evolving, self-perpetuating, way of life – while engaging with scholars such 21 Raymond Williams, Eric Hobswam, Joseph Roach, and Diana Taylor to explore 22 notions of culture, tradition, ritual, orature, and repertoire. 23 24 Keywords: Ballet, culture, repertoire, embodiment, tradition, ritual, orature, 25 performance 26 27 28 A ballet dancer enters a spacious airy dance studio prepared for the ritual of 29 daily ballet class, exhibiting a deference not only for the space but for the 30 history and discipline of the art. The voices of the dancers already in the space 31 are hushed in respect. The atmosphere is filled with the ghosts of dancers past, 32 ancestors that assisted in the dissemination of this repeated embodied tradition. 33 The dancer embraces this heritage and, as generations of dancers have done 34 before, assumes first position, checks the nobility of her alignment in the 35 mirror, places her left hand on the barre, and begins with a plié. 36 37 The corporeal practice of ballet training, comprised of visual and aural 38 input along with kinesthetic awareness and sensation, serves to transmit and 39 reify a specific form of embodied knowledge. Passed from generation to 40 generation and body to body, from at least the mid-19th century to present-day, 41 systems of ballet training and modes of ballet performance have moved 42 through history continually enacting and reenacting a legacy of repertoire rife 43 with collective/cultural memory and meaning. Ballet training methodologies 44 have evolved, yet well-established vocabulary, syllabi, and curricula continue 45 to be followed as pedagogical foundations for developing technical and artistic 46 skills. And, while new choreographers expand the limits of the established 47 ballet vocabulary and the growing body of ballet repertoire continues to evolve, 48 the traditional classical ballets (think Swan Lake and The Sleeping Beauty) are

1 2020-3753-AJHA-ARTCUL

1 enduringly re-produced and celebrated as a valuable part of the heritage of 2 ballet culture. Given this continually evolving yet perennial nature of ballet, 3 theories from the field of performance studies - particularly those theories that 4 deal with culture, tradition, ritual, and repeated embodied practices - provide an 5 interesting lens through which we might examine classical ballet and its 6 repertoire. 7 To frame this discussion, it is worth noting that I consider ballet a living 8 culture—that is, an ever-evolving, self-perpetuating, way of life. This belief is 9 interwoven throughout both my academic work and my lived experience. 10 Having stated this conviction, I willingly acknowledge the complexity of that 11 assertion and its fraught nature. To begin, I agree with cultural studies theorist 12 Raymond Williams, who reasoned that culture is one of the most multifaceted 13 and complicated words in the English language, and I lean on Williams’s 14 assertion that culture “indicates a particular way of life, whether of people, a 15 period, a group, or humanity in general.”1 Williams’s use of the phrase “way of 16 life” is echoed by cultural theorist Judith Hamera when she argues that the 17 practice of dance technique might become a “way of living” within 18 communities of dancers.2 Further, cultural anthropologists Daniel G. Bates and 19 Fred Plog define culture as “a system of shared beliefs, values, customs, 20 behaviors, and artifacts that the members of a society use to cope with their 21 world and with one another, and that is transmitted from generation to 22 generation through learning.”3 With these notions of culture in mind, we can 23 recognize that culture is not just what is shared among contemporaries, but it is 24 also what is preserved and perpetuated through generations. And these 25 explanations of culture support the notion of ballet as living culture. 26 27 28 Tradition & Ritual 29 30 In an ongoing attempt to define what I mean by ballet as a living culture, I 31 am repeatedly drawn to notions of tradition and ritual—terms that often 32 overlap, bleed into one another, and are sometimes difficult to disentangle. 33 Tradition and ritual are particularly significant to this discussion because they 34 are repeated practices that represent cultural ideologies. I glean my conceptual 35 understanding of tradition primarily from historian Eric Hobswam who argues 36 that tradition is manufactured. Hobswam sees traditions as sets of practices that 37 are symbolic or ritualistic in nature and invented with the purpose of 38 perpetuating “certain values and norms of behavior by repetition, which 39 automatically implies continuity with the past.” 4 So, traditions might be 40 defined simply as a set of repeated practices that are valued by a culture or 41 community and fulfill specific ideological functions. Ballet is certainly rife 42 with repeated practices and cultural ideologies. One example of tradition

1Williams, 90. 2Hamera, xi. 3Bates and Plog, 7. 4Hobswam and Ranger, 1.

2 2020-3753-AJHA-ARTCUL

1 within ballet culture might be the formal dress code expected for ballet classes. 2 Although not enforced in all ballet classroom settings, there is generally an 3 expectation in conservatory ballet training for a specific dress code: female 4 ballet dancers often wear pale pink tights and a black leotard (or a specific 5 color leotard that represents a placement level), while male ballet dancers often 6 wear black tights and a fitted white top. This practice perpetuates ideological 7 functions in the following ways: First, by the unfettered display of physical 8 bodies which reinforce notions of the body as an instrument or tool;5 second, 9 by the color-coded rankings and by students generally being dressed differently 10 than the instructor which reinforces a hierarchy;6 and third, gender-specific 11 expectations for attire reinforce a binary performance of gender.7 12 The concept of ritual is intimately linked to the notion of tradition, and a 13 sense of ritual within the activities of ballet culture is common. In a 14 documentary film about American Ballet Theatre, the opening narration by 15 ballet historian Jennifer Homans reflects on the ritualistic nature of ballet: 16 17 If you’re a dancer, and you stand at the barre every morning, in these 18 positions which have been proscribed for over four hundred years . . . you 19 go through this ritual, it’s a ritual of repetition, it’s a ritual of physical 20 discipline.8 21 22 This is only one of many examples of how ballet dancers express personal 23 experiences in which they focus on the ritualistic nature of ballet practice. 24 Ritual, according to cultural anthropologist Victor Turner, implies a sacred 25 nature in which essential and generic human bonds are recognized as defining 26 characteristics of society. Turner discusses ritual as a means of navigating 27 transitions, for individuals and collectives, through rites of passage. Within 28 ballet culture, there are also rites of passage. Take for example, the celebration 29 when a young dancer earns her first pair of pointe shoes. Or, the manner in 30 which the annual tradition of The Nutcracker ballet provides an opportunity for 31 dancers to progress through the ranks – from a mouse, to a child in the Act I 32 party scene, to a more technically advanced role in Act II’s “Land of Sweets.”9 33 Religious studies scholar Catherine Bell defines rituals as actions in which 34 the conceptual orientations of beliefs, creeds, symbols, and myths might be 35 expressed. By arguing that ritual consists of social praxis, a “strategic way of 36 acting” that promotes a “particular cultural strategy,” Bell approaches the 37 concept of ritual as a means of exploring “cultural dynamics by which people 38 make and remake their worlds.” 10 When the study of ritual is applied to 39 researching particular cultures, the rituals can be viewed as culturally produced 40 texts; and the performative nature of these rituals makes them productive sites

5Mauss, 70-88; Alexias and Dimitropoulou, 87-104. 6Daly, 57-66; Prest, 229; and Tomic-Vajagic, 89-105. 7Novack, 34-48; Fisher and Shay; Murray. 8Burns. 9Fisher (2004). 10Bell, 3.

3 2020-3753-AJHA-ARTCUL

1 for analysis and interpretation. If we adopt Bell’s understanding of ritual and 2 its implications, then we might look at the practice of reverance as a ritual 3 practice. Reverance is typically a slow, follow-the-leader sort of exercise at the 4 end of ballet class, which often includes some sort of bow or curtsey to signify 5 the end of the “performance.” As the term reverance implies, there is 6 something reverential in the nature of participating in the formality of this 7 exercise. As a student, I was taught that reverance was a significant moment 8 for acknowledging due respect for the instructor, the accompanist, and the art 9 form. Thus, reverance might be seen as fulfilling the role of ritual through an 10 active performance of acknowledging power relations between teacher and 11 student while reinforcing beliefs concerning the innate value of the lineage of 12 classical ballet practice. While these examples are few, performed traditions 13 and rituals are ubiquitous throughout ballet culture. 14 15 16 Orature & Repertoire 17 18 Performance studies scholar Joseph Roach11 claims that performance and 19 collective memory are interdependent, simultaneously nourishing one another, 20 as well as creating and re-creating one another. Further, Roach asserts that 21 collective memory is cultivated and perpetuated through the performance of 22 orature, which he defines as a “range of cultural forms invested in speech, 23 gesture, song, dance, storytelling, proverbs, customs, rites, and rituals.” In the 24 study of culture, written texts are often considered inadequate or incomplete 25 means of representation, and Roach argues that orature must be combined with 26 literature for a truer representation or understanding of any cultural or 27 historical reality. Insisting that literature and orature “have produced one 28 another interactively over time,” Roach argues for the importance of both and 29 gives a compelling rationale for considering each correspondingly when 30 studying cultures.12 In this use of the term orature, we might consider all of the 31 classical ballet canon, the traditional ballet class structure, the pedagogies and 32 customs of ballet as part of ballet culture’s orature. 33 Another performance studies scholar, Diana Taylor, follows Roach’s line 34 of thought, arguing against the traditionally accepted practice of valuing the 35 concrete, tangible artifacts of the archive over the lived physical and repeatable 36 practices of the repertoire. Taylor uses the term repertoire to describe 37 “embodied and performed acts” that “generate, record, and transmit 38 knowledge”13 and argues that “embodied memory, because it is live, exceeds 39 the archives ability to capture” the essence of performance.14 Compellingly, 40 Taylor expands her thoughts on the performed repertoire stating: 41

11Roach. 12Roach, 45. 13Taylor, 21. 14Taylor, 20.

4 2020-3753-AJHA-ARTCUL

1 The repertoire requires presence: people participate in the production and 2 reproduction of knowledge by ‘being there,’ being a part of the 3 transmission . . . . the actions that are the repertoire do not remain the same. 4 The repertoire both keeps and transforms choreographies of meaning.15 5 6 The domain of classical ballet provides an interesting site for explorations 7 into how tradition and ritual contribute to the construction of an embodied 8 collective/cultural memory that has been and continues to be perpetuated 9 through the mechanisms of orature and repertoire. Roach’s and Taylor’s 10 theories, in particular, provide a lens through which we can examine ballet, 11 specifically in terms of how knowledge is produced and communicated, and 12 how a collective/cultural memory specific to ballet practitioners is cultivated 13 and perpetuated. 14 I surmise that most ballet practitioners, as well as any others involved in 15 the performing arts, would sympathize with Roach’s and Taylor’s assertions 16 that the archive, with its tangible artifacts, is limited. After all, an abundance of 17 literature exists in the areas of ballet pedagogy, ballet history, and the classical 18 ballet repertoire; however, written materials are simply not adequate to 19 effectively perpetuate the art form and practice of ballet. Texts provide 20 theoretical insight, and are thus invaluable, but they cannot replace the physical 21 experience of taking classes, rehearsing, and performing. The embodied 22 knowledge of ballet practice is not learned primarily through words and texts, 23 but rather through repeated physical bodily practices, by visual and aural input, 24 and by kinesthetic awareness and sensation. The ancestral sense of 25 communication passed down through generations is a vivid example of 26 Roach’s insistence on the importance of orature in cultural study. 27 Collective/cultural memory is cultivated and perpetuated through human 28 interaction and personal experience, through rehearsals, classes, performances, 29 lectures, spoken and unspoken conversations, written and unwritten texts and 30 practices. As ballet historian Jennifer Homans writes: “the ballet repertory is 31 not recorded in books or libraries: it is held instead in the bodies of the 32 dancers.”16 33 34 Repetition 35 36 In each of the concepts mentioned above—tradition, ritual, orature, and 37 repertoire—repetition is key. In his attempt to define the problematic term 38 performance, Roach leans on Richard Schechner’s use of the term “restored 39 behavior” and proceeds to define performance as “that which can be repeated, 40 rehearsed, and above all recreated.”17 The significance of repetition is crucial 41 here. Roach writes: “…repetition is an art of recreation as well as 42 restoration.”18 In the world of ballet practitioners, the concept of repetition

15Taylor, 20. 16Homans, xix. 17Roach, 46. 18Roach, 61.

5 2020-3753-AJHA-ARTCUL

1 holds an almost sacred or spiritual connotation: the classical ballets are 2 continually reconstructed and repeated; the repetition of daily classes are a 3 must for attaining and maintaining physical endurance and skill; the daily 4 ballet class itself has a specific order of exercises that build in intensity and 5 seldom vary in the order of execution; and within the canon of ballet training, 6 ballet dancers will repeat the exact same exercises an exorbitant number of 7 times throughout a career. Compellingly, Roach troubles the idea that 8 repetition is stagnant or devoid of variation by connecting the concept of 9 repetition to the notion of imagination. He writes: 10 11 The paradox of the restoration of behavior resides in the phenomenon of 12 repetition itself; no action or sequence of actions may be performed 13 exactly the same way twice; they must be reinvented or recreated at each 14 appearance. In this improvisatory behavioral space, memory reveals itself 15 as imagination.19 16 17 As a dancer, there is something appealing about the notion of repetition 18 resulting in, or being a result of, imagination; and this particular stance 19 provides a persuasive argument against those who consider ballet mindless 20 mechanical replication and mimicry. Ballet training demands the skill and 21 precision of the human body, honed through years of repetition in an effort to 22 master classical ballet technique. And, by applying Roach’s stance, one might 23 comprehend that while the technique is difficult and rigidly structured, it is not 24 a cage; rather, a solid technical foundation provides the dancer with a 25 physicality that enables the artist to be expressive in ways that would be 26 otherwise impossible. 27 One way we might apply this theory to ballet is by considering the 28 classical ballet variation. Although Gail Grant, in the iconic Technical Manual 29 and Dictionary of Classical Ballet, defines variation as simply “a solo dance in 30 a classic ballet,” 20 this seems an oversimplification. Historically, ballet has 31 been intricately linked to classical music, and variation is a term adopted from 32 this musical influence. The Encyclopedia Britannica defines the musical term 33 variation as: 34 A basic music technique consisting of changing the music melodically, 35 harmonically, or contrapuntally. The simplest variation type is the variation 36 set. In this form of composition, two or more sections are based on the 37 same musical material, which is treated with different variational techniques 38 in each section.21 39 40 Generally, a variation is played after a theme with the variation being 41 slightly more ornate; in several cases there are many variations upon a single 42 theme, and a repeating structure supports the nature of the function. Put plainly, 43 the word variation implies repetition. In ballet, the term variation refers to a

19Roach, 46. 20Grant, 149. 21Brittanica.com.

6 2020-3753-AJHA-ARTCUL

1 choreographic pattern, with a corresponding established piece of music, that 2 may be physically manipulated by individual artists in terms of space, time, 3 and energy. While each version of a particular ballet variation may have a 4 standard choreographic plan, the term variation actually implies the freedom 5 for different interpretations, allowing for Roach’s assertion that the collective/ 6 cultural memory may be reinvented or reinterpreted through imagination. In 7 fact, the artistry of individual ballet dancers is often evaluated by the manner in 8 which they interpret the variations embedded in the canon of classical ballets. 9 Moreover, variations are traditionally taught to a younger dancer by an 10 older dancer that has performed the role, thus leaving the process inevitably 11 open to changes and alterations. This fact also speaks to the notions of culture 12 mentioned above in which there is an emphasis on the repertoire being passed 13 from generation to generation. Homans writes that “even dancers with 14 superlative memories are mortal, and with each passing generation, ballet loses 15 a piece of its past.”22 As time progresses, each generation moves farther away 16 from the point of origin, dancers’ bodies and the technique evolve; change, 17 adaptation, and variation are unavoidable. 18 19 Reverance 20 21 Considering Roach’s definition of orature, which includes customs, rites, 22 and rituals, the culture of ballet provides a seemingly endless litany of 23 interesting subjects for investigation. Traditional ballet customs are performed 24 extensively and range from universal manners of dress and deportment to 25 rituals for preparing shoes and applying make-up. Classroom attire is 26 comprised of leotards, tights, legwarmers, and skirts. Specific footwear is 27 mandatory. Ballet dancers’ signature elegant posture and carriage is almost a 28 performance in itself. Internationally, dancers wish each other an ironic 29 ‘merde!’ before a performance and unite in the sanctity of practicing reverance 30 at the end of each class. Thinking more broadly, outside of the ballet 31 community itself, signifiers of ballet are ingrained in our collective cultural 32 memory: pink tights, tutus, pointe shoes, tiaras, swans, and fairies. These 33 oratures are repeated, rehearsed, recreated, restored, and reinvented 34 exponentially continuing the development of a multi-faceted collective/cultural 35 memory. 36 Ballet technique has evolved into a global form of embodied, corporeal 37 knowledge, and a product of a collective/cultural memory of a ballet 38 community that extends not only geographically, but also temporally. Passed 39 down from generation to generation, body to body, ballet moves through 40 history enacting and continually re-enacting a prescribed, and yet malleable 41 and imaginative, repertoire. Performance studies theories that grapple with 42 notions of collective memory, tradition, ritual, orature, repertoire, and 43 repetition, support a fresh examination of ballet practice as a means of 44 transmitting embodied culture from one generation to the next. Acknowledging

22Homans, xx.

7 2020-3753-AJHA-ARTCUL

1 the meaningful functions of these practices opens up opportunities for inquiry 2 and exploration into how the legacy and heritage of ballet perpetuates 3 hierarchies, allows for subversive acts, and maintains a physical cultural 4 practice through the body as living archive. 5 6 The ballet class comes to an end. Mingled with the refined and regal 7 ambiance is the musty aroma of sweat and effort. Accompanied by the strains 8 of an adagio played on a lone piano, the dancers face the mirror and the 9 ballet mistress. Stepping in unison, they perform graceful port de bras, 10 sweeping curtseys, and elegant bows. The spirits of the great artists and 11 teachers from the past partake in the homage as the physical practice and 12 living culture of the art form of ballet once again regenerates and endures. 13 14 15 References 16 17 Alexias, George, and Elina Dimitropoulou. "The body as a tool: Professional classical 18 ballet dancers’ embodiment." Research in Dance Education 12, no. 2 (2011): 87-104. 19 Bates, Daniel G. & Plog, Fred. Human Adaptive Strategies. New York: Mcgraw-Hill. 20 1990. 21 Bell, Catherine. Ritual Theory, Ritual Practice. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 2009. 22 Brittanica.com. https://www.britannica.com/art/musical-variation. Accessed October 19, 23 2017. 24 Burns, Ric. American Ballet Theatre: A History. PBS, accessed May 14, 2015. http:// 25 video.pbs.org/video/2365487888/. 2015. 26 Daly, Ann. "Classical ballet: A discourse of difference." Women & performance: a 27 journal of feminist theory 3, no. 2 (1987): 57-66. 28 Fisher, Jennifer. "Nutcracker" nation: how an Old World ballet became a Christmas 29 tradition in the New World. Yale University Press, 2004. 30 Fisher, Jennifer, and Anthony Shay, eds. When men dance: Choreographing masculinities 31 across borders. Oxford University Press, 2009. 32 Grant, Gail. Technical Manual and Dictionary of Classical Ballet, 3rd revised ed. Dover 33 Publications: New York, 1982. 34 Hamera, Judith. Dancing Communities. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. 2011. 35 Hobswam, Eric and Terence Ranger, ed. The Invention of Tradition. Cambridge: 36 Cambridge University Press. 2012. 37 Homans, Jennifer. Apollo’s Angels. Random House: New York, 2010. 38 Mauss, Marcel. "Techniques of the Body." Economy and society 2, no. 1 (1973): 70-88. 39 Murray, Melonie. “Ballet’s Binary Genders in a Rainbow-Spectrum World: a call for 40 progressive pedagogies” in (Re)Claiming Ballet, ed. Adesola Akinlaye. Intellect, 41 2020. 42 Novack, Cynthia J. "Ballet, gender and cultural power." In Dance, gender and culture, pp. 43 34-48. Palgrave Macmillan, London, 1993. 44 Prest, Julia. "The Politics of Ballet at the Court of Louis XIV." Dance, Spectacle, and the 45 Body Politick, 1250-1750 (2008). 46 Roach, Joseph. “Culture and Performance in the Circum-Atlantic World.” Journal of 47 Performativity and Performance, p.45-64, 1995. 48 Taylor, Diana. The Archive and the Repertoire. Duke University Press, 2003.

8 2020-3753-AJHA-ARTCUL

1 Tomic-Vajagic, Tamara. "The dancer at work: The aesthetic and politics of practice 2 clothes and leotard costumes in ballet performance." Scene 2, no. 1-2 (2014): 89-105. 3 Williams, Raymond, “Culture” in Keywords: a Vocabulary of Culture and Society. 4 London: Croom Helm Ltc. 1976. 5

9