Mamie Eisenhower's Approach to 1950S P

Home , David Eisenhower, Eisenhower (surname), Eisenhower Home, First Lady, Ike (miniseries), John Eisenhower

The Pennsylvania State University

The Graduate School

THE FIRST LADY’S HIDDEN-HAND: MAMIE EISENHOWER’S APPROACH

TO 1950S POLITICS

A Dissertation in

American Studies

Stefanie Strosnider Basalik

Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy

December 2019 ii

The dissertation of Stefanie Strosnider Basalik was received and approved* by the

following:

Charles J.D. Kupfer Associate Professor of American Studies, School of Humanities Dissertation Advisor Chair of Committee

John R. Haddad Professor of American Studies, School of Humanities

Anne A. Verplanck Associate Professor of American Studies, School of Humanities Professor-in-Charge, Doctor of Philosophy in American Studies

Carol R. Nechemias Associate Professor Emerita of Political Science and Public Policy, School of Public Affairs

*Signatures are on file in the Graduate School

iii

ABSTRACT

Mamie Doud Eisenhower was First Lady from 1953-1961. Like many first ladies, Mamie took her job as the nation’s hostess seriously. What sets her apart is her subtle use of political strategy as a way to support her husband. Mamie worked behind the scenes to create a comfortable home for Dwight Eisenhower from the beginning of their marriage in 1916 to his death in 1969. Fred I. Greenstein argues in The Hidden –Hand Presidency: Eisenhower as Leader that Dwight Eisenhower, as a military leader was decisive and purposely secretive. Eisenhower carried those same tactics into the White House. Mamie learned to be publically charismatic and invited select individuals and groups into her home as a way to inwardly advocate for Ike. Critics of Mamie Eisenhower accused her of being apolitical and spending too much time shopping and having parties. This dissertation proves Mamie’s shrewd political awareness through her devotion to her husband. Mamie Eisenhower believed serving the American people meant serving Ike. Through primary sources found at The Eisenhower Presidential Library in Abilene, Kansas, and the Eisenhower National Historic Site in Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, Mamie’s marriage, her relationship with her grandchildren, her interactions with staff, and her influence on consumerism demonstrate her knack for the same hidden-hand approach to governing. iv

TABLE OF CONTENTS

List of Figures ...... v Acknowledgements ...... vi Introduction ...... 1 Chapter One: Mrs. Ike, the General’s Wife ...... 18 Chapter Two: Ike’s Secret Weapon ...... 43 Chapter Three: “Your Husband is the Boss” ...... 67 Chapter Four: “Please Don’t Step on the Carpet!” ...... 88 Chapter Five: “A Number One Housewife and Hostess” ...... 107 Chapter Six: Mrs. Eisenhower Goes Shopping...... 128 Conclusion ...... 149 Bibliography ...... 160

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1: Eisenhower Toile, samples of toile are located at Eisenhower National Historic Site, Gettysburg, PA. ………………………………………………………………145 vi

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

First, I would like to thank the archives and collections staff at the Eisenhower Presidential Library in Abilene, Kansas, for making hundreds of documents and collection pieces available to me during my whirlwind research trip. I am also grateful to Greg Goodell and Mike Florer of Gettysburg National Military Park/Eisenhower National Historic Site for providing access to Mamie Eisenhower’s clothing and Eisenhower Toile. A special thanks to Carol Hegeman of the Eisenhower Society for answering questions and for allowing a couple of giddy interns to run amuck around the Farm. Thank you to my mom, Lora Strosnider, and my best friend, Erin Pearce, for traveling to various archives and sitting with me for hours when I needed more resources. I appreciate you allowing me to boss you around and for the encouragement to keep going. To my committee, Drs. Haddad, Verplanck, Nechemias, and Kupfer, thank you for many years of support and positive feedback. Your encouragement, advice, and quick edits, allowed me to see this project through after seven long years. An overwhelming thanks to my parents for supporting me through divorce, blindness, homelessness, and finally finding happiness. As I was working to accomplish this degree, you were working to keep me sane and together. Finally, to my husband, Shaun, thank you for being the Mr. to my Dr. Your confidence in my ability and love for our family overwhelms me. I pray we make it to 53 years of marriage just like Ike and Mamie.

vii

This dissertation is dedicated to my long-time doctor and friend, Dr. Jason Atwood Tate. Thank you for the excellent care and intellectual banter over the years.

Introduction

Sitting behind an ornately carved desk, Mamie Doud Eisenhower struck a cheerful pose for a crowd of photographers in the White House. Six months had passed since

Dwight D. Eisenhower was elected President, and the nation’s First Lady lightheartedly joked with New York Times reporters about her hectic schedule. New York Times reporter

Nona Brown writes of first ladies that year, “It takes a self-confident and cosmopolitan woman to preside over the White House. . . Everything about her existence, from her hats to her handshake, is subject to public scrutiny and discussion.” Mamie Eisenhower understood the importance of conducting herself with grace, poise, and humility, while shaking thousands of hands and planning state dinners for hundreds of people. Historians and reporters have posed the question of what makes a good first lady? Is it the number of charities events she attends, press conferences she holds, how many schoolchildren she visits, or affairs she caters? How does the role evolve as the roles of wives and women evolve? Taking these and other queries into account, Brown categorized first ladies into three categories, those who have “done what custom required, but not more,” the women who have “raised the tempo of life at the White House, either by public activities on behalf of charity or in social assemblages,” and “a third group of First Ladies who have gone still farther beyond the routine requirements of the role and participated actively in politics.” Brown describes Mamie squarely in the second category as she notes the first lady as “unpolitical” and “one can no more picture her taking a political issue than, as an

Army wife, participating in a debate over infantry tactics.”1 Although Brown’s analysis

1 Nona Brown, “Being First Lady Is a Man-Sized Job: But Mrs. Eisenhower handles it with the ease of experience,” New York Times, May 10, 1953. 2 of Mamie’s placement in the second category is correct, the reporter neglects to describe a class of first ladies that encompasses the second and third assessment. Citing Eleanor

Roosevelt as the first lady who pushed passed the “routine requirements and participated actively in politics,” Brown overlooks the fact that Roosevelt was capable of preoccupation with politics due to World War II’s suspension of most White House entertainment functions.2 Brown also suggests Mamie Eisenhower was apolitical.

Compared to Eleanor Roosevelt, this is a reasonable assumption. After twelve years of a politically robust, outspoken dynamo that was Eleanor Roosevelt, Mamie appeared charming, yet politically unmotivated. It is also a bit premature for Brown to classify

Mamie as a political non-starter as this article was published a short time into

Eisenhower’s presidency. With careful scrutiny, it becomes clear, Mamie purposefully elected to appear apolitical.

For Mamie Eisenhower, life as first lady was not deemed successful until she made the White House a home for Ike. She also used a subtler form of political persuasion than delivering a stump speech or feigning interest in a particular cause on the charity circuit.

Mamie was first to state she was not elected by the American people to represent their interests. However, she did have the President’s ear and illustrated her political prowess by cultivating relationships inside and outside the White House and maintained an astute public relations initiative. Echoing the public’s sentiments of the charming first lady,

Brown suggests, “Being First Lady is a man-sized job but Mrs. Eisenhower handles it with the ease of experience.” If any Army wife participated “in a debate over infantry

2 White House Social Calendar of State Dinners, Seasons 1923-1957, Mary Jane McCaffree Papers, Box 1, Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library.

3 tactics,” or casually demonstrated her ability to show strength during periods of uncertainty, it was Mamie Eisenhower. She understood the key to interacting with a friend or stranger is gregarious friendliness and the overwhelming power of publicity.

“She says that the First Lady’s role represents very little change from her life of the past eleven years, since Dwight Eisenhower first became a public figure,” Brown noted. “In that period she learned how to enjoy life in the midst of protocol-encrusted dinners and receptions. Her earlier years as an inconspicuous Army wife, of course, served a preliminary schooling for her present job.” Nona Brown wrote this article in May 1953, and unknowingly defined the trajectory of Mamie’s term as First Lady. Referencing Mrs.

Eisenhower and her secretary, Mary Jane McCaffree’s, social strategy, Brown relays,

“Into these decisions go a combination of friendliness and politics, for although no one in the White House will say so, it is obvious that Mrs. Eisenhower feels she can take some of the burden from her husband’s shoulders by meeting many of the ‘state pride’ visitors”

Mamie learned this subtle form of politics from watching her husband lead in battle and on the home front.

When Harry S. Truman announced he would not seek another term as President, politicians from both sides of the aisle began frantically searching for a candidate who was charismatic, intelligent, and capable. Both Democrats and Republicans courted

Dwight D. Eisenhower because of his unmatched army credentials, popularity with the public, and leadership abilities. Ike chose to run on the Republican ticket and after a wide victory over Adlai Stevenson in 1952, he settled into the new post. Many of Ike’s opponents, unable to attack his impressive career, criticized him for being politically naïve, lazy, and a bumbler. Ike was an army General and had never served in a political

4 office. He was accustomed to secrecy, highly organized plans, subtle diplomacy, and commanding in his own way. Democrats accused Ike of playing too much golf, unloading his responsibilities on cabinet members, and not spending enough time on domestic problems.3 In one sense, this was a criticism of a non-career politician for not being part of the political class. It was not uncommon for military men to seek public office; generals such as Andrew Jackson, Zachary Taylor, and Ulysses S. Grant used their army careers as stepladders to the White House. Taking on Eisenhower as alien to the civilian political caste was the only charge his critics could make that was plausible.

It was not until Fred I. Greenstein published, The Hidden-Hand Presidency:

Eisenhower as Leader in 1982 that many of these criticisms were dispelled. The notion of

Eisenhower as a genial time-server had taken hold in the culture. Journalist Theodore

White, the New Yorker’s Richard Rovere, and even Henry Kissinger were some of Ike’s greatest critics. Greenstein disagreed, and argued that Ike was decisive, organized, and strategic – but from behind the scenes. Only in the United States does the chief executive play the role of both president and prime minister. Other countries, such as France, divide the office. Constitutional monarchies, such as Great Britain, place sovereignty with the monarch and political control with the Prime Minister. But the American Presidency concentrates power, by Constitutional design and political evolution. According to

Greenstein, Ike used his strengths of face-to-face leadership to exude warmth while refusing to discuss complexities. For Eisenhower, politics meant more than engaging with certain personalities like Joseph McCarthy and Nikita Khrushchev and speaking off

3 Fred I. Greenstein, The Hidden-Hand Presidency: Eisenhower As Leader (New York: Basic Books, Inc., Publishers, 1982), 19.

5 the cuff during press conferences. He believed that as president, it was his duty to build a public support that transcended the nation’s social and political divisions.4 There is much to glean from Greenstein’s insight. For example, Eisenhower’s greatest achievement as

Supreme Allied Commander might have been enabling prickly Allies and personalities to get along and focus on winning the war. Certainly the enemy side expected that the Allies would fall out over their real differences. It was Eisenhower who prevented that through his quiet, unselfish leadership.

Greenstein suggests that Eisenhower managed to minimize the visibility of the political side of his role and play up his chief of state status. Rhetoric has served the needs of presidents to vent their feelings rather than as a tool of leadership. Ike believed in carefully choosing his words and even in holding his tongue, not to promote ambiguity, but to avoid controversy.5

Mamie Eisenhower considered her marriage to Ike the beginning of her career. After their wedding in 1916, Mamie learned quickly to respect her husband’s devotion to the military. Her choice was to either conform to the new way of life she selected or leave a marriage that was only just beginning. Mamie chose to follow Ike and that meant years of travel, learning protocol and showing delight for promotions, even when orders dictated uprooting again. By the time the Eisenhowers moved into the White House, the couple had been married for thirty-seven years and moved twenty-nine times. From their first post together in Texas, to commanding tanks in Gettysburg, to recruitment by Fox

Connor in Panama, to coaching football in Maryland, to attending the Army War College

4 Ibid., 5, 14, 31, 35. 5 Ibid., 19.

6 in Washington, D.C., to preparing for Filipino independence with General McArthur in the Philippians, to commander of SHAFE in World War II, to Columbia University, to the White House, Mamie defined herself as Ike’s permanent supporter. Mamie learned to model the same conscious hidden-hand tactics Ike employed in his positions during their many years of marriage and deepening military involvement. Ike’s career was Mamie’s career.6

Mamie Eisenhower echoed her husband’s hidden-hand approach as first lady. Always claiming that Ike was her cause and her job, Mamie used her position to reach the

American people from inside the White House. It is worth noting that first ladies often adopt a cause, such as public housing, African American rights, or historical preservation.

Mamie’s cause was the presidency of her husband. She argued it was her position to support her husband and president by creating a warm and relaxing environment so he could successfully lead the nation. She did not speak publically or campaign for her own causes. Through her fashion sense, homemaker mentality, congenial manner, and subtle political dealings, the first lady employed the same hidden-hand mentality as the General- statesmen.

Throughout the United States’ history each first lady has had a different approach to a job she has neither been elected to nor appointed. White House seamstress Lillian Rogers

Parks noted in 1961 that she and the White House staff believed “the First Family must set an example. As a social leader, the First Lady must demonstrate a good example in her home life as well as her public one.” Mamie believed that her example as a loving

6 “Eisenhower Military Chronology,” Eisenhower National Park Service, https://www.nps.gov/features/eise/jrranger/chronomil1.htm, accessed April 19, 2019.

7 housewife, devoted grandmother, and gracious hostess would set her apart as a dedicated and active First Lady. Lillian Parks wrote in her memoir, “Somewhere along the line, each new First Lady will wonder aloud whom the public elected—the President or her.”

Mamie confidently knew that the public elected her husband, however, she understood “a

First Lady can do more than any other woman in the country to increase respect for women generally, and to be a peacemaker.” 7

Each first lady needs to find out what was expected of her and what her specific role would be. Each faces the inherent and historical weight of their ‘office,’ yet also the contemporaneous zeitgeist of the nation regarding such matters as gender roles. To the

American people, Mamie’s major role was as the White House hostess. Eleanor

Roosevelt’s political concerns reserved a place for her in the public sphere, but she was criticized for not taking care of her family. Of course the intimacies, or lack thereof, within the Roosevelt’s marriage were hidden from public view. But Eleanor’s image was never that of the supportive wife at home as, indeed, she traveled frequently.

First Ladies have always been an important part of the nation’s shared sense of patriotism. Though these women have not been voted into office, given any

Constitutional responsibilities, or collected a salary, they are deemed influential and mass marketed throughout the world. A first lady’s style, elegance, intelligence, humanitarianism, and overall character are constantly scrutinized by the media and people everywhere. The role of the first lady is celebrated as an example of the ultimate hostess and homemaker to America’s most famous home. The majority of first ladies

7 Lillian Rogers Parks, My Thirty Years Backstairs at the White House (New York: Fleet Publishing Corporation, 1961), 16, 19-20.

8 before Mamie Eisenhower did not attend college, though many had some form of social training. In a nation priding itself on the dominance and consistency of democracy, first ladies came from backgrounds defined by poverty and affluence, violence and peace, education and religious conviction. Curiously, there are few accounts of how presidents felt about their wives being active in politics. Myra Gutin begs the questions in The President’s Partner, “Age, state of health, family obligations, and the President’s attitude toward the degree of this wife’s participation in his affairs are all determinates,” as to how active a first lady is compared to others. “Does the President really want his wife to be active? If not, will he endeavor to restrict her activity?” Gutin cites Florence Harding, Grace Coolidge, Bess Truman, and Mamie

Eisenhower as “inactive communicators,” in regard to addressing the press. Yet, each is still defined as active hostess participants, which is just as effective, if not more, than giving a long- winded speech.8

In the years following the Eisenhowers’ administration, many first ladies are credited with bringing new focus to social causes, making waves in the fashion industry, and starting their own political careers. Jackie Kennedy has long been associated with preserving many of the White House’s artifacts, her stylish wardrobe, and bringing youth and activism to the Executive Mansion during a period of civil unrest and growing discontentment with social norms. To counter the claim of little to no influence from first ladies between Eleanor and Jackie, this research proves Mamie’s impact in paving the way for active political support from spouses and the effect the first lady has on public consumerism. Understandably, with the change in societal norms, not all first ladies fit into the same mold previously defined by first ladies in the eighteenth, nineteenth, and to

8 Myra G. Gutin, The President’s Partner: The First Lady in the Twentieth Century (New York: Greenwood Press, 1989), 32-33.

9 an extent, the twentieth centuries. Not all first ladies see a successful transference of power and influence from their president-husbands. The twenty-first century has shown one of the most fruitful transformations in the person of Hillary Clinton. She has effectively moved from first lady to having her own productive political career. Her example can motivate and encourage future first ladies to spring board into possible political ambitions.

Within the first year of the Eisenhower administration, accounts of Mamie’s life were heralded as a peek into the First Lady’s past and an in depth analysis of how she would contribute to the United States’ prosperity as an ambassador to the American people and to nations abroad. Many biographies identify Mamie’s dedication to Dwight

Eisenhower from the beginning of their courtship until her death in 1979.9 With notes on her fashion sense, friendliness, and devoted correspondence, authors consistently attribute much of Ike’s success to the charismatic lady who stood quietly behind him. The purpose of this new analysis is to reexamine Mamie’s actions as hostess, housewife, and public ambassador through the lens of Greenstein’s hidden-hand argument about the President.

Although Mamie claimed to be apolitical, her actions suggested her understanding of her perceived role and the necessity of her compliance. Both Ike and Mamie valued privacy and were determined to shield their private lives from the intruding mass media outlets and curious American people. When concealment was no longer possible, Ike and Mamie used their popularity and eager smiles to win over hearts and minds. While never

9 Dorothy Brandon, Mamie Doud Eisenhower: A Portrait of a First Lady (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1954); Alden Hatch, Red Carpet for Mamie (New York: Henry Holt and Company, 1954); D.L. Kimball, I Remember Mamie (Fayette, IA: Trends and Events, Inc., 1981); Robert E. Dewhirst, Dutiful Service: The Life of Mrs. Mamie Eisenhower (New York: Nova History Publications, 2004).

10 showing signs of a malicious nature, the Eisenhowers used hidden-hand politics to their advantage.

This new analysis will focus on Mamie Eisenhower’s contribution to the fashion industry, various charities, and her legacy as First Wife and hostess. Several notable historians and journalists have supplied a wealth of information on Mamie Eisenhower’s life and legacy. The majority of these accounts are biographical in nature without a definitive argument. Frequently Mamie is defined by how she fit into Ike’s career and by her ambitious role as hostess. She is also compared to other president’s wives in large volumes of first lady history.10 The two most comprehensive works on Mamie’s life and legacy are Susan Eisenhower’s Mrs. Ike: Portrait of a Marriage and Marilyn Irvin Holt’s

Mamie Doud Eisenhower: The General’s First Lady. Eisenhower’s biographical text focuses on Ike and Mamie’s relationship and devotion to Ike’s career and their marriage.

Susan Eisenhower also provides a nonacademic, personal portrayal of her grandparents’ struggles, hurts, love, and triumphs that most writers are unable to capture. Marilyn Irvin

Holt’s compact biography of Mamie fits within a larger collection of works, Modern

First Ladies, edited by Lewis L. Gould. These descriptions are designed to make the modern first ladies, from Lou Henry Hoover to Hilary Rodham Clinton, approachable and familiar. CSPAN’s coverage of this series and interviews with the authors

10 Mamie is often compared to Dolley Madison as a hostess, Julia Grant as a military wife, and Eleanor Roosevelt, Bess Truman, and Jacqueline Kennedy due to her placement in the timeline.

11 reinvigorated a public interest in the women who are often overlooked or only recognized as an extension of their husband’s achievements or scandals. 11

By investigating Mamie Eisenhower’s hidden-hand, political mentality, a more in depth approach can be taken toward evaluating her interactions with the media, popularity as a fashion icon, charity contributions, choices to be involved in various political leaning organizations and the management of the public and private quarters of the Executive Mansion. Unlike the several first ladies before her, Mamie did not leave behind a plethora of her own thoughts in diaries or letters written while in the White

House. Although she was known for her unrivaled correspondence, Mamie’s letters were generally short, concise, and friendly. Her wartime notes to Ike reveal her loneliness and worry over his safety and fidelity as the Kay Summersby rumors sparked conversations.12

The majority of this analysis will be based on newspaper clippings, Mamie’s public correspondence, accounts of White House Staff, and interviews with her family and friends recorded by the National Park Service.

The purpose of this work is not designed to be a glorified biography but an augmentation of the previously defined theses describing Mamie Eisenhower as magnanimous hostess. Focusing on Mamie’s definition of her role, the American public’s

11 Susan Eisenhower, Mrs. Ike: Memories and Reflections on the Life of Mamie Eisenhower (New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux, 1996); Marilyn Irvin Holt, Mamie Doud Eisenhower: The General’s First Lady (University of Kansas Press, 2007); C- SPAN, “First Lady Mamie Eisenhower,” National Cable Satellite Corporation, https://www.c-span.org/video/?314532-1/lady-mamie-eisenhower (accessed June 24, 2019). An edited transcript of Marilyn Irvin Holt and Edith Mayo’s interview on C- SPAN is featured in: Susan Swain and C-SPAN, First Ladies: Presidential Historian on the Lives of 45 Iconic American Women (New York: Pubic Affairs, 2015), 316-326. 12 Eisenhower, Mrs. Ike, 193-194. It was rumored Dwight Eisenhower was having an affair with his driver/secretary, Kay Summersby, while he was on duty during World War II.

12 perception of her actions, and how the first lady appeared to be a tailor-made fit for the

1950s era will provide further explanation of Mamie’s hidden-hand administration.

Dedication to her marriage, affection for her family, reverence for the military, fondness for fashion, and her Mid-Western charm endeared her to the press and public. This research is not intended to analyze or critique all gender norms of the 1950s through a twenty-first century lens. It is clearly stated that some of Mamie’s thinking is a product of her late nineteenth, early twentieth century upbringing. She does more to solidify her own choice of breaking with upper-class societal thinking by marrying Ike, rather than conforming to what appears to be an overarching, cookie-cutter culture. Retrospectively, it is clear not all women relished their roles as wives and mothers, living a seemingly formulaic lifestyle. Mamie Eisenhower was called the First Housewife, and demonstrated active submission to her husband, but she never disparaged women for seeking fulfillment outside the home. The Eisenhowers fall into a specific military niche that cannot match directly with the gender and social norms often described in the 1950s. Due to regulation, written or tacit, the military subculture frequently ignored much needed reforms evident to average Americans.

The majority of this study will center on Mamie’s time as first lady. Although her early life prior to her marriage to Ike was important in honing her hostess skills, her time as an Army wife prepared her more for her role as ambassador to the public. With a brief look at Ike’s Army career and Mamie’s struggle to overcome the weight of solitude, the impact of their reuniting, and the joint charge of the White House, it becomes clear why they were both suited for political office. A subtle command of unspoken public communication allowed Ike and Mamie to remain private while exuding a sense of

13 neighborliness and authority. Greenstein writes of Dwight Eisenhower’s political skill,

“On the assumption that a president who is predominantly viewed on terms of his political prowess will lose public support by not appearing to be a proper chief of state,

Eisenhower went to great lengths to conceal the political side of his leadership.”13 For his critics, Eisenhower’s political concealment was further evidence of his inability to properly govern in a nonmilitary setting. He was accused of being “standard American” by The New Yorker’s Richard Rovere, and The New York Times’s Arthur Krock noted

Eisenhower had “at least a mild distaste for the company of professional politicians,” because he was frequently seen in the company of businessmen and military men.14

Dwight Eisenhower did not profess loyalty to all the same political beliefs as the

Republican Party and the American people were looking for a leader who was relatable as a “standard American.” Eisenhower easily associated his political leadership to his military career. It was important to him to lead with certainty, conviction, and authority on the battlefield while still maintaining approachability and altruism. His personality and training shaped the “outer man” the American public admired and the politicians maligned. Greenstein aptly writes, “Many of Eisenhower’s dichotomies reflect a reassuringly benign-seeming public self and a private one with a well-developed capacity for tough minded political realism.”15

In the same vein, first ladies are constantly defined by nonexistent employee guidelines and frequently compared to other first ladies and politicians’ wives. Mamie

Eisenhower was beloved by the public for her outwardly genial quirk and soft-spoken

13 Greenstein, The Hidden-Hand Presidency, 5. 14 Ibid, 8. 15 Ibid, 54.

14 attitude. At home, she made clear the importance of her command as housekeeper and hostess. To the American public, Mamie was regarded as maintaining her identity with her balance of domesticity and publicity. A Newspaper Enterprise Association article describes Mamie as a “Fine first lady just by being herself.” Noting Mamie’s success,

“There is no question that America’s first lady has sold herself to the American women,” and foretelling “in the next four years perhaps, she can sell them on the idea that seems to be the basis of her own warm personality, the courage to be an individual.” Mamie highlighted her individuality as a medium to connect with women. Expressing herself in a nontraditional manner, Mamie defied the boundaries of Nona Brown’s three categories.

Using customs, public relations, a convivial sense of welcome, and clear concern for the nation’s wellbeing, Mamie quietly gained the trust of Americans in a flamboyant and unobtrusive way. Mamie Eisenhower did not need to openly raise awareness with speeches and press conferences. She invited people into her home to illustrate her political and personal devotion to her role of serving her husband and President. “Despite the fact that is married to one of the best-loved men of our time,” reported the National

Enterprise Association Services, and? “that she has never done anything particular outstanding, besides being a wife, mother and grandmother, this woman has maintained so much individuality just by being herself that she isn’t Mrs. Eisenhower to the

American people. To them she is herself—Mamie!”16

16 “Mamie Is a Fine First Lady Just by Being Herself,” National Enterprise Association Service, Inc., newspaper clipping, Mamie D. Eisenhower (hereafter MDE) MDE’s Scrapbook, 1954, M-109, #13140 (6)-(7), Eisenhower Presidential Library (hereafter EL).

Dwight Eisenhower is the last president to have achieved the rank of General of the Army. Subsequent presidents have actively served in the military, but the highest rank reached after Eisenhower are Lyndon Johnson and Richard Nixon, both serving as

Commanders in the United States Navy during World War II. Although many eighteenth and nineteenth century presidents had long military careers before becoming president,

Eisenhower is the only twentieth century president to only serve in a military capacity before taking office. Ike’s years in the White House reflect his many years of training and demand for efficiency and accuracy. By marriage, Mamie serves as first lady with the same military credentials. Mamie’s own understanding of hidden-hand tactics is suggested by her experiences with moving, isolation, strict military guidelines, and the need for maintaining privacy. Mamie’s embrace of her role as a silent partner did not reflect weakness. This research contradicts the generally accepted opinion that Mamie

Eisenhower was a non-entity in her husband’s military and political life.

In the first chapter, a brief background is given on the early lives of Dwight and

Mamie Eisenhower to narrow the scope on the difference in their upbringings, the relationship each shared with their parents, and the trajectory that led them to marriage and Mamie’s commitment to Ike’s future military career. Particular attention is paid to

Mamie’s first attempt at house management in the chaos of constantly revolving military life.

Chapter two deals with the Eisenhowers’ first foray into politics and the critical role Mamie plays as a silent, but effective supporter. In the run up to the election,

Mamie’s involvement in the campaign evolves from accessory to necessity as campaigners court women to vote for Ike. Media outlets began paying more attention to

Mamie’s role as Ike’s supporter, focusing on her fashion, and determining her intentions for the White House.

Chapter three is dedicated to Mamie’s view of her role as First Lady and her unrelenting mantra that Ike comes first. Mamie did not see a difference between being a homemaker and being one of the most influential women in the United States. Defining her role as a housewife allowed Mamie to demonstrate her loyalty to the nation by serving her President in a way that made him feel at home and comfortable.

The purpose of chapter four is to relay Mamie’s sound managerial skills learned from many years of Army life. Mamie believed the White House, her home, was to be governed with precision and absolute authority. As a frequent hostess, Mamie wanted her home to be presentable to the public and even when the Executive Mansion was quiet,

Mamie instructed her staff as to how she wanted her home to run. This dichotomy between Mamie’s public persona and her private life reflects her ability to lead with a firm hand, yet use her charisma to win over hearts and mind.

Chapter five details Mamie’s subtle political dealings in her role as the nation’s hostess. Mamie established her supremacy in the White House early on in her husband’s administration. Mamie never interfered with decisions coming from the West Wing, but the remainder of the White House fell under Mamie’s jurisdiction. The First Lady approved all guest lists, the length of time each group or individual was allowed to stay, and whether or not they received a personal invitation to her home. Mamie’s influence garnered attention from special interest groups, military families, designers, students, civic organizations, unions, foreign allies, and everyday citizens. Mamie’s indirect political power only increased jockeying for her favor.

The final chapter calls attention to Mamie’s direct influence over consumer culture. During an era of prosperity, consumers and businesses alike clamored for more and more products in the open marketplace. Mamie’s fashion sense and her love of the color pink made headlines in newspapers, magazines, and on T.V. Mamie was modest and wanted her outward appearance to reflect her devotion to Ike. The design and marketing of Elisabeth Draper’s Eisenhower Toile further solidified, not only the

Eisenhowers’ place in Americans’ hearts, but Mamie’s shrewd ability to sway the mass market.

Mamie Doud Eisenhower took her role as First Lady very seriously. Like her husband, duty was more than a responsibility or obligation; it was the only way life was lived. Ike and Mamie knew only loyalty to their country, their fellow citizens, and to each other. Like Fred Greenstein proves of Ike, Mamie understood the importance of fulfilling one’s calling from behind the scenes. Mamie did not see her role as hostess and housewife as a burden, but as her vocation. Serving her husband, the President, meant serving the American people and upholding her undefined profession as First Lady.

Chapter 1:

Mrs. Ike, the General’s Wife

“Who said ‘Variety is the Spice of Life?’ No doubt t’was first said by an Army Wife; for the poor girl never knows just where she’s at—her home is wherever he parks his hat. She moves every two years into a new set of quarters, during which time she births sons and daughters. She packs up to move to the plains of Nebraska, then orders are changed and they move to Alaska. Her house may be a hub with no room for expansion, it may be a tent or perhaps it’s a mansion. Then she uncrates the furniture in snow or in rain, and lays the linoleum between labor pains. She wrangles saw horses and builds all beds, makes curtains of target-cloth she last used for spreads. And during each move—now isn’t it strange? The brats invariably catch mumps, measles, or mange. She no more than gets settled when she must dress up pretty, and go to a party and be charming and witty. She must know contract rules, mah jong and chess, and whether a straight or a flush is the best. On every subject she must know how to discourse, she must swim, ski and golf and ride any troop horse. She must know songs and traditions of The Kaydets [sic] Corps, and she fast learns all details how he won the War. She jitterbugs with Lieutenants who always are glamorous—them waltezes [sic] with Colonels who are usually amorous. She must drink all concoctions, gin, whiskey and beer—but of course moderately or she’ll wreck his career. He insists on economy, questions every check stub, yet her house must be run like a hotel or club. For she entertains at all hours, both early and late, for any number of guests—eighty or eight. The first of each month there is plenty of cash, so she serves turkey and ham—but the last week it’s hash. She juggles the budget for a new tropical worsted, though the seams on her own best outfit have bursted [sic]. Then she just gets the uniform payments arranged when the blouse is no good—Regulations have changed. One year she has servants and lives like a lady, the next she does her own work and has a new baby. That there’ll be a bank balance she has no assurance—it all goes for ‘likker’ or some damned insurance! At an age to retire, he is still hale and hearty, fit as a fiddle, the life of the party; while she is old and haggard, cranky and nervous—really a week after his thirty years’ service. But even then, when all’s said and done—she still believes that Army Life’s fun. She has loved every minute… and why, good grief,--she’d have been bored with doctor or merchant chief. But there’s one fancy medal—and all Army men wear it…it’s their Wives should have it—that Legion of Merit!”17

17 Nan Kutner, “He’s ‘EEK’ to the French,” Women’s Illustrated (Jan 26, 1952): 14-15.

This 1952 account is found in the Mamie Doud Eisenhower archival file at the

Eisenhower Presidential Library in Abilene, Kansas. Although no specific notes are found in relation to the rhythmic verses, it is clear the anonymous Army wife understands her unique position within the military hierarchy and how she can best serve her husband and her country. Mamie Doud Eisenhower was not born into a military family. However, she learned quickly after her marriage to a soldier, that the role an Army wife takes and the necessary expectations that require immediate and thorough obedience.

Mamie learned from her years as an army wife to maintain a strict code of conduct. Her well-bread upbringing prepared her for years of hosting, polite small talk, and decorum, but her army life swayed her ability to subtly express her opinions while maintaining control over her sphere of influence. Mamie was deliberate in her actions and understood the responsibility of possible consequences. Like Ike, she gained the trust of superiors and inferiors with ease and this influence allowed her to push for her own agenda while delicately maneuvering around political landmines.

Mamie Geneva Doud was born on November 14, 1896, to John S. and Elivera

Carlson Doud in Boone, Iowa. Mamie was the second Doud child born in Boone, and after success in the meatpacking business, John moved his young family to Cedar Rapids, when Mamie was nine months old. Elivera birthed two more girls, to her husband’s chagrin, and he hired help to assist in the management of the children and household.

Although Elivera’s family was a short train ride away and having help relieved her from some domestic duties, she fell into a state of decline. John moved his family again to

Colorado Springs and decided to retire at the age of thirty-six. His early retirement did not cause financial strain on the family’s budget as he had already amassed a fortune of

20 over a million dollars, even showing his status by purchasing the first car in town.

Despite high hopes of permanent settlement there, the Douds discovered the high altitude of the area caused Mamie’s oldest sister, Eleanor, to contract a serious heart ailment at the age of eight. Mamie also suffered from a weak heart, but not to the same extent as her older sister. After packing their bags again, the Douds reestablished themselves in

Denver, Colorado. Denver was a bustling city filled with wealthy families from the mining and meatpacking businesses. The Douds entertained in their newly designed recreation room and hosted a buffet every Sunday for any friends who wanted to stop by.

Although the Douds were not overly social, they did enjoy the company of friends and moved about in well-respected Denver circles.18

When Mamie was fourteen, the Douds began the habit of vacationing in San

Antonio, Texas, during the cold winter months. Renting one of the largest houses in the area, Elivera sent two maids ahead on a train to ensure the house was open and stocked before the entire family and two additional maids squeezed in the Doud’s automobile to make the trip by car. Few expenses were spared for the four Doud girls when they arrived. Camping, fishing, concerts, boating, and treats from their father were an everyday occurrence for Eleanor, Mamie, Ida Mae (nicknamed, “Buster,”) and Mabel,

(nicknamed, “Mike.”) After years of happiness and prosperity, the immediate Doud family was stricken at the loss of Mamie’s eldest sister, Eleanor, in January 1912.

18 Eisenhower, Mrs, Ike, 5, 9-11.

Eleanor’s heart was unable to manage continued strain, and she died at the age of seventeen. 19

As Mamie grew into adulthood, she was taught how to manage a household with servants and to handle the attendant finances. Mamie attended high school for a short time. However due to moving and the death of her sister, she never seriously pursued an education. John Doud was under the impression that his girls would receive better training for life in domesticity than in a formalized school. Learning how to sew, ballroom dance, and play piano, Mamie was enrolled into Miss Walcott’s finishing school to complete her well-rounded training. By 1915, Mamie’s charm, beauty, and active social life, left her with little time to settle down and take suiters seriously.20

It was not until the Doud family returned to San Antonio that Mamie met her match. After reluctantly accepting a friend’s invitation to visit Fort Sam Houston, Mamie found herself walking with a young, tall, handsome, soldier while he completed his rounds. Dwight David Eisenhower had recently graduated from West Point and was stationed at Fort Sam Houston. Ike was taken with Mamie’s beauty and Mamie was also interested in Ike, but it being her debutante year, she was booked solid and unable to make time for him. Ike began visiting Mamie’s parents at their home in the evenings when Mamie was out with other men. When she returned, Ike would still be waiting on her porch. Finally after some persuasion from her father, Mamie took Ike seriously and began spending all her spare time with him. After it became clear that Lieutenant

Eisenhower was not overwhelmed by Mamie’s society connections, money, or abundance

19 Ibid., 12-13, 17. 20 Ibid., 20-21.

22 of suitors, they decided to become engaged on Valentine’s Day 1915. Ike gave Mamie a copy of his West Point ring as a symbol of their engagement.21

Mamie’s father had reservations regarding their marriage. Although John Doud sincerely liked Ike, he was concerned his daughter would be unable to cope with the dramatic change of lifestyle she would know as an Army wife. Mamie knew little about domestic work as she was expecting to always hire servants. Ike came from a lower middle class farming family and he shared most of his possessions with his five brothers.

John Doud finally gave his blessing with the caveat that “there was no reason why scrimping and saving would not lay the foundation for an enduring marriage.”22

Dwight’s parents, David and Ida Stover Eisenhower, met at Lane College in

Kansas. David had aspirations of becoming an engineer and Ida appreciated his level- headedness and persistence. They married in September 1885 were given a gift of $2,000 and 160 acres to continue the family tradition of farming. David already gave up the idea of farming when he entered college, so the land was mortgaged to his brother-in-law, and the newly married couple moved twenty-eight miles away to Hope, Kansas, to open a general store. Early on the business thrived and David and Ida became the parents to their first son, Arthur. Unfortunately, due to an unpredictable market, most farmers were unable to pay their accumulated bills at the store and the business went bankrupt in 1888.

Left with Ida’s piano and a few household items and articles of clothing, the Eisenhowers

21 Ibid., 34-35, 38. 22 Ibid., 38.

23 decided it would be best for David to move to Texas in search of a new job and Ida would stay behind to await the birth of their second son, Edgar.23

After David found employment in Denison, Texas, Ida and their two sons joined him to begin life again. Less than two years later, David Dwight Eisenhower was born on

October 14, 1890.24 After two years in Texas, David was offered a position at Belle

Springs Creamery in Kansas. Although another move would be daunting, especially with three children, the Eisenhowers saw an opportunity to rise out of poverty and collect fifty dollars a week. Packing their few belongings, the Eisenhowers made their way back to

Kansas, to a small house near the creamery. David’s increase in salary was greatly needed to sustain his growing family. In 1892, Ida birthed their fourth son, Roy, and two years later, their fifth son, Paul. To the Eisenhower’s great sadness, Paul died of diphtheria when he was only ten months old. In 1898, Earl was born, and the youngest

Eisenhower, Milton, came in 1899.25

Unlike the Douds, the Eisenhowers had little income to spare, so living to societal standards was never a priority. With emphasis on religious piety and six growing boys to feed, David and Ida strictly managed the house ensuring that each boy participated in daily chores and prayers. All the Eisenhower boys were expected to work hard on their schoolwork and to treat people with kindness, respect, and sincerity. However, Dwight was also charged with managing his anger and learning from his mistakes more than the others. All six boys enjoyed athletics and spent their free time selling vegetables for spending money, or in Dwight’s case, he learned to play poker, bare-knuckle brawl, and

23 Ibid., 25-26. 24 The sequence of his names were changed upon entering West Point. 25 Ibid., 27.

24 sneaking into his mother’s locked cabinets to read history books. With little savings to send their sons to school, Ida and David could only encourage their sons to save and work together for a college education. Before Edgar entered the University of Michigan, he and Dwight planned to finance each other’s educations. Dwight took several jobs, sending money to Edgar whenever possible and anticipated joining his older brother there soon. One of Dwight’s friends, Swede Hazlett, encouraged him to apply to the United

States Naval Academy instead of attending college in Michigan. Due to his age, Ike was unqualified. However, he did apply and was accepted to the United States Military

Academy at West Point.26

West Point appeared the perfect fit for Ike as his poverty would not be a hindrance and he excelled in studying military history. To Dwight’s devout and pacifist parents, the military was clearly a solid career choice only because it guaranteed a steady income. However, the Army would certainly put Ike in dangerous and morally challenging situations. From his first day at the Academy, Ike and the rest of the new cadets were made to understand the importance of “Duty, Honor, and Country” and to put all other thoughts or actions aside. The Class of 1915 was the largest to date with 276 members, yet only 164 would eventually graduate. This class was known as the class “the stars fell on” due to the achievements of its members, notably with thirty-six percent attaining the rank of general.27 Dwight continued to gamble, play football, and cause trouble. Out of his 164 graduating classmates, he ranked 125 on his disciplinary record.28

26 Ibid., 28-30. 27 Geoffrey Perret, Eisenhower (New York: Random House, 1999), 47. 28 Eisenhower, Mrs. Ike, 31-32.

After graduation, Ike awaited a commission to the Philippians, which was denied; instead he was ordered to report to the 19th Infantry in Galveston, Texas. Due to flooding in the area, the men sent to Galveston were split into two groups, one stationed in Utah, and the second at Fort Sam Houston. This fortuitous move set Ike on the path to meeting

Mamie Doud.29

On a warm July 1, 1916, Mamie and Dwight were married in the Douds’

Colorado home. The couple originally intended to marry in November. However, due to conflict on the U.S.-Mexico border, San Antonio was in crisis and President Wilson called many National Guard units forward to assist with protecting towns from Mexican raiders. Dwight was afraid of being called away and Mamie was determined not to wait out a long engagement. With a hastily, yet tasteful ceremony and reception thrown,

Mamie and Ike exchanged vows then headed off to Abilene for the bride to meet her new in-laws. After a long journey, Ike and Mamie were led to the Eisenhower home by Ike’s father, David, and much to Mamie’s surprise, her husband’s childhood home was small, with few luxuries, and no domestic help. Although the couple only stayed for a short time, Mamie was introduced to the simplicity to which Ike was accustomed and she would soon realize the challenge of living on a soldier’s salary of $141 per month.30

Unless raised in a military home, most spouses who marry a soldier find life to be dramatically different once they cross the threshold into the realm of armed services life.

The military has constantly been confronted with investing in new technology, advanced strategies, and constant ingenuity, yet tradition grounds roles, procedures, and social

29 Ibid., 31-32. 30 Ibid., 41-42.

26 activities. The base becomes a self-contained world but one replete with unique family challenges. Just as the military conditions its troops for battle in the field, military wives are trained to handle the homefront. Although positions in the United States have shifted and there are now more male military partners than ever before, women have dominated the role of military spouse and most guidelines reflect that status.31 Of the four branches of military, Army, Navy, Air Force, and Marines, the United States Army has always had the largest number of servicemen and the largest number of military spouses.32 According to many Army wives, most Army etiquette was self-taught with few written guiding principles. It was a tacit understanding that Army wives learned proper protocol, which the Army enforced, even though there was no formal spousal education in the military services. Senior officers’ wives became mentors as they nurtured new Army brides and taught them protocol, housekeeping skills, and budget management. For many young women, becoming an Army wife was a romanticized notion wrapped up in the prestige of military honor and tradition. What generally awaited them was loneliness, small living quarters, a meager soldier’s salary, and demands of a military based social hierarchy.33

Like many Army wives living in less desirable places and feeling isolated, Ann Crossley struggled knowing in her husband’s mind the Army always comes first before her and her

31 “In 2015, over half (51.1%) of enlisted members and a majority (69.6%) of officers report themselves as married. Over half (56.0%) of Active Duty males and nearly half (45.3%) of Active Duty females are married.” “2015 Demographics: Profile of the Military Community,” Department of Defense, Office of the Deputy Assistant Secretary of Defense for Military Community and Family Policy. 32 In order to delve deeper into Mamie Eisenhower’s mentality while a military wife, this research touches briefly on pre-WWI and post-WWII Army wives. The majority of research only focuses on Army wives from 1916-1952, when Ike and Mamie were first married until he resigned to campaign for the presidency. 33 Ann Crossley, The Army Wife Handbook: A Complete Social Guide (Sarasota, FL: ABI Press, 1990), xv, 1.

27 children, “somehow, Army wives have always survived—and with great style. They have learned to make the best of every situation and developed special methods of coping with their challenging lifestyle. One way is by being friendly. . . They reach out not only to strangers and greet them as friends, but they reach out to their Army community and treat it as family.” Mamie Eisenhower knew this reality firsthand as a young bride struggling to transition from a wealthy home to paltry quarters far away from her family and friends.

After realizing this was the life she chose, with the man who only had eyes for service and honor, Mamie embraced her role and began her own campaign of friendliness, which she continued through the rest of her life. “The best ‘rule’ that anyone can follow is

‘thoughtfulness toward others’ in every personal encounter,” Crossley writes to Army wives, “Making others feel comfortable is the sign of a truly gracious lady.” 34 Whether in a small house in Panama, a palace in France, the White House dining room, or the back porch of her Gettysburg farm, Mamie Eisenhower invited strangers, heads of state, friends, and family to her many homes and made them feel comfortable and welcome.

The military comes first and when orders are dictated, obedience is the only option. Since the beginning of the American Revolution, military wives have been told to encourage, love, and support their husbands through peacetime and war. Often military wives marry young and are thrust into a stringent lifestyle. Money is tight, quarters are cramped, husband are absent, and no amount of warning could have prepared these women for the devastation of warfare. The military is a spouse and a parent. Betty

Sowers Alt and Bonnie Domrose Stone aptly describe the military wife as “a pioneer who travels to strange lands, rears her family under nomadic and often inhospitable

34 Ibid.

28 conditions, and, many times copes with the stress of surviving on her own.” “A military wife must be courageous and resilient, and have a sense of humor,” Alt and Stone write,

“her husband and his job will always come first; to be a good military wife, she must cheerfully yield satisfaction of her needs and desires to the needs of the military.”35

As the nation faces internal and external wars, military wives have few options outside the rule and protection of the military.36 During the Civil War, women had to make the choice between following their husbands in the army or staying home and facing possible starvation and homelessness. Some women did not have a choice when their homes were destroyed or commandeered by the army. Other women wanted to keep their families together, and campfollowing was the only viable choice. Although most husbands appreciated the loyalty and company of their wives, most soldiers encouraged their wives to stay home or to live with relatives so they would not be subjected to harsh weather, poor conditions, and the threat of battle. After the end of the Civil War, military wives continued to follow their husbands out west to settle the unknown frontier.

Traveling was difficult, most of the land was barren, forts had little space for families, and disease spread rapidly. Many women faced hard pregnancies and miscarriages.37

As the United States continued to expand its internal and external empire, the military was called upon to settle the land and keep the peace. Between the early 1870s

35 Betty Sowers Alt and Bonnie Domrose Stone, Campfollowing: A History of the Military Wife (New York: Praeger Publishers, 1991), xi, xii. 36 This was even more the case prior to the late 20th Century, when women’s roles in society at last liberalized in some concrete ways. Prior to that, a military wife stepped into a defined role, with some level of social respectability, but scant room for independent or alternative behaviors. Duty, in this sense, was equally binding upon the wife as it ever would be upon the husband. 37 Ibid., 33, 34, 39, 45, 52, 55,

29 and the beginning of World War I, military outposts were occupied in Alaska, Cuba, the

Philippians, Panama, China, and Hawaii. At the outbreak of World War I, marriage became a way to avoid war. “Of the 4,883,213 married men who registered with draft boards,” Alt and Stone note, “74.2% were deferred.”38

By World War II, more young people were expressing a desire to marry immediately instead of waiting for the end of the war. Jessica Weiss conducted a case study of 100 couples from the Institute of Human Development at the University of

California, Berkeley, to determine the elements of social change in the pre-Baby Boomer generation. In To Have and To Hold, she notes that in one city alone, Oakland,

California, thirty-six percent of couples said that World War II accelerated their desire to marry.39

Military wives were also required to take on the role of wife and doctor as veterans suffered from post-traumatic stress disorder. Elaine Tyler May, in her book, Homeward Bound, quotes Ann Sothern in the November 1944 issue of Photoplay. “When he comes back it may take a few years for him ‘to find himself’—its [your] job—not his—to see that the changes in both of you do not affect the fundamental bond between [you]…keep up your appearance—to preserve for him the essence of the girl he fell in love with.”40 By the end of the war, military families followed soldiers overseas into Allied or occupied territories. The Korean War brought more

38 Ibid., 76. 39 Jessica Weiss, To Have and to Hold: Marriage, the Baby Boom, and Social Change (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 2000), 22. 40 Elaine Tyler May, Homeward Bound: American Families in the Cold War Era (New York: Basic Books, 1988), 65.

30 fighting and hardship and Vietnam caused wives to wait years for their husbands to be released from POW camps.41

Mamie Doud Eisenhower’s strong will, orderliness, and rigid demand of perfection came from her days as an active army wife. Soon after their marriage in 1915,

Mamie followed her husband to Fort Oglethorpe, Georgia, Fort Leavenworth, Kansas, and Camp Colt in Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, during World War I. After the war, Ike was stationed in Camp Meade, Maryland, before being sent to Camp Gaillard, Panama.

Returning only briefly to Kansas and Georgia, Eisenhower then enrolled and graduated from the Army War College in Washington, D.C. in 1928. He is sent to the Philippines,

Fort Lewis, Washington, Fort Sam Houston, Texas, and finally again to Washington,

D.C. after he was promoted to major general and eventually Supreme Commander of the

Allied Expeditionary Force during World War II. He then took command of NATO forces in France during early years of the Cold War.42 Mamie traveled with her husband to almost every post to which he was assigned. Army life was difficult, restricted, and often lonely. Yet, Mamie embraced this lifestyle because of her husband’s career. Mamie told her daughter-in-law, “Your life is together in the service. His career is your career.

His friends are your friends, and their wives make up your circle.”43 “I am an army wife,”

Mamie said later in life, “the other things were interims.”44

41 Alt and Stone, 111, 119, 120. 42 Eisenhower National Historic Site, “Eisenhower Military Chronology,” Eisenhower National Historic Site (hereafter ENHS), Gettysburg Pennsylvania, http://www.nps.gov/features/eise/jrranger/chronomil1.htm (accessed November 5, 2015). 43 Vivian Cadden, “Mamie Eisenhower Talks About Fifty Years of Marriage,” McCalls, (September 1966): 82. 44 Eisenhower, Mrs. Ike, 250.

Mamie understood the need for Army wives to be creative and to make the best of any situation. After selling their wedding gift of a bedroom suite to move to another command post, Mamie told reporters, “I didn’t have any bedroom furniture of my own for years. We slept on government cots. I wish youngsters could realize that the heartaches and hardships of wartime are not new to this generation. We brides of thirty years ago struggled with shortages, high prices, and limited government allowances.”

Recalling one hardship, Mamie describes, “we cooked on a little oil stove in a former shower-room. The spray nozzle was still in evidence, and the drain showed up plainly in the middle of the floor. But I managed, and Ike never went hungry. I used my wits, and very little money, to furnish the rest of the quarters. Several pieces were salvaged from the post dump.”45 Mamie’s clear choice of supportive partnership is epitomized in the act of forgoing a lifestyle of grandeur and affluence and trading it for recovered rubbish. This humility would endear her to the American people as Mamie understood the necessity to live within one’s means.

Over the years, several Army wives have seen it as their duty to instruct and assist new Army brides by publishing guidelines or manuals for how to best support their husband as he serves his country. The persistence of this type of text reveals a felt need for information on how to successfully transition into and navigate the social-family side of military life. In Nancy Shea’s 1941 book The Army Wife she reiterates the mantra

Mamie Eisenhower lived by, “So you are with the Army now!! As a wife you have a most important role in your husband’s Army career…His work will reflect his life at

45 Malvina Stephenson and Ruth Greenup, “Ike’s Silent Partner,” The American Magazine (June 1948): 104.

32 home, your attitude toward the Army, your interest in his duty, and your adaptability. In this respect you also have an important part in our national security, and a duty to your country. Even though yours is a supporting role, the Department of the Army recognizes its value and importance.” Giving purpose and meaning to an Army wife’s role was key for loyalty and morale. The government and American people held military wives in high regard thus creating a separate class of women whose husbands’ duty, Shea describes,

“will come first—before you, before your children, before his parents, and before his personal desires and ambitions.” A military wife must also show complete allegiance in the same way as her husband. “You and your husband are expected to be loyal to the company in which he serves, to its leaders, and its men,” Shea demands, “This loyalty next extends through the chain of command to the battalion, the battle group, the brigade, the division, the US. Army and includes the Commander-in-Chief, the President of the

United States.” 46

Mamie Eisenhower understood from the beginning of her marriage to Ike that the

Army would always come first and she was an extension of his service. Her loyalty to the

Army meant loyalty to the President of the United States. When Ike became Commander- in-Chief, evidence of Mamie’s faithfulness to her president was further displayed in her actions as housewife and hostess. She recognized even after Ike resigned from the military, “as an Army wife, never forget that you are the ‘silent’ member of the team, but a key ‘man’.” Mamie was also taught that teamwork begins at home and loyalty to your spouse was important to be “one of the strong unified links in the Army chain.”47 Many

46 Nancy Shea, The Army Wife (New York: Harper and Row, Publishers, 1941), 1,3. 47 Ibid., 3.

33 military wives secretly complained of loneliness, hardship, and frequent moves due to reassignment. Strain and tension were evident in marriages due to long distances and the consistent trauma of warfare. Women worried for their husbands’ safety and their fidelity while at war. After Ike was made Commander of the European Theatre of Operations in

1942, he remained in Europe for longer stretches of time, leaving Mamie in a small apartment in Washington, D.C. As Ike rose through the ranks to become Supreme

Commander of the Allied Expeditionary Forces, attention from the press increased for both him and Mamie. Mamie was seen posing for the Washington Post with other military wives as they promoted the screening of This is the Army in 1943.48 She was interviewed in 1944 by Nanette Kutner for the January issue of Good Housekeeping

Magazine. More women were now interested in hearing stories revolving around

Mamie’s marriage, her fashion sense, her child rearing techniques, and what life was like as a twenty-seven-year Army wife.49 There are reports of when Mamie visits her parents’ home in Denver, what it is like having her as a neighbor, and how she remains easy going even as her husband’s life is in constant danger.50

One wife who was quickly thrown into the high-ranking military throngs was

Katherine Tupper Marshall, wife of General George C. Marshall. When Katherine and

George were married, John J. Pershing was Marshall’s best man, both were widowed and

Katherine had no previous experience with the military. Soon after they were married,

48 1943 Washington Post news clipping, MDE Scrapbook 1924-1952, M-107, #13138, EL. 49 Nanette Kutner, “If you were Mrs. Eisenhower,” Good Housekeeping Magazine (January 1944): 31. 50 “Mrs. Ike is Home,” August 1944 newspaper clipping, MDE Scrapbook, 1924-1952, M-107, #13138, EL.

Colonel Marshall and his wife were invited to attend a formal gathering hosted by the commanding general of Fort Benning. Marshall made it very clear that as people passed through the receiving line, Mrs. Marshall was to address them and note their relationship to the colonel. Five hundred people passed through the line and at one point, Mrs.

Marshall was so overwhelmed she astonished the colonel by offering thanks to a mother for a set of triplets instead of flowers. To be at her best, Mrs. Marshall was given a refresher on how to ride a horse, to always serve coffee over tea, and to teach young

Army wives, “not to cling to their home town customs when they were called to uproot and follow their husbands.” Mrs. Marshall learned in her first year as a military wife, “to listen rather than express opinions, that lieutenants do not dance with colonels’ wives for pleasure, and that acquiring a good seat in the saddle takes endurance beyond the power of man to express.”51

Whether the wife of a highly decorated general or a newly minted private, military wives become part of a sisterhood. “Many women cite this sense of belonging,”

Alt and Stone describe, “to a larger family: a family which pulled together when sickness or tragedy struck.” “When men are deployed, the wives have a ready-made social community.”52 Mrs. Virginia Lee Galvin, wife of retired General John R. Galvin, gave an interview for the Senior Officer Oral History Program to the US Army Military History

Institute in Carlisle, Pennsylvania. In her interview with Lieutenant Colonel Robert

Decker, Mrs. Galvin expressed the need for senior military wives to mentor wives of

51 Katherine Tupper Marshall, Together: Annals of an Army Wife (Kingsport, TN: Kingsport Press Inc., 1946), 5-7, 9. 52 Alt and Stone, 134.

35 lower ranking soldiers. She specifically noted that wives struggle to find their own place in the ranks as their husbands continue to be promoted.53

Mamie Eisenhower periodically harbored the same feelings as most army wives when it came to her place as Ike continued to be promoted. Although Mamie never retreated from her role as Army wife and her devotion for Ike at no time wavered, she was faced with gossip and public prodding alone while her husband was away fighting.

One of the largest public scandals during World War II was the rumor that General

Eisenhower was having an affair with his Irish driver and personal secretary, Kay

Summersby, while he was stationed in Great Britain. Both Ike and Mamie denied the allegations and when the General returned home, the matter was all but forgotten. It was not until Kay Summersby Morgan’s Past Forgetting: My Love Affair with Dwight D.

Eisenhower was posthumously published in 1976, did the supposed affair return to the limelight. Kay died in January 1975, before the book was published. In it, Morgan suggests that her love and companionship assisted the frazzled general as he made plans for winning the war. She goes on to cite a claim in Harry Truman’s biography, Plain

Speaking, Eisenhower asked special permission of General Marshall to divorce Mamie and marry Kay. Morgan also suggests that she and Ike had a sexual relationship and planned to conceive a child together.54

53 Mrs. Virginia Lee Galvin, interview by Lieutenant Colonel Robert L. Decker, April 7, 1994, Senior Officer Oral History Program, US Army Military History Institute, Carlisle, PA. 54 Kay Summersby Morgan, Past Forgetting: My Love Affair with Dwight D. Eisenhower (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1976), 13, 233, 269. Kathleen M. German suggests, “Several scholars have concluded that Summersby, hounded by debt and life-threating illness, sensationalized an account of the affair to stimulate book sales.” Kathleen M. German, “Mamie Geneva Doud Eisenhower: Reflecting the Mood of the Nation,”

One year later, John Eisenhower edited and published Letters to Mamie, a commentary on the couple’s relationship and a copy of the 316 letters Ike wrote to his wife. In his editor’s note, John addresses Morgan’s book, “No one alive can say that isolated incidents as described by Mrs. Morgan positively did not happen. But President’s

Truman’s allegations in Merle Miller’s Plain Speaking that General Eisenhower wrote a somehow ‘lost’ letter to General Marshall telling of intentions to divorce his wife is exposed by these letters…to be the spiteful falsehood that it was. There is no evidence that divorce ever seriously crossed Dad’s mind, even in the loneliest moments across the

Atlantic.” Ike censored his own letters home, but he did not leave out how much he missed his wife. “I cannot tell you how much I miss you. An assignment like this is not the same as an absence from home on maneuvers. In a tent, surrounded by soldiers, it seems natural to have to get along alone. But when living in an apartment, under the city conditions,” Ike wrote, “I constantly find myself wondering ‘why isn’t Mamie here?’

You’ve certainly become most necessary to me!!” 55 Parenthetically – although it falls slightly outside this dissertation’s purview – the above anecdote reveals how the folkloric character of Truman, Mr. “Plain Speaking,” does not entirely capture his partisan nature.

Eisenhower was, after all, a political foe, and the Man from Independence was not known for showering kindnesses on his enemies. In this way, we can see how presidential lore, often sanitized, still has the capacity to carry along partisan differences, and even to transmit inaccurate information.

Inventing a Voice: The Rhetoric of American First Ladies of the Twentieth Century, ed. Molly Meijer Wertheimer (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc.), 238. 55 Dwight D. Eisenhower, Letters to Mamie, ed. John S. Eisenhower (New York: Doubleday & Company, Inc., 1977), 11-12, 23-24.

Throughout the war Ike wrote to Mamie to reaffirm his love, devotion, and faithfulness. After arriving in London in 1942, Ike describes his loneliness for his wife and son, “It’s impossible for me to tell you how tremendously I miss you. I’m so infrequently in my room that I brought your picture (with John) to the office. It sits on a mantel, right in front of my eyes. And it helps.” He apologizes for never writing what she wants to hear, but he notes, “I just get to scrawling along and hope you’ll read between the lines—and over and around them to see that I realize more than ever how much you mean and have meant to me.” Echoing the support wives provide to their soldier- husbands, Ike tells Mamie, “The other day an officer’s wife showed up here as Red Cross executive. First time I ever wished you were one of those ‘Club’ women. Then you might be ordered here. How I’d like that—you’re good for me, and I do much better work when you’re around. I realize it more and more!”56 Ike’s letters calmed Mamie’s anxiety over the rumors, but his presence would have provided more comfort.

Ike was sympathetic to Mamie’s own loneliness and wrote to her as a way to comfort her from afar. “Tomorrow, Sept 24, Ikky would have been 25 years old. Seems rather unbelievable doesn’t it? We could well have been grandparents by this time. I’m sorry we’re not! Lord knows that at times I feel old enough to tack a ‘great, great’ on to it.”57 Rumors of Ike and Kay’s relationship traveled throughout the states, and Mamie questioned the accusations. In a late night reply, Ike writes, “I’ll try to write tomorrow; in fact I like to grab off a few minutes very often so you’ll know you’re the only person I’m

56 Ibid., 26, 33, 37. 57 Ike and Mamie lost their first son, Doud Dwight, nicknamed Ikky, to scarlet fever when he was three years old. Ikky died in Ike’s arms and both parents never fully healed from the loss. Eisenhower, Mrs. Ike, 67.

38 in love with. (Even if I do end sentences with prepositions). I’ve liked some—been somewhat intrigued by others—but haven’t been in love with anyone else and don’t want any other wife.”58

After the war was over, Ike returned to overwhelming fanfare that continued for years. Even Mamie was caught up in the spotlight as she was asked to attend Army wives’ luncheons, give interviews for various magazines, and christen ships. In May

1946, Mamie stood in the Sun Shipyard, fifteen miles south of Philadelphia, and “cracked a bottle of champagne against the sleek bow of the SS Drenthe.” Although the ship launching was delayed twenty-three minutes due to tide, “Mrs. Eisenhower swung with the same directness and success as characterized her famous husband’s leadership during

World War II.” Like many media outlets, the Chester Times, capitalized on Ike’s fame, but soon realized Mamie carried her own energy and fortitude, while remaining graceful.

Newspapers and magazines recognized Mamie’s fashion sense, always citing the color, designer, style, and accessories, and everyone was quick to observe her charm and excitement.59

By February 1948, Ike decided to retire as Chief of Staff of the Army. He would soon become Columbia University’s thirteenth president. That was a strategic and tactical triumph for the General and his employer. Ike gained time and a reputable, non-partisan, high-profile New York perch from which to survey the domestic political scene.

Columbia benefitted from association with the Supreme Allied Commander in Europe, fresh from victory over the Axis. While academia might not usually be associated with

58 Ibid., 44, 50. 59 “Mrs. Eisenhower Sponsors Ship at Sun Launching,” Chester Times, May 15, 1946.

39 the military, no one could argue that Ike lacked organizational executive experience!

When Ike’s resignation announcement was made public, the press flocked to Fort Myer,

Virginia, to see “Civilian Ike and his lady…make an appearance during a picture taking session February 24. The General…wears a striped gray overcoat and suit, gray homberg hat and tan pigskin gloves. Mrs. Eisenhower wears a mink coat.”60

As Ike settled into his post at Columbia, Mamie expanded her interaction with the public. For the June 1948 issue of The American Magazine, Mamie gave an interview for an article titled, “Ike’s Silent Partner.” Malvina Stephenson and Ruth Greenup wanted the

American people to have “an intimate glimpse of Mr. and Mrs. Ike at home” and to know more about the “woman behind the happy grin that Dwight D. Eisenhower wears.”

Although Mamie surfaced in the media during the war years, she became more of a focal point when Ike was approached by Democrats and Republicans to run for president. He quickly and forcibly replied he would not seek public office, but that did not stop reporters from speculating. To keep the rumor of a presidential run in the public’s perception, articles about Mamie were published to allow a glimpse into the family’s private life. This intimate view smoothed some of Ike’s rough military edges and gave the American people the ability to see one of the nation’s most popular and powerful men as an average citizen. Mamie’s “gay, intense reactions amuse Ike,” Stephenson and

Greenup pen, “Mamie is his favorite entertainer, and home with her around is never dull, for she believes it is a fine thing for people to laugh and have a good time.” Mamie

60 Associated Press photo caption, 1948.

40 became the foil of alleviation as memories of Ike’s war began to lighten in people’s minds.61

Mamie’s exuberance for her marriage further exemplified her role as a silent partner in the mind of the American people. Ike’s career and by proxy, Mamie’s vocation, solidified her justification as her husband’s support on the physical and metaphorical homefront. Whether moving up the ranks in the military, or settling in his political life, Mamie continuously demonstrated her ability to support from behind the scenes. Mamie saw Ike’s successes and failures as her own because she was the one actively bearing witness to the triumphs and struggles he brought to their private home life.

As the Silent Generation birthed the Baby Boomer population, more media outlets focused on the nuclear family. Understandably, after the chaos and carnage of world war, people were anxious to put their home lives on track. More marriages and divorces happened during the post war prosperity boom than in the previous seven decades.62

Highlighting Ike and Mamie’s marriage provided advice for married couples and strengthened the genial couple’s persona of a typical American family. “Over the years,

Mamie has developed a philosophy to guide her in this marriage,” Stephenson and

Greenup relay, “she believes that eh place of most women is in the home. She knows that is where she belongs and where Ike is happy to find her.” Readers of The American

Magazine are also let in on the secret of Mamie’s household management, “Our

61 Stephenson and Greenup, “Ike’s Silent Partner,” The American Magazine (June 1948): 34. 62 Alexander Plateris, “100 Years of Marriage and Divorce Statistics: 1867-1967,” Vital and Health Statistics (Series 21 no. 24, December 1973): 10.

41 household revolves around Ike; the while scheme of arrangements puts him first.” “I am perfectly satisfied to be known as a housewife,” Mamie beams, “I take a great deal of pride in my role. The home is my bailiwick. I wouldn’t think of interfering with Ike’s office routine, and he leaves the homefront to me.” Stephen and Greenup argue “Mamie’s outlook explains why she has been quite content to be one of the most successful silent partners in history.” Most “silent partners” remain unnoticed, but Mamie’s foray into the public eye illustrated her keen ability to project her mantra while never attempting to

“share in the spotlight.”63

Ike and Mamie’s marriage was also revered by brides to be and advertised as such in the June 1948 issue of Today’s Woman: The Magazine for Young Wives. On the front cover of the magazine, Mamie’s article, “If I Were a Bride Today” stands out as the feature piece. She conveys, like many wives, her worry over the price of food and the cost of new appliances, but notes, “the price of butter may change, but the price of a happy marriage does not.” Mamie’s advice is simple, “If a bride can make up her mind at the beginning of her marriage that she is the wife and that her husband is the head of the house, all of the adjustments and strains that are sure to come will take care of themselves.” Although not all women subscribed to in Mamie’s mentality, many women growing up in the same generation saw her image in their reflection. Mamie also clearly echoes the teachings of the Army wives she heavily relied upon as a young bride.

“Happily ever after’ does not follow the ceremony automatically,” Mamie told interviewer Llewellyn Miller, “It takes wit and straight thinking and a good deal of adapting on both sides. The wise wife is the one who says at the beginning: ‘I will be the

63 Ibid,.

42 one to volunteer to do most of the adapting. It is worth it.” Again citing her military wife experience, Mamie wanted young wives to understand marriage takes work, but it will be a long lasting and worthwhile investment. The future first lady’s projection of her life as a military wife continued to crop up in newspapers and magazines as reports of Ike’s presidential campaign were deemed credible.64

As Ike was approached to run for president by many politicians, special interest groups, and even average citizens, everyone commented on Mamie’s role in the possible campaign. Mamie did not make any promises to give stump speeches, speak openly about politics, or provide interviews to media outlets. Instead, she committed to attending every political rally, ride on the campaign train, and wave to millions of smiling people while standing in the background. Her devotion to Ike and his agenda was seen in her public actions, not through her words.

64 Llewellyn Miller, “If I Were a Bride Today,” Today’s Woman: The Magazine for Young Wives (June 1948): 32.

Chapter 2:

Ike’s Secret Weapon

“A woman whose destiny would authorize her to claim the title, the luxury and the renown of one of the greatest ladies of her times, has selected a modest dwelling in a very small village of Ile-de-France and will install there, within a few days, that which she prefers to anything else in the world—her happiness as a perfect wife.” This description of Mamie and her new living quarters was published in a Parisian illustrated weekly, Samedi Soir, in August 1951, when Dwight Eisenhower accepted command of

NATO from President Truman. The weekly cites the rumors of Ike’s presidential run, but notes “Mrs. Dwight D. Eisenhower, who remaining discreetly on the shadow of the famous ‘Ike’… is glad to be all those who know her—just “Mamie.” Even in the international arena, Mamie is recognized for her concern for Ike, “to surround her husband with care and affection and to help him in his enormous task by creating the very best mental and material conditions, and not mixing into his affairs or parading about with pride. What she is doing now, she has always done. ‘Madame la Generale’

Eisenhower has remained the same as she was when she was the wife of the young

Lieutenant ‘Ike.’65

As Ike cagily continued to evade questions on the possibility of a presidential bid, he and Mamie settled into their new life at Columbia University. Many Americans reflected his inauguration as president of the university would not be as fulfilling as

65 “Mrs. “Ike” Has Finally Found Her Matrimonial “Supreme Headquarters.” Samedi Soir (Week of 18-24 August 1951):1-2. Translated from French. MDE Scrapbook 1924-1952, M-107, #13138, EL.

44 president of the United States, but “his high qualities of mind and character” will allow him to use his training in the military to supervise young men “for life in what he must fondly hope and pray will be a peaceful world.” The New York Times reported, unlike many military commanders, Ike was “never tainted with militarism…he brought to military life the civilian virtues.” Confidently noted, “He will bring to civilian life, and to education, we are sure, the military virtues of courage and organization.”66 Faith in Ike’s capabilities remained steadfast as he continued to demonstrate his administrative authority and desire for “a well-rounded environment” and for everyone to have “the best possible preparation for a useful and happy life.”67 It is important to remember that these were the years during which the entire structure of the international post-war west were being put into place. NATO, the United Nations, and the post-war financial system planned at Bretton Woods, all supported by the Marshall Plan, were the institutions

Americans saw and supported as bulwarks against a Third World war. These were seen as not only preventing Soviet inroads into free Europe, but as setting up a structure within which Germany and other nations could finally operate in peace and prosperity.

Americans ruefully recalled the failure of post-World War I Versailles Treaty, and were hopeful that, this time, the result in Europe would be different. Eisenhower, having overseen and protected the complex alliance which won the war, was naturally and positively associated with all of these major efforts to rebuild a better world. He did not claim public credit, nor did he need to. His role as Supreme Allied Commander made his responsibility obvious.

66 “President Eisenhower,” The New York Times, October 12, 1948. 67 “Eisenhower Inaugurated as 13th President of Columbia University,” Columbia Spectator October 12, 1948.

Ike’s popularity did not go unseen by the media, nor did the public’s disappointment in his political ambiguity. Billy Rose a reporter for The Atlanta

Constitution sympathizes with the public’s reaction. “If I were Eisenhower, I wouldn’t waste any money on a big leather chair for that study up in Columbia. Whether he likes it or not, it looks as if Joe and Jennie Citizen have decided the General is going to sit in that hot seat in the White House.” Noting the American people know practically nothing about Ike’s politics, Billy Rose added that “the people have decided Ike is their number one boy. They like the way he looks and they like the way he grins. They’re convinced he’s the right Joe, and what’s more important, they’re convinced he’s their Joe. Arguing with them is like arguing with Mt. Vesuvius when it decides to blow its top.” Rose describes the incredible hold the “Eisenhower phenomenon” had on people. It was as unexplainable as “The New Look, bubble gum, or the recent song success called ‘Near

You’.” Eisenhower was popular with Democrats and Republicans. His military victories ensured peace and safety during the tumultuous periods of uncertainty of the Cold War.

He was charming, loyal, and at times boisterous if something sparked his hot temper. “If

Ike’s popularity can be explained at all, I think you’ll find the explanation in an old- fashioned word—charm,” Rose assures. “Who would you like at your dinner table tonight? Taft, Vandenberg? Dewey? Or that big hunk of a man called Ike?”68

As Ike and Mamie took a temporary pause in their military schedule, a new role opened for Mamie as the wife of a college president and later the silent partner in a

68 The three other men noted in Rose’s piece all showed interest or participated in presidential campaigns: Ohio Senator Robert Taft, Michigan Senator, Arthur Vandenberg, and New York Governor, Thomas Dewey. Billy Rose, “All Aboard the Eisenhower Bandwagon,” The Atlanta Constitution, April 2, 1948.

46 political campaign. Although Ike was always at the forefront of their relationship, Mamie carefully listened and contributed when asked. She purposefully showed a meek side to never over represent herself or over shadow her husband. Her timid personality was not to be confused with weakness as Mamie demonstrated her prowess for interacting with public figures, high ranking military officials, college students, and the average voter reaching out to shaker her hand.

For Mamie Eisenhower, Ike’s years at Columbia provided a sense of calm and stability after many years of moving, worry for Ike’s safety, and strict military regulation.

In an article published by The American Weekly during Eisenhower’s 1952 campaign,

Mrs. C. Gage Lent describes her time as the Eisenhower’s combination secretary and house manager while at Columbia. She specifically details the Eisenhower’s marriage and how they interacted in their home life. As in many articles, Mamie’s genial personality and looks are noted, “When I was introduced to Mrs. Eisenhower I was surprised to see how much prettier she is than in her photographs, particularly the newspaper shots. She has what I call a ‘dreamy’ complexion, soft smooth, and beautiful, like a girl of 16 instead of a woman who will be 56 years old come November.” Mamie’s vitality and youth is never underestimated and Ike’s devotion to her is frequently illustrated, “General Eisenhower, being the most devoted husband I have ever seen, does not want his wife to change her style, not one bit,” Lent argued as Ike’s favor of Mamie’s bangs was questioned. “He is so devoted that occasionally when Mrs. Eisenhower kept him waiting as she did some last minute primping, he never grumbled but stood patiently by.” Also noting Ike’s stellar reputation as a dedicated husband, “General Eisenhower loves celebrating their wedding anniversaries. Weeks ahead he would plan every detail of

47 the event, even overseeing seating arrangements for the dinner guests.”69 These references to Mamie’s looks and Ike’s commitment endeared the Eisenhowers to the public. Husbands across America undoubtedly understood the need for patience when waiting for their wives and wives, although at times fruitlessly, anticipated romantic and well-planned anniversaries.

After several years of mounting tension with the Soviet Union and the outbreak of the Korean War, pressure on Eisenhower to enter politics continued to increase in

1952. As a clearly level-headed, strategic thinker, Eisenhower was seen as the perfect candidate to bring peace to the chaos in Eastern Europe and Asia. Before political pundits could verify Eisenhower’s decision to run, President Truman called upon Eisenhower to become Supreme Allied Commander of NATO forces in Europe.70 An exploratory committee for Ike’s presidential campaign was secretly established by Senator Henry

Cabot Lodge Jr. before Eisenhower left for his new post. Although aware of the preliminary investigation, Ike was unconvinced of his own desire for the presidency.

“People say I have a wonderful chance of being President…If Europe collapses and we are isolated in the world, it would mean that I would be President of a police state. The

Presidency would not be very attractive, with all the rest of the world as slaves.”71

Eisenhower put his duties at Columbia on hold to once again rejoin the U.S. military.

69 C. Gage Lent as told by Nanette Kutner, “I Lived with the Eisenhowers,” The American Weekly (June 1952): 3-5. 70 In 1950, Eisenhower’s authority as Supreme Allied Commander in Europe was designated by all twelve member governments of NATO. The North Atlantic Council was comprised of forty-eight ministers who designated deputies to meet continuously in London. 71 William Pickett, Eisenhower Decides to Run: Presidential Politics and Cold War Strategy (Chicago: Ivan R. Dee, 2000), 85, 90-91.

After moving to Paris with Mamie in early January 1951, Ike returned to

Washington, D.C., to meet with President Truman to determine his role. President

Truman relayed to Ike his job was to bring about unity in the defense of Western Europe.

He noted, “350 million people of Western Europe,” with advanced military technology and progressive education, were afraid of “190 million backward people” in the Soviet

Union because of forced Russian unity. If NATO could insure unity in Western Europe, communism would not be as appealing.72

Meanwhile, Eisenhower’s underground campaign team tested the temperature of an Eisenhower campaign with the American people. Edward Bermingham, a Columbia

University fundraiser and member of the Republican National Committee, reported back to Ike that the nation as a whole considered his term as commander, “a national triumph—now you can let the chips fall where they may.” The difficulty would be outrunning and outshining Ohio Senator Robert Taft, who was a GOP favorite and rumored nominee. Eisenhower had yet to report on his own political leanings and although popular, he was willing to remove himself from an upcoming election if Taft could ensure a proper handling of NATO troops and peace in Europe. During a closeted meeting, Taft refused Eisenhower’s proposition and thus sealed the challenge for the nomination.73

As Ike continued his duties abroad, Democrats and Republicans strategized a way to entice Eisenhower to join their ranks. In a New York Herald Tribune cartoon, Ike is pictured sitting on a bench between an elephant and donkey, both with ears pricked up

72 Ibid., 93. 73 Ibid., 95, 97.

49 and listening. The caption reads, “Ike Just Cleared His Throat.”74 In an April 1951 Gallup

Poll, American voters witnessed “one of the strangest political phenomena in American history… Republicans and Democrats have fought bitter wars in every election for 10 decades. Yet today the rank and file of both political parties pick the same man as their choice—and by a substantial vote in each case.” George Gallup asked Democrats to name their choice for president and the result was 43% for Eisenhower with a distant 18% for

Truman. When asking Republicans, Gallup noted 38% selected Eisenhower, 22% voting for Taft, and 14% named Dewey. Even Independents came out for Eisenhower 44% over the runner-up, Truman, at 7%. “Although GOP leaders have talked about him

[Eisenhower] as their man for a longer period of time, the General today is actually more popular with Democrats than with Republicans.” But “he is by far the most potent candidate with independent voters as well.” The Independent voter bloc would solidify

Ike’s decision to run and the growing support only increased his overall popularity with the Republican party.75

In mid-February 1951, Ike and Mamie resettled in Paris, leaving behind their New

York home and their newly purchased farm in Gettysburg, Pennsylvania. The

Eisenhowers had been world travelers since their marriage in 1916. Both Ike and Mamie were looking forward to settling into retirement on their farm once Ike finished his tenure at Columbia. Although Mamie always supported her husband and his endeavors, she was reluctant to show complete acquiescence to years away in France and the possibility of two terms in the White House. For Eisenhower, he would only accept the call to duty and

74 Newspaper clipping found in MDE Scrapbook, 1924-1952, M-107, #13138, EL. 75 George Gallup, “‘Ike’ Is Democrats’ Choice—5-to-2 Over Truman,” The Washington Post, April 15, 1951.

50 the nomination if “it comes from the hearts and minds of my fellow citizens, clearly and unmistakably.” The Eisenhowers were flooded with letters, cards, and telegrams asking

Ike to run for president. Cliff Roberts, co-founder of Augusta National Golf Club and one of Ike’s friends, later noted that Ike “did not want the job…He’d had all the honors and more than he could ever have hoped to achieve as a youngster, and he wanted to do a number of things in the years that were left to him. And he wanted to enjoy life a bit. He most assuredly did not want to be President of the United States. Now there again, that does not mean he wasn’t willing to do it, if a set of circumstances presented themselves that made it clear to him that that was his duty and obligation.” Both Ike and Mamie understood the necessity of accepting one’s duty and responsibility when asked. Roberts recalled, “When this Presidential business began to build up to more and more important terms, why Mamie made no secret of the fact that she was definitely opposed to it. She had had a good sense of what their responsibilities would be as president and first lady, and ‘that wasn’t her idea of a proper future for Ike and herself.” However, the military instilled in the Eisenhowers a sense of loyalty to America and her people and Mamie would not interfere with Ike’s decision. Thus, in January 1952, Dwight D. Eisenhower declared he was a Republican and became a candidate for the presidential nomination. 76

The Eisenhowers were down to earth and unpretentious and their relaxed attitude resonated with leisure-time loving Americans. Ike’s ready smile and public affability had political advantages, as did Mamie’s personal style. Yet with their experience, few could credibly claim that they were empty personalities. John Gunther, a popular and widely read journalist known socio-political biographical pieces, visited the Eisenhowers at their

76 Pickett, Eisenhower Decides to Run, 115, 119, 146, 159-160.

51 rented French villa to interview Ike. Surprised to see the Eisenhowers at ease and in their element, Gunther penned his wonder at Ike’s personal greeting at the door with “no aides, no secretaries, no doorman, no fuss, no protocol, no pomp. I thought what a contrast this made to some other headquarters I have visited—for instance, MacArthur’s.” Dwight

Eisenhower was one of the most revered and authoritative men in the world, yet he showed no interest in intimidation or astonishment through grandeur. Gunther’s description of Mamie is much the same, “She is bright, direct, and full of character—the modern type of army wife.” Gunther also recognized the couple’s liking of simplicities and distaste for overly gregarious affairs. “There is as much chance of getting the General and Mamie to a cocktail party as of getting Stalin or the Pope to a fancy-dress ball at the

Ritz.”77

The American people hailed Ike as a qualified candidate, not only for his military record, but for his genuine dedication to maintaining peace. Eisenhower’s firsthand experience exposed him to the devastation of war but as journalist John Gunther notes,

“he does not stand for war, but for defense against war. He does not seem to represent the military class at all.” After years of war caused destruction, the public was ready to give the “peace-general” a chance to protect the United States from the possibility of another world war. 78

Before Fred Greenstein argued Ike’s success as a hidden-hand president, John

Gunther described Ike’s ambiguous strategy for assessing his opponents and gathering details, while playacting the fool. “He is often frank to the point of indiscretion in casual

77 John Gunther, Eisenhower: The Man and the Symbol (New York: Harper & Row, Publishers, 1951), 4-6. 78 Ibid., 2.

52 conversation,” Gunther explains to his readers, “If he sometimes talks too much, it is to avoid saying anything. Sometimes, to feel a person out, he plays dumb. Or, if somebody is trying to get something from him he does not want to give, he pretends to not understand. He has a marked capacity to delegate authority, and he lets his subordinates make most of their own decisions.” Gunther’s depiction of Eisenhower as a military leader foreshadowed his presidential demeanor. As Ike and his advisors prepared for his campaign, these tactics would be evident in his interviews and speeches. They would focus on the same qualities Gunther saw in Ike, “integrity, his sincerity and capacity to inspire confidence… and civilian mindedness.” Eisenhower’s critics would recognize these devices as faults and use them to enforce the much needed erudite wisdom of Adlai

Stevenson.79

The April 1951 Gallup Poll showed overwhelming support for Ike as a possible presidential candidate. However, by mid-1952, more and more opposition was coming from his own party, namely the Republicans, in favor of a Taft presidency. In his syndicated column, “Today and Tomorrow,” Walter Lippmann suggests Taft’s Senate connections will outmaneuver Ike’s campaign due to Eisenhower’s lack of political experience. Taft managers “think that Eisenhower has failed to attract the kind of popular feeling which would make it dangerous for them to deal roughly with him and his supporters… The idea is to make Eisenhower shrivel into innocence and confusion by contrast with the self-confident, purposeful, iron machinery of the Taft organization.”

Lippmann goes on to report that Eisenhower “has let himself be distracted, has let himself be diverted, from the greatest themes of unity and peace which are peculiarly,

79 Ibid., 8-9, 36, 41.

53 uniquely his own, which are the whole justification, the only and compelling reason, for taking a general out of the Army and running him for President of the United States.”80

What Walter Lippmann and Robert Taft’s managers failed to realize, was that Ike had his secret weapon, Mamie Doud Eisenhower, waiting in the wings.

Dwight Eisenhower conducted his presidential campaign during a time of economic prosperity and a new age of consumerism in the United States. The American people had long suffered rationing, fear of attack, and loss of loved ones during World

War II and the 1950s appeared to be a time of instant gratification and self-indulgence.

As suburbs swelled with consumables and residents, the American people looked for a leader who naturally reflected the desire for peace in the midst of Soviet threats, who was approachable and appreciated freedom, and who understood economic growth and knew the price of a gallon of milk. On the other hand, Ike was also seen as a solid, constant symbol in an age of quickening changes. By the beginning of Ike’s second term, 96% of

Americans owned refrigerators, 89% washing machines, 81% televisions, and 67% vacuum cleaners. The growing middle class saw an ally in Dwight Eisenhower as he and

Mamie embraced the same middle class lifestyle. Dinner on T.V. trays and watching the

Ed Sullivan Show brought the Eisenhowers down from a potentially high pedestal to the same level as the average American couple. In contrast, forty million people lived below the federally established poverty-line of $3,000 for a family of four.81

In dealing with Democratic and even Republican rivals, it was crucial for the general to demonstrate his ability to take command of domestic issues. Having never

80 Walter Lippmann, “Today and Tomorrow,” The New York Herald Tribune, June 17, 1952. 81 J. Richard Gruber, We Like Ike: The Eisenhower Presidency and 1950s America (Wichita, KS: Wichita Art Museum, 1990), 13.

54 served in public office and having spent most of his career in a structured military setting,

Eisenhower used his amicable nature to win over voters while beginning his underpinned plan of leading with the same hidden-hand mentality used in the Army. Before

Greenstein’s analysis of Eisenhower was published in the 1980s, journalist Murray

Kempton wrote of Ike’s cunning and ability to feign confusion and appear to blunder while manipulating situations until he was satisfied. Looking back on Eisenhower’s campaign and two terms, Kempton likens Ike’s calculating smile and Machiavellian ways to a character in Lewis Carroll’s Through the Looking Glass. “The Cat only grinned when it saw Alice. It looked good-natured, she thought: still it had very long claws and a great many teeth, so she felt that it ought to be treated with respect.” Kempton pinpoints

Ike’s shrewdness by quoting Eisenhower’s chief of staff, Sherman Adams, “It was the purpose of this existence never to be seen in what he did.” Kempton aptly describes

Eisenhower’s guileful expressions, “No thought was to be uttered undisguised; the face had many ranges, indeed as many roles as there are sins to commit, because it was an instrument for hinting without ever quite saying.” Kempton breaks down Eisenhower’s strategy into ten points:

1) Always pretend to be stupid; then when you have to show yourself smart, the display has the additional effect of surprise. 2) Taking the blame is a function of servants. When the orange is squeezed, throw it away. 3) When a situation is hopeless, never listen to counsels of hope. Fold the enterprise. 4) Do nothing unless you know exactly what you will do if it turns out to have been the wrong thing. Walk not one inch forward on ground which has not been painfully tested by someone else. 5) March through minefields. 6) Always give an enemy an exit. 7) Never give an ally his head. 8) Assume your enemies are just a sensible as you are.

9) Lie whenever it seems useful, but stop lying the moment ninety-nine percent of the audience ceases to believe you. 10) Respond only when there is some gain besides honor in meeting the challenge or some serious loss from disregarding it.

Kempton identifies these “perfect statesman” qualities in Eisenhower as the “cunning beneath the shell.”82 There are examples throughout Eisenhower’s campaign and eight years in the White House reflecting a trace of these strategies. In a similar vein, Mamie

Eisenhower will also use these tactics when needed in her own subtle way. Though never malicious, the Eisenhowers demonstrated their power and enforced their authority through smiles disguised as grins.

Several different non-partisan Eisenhower support factions popped up to underwrite his campaign and to spread the word that they liked Ike. Ike was hailed as the perfect candidate even in 1948 as “General Eisenhower for President” buttons were seen on lapels all over the United States.83 The backing groups, Citizens for Eisenhower and

Eisenhower for President, held rallies for Ike even before he was back home in States and officially voiced his decision to run. The Constitution does not provide instruction on nominating a candidate for the presidency or how those running can interact with potential constituents. Material culture became one of the greatest tools for the

Eisenhower campaign. In an age of expanding consumerism and instant gratification, Ike and his campaigners used any type of materials to show their dedication to the General.

Material culture has been important to campaigns since the inauguration of George

82 Murray Kempton, “The Underestimation of Dwight D. Eisenhower.” Esquire (September 1967): 108, 156. 83 Roger Fisher, Tippecanoe and Trinkets Too: Material Culture of American Presidential Campaigns, 1828-1984 (Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1988), 228.

Washington. However, with industry and technology, political tchotchkes were mass produced and easily distributed in the 1950s.

One of the most important factors in the Eisenhower Campaign was Mamie Doud

Eisenhower. Then as now, a candidate’s spouse played a formally undeclared yet vital and public campaign role. Motherhood and a sense of family togetherness were socially significant in those post-war days, as more women were courted for various voting blocs.

Until the 1950s, most political campaigns did not focus on women as noteworthy contributors to the vote tallies or to politics in general. Barely thirty years had passed since the Nineteenth Amendment was accepted, but women had proved themselves to be tougher, stronger, and more involved as they took on new roles during World War II. As some women stayed in the workforce and others went back to caring for their families at home, political strategists began focusing on what appeared to be women’s issues. These matters included education, household spending and consumerism, and stopping the threat of communism to the nuclear family ideal. In a 1952 song, Jimmie Dodd sings of

Mamie’s attentiveness to her family and country:

Brightly Mamie what a wonderful name is Mamie In her heart burns a flame for man that she loves And for her family, too. Missus America thru and thru is Mamie With her style and her grace, She’s a lady oh so grand! Mamie, what a wonderful name For the first lady of our land! Land!84

84 Jimmie Dodd, “Mamie” (Delaware Water Cap, PA: Shawnee Press, 1952).

Already popular for his role as emcee on The Mickey Mouse Club television program,

Jimmie Dodd’s song was sung at rallies, parties, and whenever Mamie was present for a campaign event. On one occasion, even Ike was handed a copy, and after putting on his glasses, “and turning toward his wife, sang with the glee club and spectators, “Mamie, what a wonderful is Mamie.”85

Mamie’s roles as wife, mother, and grandmother were used by the Eisenhower campaign team to humanize the candidate’s wife and to show greater empathy with women voters. While at the 1952 Republican convention in Chicago, Mamie stands by

Ike as a pillar of support. However, she is not quiet about the fact that her son, John, was assigned to Korea during intense fighting. Describing Mamie’s fortitude in the midst of her worry, reporter Martha Kearney, comments, “She’s still a good soldier—so you’d never guess that there’s more to Mamie Doud Eisenhower’s brave convention smile than meets the eye.” Like many military mothers agonizing over their son’s safety, Mamie sympathizes with their plight. “Mrs. Eisenhower’s 36 years as an Army wife, however, have given her a sense of discipline which enables her to hide her own worry and meet the social obligations of a candidate’s wife or an officer’s wife,” Kearney writes.

Although Mamie was extremely proud of her husband’s candidacy, she for the most part

“is sitting this convention out…curled up before the television set in her hotel suite and waiting for overseas mail.” As an Army wife, Mamie understood the importance of her

85 Associated Press, “Wives of Taft, Ike, Working Hard for Mates,” Biloxi Daily Herald, July 7, 1952.

58 son serving his country with honor, but was distressed like most American family members as they hoped, prayed, and waited for mail from their soldiers, too.86

Republicans more than Democrats used material culture to their advantage during the 1952 and 1956 campaigns and consumable political goods were specifically targeted at women. Adlai Stevenson was divorced, which was unusual for a political candidate in the 1950s, so Mamie Eisenhower became a valuable instrument for displaying “I Like

Ike” memorabilia. Mamie was also an ever-present figure the American public was accustomed to seeing at rallies, on the whistle-stop train, The Eisenhower Special, and she was invited as an extension of Ike to lunches, parties, fashion shows, and election related events.87

The Women’s Division of the Republican Party focused on pushing campaign memorabilia to women, including pins, umbrellas, napkins, potholders, handkerchiefs, sunglasses, earrings, bracelets, stockings, compacts, perfume, dresses, blouses, gloves, sweaters, lunchboxes, mugs, lighters, garters, key chains, hats, sunglasses, measuring spoons, and even mop pails printed with “Let’s Clean Up with Eisenhower and Nixon.”

The Eisenhower campaign was unusual for spending copious amounts of time and funds on particular items generally used by women. Until 1920, most political candidates did not court female voters as women were not legally able to vote. The subsequent thirty years proved to be a time when women were becoming more politically active and it was not until the 1952 election that an equal number of men and women participated in the

86 Martha Kearney, “She’s Proud of Her ‘Ike’ but Her Son is at War,” Tipton Daily Tribune, July 1952. 87 63.3% of the total voting age population turned out for the 1952 election. 30.9 million were men and 30.3 million were women.

59 presidential election.88 Many presidential campaigns from Adams to Eisenhower used buttons as a form of political expression. Such campaign ephemera were standard, and ubiquitous, and by the 1950s, easily mass produced and inexpensive. Buttons not only said “I Like Ike,” but, “Ike and Dick,” “We Like Ike,” “Mamie for First Lady,”

“Housewives for Ike,” “Democrats for Ike,” “For the Love of Ike Vote Republican,” “Ike

Likes Me,” “Vets for Ike,” “We Want Mamie,” “Let’s Back Eisenhower,” “Mamie and

Pat,” “Peace, Prosperity, and Eisenhower,” “Mothers for Mamie: Keep a Mother in the

White House,” and they also depicted a baby with a full diaper with “It’s Time for a

Change,” emblazoned on the diaper. Many of the buttons did not directly focus on political issues, but framed Ike as a strong and capable leader. Many of these buttons said, “The Mighty Tower Eisenhower,” “Man of the Hour Eisenhower,” and “Keep

America Strong with Ike.” Unlike other campaigns, there were also buttons inscribed with other languages. “Yo Quiero Ike,” “J’Aime Ike,” “Mi Piace Ike,” and “Me Gusta

Ike,” were just a few of the examples of buttons seen at rallies and campaign stops.89

Eisenhower supporters were also seen wearing elaborately crafted bracelets, earrings, necklaces, and broaches. The jewelry was encrusted with faux rhinestones and pearls and women were seen lighting their cigarettes with matches out of “Ike” matchbooks. Men were not left out either as “Comb out the national debt” was printed on plastic combs, “I

89 Ibid., 242, 244.

Like Ike” ties and tie clips were created, and “We’re Fore Ike” golf tees were handed out to crowds.90

When Ike was on the campaign trail, he often made a brief speech, and then said to the crowd, “And folks, here’s my Mamie!” The crowds cheered, sometimes longer and louder for the lady than the towering general.91 Spotlighted on the October 13, 1952 Life

Magazine cover, Mamie is introduced to the public with her gloved hand waiving in the air, her face bright with a smile, and the most prominent item in this photo, Mamie’s

“Ike” charm bracelet.92 During the ‘52 and ‘56 campaigns, the republicans used Mamie’s love of fashion to their advantage. Mamie knew how to represent Ike through her accessories, and the Eisenhowers wanted Americans to do the same. 93

One of the most important mediums for spreading the word to vote for Ike was television. The Citizens for Eisenhower Committee recognized using television advertisements would increase Ike’s likelihood of being elected. Endorsements from other republicans, animated Ike cartoons, and even Ike himself appeared on screen in people’s living rooms all over the country. The Democrats were convinced spending valuable campaign funds on television spots was a waste of time. Adlai Stevenson also believed in the power of speeches directly read from the candidate in person to insure ideas were properly communicated. For Eisenhower, one of the best advertisements came

90 Edith Mayo, “Be a Party Girl: Campaign Appeals to Women,” Hail to the Candidate: Presidential Campaigns from Banners to Broadcasts, ed. Keith Melder (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1992), 152-156. 91 Robert Wallace, “They Like Mamie Too: Ike’s Unassuming Wife Has Become a Bright Star on the Back Platform Show.” Life Magazine (October 13, 1952): 158. 92 Ibid. 93 Eisenhower’s Secret War, produced by George Colburn, Starbright Media Corporation, 2013.

60 from a segment titled, “Eisenhower Answers America.” Average people were recorded asking Eisenhower questions and he would respond. Ike answered honestly and appeared at ease instead of worrying over specific wording. He also appeared more approachable as he noted during one session, “My Mamie gets after me about the high cost of living,

It’s another reason why I say, its time for a change.” Approximately $800,000 was spent on Republic backed advertising compared to the Democrats’ $77,000. Renowned communications scholar Kathleen Hall Jameson wrote admiringly of Ike’s comfort with and mastery of television. On election eve 1952, Pat, Dick, Mamie and Ike were involved in spots containing 81 changes from filmed to live broadcast with individuals across the country encouraging support for the Eisenhower/Nixon ticket. Meanwhile, Adlai

Stevenson, trying the same nonchalant tactic as Ike, asked his interview about his personal life, then “after frittering away valuable time with awkward extemporaneous comments while toying with what appeared to be a pen holder, Stevenson launched into a speech that was still in progress when the announcer broke into the end the program on the half hour.” This is yet one more example of Ike’s hidden-hand talents as he was able to master this fairly new media and use it to his advantage.94

As more Americans indulged in the consumer culture that marked the 1950s as a prosperous period, the inclusion of a television as a necessary piece of furniture in a household was nationally embraced by the middle-class. For Eisenhower campaign, the use of television as an advertising channel promoted Ike’s likability and attractiveness as a candidate rather than for strict political plugs. In the four years between his campaigns,

94 Kathleen Hall Jamieson, Packaging the Presidency: A History and Criticism of Presidential Campaign Advertising (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992), 39, 62, 82, 85, 87.

61 the total population of American households with televisions rose from 30 percent to 70 percent in 1956.95 During his first campaign, it was imperative for Ike and Mamie to be seen as an average American couple, traveling thousands of miles on a whistle-stop tour to personally interact with potential voters.

As the Eisenhowers traveled throughout the country to speak to voters, more media outlets began to focus on Mamie as a key component to Ike’s campaign. Although

Mamie did not speak in public frequently, she was able to give interviews or at minimum her words were recorded in a newspaper or journal article to support the campaign.

Mamie’s strategy of being seen and not heard put more focus on Ike’s goals and not overshadowing him but reinforcing him. At times the press wanted to hear more from

Mrs. Ike, but she consistently remained in the background, not on the advice of campaign staff or Ike himself, but by her own choosing. In an article published by Massachusetts newspaper, The Springfield Union, Mamie was interviewed about her role in candidate

Ike’s campaign, “I want whatever Ike wants,” she said to Richard Kleiner, “I am perfectly satisfied to be known as a housewife…I take a great deal of pride in my role.”

She also linked her role in the campaign to her role as an army wife noting she had few roles to play, to keep her husband worry free, to keep in good health, and to stay in the background. If Ike were elected, Mamie noted the White House would be “just another post.”96

95 Craig Allen, Eisenhower and the Mass Media: Peace, Prosperity, and Prime-time TV (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1993), 7. 96 Richard Kleiner, “I Want Whatever Ike Wants’ Is Mamie’s Philosophy: Enjoying Role as Silent Partner, She would Take No Part in Political Campaign.” The Springfield Union, December 1, 1951.

Most media outlets quick noticed Mamie was involved in the campaign as an “Ike for

President” representative, but she was not immersed to the point of distraction, detriment, or overshadowing. Frequently jabbing at the overly entangled political style of Eleanor

Roosevelt, Mamie was praised for her devotion and subtleness. The New York World-

Telegram and Sun featured a story on the three possible Republican first ladies, Mamie

Eisenhower, Martha Taft, and Nina Warren. Comparatively, each potential White House hostess is seen as a support for her husband and a decision making partner. For the portion of the article focused on Mamie, she is referenced as “practicing the fine art of staying in the background” and most notably having the “ability of making people feel comfortable with her.”97 On one of their early trips to France after Ike was floated as a potential presidential candidate, Mamie was interviewed and said she was pleased to help

Ike in any way she could. “I try to do the little things so that he can do the big ones,” she beamed. At the end of the article, the author noted that “since the General has but one wife to give for his country, how fortunate we are that she happens to be honest, loyal, forthright…Mamie Doud Eisenhower.”98 Mamie continuously reinforced her claim of humble service as she believed she could better serve Ike and his political agenda unobtrusively in the background.

As the campaign wore on, Mamie was seen more frequently at public events and campaign rallies. Although she gave few comments to the press, her presence spoke louder than any words. Just after Eisenhower and Nixon were accepted as the Republican nominees at the July 1952 RNC Convention in Chicago, Mamie became formally

97 Associated Press, “Who Will be the Nation’s Next First Lady?” New York World-Telegram December 1, 1951. 98 “Ike May be a Five-star General, but as a General’s Wife, Mamie rates Six Stars at Least,” newspaper clipping, MDE Scrapbook, EL.

63 recognized as “a strong political asset for General Eisenhower.” In her first official press conference, organized by Citizens for Eisenhower, Mamie was “shy and hesitant about appearing before a corps of scribes, she hoped to meet with no more than 20 at a time, nevertheless she appeared completely at ease, self-possessed and smiling.” Mamie told reporters she would go every place she could with Ike, when asked if she would continue to follow him on the campaign trail. Washington, D.C’s The Evening Star noted Mamie was “‘a natural’ as a candidate’s wife” and during a luncheon, Mamie was given a standing ovation, even by Taft supporters. Hedda Hopper, a stand-in representative for

Mrs. Taft, reported to the crowd of Republican National Committeewomen, “I’ll catch the devil when Bob Taft hears about this—but I don’t care. I like Mamie just as much as you do.” It was encouraging to Mamie to be admired by her husband’s opponent’s supporters, and a testament to her likability to be embraced for her style of support for

Ike.99

As time on the campaign trail increased, so did the media’s interest in Mamie’s role as silent supporter. Generally, these newspaper and magazine articles were written by female journalists who wrote with an understanding that women would be the consumer.

Although some of these articles were featured in women’s magazines, the majority appeared in mainstream publications. Always highlighting Ike’s military career, most journalists also found Ike and Mamie’s partnership to be a key factor in the candidate’s decision making and overall ambitions. After Ike’s position as Republican candidate was solidified in Chicago, Mamie became a focal piece as the potential future first lady.

99 Betty Beale, “Mrs. Eisenhower Wins Acclaim At Women’s Press Conference: Emerges as Strong Political Asset for Husband,” The Evening Star, Washington, D.C., July 9, 1952.

Judith Crist, reporter for the New York Herald Tribune, told readers, “Gen. Dwight D.

Eisenhower’s first reaction on his wining the Republican Presidential nomination at the convention—‘I want to talk to Mamie’—was a significant clue to the Eisenhowers’ family life.” Like many Americans interested in the future first family, Crist relays

Mamie crucial part to Ike’s success. “For although Mrs. Eisenhower has been a far less obvious participant in public activities than the average candidate’s wife, she has already made her role apparent and played it with success.” Foreshadowing Mamie’s outlook on being the nation’s hostess, Crist describes Mamie’s “deep aversion to large crowds…in spite of this she has probably set a record for charming both press and public with little more than a sentence—or a word—delivered at the right time.” “On the road the general usually introduces her as ‘my Mamie, the most important person on this trip.’ And after a brief wave and an appreciatory sentence or two,” Crist writes, “Mrs. Eisenhower settles back managing to be both attractive and inconspicuous.” Mamie Eisenhower did not need to travel around spreading her husband’s agenda, as her silence spoke volumes.100

Again highlighting Mamie’s key role as a campaign necessity, Newsweek published a piece on Mrs. Ike “as an effective campaigner for the First Ladyship.” Comparing Mamie to Eleanor Roosevelt, “she is running faster than any other candidate’s wife since 1932, but the resemblance between Mrs. Roosevelt and Mrs. Eisenhower ends right there. Mrs.

Eisenhower will never be a delegate to the United Nations or any other kind of official.

Her talents lie in other directions…Mamie has only one idea about how to cure the ills of the world: the fervent conviction that Ike is the man for the job.” Noting Mamie’s school-

100 Judith Crist, “The Eisenhower Partnership: General’s Wife Prefers to Stay in the Background,” New York Herald Tribune, July 13, 1952.

65 girl like devotion, “After 38 years of marriage, her face still lights up like a bobby- soxer’s when she talks about Ike. She sometimes discusses him in a seemly detached way, as though he were a movie star and she has long admired and mooned over from afar.” Focusing on Ike and Mamie’s partnership grounded the Eisenhower campaign as one more reason to vote for Ike. Although the idea of a nuclear family and a unified marriage was not popular with all demographics, constituents reading and watching the news saw the Eisenhowers’ marriage as another reminder of peace and prosperity.

Mamie’s sentiments to Ike, “My job will be the same as always—to take care of you and our ‘home,’ resonated with the press as she revealed to Newsweek reporters, “I’m kind of a fatalist about some things. I believe that you never pass off until your job is done. I have a feeling Ike’s job isn’t done yet.”101 Mamie adamantly felt her place was in the home and she would continue to surround Ike with her own hedge of privacy to ensure his comfort.

As Election Tuesday loomed closer, the interest in Mamie’s hidden-hand politics was only trumped by her fashion sense and desire to look the part of a smartly dressed

Eisenhower supporter. She sported an “Ike” bracelet with charms of a shield, helmet, gas mask, American flag, bullet, armored tank, stars, state of Texas, and the continent of

Africa “to trace her husband’s career.”102 After a year of campaigning, the press and the public knew exactly who Mamie Eisenhower was and what type of clothing she wore.

Indeed, her strong sense of fashion brought her immediate attention and emulation from those in the know. Life Magazine reported that her campaign wardrobe was ordered in

101 “The General’s Lady,” Newsweek, October 13, 1952. 102 Alison Arnold, “Mamie Serene In Tour Tumult,” clipping, MDE Scrapbook 1952- 1953, M-109, #13140, Box 5, EL.

Paris, but Mamie insisted she bought her hats, “by mail order from home.”103 If women did not recognize Mamie by her New York or Paris wardrobe, they knew her by the cropped bangs Elizabeth Arden tailored to fit Mamie’s high forehead. On inauguration day, The Chicago Daily Tribune reported that Washington salons were overbooked with women having their hair done like Mamie’s. Women also bought artificial bangs for

$5.00 if they could not get an appointment to have their own bangs styled. At the last minute, a rumor spread that Mamie “might not wear bangs, but Mrs. Eisenhower’s secretary, Mary Jane McCafree, announced that the President elect’s wife had had her hair done…and that the bangs are still on.”104 The First Lady’s short curled bangs became known as “the Mamie Look.” By that evening, Mamie dazzled White House guests with her pink peau-de-soie gown studded with over 2,000 colored rhinestones and designed by Nettie Rosenstein. One newspaper reported that, “the subject of Mrs.

Eisenhower’s Inaugural gown has caused great furor among some 150 visiting fashion editors who have been in New York for the wholesale fashion openings.”105

The campaign and inauguration would not be the only time the media, American people, and designers focused on Mamie’s wardrobe. As First Lady, Mamie sought to wear clothing and display knickknacks that reflected her love for the president and the nation. Although she liked to remain in the background of politics, she nevertheless shined brightly for her Ike.

103 Wallace, “They Like Mamie, Too,” 158. 104 Norma Browning, “Mamie Primps Her Bangs and Averts a Coiffure Crisis,” Chicago Daily Tribune, January 20, 1953. 105 Associated Press, “Mamie Picks Pink Gown for Inaugural Ball,” Chicago Daily Tribune, January 14, 1953.

Chapter 3:

“Your Husband is the Boss”

“Times change but the basic things that make a good marriage stay exactly the same year after year—whether you live in two rooms, as we did, or in the White House,”

Mamie Doud Eisenhower recounted to Llewellyn Miller of Today’s Woman. Describing why her marriage to Dwight Eisenhower had to that point, lasted for over thirty years,

Mamie added, “The price of butter and eggs may change but the price of a happy marriage does not.” After following Ike to regions all over the world for his military service, suffering the loss of their first son, and standing next to him as he gave his presidential acceptance speech, Mamie understood the exhilaration of happiness and success and the heartbreak and solitude of death and war. Yet, she and Ike remained devoted and their marriage was put in the spotlight even before they made their first campaign appearance. Mamie was originally interviewed for Today’s Woman in 1948, but the article was reprinted again after she became first lady. Although not all women subscribed to the theory “your husband is your boss,” Mamie wholeheartedly embraced this idea and demonstrated it in public and private. Ike and Mamie were both traditionalists who had seen their parents struggle in various way, but nonetheless maintain their dedication to their families. “The first and most important rule is simple,”

Mamie advises, “if a bride can make up her mind at the beginning of her marriage that she is the wife and that her husband is the head of the house, all of the adjustments and strains that are sure to come will take care of themselves.” Divorce was not unheard of during the 1950s, yet Citizens for Eisenhower and many press outlets praised the

Eisenhowers for their seemingly worry-free relationship. Mamie credited her marriage

67 philosophy for the couple’s success. “Being a wife is the best career that life has to offer a woman. But there is a great deal more to a marriage than having a pretty trousseau and lovely wedding presents,” Mamie assures. “‘Happily ever after” does not follow the ceremony automatically. It takes wit and straight thinking and a good deal of adapting on both sides. The wise wife is the one who says at the beginning, ‘I will be the one to volunteer to do most of the adapting. It is worth it.’”106 Mamie understood the necessity of compromising and made it her mission to adapt to any situation requiring Ike’s attention.

Mamie Eisenhower was always adamant about her role as a behind-the-scenes supporter of her husband. This seeming paradox mirrors Ike’s Hidden Hand methodology, and gets to the heart of her success. She was no shrinking violet, rather, she was determined in her supporting role. This position may not satisfy a modern desire to see women self-actualized beyond the professional role of a husband. Yet it certainly reflected the reality of Mamie’s era and even more, her longtime and well-understood role as an Army wife. Her success lay in supporting her husband’s rise, first to the top of the military system, then to the pinnacle of American politics. In many senses, she played a social role analogous to that of Chief Operating Officer for Dwight Eisenhower,

Incorporated. She nurtured, protected, and advanced Ike’s brand, in other words. From her days as an army wife, to her position as the nation’s first lady, Mrs. Eisenhower maintained an attitude of service and was not shy about encouraging other women to serve in the same capacity. Although Mamie never saw herself as subservient or

106 Mamie Doud Eisenhower as told to Llewellyn Miller, “Your husband is the boss,” Today’s Woman, June, 1948.

68 oppressed in her role, and never wanted other women to feel trapped, she was a product of an age when most women served their husbands and families without question. 107

Mamie loved Ike unconditionally and she wanted their marriage to be an example to others of fidelity, strength, and lifelong commitment. Before Ike came home from

WWII, Mamie was featured in several articles as a supportive military spouse. Writers plainly and correctly asserted that Ike would not have been as successful without

Mamie’s devotion and constant backing. Indeed, while technically unofficial, her devotion to her ‘job’ allowed Ike to make his way upward through the byzantine Army bureaucracy without having to worry unduly about his family’s well-being. Surely this was a personal and career advantage. Always commenting the couple’s jubilant smiles, comments frequently noted Ike and Mamie’s fondness for each other and how it showed in their demeanor. “Alone at Last,” an Associated Press Wirephoto caption describes,

“Alone together for the first time since General Dwight Eisenhower arrived from Europe, the general and his wife enjoy a laugh together.” Consistently adding Ike’s compliments to his wife in the articles, several newspapers added, “The first to greet the conqueror of the Nazis when he reached the Washington airport was his wife. ‘Honey, you’re looking fine!’ he exclaimed, after he kissed her. The army of photographers missed that scene and they are still ‘sore.’” During a welcome home luncheon, a photographer snaps a picture of the Eisenhowers’ “Second Honeymoon! Gen. Ike’s hand holds Mrs. Eisenhower’s arm, as they smile looking into each other’s eyes at the Statler City Luncheon.” Capturing those tender moments between Ike and Mamie became an important morale booster as

107 Weiss, To Have and To Hold, 31-32.

69 the war hero became a potential presidential contender.108 As recounted elsewhere in this dissertation, these were years in which Americans placed a high value on domestic tranquility, in the personal and broader national sense. Ike and Mamie satisfied citizens on both levels.

In a newspaper clipping from Mamie Eisenhower’s scrapbook, an article titled,

“Hero Showers Wife with Gifts,” Ike and Mamie are depicted as an idyllic average

American couple that was torn apart by war, but reunited by peace. “Gen. Dwight D.

Eisenhower came home yesterday loaded with gifts for his sweetheart, ‘Mamie’

Eisenhower, the girl who has waited though several long years of war just like other GI wives.” Like other military couples, Ike and Mamie reunited and wanted their love to be seen by others. “A few seconds after he hugged her at the airport, they went hand-in-hand into a waiting car to receive Boston’s welcome. Hand –in-hand they went out of the city last night. All who saw them loved them for being such an ideal couple.” With the welcome parade in Boston over, Ike was asked about his visit, “With Mamie at my side, it was a great day and I’ll never forget it.” As in other interviews, Ike reminded everyone

Mamie was his “only pin-up girl” and she was invaluable to his success.109

Mamie also served as a political tool for rallying Eisenhower supporters.

Although Mrs. Ike did not give political stump speeches, the press still saw her as part of the Eisenhower team, just as influential as a cabinet member or persuasive as a military advisor. She had her husband’s trust, after all. Mamie was part of a two-for-one package

108 AP Wirephoto. Newspaper clipping from MDE scrapbook, 1924-1953, M-109, #13140, Box 3, EL. 109 “Hero Showers Wife With Gifts,” newspaper clipping, MDE Scrapbook, 1924-1953, M-108, #13139, Box 3, EL.

70 deal, and the American people and media did not distinguish Ike as a standalone figure.

The U.S. News and World Report questions, “Ike and Mamie—What They Will They Be

Like in the White House.” Noted on the cover of October 13, 1952 Newsweek edition,

“Mamie Eisenhower: She Helps Ike.” And on the Mirror Magazine’s December 21, 1952 issue, Ike and Mamie are pictured smiling and “the warm and intimate color portrait of

President-elect Dwight D. Eisenhower and ‘my Mamie’ is the best possible gift the

Mirror Magazine can offer…It could easily be Ike’s and Mamie’s Christmas card greeting to America whose future is theirs to mold in a troubled world.” The Mirror recorded, “That the Eisenhowers’ face their future responsibilities with a sincere and humble confidence is beyond all question.” Mamie is described as to have responsibilities on the same scale as Ike and she too holding America’s future in her hands. For a position without a job description, pay, or Constitutional boundaries, Mamie was trusted to lead just as well as Ike.110

The press and public also looked to Mamie to gage Ike’s reaction to a situation, learn more about his character, and appealed to her in order for their voices to be heard by the future president. Mamie proved herself to be an integral part of Ike’s decision making and she frequently spoke highly of his abilities when questioned in public. Again, the majority of news reports on Mamie were written by women journalists, who specifically wrote with a female audience in mind. Ike’s love for Mamie was always a topic on which reporters touched. When asked about a special moment they shared after

Ike won the nomination after the first ballot, Mamie responded “That’s too personal for

110 Cover of Newsweek (October 13, 1952), Cover of Sunday Mirror Magazine (December 21, 1952), Cover of U.S. News and World Report (January 23, 1953).

71 publication. Ike wouldn’t like it.” But she did describe “As soon as he heard the news Ike rushed into my room. He put his head on my shoulder,” and whispered to her while she was recovering from neuralgia. These tender moments softened the war-hardened general and Mamie was key to illustrate “the principles for which he stands.” Women were an important part of the electorate, and Mamie endeared Ike to American men and women by describing his “economical trait,” “soul of honor,” “great powers of concentration,”

“love of farming,” and most importantly to Mamie, “he loves being a grandfather.”111

Even after their campaign victory, the Eisenhowers’ marriage remained in the news and most frequently written about by female journalists. Ruth Geiner, a reporter for

Washington, D.C.’s Times-Herald, writes of the historic kiss given to Mamie by Ike.

“Mamie Eisenhower experienced the greatest moment of her life today when the

President of the United States gave her what probably was the most public kiss in history.

Dwight D. Eisenhower no sooner had taken the oath that made him the nation’s 34th

President then he dashed over to kiss Mamie on the cheek, pausing only to shake hands with Mr. Truman.” “It undoubtedly was the most public kiss in history, witnessed by some 125,000 persons on the Capitol’s plaza and possible 70,000 others on television.”

Whenever the Eisenhowers were pictured together, photographers and reporters alike frequently mentioned the love Ike and Mamie shared just by looking at their smiles. In an

Associated Press photo caption, Ike and Mamie are noted, “posing, but looking as if they

111 Nanette Kutner, “Ike: As His Wife Sees Him,” The American Weekly, October 19, 1952.

72 weren’t, President and Mrs. Eisenhower smile at each other as they sit on the White

House grounds bench last July 1,” the anniversary of their marriage.112

One of the most revealing and influential articles written about the Eisenhowers’ marriage was published in the November 1955 edition of Family Circle. Only two months had passed since Ike’s heart attack and the American people were afraid for the president’s health and questioned his ability to run for a second term. That is, their concern was at once personal (they liked Ike, after all) and pragmatic (the United States could not be led by an invalid). The Family Circle article provided hope for recovery rooted in Mamie’s keen ability to care for her husband. For readers, Ike describes the ease he feels when he comes home to Mamie after a summit meeting in Switzerland, “I’ll come home at night, and Mamie will know just how I feel. She’ll talk about the intimate things in our lives…like the kids—the grandchildren. She’ll keep me from getting too tense.” Like defining other first ladies, “countless observers on the Washington scene have struggled for almost three years to pin-point Mamie Eisenhower’s importance as the first lady of the land—but none has hit the mark so well as Dwight D. Eisenhower did in the conversation with an old friend just before the Geneva conference last July.” Mamie showed her skill as a hostess to the nation, but her real calling was “helping her husband to relax at the hearthstone after a tough day at the office. To the President his first lady represents the life that is his own, the life he does not have to share with his country, the kind of life that would be his if he were an ordinary citizen.” Mamie’s contribution to the success of the nation was not delivering speeches, organizing fundraisers, or being an ambassador abroad, “it is the chatty, informal, old-shoe kind of life that every man

112 Associated Press photo clipping. Elivera M. Doud Collection, Box 5, EL.

73 relishes at the end of the day, be he President or plumber.”113 Casual observers might have dismissed this as mere comforting rhetoric about a politician’s marriage. But the

Greenstein-inflected reading would be that here were two very experienced and cagey practitioners of public messaging, using their skills in combination to give the audience – the American public – what they felt it needed.

After Ike and Mamie moved into “the world’s most publicized hunk of architecture,” Collier’s celebrated the Eisenhowers’ routine of “playing it strictly suburbia.” Long days in the Oval Office were forgotten as Ike, “changed into slacks and an old golf sweater, and he and Mamie adjourn to the second-floor hall and turn on TV.”

It was a welcome change to see the President and First Lady relax in their home after years of rationing and constant wartime newsreels. “For years the Eisenhowers’ official positing forced them into party-going. But now,” Ike told Collier’s, “I’ve got a job where

I can stay home at nights, and by golly I’m going to stay home.”114 The American people had a vested interest in the political and personal life of their president and first lady, and seeing Ike and Mamie fit into the “great American success story” naturally, shaped public opinion. Ike was a “small town boy, so free and happy as to be unaware of personal poverty.” He meets Mamie, “a city belle whose sole equipment for austere Army living was a knack for fudge and mayonnaise making.” The Eisenhowers’ success as an average couple came “unaided by fortune or influential family,” but “through determination and character rather than intellectual brilliance.” Journalist Mary Van Rensselaer Thayer noted Ike and Mamie’s success story “could only happen in America,” and what they

113 “Mamie Eisenhower: First Lady—but Wife First,” Family Circle (November 1955): 27, 96-98. 114 Andrew Tully, “Ike and Mamie at Home,” Collier’s (June 20, 1953): 15-17.

74 achieved together is a “pinnacle of prestige and power unequalled in today’s world.”

Approachability was crucial for any president to demonstrate, and together the

Eisenhowers were sociable, good-natured, and plainspoken, gaining the media and the

American people’s trust.115 Here again, critics and would-be sophisticates disdainful of suburbia might have dismissed this as bland or generic. But the fact is that Americans in their millions were falling in love with suburbia. Ike and Mamie knew that.

As with other first ladies, the press and public were interested in the amount of influence Mamie had over her husband’s political opinions and if her own opinions were evident in policies and decisions. Here, her years as a duty-conscious military spouse were perfect preparation. Countless newspaper and magazine articles published Mamie’s opinion of her new position. “Mamie Eisenhower is a woman of infectious good humor and happiness, but she views her husband’s election to the presidency of the land with great seriousness.” Mamie told Joy Reese Coleman in an interview after Adlai o’s concession speech, “I was just to numb to feel anything. I think we both were… I didn’t feel like celebrating though, I don’t think anyone did, really. I felt that in the air very definitely an undercurrent of seriousness not only with us but with people generally.”116

Two months into her role as first lady, Mamie addressed a crowd of seven women reporters and twenty-eight male correspondents to describe her first impressions of the

White House, her position, and politics. Present at the first lady’s press conference was

Baltimore Sun writer Thomas O’Neill. Noting one exclusion, “the First Lady adroitly

115 Mary Van Rensselaer Thayer, “Great American Success Story,” newspaper clipping, MDE Scrapbook, 1952-1953, M-109, #13140, EL. 116 Joy Reese Coleman, “Next First Lady of Nation Views Mate’s Job Seriously,” Jacksonville Journal, November 17, 1952.

75 avoided any political tinge in her answers to questions. The lone exception dealt with her interest in affairs in Congress where her husband’s Administration has set itself firmly against tax reductions.” In the twenty-three minute question and answer session, Mamie subtly promoted her husband’s politics while speaking to “what had she done about the furnishings of the White House.”117

Unlike a few first ladies, Mamie did not feel she could adequately explain all her husband’s political leanings to reporters or crowds of people. After three years in the

White House, Family Circle made it clear Mamie gave her opinion when asked for it, but she “avoids any shoptalk. She ignores the situation in the Far East, the cut in the Army budget, the day’s outcries on Capitol Hill… Mamie never introduces any subject having to do with her husband’s job—but she is always there ready to be helpful if Ike wants to discuss the Presidency.” What an implicit endorsement of conventional – and comforting

– gender roles! Mamie provides a listening ear when “the President wants merely to think out loud about a Government problem,” and providing a sympathetic ear, “her interested silence helping him to clarify his thinking. But if her husband asks Mamie her opinion, she usually has one, expresses it briefly and coherently, then lets it go at that.”

Mamie saw her role as a listener, not to criticize or fix, but to be Ike’s sounding board in a comfortable space.

As Ike neared the end of his first term, Mamie’s role as the behind-the-scenes audience for the president remained in the news. By this point, President Eisenhower negotiated the armistice ending the Korean War, coined the Domino Theory, and publicly

117 Thomas O’Neill, “2-Month White House Tenant Finds It Nice Place to Live,” Baltimore Sun March 12, 1953.

76 criticized Senator Joseph McCarthy’s witch hunt. Ike was accustomed to speaking on television, working with the media, and addressing people all over the world. However, no matter his experience, he remained adamant about seeking Mamie’s advice. “Mrs.

Mamie Eisenhower serves as a tryout audience for the President’s speeches. He asks her whether he has made his meaning clear,” reports Newsweek. “‘I knew that was all right,’ he might say about a passage. ‘Mamie said so.’” Comparing Mamie’s style of politics to her predecessor, “the First Lady is a calm contrast to Eleanor Roosevelt and her multifarious activities on behalf of her husband and herself.” Mamie’s preference of political activity became normal and accepted. She remained consistent in her beliefs and therefore solidified her position as influential but not meddlesome. “Continuing the policy she adopted as a veteran Army wife, Mrs. Eisenhower confines herself principally to the social branch of her husband’s occupation.”118 Even as the 1956 election approached, Mamie still refused to interfere or overstep her position. During one of her secretary, Mary Jane McCaffree’s, weekly press conferences, Mamie made a surprise appearance to reveal a new display of twenty-six dinner plates painted with one of each of the first ladies’ portraits. When “asked if she cared to make a prediction of the elections she responded with a surprised, ‘I?’”119

After so many years apart, Ike also made it clear that he wanted to be around his wife whenever possible and her advice was always taken seriously. The second point amplifies the first. Mamie was a reliable partner who was taken seriously. Her opinions

118 “Mamie Serves as a Sounding Board,” Newsweek, January 31, 1955. 119 Isabelle Shelton, “Mrs. Eisenhower at Conference,” (October 20, 1954) newspaper clipping, MDE Scrapbook, 1954, M-109, #13140, EL. Ruth Montgomery, “27 First Ladies Now Mamie’s Dish,” The Evening Star, Washington D.C., October 27, 1954.

77 were not in the limelight, but reflected in her influence on Ike. The New York Times reported, “Mamie seldom is seen in the President’s office. She is willing to undertake the normal chores of the First Lady involving luncheons, teas and endless handshaking, but when it comes to the business of the government, that is Ike’s business. She stays out of it.” But, when a social calling may interrupt their evening together, “on more than one occasion since entering the White House, [Ike] has said to a friend trying to arrange a bridge game or a strictly stag affair, ‘You know I have a wife—I’ll have to see what

Mamie is planning.”120 Likewise, when Mamie was invited to attend events on Sundays, she always declined because it was her “‘only day’ with the President.”121

Unlike other presidential couples, the Eisenhowers often showed their affection for each other in and for the public. This is an oft-overlooked but somewhat radical point.

That is, within the context of their reliable marriage, their affection for each other as husband and wife was seen as a positive and did not need to be hidden or implied. In an interview series “Famous Husbands Tell About Wives” conducted by The International

News Service, Ike proudly spoke of his affection for his wife and his success was rooted in her support. The question put to famous husbands was, “Why do you adore your wife?” and Ike’s reply was given in the form of a five-pointed gold star medallion made for Mamie. The inscription read, “To Mamie,” “For never failing help since 1916—in calm and in stress, in dark days and in bright.”122 This piece of jewelry was not only

120 “Eisenhower” newspaper clipping from MDE Scrapbook, 1955, M-110, #13141, EL. 121 “President’s Only Day: First Lady Foregoes Concert to Be With Him on Sunday,” The New York Times, February 11, 1956. 122 Olga Curtis, “Famous Husbands Tell About Wives: ‘Why I Adore Her’.” The Washington Post and Times Herald, July 15, 1956; Frank Holeman, “Ike’s Gift to Mamie: A ‘Good Wife’ Medal,” The News Bureau, December 25, 1955.

78 special as a Christmas gift, but it symbolized Ike’s thankfulness to his wife for nursing him back to health after his recent heart attack.

Mamie also portrayed her charm and likability through her interactions with her family, especially her grandchildren. Since the outset of Eisenhower’s campaign, the

Eisenhower grandchildren were frequently featured in the media as another contributor to the couple’s happiness and a means to show unity amongst the first family of the nation.

Ike and Mamie’s son, John, and daughter-in-law, Barbara, had four children, David,

Barbara Anne, Susan, and Mary Jean. The John Eisenhower family frequented the White

House and temporarily lived with Ike and Mamie while John was away serving in the

Korean War. The Eisenhowers loved their grandchildren and were often pictured playing with them in Washington and Gettysburg. “From his office the President can look out on the White House lawn on a fine morning and see Mamie keeping an eye on David and

Barbara Anne as they ride their bicycles. Between times the first lady may be sitting on a bench with Suzie, reading her Mother Goose or helping her draw pictures.” Mamie was even kind enough to allow David to use “the entire White House as one huge race track” and “devise guessing games for the children to calm them down after their outdoor play or their splashing in the White House swimming pool.”123 Many presidents have worked very hard to project an image of familial devotion, few more effectively than

Eisenhower’s successor, John F. Kennedy. Yet Mamie and Ike did not need to mount a public relations campaign to create and maintain that image. They merely needed to show off what organically existed.

123 “Mamie Eisenhower: First Lady—but Wife First,” Family Circle (November 1955): 27, 96-98.

Mamie saw her role as a grandmother just as important as her role as a wife. The happiness their grandchildren brought to the couple only added to the stress relief factor

Mamie was hoping to incorporate into Ike’s daily routine. The American Weekly reported

Ike’s “most important recreation is his grandchildren.” When David was two and visiting his grandfather at Columbia University, he interrupted a serious faculty meeting in the library by popping his head in and “mischievously shouting, ‘Hi Ike!’” only causing Ike to laugh at the disruption. Mamie also helped with the grandchildren, whom she affectionately called, “my babies,” when John and Barbara visit so her daughter-in-law could sleep late.124 Even as Ike campaigned and took meetings at various locations, the grandchildren frequently visited and “Ike assumed a dual role, flitting from room to room as a candidate one minute and then stopping to play grandpa the next.”125 Both Ike and

Mamie’s roles as parents and grandparents demonstrated their compassion and shone a brighter spotlight on their family values.

In a Washington Post series on Washington’s glamorous grandmothers, Mamie jokes she has “grandmother’s disease” and cannot stop doting on her grandchildren.

“‘Mimi’ is their affectionate name for this young-looking grandmother…and their granddad is just plain “‘Ike.’” Showing his pride in his grandchildren and demonstrating his technical savvy, “The President, who enjoys taking pictures of the three, has ventured into the three dimensional and movie fields to catch them in many moods.”126 Even as the

124 “An Exclusive Story by the Women Who Managed the General’s New York Home,” The American Weekly (June 1, 1952): 4-5. 125 Virginia Marmaduke, “Visit of 3 Grandchildren Brings Pleasant Respite to Ike, Mamie,” Chicago Sun-Times, July 11, 1952. 126 Evelyn Hays and Anita Holmes, “First Grandmother Dotes On White House Invaders,” Washington Post, April 9, 1953.

First Family traveled for vacation and holidays, the press was always there to note the importance of the children in the President and First Lady’s lives. “The three children of

Major and Mrs. John Eisenhower virtually stole the show from the President of the

United States yesterday when the Presidential family arrived here for a Thanksgiving vacation at the Augusta National.”127 The Eisenohwers loved their grandchildren and were always willing to put aside the demands of their public lives to indulge in their guarded private affairs.

Privacy was very important to the Eisenhowers and keeping their grandchildren from constant attention was seen as necessary. Even in a moment of grandfatherly affection, as Ike whispered to six-year-old grandson, David, reporters questioned the

President on his words, “It is a secret between us.”128 As the Eisenhower grandchildren got older, they were less enthusiastic about their grandmother’s affection. When David was eight he told Mamie, “I’ll have to put a stop to this kissing pretty soon,” but when

Ike heard about David’s remark he said, “Look here, young man,” in mock seriousness,

“you don’t know how lucky you are to be getting kissed by my girl.”129 Joking aside, as

David grew up, he had more of a formal relationship with his grandfather in public settings as Ike wanted his grandson to be well-rounded and polite. Before a trip to San

Francisco, the Associated Press remarks on the “display of affectionate good humor, grandfather Eisenhower and grandson David bow and shake hands on the loading ramp

127 “Grandchildren Share Spotlight with ‘Mr. and Mrs. Ike’,” The Augusta Chronicle, November 25, 1953. 128 “Secret is Shared by Ike, Grandson,” November 12, 1954, newspaper clipping, MED Scrapbook, 1954, M-109, #13140, EL. 129 “Mamie Eisenhower—First Wife but Wife First,” November 1955.

81 of the National Airport…the bowing for greetings and farewells has been routine for some time.”130

The limelight was again on the Eisenhowers as they welcomed John and

Barbara’s fourth child, Mary Jean, in 1955. Isabel Shelton reported, “Looking and acting very much like the proud grandmother, Mrs. Eisenhower bubbled that the infant, Mary

Jean, born Wednesday afternoon, ‘looks like an Eisenhower, very much like David did.”131 Comments and stories reporting Ike and Mamie’s devotion and care for their grandchildren only endeared them more to the public. They were typical American grandparents who spoiled their grandchildren with toys, parties, sweets, few rules and they found great joy in sharing in their lives. Ike and Mamie set aside time away from the pressures of politics to enjoy their family and the press and public respected their decision because, as Mamie replied in a letter, “how fortunate we are to be able to be with our children. They are really all that matters at our age.”132

As Mamie became more comfortable in the limelight, she opened up to the media about her role as a housewife. Of course, being First Lady gave her a larger domestic staff than she could have imagined in her early days as an Army wife, and put her in a different position to that of most American housewives. Yet, the White House is portrayed not as a palace but as the president’s home, so her role was to some extend readily understandable and relatable. Although Mamie spent more time playing hostess

130 “Grandpa Gets a Send-Off,” Associated Press Wirephoto, newspaper clipping found in EMD Collection, Box 2, EL. 131 Isabel Shelton, “First Lady Typical Proud Grandmother,” The Evening Star, Washington D.C., December 23, 1955. 132 MDE Letter to Mrs. Floyd L. Parks, November 24, 1961, MDE Papers, 1961-1962 Correspondence Series, Box 1, EL.

82 to civic clubs, veterans, children, and dignitaries, she identified most with being a housewife. The housewife mentality Mamie chose to embrace spoke more to her role as

Ike and her family’s caretaker than as the nation’s hostess. Approaching her role as hostess with diplomatic integrity and poise, Mamie welcomed thousands of visitors a week into her home. She felt it was her duty to show off her home as the White House housewife, manager, and hostess. The prime difference in the definitions is a housewife’s main occupation is caring for her family and managing household affairs. A hostess receives and entertains guests. Mamie found pleasure in her duties as a hostess, yet to her, her greatest strengths reflected her love of family. Importantly, the media also recognized the difference in her roles, yet praised her for both.

When Mamie stepped foot into the White House as First Lady, many press outlets delivered a purportedly intimate look into what life was like on an average day in the

White House. Since the White House recently underwent a $6,250,000 renovation under the Truman Administration, Mamie was entering a “spick and span” new home.

Unfortunately, she would have the “least self-expression in White House interior decoration. She can’t order a paint job with everything is fresh as paint—not a thrifty soul like Mamie Eisenhower.” Although Mamie was not actually doing much of the housekeeping, she did maintain control over what she deemed needed to be done. Bess

Furman, in the Times Washington, describes that “Chief Usher Crim is responsible for the hiring and firing of the household staff, subject to the wishes of the President and First

Lady. He keeps the household accounts, makes out the annual budget, presents its details to committees of Congress.” Unbeknownst to many Americans, “The White House—as a matter of historical happenstance—is officially classified as Reservation Number One,

National Capital Parks” and under the jurisdiction of the Department of the Interior.

Chief Usher Crim had the power to hire and fire almost every staff member, except “the choice of housekeeper.” Mrs. Eisenhower had that sole responsibility and “she may make any other changes as she chooses, although the custom of long service is deeply entrenched.” At the time of the administration change over, sixty-four staff members received a total annual salary of $226,000. Compared to Dolley Madison; Andrew

Johnson’s daughter, Martia Patterson; and Mrs. Benjamin Harrison, The Times

Washington noted Mamie as a modern first lady, with a job “more on the administrative side, less on the house-wifely side. But it is just as consuming of time and energy.” And just to verify the actual cost to taxpayers of having a President and First Lady in one of the largest mansions in America, “the Federal expenditure and the Budget Bureau figures things like $38, 890 per year for electricity…and the State Department picks up the check on banquets to distinguished foreign visitors.” But, the first family “pays for its own personal long-distance telephone calls. It also pays for its own food and that of its personal guests.” Above all, Mamie Eisenhower, like each first lady before her, has the chance to “make it her own.”133

After Mamie settled into her new home, the press and public continued to inquire into her hostess and homemaking abilities. Always recognizing Mamie as one of Ike’s grounding forces, The Pittsburgh Press personally thanked Mamie for “willing to forgo the glitter of Washington night life.” Citing Woodrow Wilson and Franklin Roosevelt as victims of “the world’s most man-killing job,” Mamie is praised for rather being “a wife

133 Bess Furman, “Keeping House at the White House,” The Times Washington, December 28, 1952.

84 than a widow” and “wouldn’t we be surprised if she isn’t thinking too that this nation needs a chief executive who will rise early in the morning fresh and ready to lift the burdens of the world’s problems to his shoulders.” Ike’s relaxation was made possible by the First Lady’s hard work and “the nation owes Mamie a debt of gratitude for that.”134

The death in office of Franklin D. Roosevelt, still somewhat fresh in American minds, no doubt lent these words a great deal of impact.

Mamie made it clear her position as housewife was important and anything but easy. Reflecting on the public’s impression of Mrs. Eisenhower, the press attempted to dispel any negativity against the First Lady since she does not possess “Mrs. Roosevelt’s inclination to delve constantly into public problems.” United Features Syndicate reports most citizens only see Mamie during “the trips she makes with her husband, plus attendance at charity bazaars, benefit tea parties and fashion shows.” But to the contrary,

“there is much more to her life than smiling, drinking tea and shaking hands. She is the operating executive of a large establishment—the White House proper, as separated from the business offices.” Mrs. Ike is responsible for “seeing to the operation of the residential sections of the White House and arranging her life with Ike to meet his heavy official schedule, she also must preside over two other Eisenhower households at

Gettysburg and Augusta.” Like any other housewife, Mamie “must follow the food purchasing closely. She does not stand in line at the market; the shipping is done for her.

But she must maintain supervision of the menus and the spending.” Since the earliest days of Mamie’s army wife career, she diligent not to spend more money than Ike’s meager army salary allowed. Frugality was also a key component in Ike’s campaign

134 Andrew Tully, “Take a Bow, Mamie,” The Pittsburgh Press, March 3, 1953.

85 promises. Although this was a time of prosperity, it was still important for the first family to set an example in fiscal planning and responsibility.135

Mamie’s housework schedule was also frequently compared to that of an average

American housewife. In a satirical cartoon, Franklin Folger depicted “The Girls” staring at the front of the White House from Pennsylvania Avenue. One “girl” speaks aloud, “I’ll bet all she does is clean,” inferring Mamie’s role as ultimate house cleaner.136 Still, as

Mamie moved throughout the charity and civic circles, reports lingered on her schedule as a housewife. “Breakfast in bed is the first order of the day for Mamie Eisenhower. But don’t think she’s leading a life of luxury,” Kenneth Gilmore reports, “That’s hardly the case. This is just one wat she hopes to save a little energy early in the morning. For after coffee and eggs the First Lady launches into a cyclone of activities that would soon have many a robust housewife flat on her back.”137 Likewise during the Christmas of 1954,

The Wall Street Journal reported “Mamie Eisenhower is wrapping all the Christmas presents herself without bothering the man in the house.” Unlike the average housewife,

Mamie had 3,000 Christmas cards to answer, holly wreaths to hang on every window, and the task of picking something for “the man who has everything.” The Wall Street

Journal argued housewives needed to handle all the Christmas details since “naturally at such a time the man finds he must work longer at the office. With the year-end reports to be got ready, the books out of balance, disgruntled associates in the other branches, and renewed competition from the fellows in the other firm—well obviously a man has too

135 A. Merriman Smith, “$2,500 a Month for Current,” United Features Syndicate (1955). 136 Franklin Folger, “The Girls,” (1955). 137 Kenneth Gilmore, “Her Schedule Would Flatten Average American Housewife,” Newspaper Enterprise Association (1956).

86 much of his own tidying up to do to be plagued with the problem of what to give four brothers.” The housewives of America needed to be more like Mamie Eisenhower, as “it fills us with good cheer, this Christmas season, to see such a fine example set by the First

Lady,” taking charge of the home.138

Mamie was also ceremoniously given the “mythical title” of “Housewife of the

Year,” for her ability to maintain her occupation as a housewife with grace, interest, and glamour. “Mamie has never been interested in a career of her own, but she’s possessed of professional skills as helpmeet and hostess to a man who will hold what is probably the most important position in the world.” Mrs. Eisenhower never sought popularity, but “to shine in the selected light of her husband.” Although Mamie Eisenhower is first lady of the land, “she isn’t too different from the average middle-aged homemaker. She is primarily concerned with her administrative duties in making a home, is devoted to her grandchildren, and has every woman’s vital interest in clothes.” Without intentionally seeking praise or popularity, “by acting herself, Mamie Eisenhower has made herself a popular American figure. And, what’s more, women like her—possibly because it is easy to believe that she is acting in her position just as the average American housewife would act if her husband were elected president. To do all that, in itself requires skill. And

Mamie Eisenhower has it.” Women journalists used Mamie Eisenhower as a medium to encourage other housewives to act as she did.139 Not all journalists who interviewed or covered the First Lady were women, however, mostly women covered events involving

138 “Review and Outlook: Lady of the House,” The Wall Street Journal, 1954, newspaper clipping in MDE scrapbook, 1954, M-109, #13140, EL. 139 Cynthia Lowry, “Mamie Given Mythical Title: She Gets Nomination as ‘Housewife of the Year,’” newspaper clipping MDE scrapbook, 1955, M-110, #13141, EL.

Mamie. Mrs. Ike was marketed as the quintessential housewife, yet she possessed the same skills embodied by hardworking housewives all over America. Mamie took her role seriously and encouraged women, not to feel oppressed by household chores and home management, but to feel purposeful and to take pride in their role.

Chapter 4:

“Please Don’t Step on the Carpet!”

After taking over the role as the nation’s first lady from Bess Truman in 1952,

Mamie Eisenhower conducted her early morning staff meetings from her command center in her bedroom. Usually dressed in a pink bed jacket and matching pink bow, the first lady handed out orders from the comfort of her plush pink bed. Mrs. Eisenhower made it very clear to each White House staff member that only she delegated responsibilities and approved possible actions. During one of Mamie’s morning staff meetings, her mother, Elivera Doud, made a request for a car to take her to the dentist.

Overhearing this wish, Chief Usher J.B. West made the arrangement for the car without consulting Mrs. Eisenhower. Within half an hour, Mr. West received a call from the first lady. She asked, “Who ordered the car for Mother? I just called the garage and they said it had already been ordered.” Mr. West replied in the affirmative what he had heard at meeting. “Oh good,” she replied, “As long as the order came from me!”140 Here it is worth noting the similarity within the scene to what Ike might have faced in his Army role. Of course the material details were different. But the image of an Eisenhower at the center of a communications nexus is one that both Ike and Mamie plainly understood and embodied. But Ike’s experiences were widely assumed in the public mind, whereas

Mamie’s were even more ‘hidden’ than Greenstein might have explained.

The White House comprises a complex service system. In the Eisenhower White

House, all the domestic orders were given directly by the first lady. The White House

140 J.B. West, Upstairs at the White House: My Life With the First Ladies (New York: Warner Paperback Library Edition, 1973), 128-129, 160.

89 staff and the American people recognized a sprightly, vivacious, and warm-hearted friend in Mamie Eisenhower. She was a devoted grandmother, polite and gracious hostess, loyal military wife, and White House manager. To Mamie, running a house, being a hostess, supporting her spouse, and delegating responsibilities were all classified under one job description. However, the image that she portrayed to the public was not always consistent with the persona she revealed at home. To the American people, Mamie

Eisenhower was a homemaker and hostess who enjoyed shaking hands and entertaining guests. While this representation is accurate, Mamie’s demeanor at the White House and her Gettysburg home, reflected her organizational skills and demand for military-like precision. Mrs. Eisenhower insisted that her personal staff, independent contractors, and even her family have the same meticulous characteristics. By investigating Mamie

Eisenhower’s relationship with the people who worked for and served her, a clearer portrait is painted of how she conducted herself as the nation’s first lady and how her husband’s military career dominated her own.

One of the most important texts to reveal Mamie Eisenhower’s role as first lady and her relationship with her staff is White House Chief Usher J.B. West’s 1973 memoir,

Upstairs at the White House: My Life with the First Ladies. In it, West chronicles his interactions with first ladies from Eleanor Roosevelt to Pat Nixon. He relays the everyday management of the Executive Mansion, the activities of the first ladies, and how the permanent staff members related to the changing demands of each new administration.

Previously, historians have used West’s work as a basis of determining Mamie as a

90 housewife and hostess.141 However, with further examination of this source and other period documents, Mrs. Eisenhower’s role as first lady and White House administrator reflects her years of military experiences and how she used them to create a balance between her domestic and public life. West’s memoir is more of an organizational history than a tell-all and thus supports the contentions inherent in this dissertation than any gossipy recollection ever could. It has been somewhat neglected by scholars, perhaps out of a bias against peering too deeply into domestic matters pertaining to the presidency.142

Mamie never begrudged Ike for his devotion to the military or politics, nor did she regret not having a paid professional career herself. Though many people recognized

Mamie’s potential, she remained happy as Ike’s helpmate. In an interview after his mother’s death, John Eisenhower believed that “she was quite friendly and outgoing, especially with strangers,” but he argued that she “never even began to make the most of her God-given abilities… she was really a case of an unused potential,” blaming part of it on “the age she was brought up in.”143 Mamie Eisenhower relayed her opinion of her life to her granddaughter-in-law, Julie Nixon Eisenhower, “there is only one star in the heaven, Sugar, and there is only one way to live with an Eisenhower. Let him have his

141 Bonnie Angelo, First Families: The Impact of White House on Their Lives (New York: HarperCollinsPublishers, 2005), 20-22.; Martin M. Teasley, “Mamie (Geneva Doud) Eisenhower,” American First Ladies: Their Lives and Their Legacy, ed. Lewis L. Gould (New York: Garland Publishing, Inc., 1996), 471.; Margaret Truman, First Ladies: An Intimate Group of White House Wives (New York: Random House, 1995), 215-216. 142 A contradictory argument of Mamie’s relationship with Ike as a wife and homemaker are noted in the chapter “Ike is My Career: The Eisenhowers at Home in the Fifties.” Gil Troy, Affairs of State: The Rise and Rejection of the Presidential Couple Since World War II (New York: The Free Press, 1997). 143 John S. D. Eisenhower, interviewed by Carol Hegeman, Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, January 24, 1986, transcript, ENHS, Gettysburg, PA.

91 own way.”144 Mamie’s granddaughter Mary Jean Eisenhower saw that her grandmother

“completely devoted herself to [Ike] and his career and had little patience for women who wanted to go out; like the Gloria Steinham’s, the bra burners.” Mrs. Eisenhower “really thought that was terrible, that they out to support their man. She was not a hypocrite.

Every bit of her energies went to him.”145 Here again is the notion of communications control; that is, of consistency in message. Mamie’s public image complemented and augmented Ike’s, but never contrasted or cut into his own projected persona.

Mamie also believed that Ike did not need her assistance to achieve his goals. In an interview with Barbara Walters in 1979, Mamie describes her role and she argued that

Ike “didn’t need my help. He was perfectly capable of things,” she continued, “a man has to be encouraged. I think I told Ike everyday that he lived…how good I thought he was.

You know your ego has to be fed.”146 Mamie believed her role as a housewife was to respect and support her husband and to create a comfortable and congenial atmosphere for him to enjoy. “I have but one career, and its name is Ike,” Mrs. Eisenhower once said, but according to J.B. West and the East Wing staff, “as far as we were concerned, she made a career of the President’s house.”147

144 Martin Teasley, “Ike was Her Career: The Papers of Mamie Doud Eisenhower,” Prologue vol. 19, no. 2 (Summer 1987): 114. 145 Mary Jean Eisenhower, interviewed by Carol Hegeman, Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, June 25, 1987, transcript, ENHS, Gettysburg, PA. Mamie Eisenhower was a product of the twenties and thirties, and to her, women did not to burn bras to make a point or to be heard. The 1950s were not as idyllic for any minority group as claimed by the Greatest Generation. Not all women followed the same mantra as Mamie Eisenhower. Her “support your man” opinion is born of a generation that produced ladies who respected their husbands by serving. 146 Mamie Eisenhower, interview with Barbara Walters, The Today Show, taped August 30, 1979. 147 West, Upstairs at the White House, 143.

The military life meant that the Eisenhowers moved into and out of dozens of different living quarters during the general’s career, no doubt accruing experience and confidence along the way. The White House provided an eight-year stable home for the couple. Much to the chagrin of several White House staffers, Mrs. Eisenhower regularly reminded everyone “the house belonged only to her and the President.”148 “I run everything in my house,” she claimed.149 After moving around so often, the Eisenhowers felt more stability and permanence in the executive mansion. Mamie joked to her granddaughter Susan, “I’ve kept house in everything but an igloo.”150 Varying opinions were exchanged as to who actually ran the nation’s most important home. “Mrs.

Roosevelt thought the White House belonged to ‘the people,’ and Mrs. Eisenhower though it belonged to her—temporarily,” but White House Seamstress Lillian Rogers

Parks recalled, “we, the backstairs crew who ran it, knew it belonged to us.”151 Through many years of succession, the staff felt loyal to the White House itself. Staff members needed to be apolitical, so their devotion was often shown in a possessiveness dedication to preserving and protecting the White House, and not always agreeing with the current administration.

Many White House staff members had long careers and served several administrations. Frequently comparing first ladies, Lilian Rogers Parks compared Mamie to Bess Truman as a public figure. Although Bess tried to fulfil her inferred hostess duties, later, suffering from nervousness, Bess Truman confined herself to the shadows

148 Parks, My Thirty Years Backstairs at the White House, 26, 34. 149 West, Upstairs at the White House, 130. Parks, My Thirty Years Backstairs at the White House, 323. 150 Eisenhower, Mrs. Ike, 4. 151 Parks, My Thirty Years Backstairs at the White House, 82.

“and never did learn to really enjoy formal functions.” Her role was therefore not as public, nor was her preparation as fulsome as Mamie’s. Harry S Truman had been a local politician, then a low-profile Missouri senator, then a fairly obscure Vice President to a charismatic Chief Executive. Thrust into the spotlight, both Trumans faced an adjustment that was perhaps even more challenging for Bess.

Mamie, however, came to the position with a lifetime’s worth of challenges met and overcome; with expertise that would prove invaluable. In her memoirs, White House seamstress Lillian Rogers Parks comments on how future first ladies might find a balance. She noted, “I hope that the new First Lady won’t overdo it, and try to make every dinner or small tea the greatest of its kind.” “Backstairs, we used to feel sorry for

Mrs. Eisenhower, because she tried so hard,” Parks wrote, “that it sometimes seemed she was trying to make history by outdoing Dolley Madison in the perfection of her entertainment.”152 Lacking formal instructions for the position, many first ladies, including Mamie, relied on an implied understanding of their responsibilities and how to execute those duties.

As the nation’s hostess, Mamie took pride in her position. The Fifties were famously a social era: people gathered together in clubs, associations, organizations, teams. The idea of a hostess was familiar and important. Her patriotic duty and responsibility to the American people was to display the tradition and spectacle of the

White House to the world. More than most first ladies, Mrs. Eisenhower, “adored the pomp and circumstance and grandeur that went along with the nation’s top job, and she

152 Parks, My Thirty Years Backstairs at the White House, 16, 21. “Mamie’s Week,” Time 61, no 5 (February 2, 1953):14.

94 even embellished that, somewhat.” Mamie approved every menu, flowers for each meal, table linens, placemats, place cards, chairs, and the shape of the banquet table. 153 She believed that each guest was to receive “the same royal treatment she demanded for herself.”154

Mamie connected with the public more comfortably in the White House, her own home, where she played hostess to everyone who demanded her attention, and, by media proxy, to the entire country. Through social gatherings and answering correspondence, the first lady approached the American people when she saw fit. On average, Mrs.

Eisenhower received five to six thousand letters each week and with the help of her social secretaries, Ann Parsons and Mary Jane McCaffree, she personally sent replies to hundreds of them. Mamie never used form letters, not even to the public, and she always insisted on signing each note. Unlike many first ladies, Mamie “could relate to anyone, no matter what their level or employment or background or type of personality.”155

Replying to letters when she was available allowed Mamie to continue her association with the public while leaving sufficient time to run her home.

Never evading her duties and always wanting to be seen when greeting guests,

Mrs. Eisenhower used her friendly, mid-western charm to capture the heart of the nation.

Here again, she was canny if not openly cunning. Thirty-five different Army homes meant thirty-five occasions when Mamie had needed to put forth herself and her family in constructed ways. She knew what she was doing. During one of Mamie’s first receptions,

153 West, Upstairs at the White House, 130, 135-136. 154 Parks, My Thirty Years Backstairs at the White House, 34. 155 Ann Parsons and Mary Jane McCaffree Monroe, interviewed by Carol Hegeman, Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, September 22, 1983, transcript, ENHS, Gettysburg, PA.

95 she decided it was important “to look her visitors in the eye as she shook hands” so the

White House carpenters built her a platform to stand on and “to every lady who passed by the receiving line, she had something to say.”156 On one occasion, Mamie had shaken hands with approximately three hundred ladies visiting from Maryland. When the last lady stepped up to shake the first lady’s hand, Mrs. Eisenhower said, “What? You here again?” Apparently the lady had been a White House visitor three weeks prior and she bet her friend the first lady would not recognize her. As Mamie’s social secretary so aptly expressed, Mrs. Ike could “charm monkeys out of trees.”157

To the American people, Mamie was also a homemaker who fit into the conventional cultural norm. There was evidence of a division of labor within the White

House command, but Mamie did not object to her established function.158 Ike and

Mamie’s second son, John, noted that there was a “distinct division of roles” because

“my dad was in charge of the office and Mother never asked questions about the office; she was in charge of her home.”159 In the eyes of the nation, Mamie was a “friendly, outgoing lady, rather like Mrs. Average America, the member of the garden club, the congenial suburban housewife.” Mrs. Eisenhower was anything but average and “she’d never, ever been a suburban housewife.” To the unobserving bystander, Mrs. Ike

“appeared fragile and feminine,” yet “once behind the White House gates…she ruled as if she were Queen.” 160 David Eisenhower recalled Mamie “being one of the finest

156 West, Upstairs at the White House, 135. 157 Ann Parsons and Mary Jane McCaffree, interview. 158 Eisenhower, Mrs. Ike, 277. 159 John S. D. Eisenhower, interview. 160 West, Upstairs at the White House, 131, 132.

96 entertainers the White House ever had. She was a great support in her husband’s career, a motivation.”161

When the Eisenhowers moved into the White House, Mamie had little trouble organizing her belongings and rearranging the rooms to fit the taste of the first couple. A

Time staff writer noticed, “Mamie had to supervise the unpacking of two vanloads of

Eisenhower belongings. There were 25 suitcases and eight plastic garment bags,” but

“after the first few hectic days, the White House was running with the quiet precision of a watchmaker’s convention at a Swiss inn.”162 The White House staff also took note of the new first lady’s take-charge approach. “She needed no period of adjustment to learn

White House routines, no slow introduction to her role as First Lady,” penned J.B. West,

“The small, smiling lady in the curly bangs simply took over.”163

Mamie’s strong will, orderliness, and rigid demand of perfection came from her days as an active army wife, and accurately reflected military virtues and values. It can be noted that logistics – which was an Ike specialty – have always been a prized factor in

American military education and practice. Indeed, D-Day was not just a triumph of martial valor, but of organization. Mamie’s strengths reflected Ike’s. Mamie traveled with her husband to almost every post to which he was assigned. Army life was difficult, restricted, and often lonely. Yet, Mamie embraced this lifestyle because of her husband’s career. “Your life is together in the service. His career is your career. His friends are your

161 David Eisenhower, interviewed by Carol Hegeman, January 20, 1987, transcript, ENHS, Gettysburg, PA. 162 “Mamie’s Week,” Time 61, no 5, February 2, 1953, 14. 163 West, Upstairs at the White House, 131.

97 friends, and their wives make up your circle.”164 “I am an army wife,” Mamie said later in life, “the other things were interims.”165

Mamie used the orderliness, persistence, and resolve she exhibited as an army wife in her role as White House manager. Although these traits were engrained in

Mamie’s character, she most often displayed them when working directly with subordinates. Chief Usher West recalled of the life long military wife, “She knew exactly what she wanted, every moment, and exactly how it should be done.” He noted that she,

“could give orders staccato crisp, detailed, and final, as if it were she who had been a five-star general.”166

Mamie’s military experience provided a solid and unshakable ability to govern with a firm yet genial authority. The White House staff recognized that “underneath that buoyant spirit, there was a spine of steel, forged by years of military discipline.” “As the wife of a career army officer, she understood the hierarchy of a large establishment, the division of responsibilities, and how to direct a staff,” West wrote.167 The president and first lady used the same military chain of command style to assign tasks and communicate with staff members. In most instances, Mrs. Eisenhower would not give direct orders to the maids, because she “knew that people, like soldiers, respond more readily to their next-in-command.” Accustomed to authority and requests resembling demands, the Eisenhowers governed their private affairs with a balance of enjoyable

164 Vivian Cadden, “Mamie Eisenhower Talks About Fifty Years of Marriage,” McCalls, (September 1966): 82. 165 Eisenhower, Mrs. Ike, 250. 166 West, Upstairs at the White House, 130. 167 Ibid.

98 easement and stringent discipline.168 Grandson David Eisenhower remarked of his grandfather, “at times I think that probably staff would consider him hard or a very hard boss… I think what drove people to perform around him was his own performance and his impatience.”169 Mamie also demanded the same perfection and hurried atmosphere; however, she was able to create a balance between her role overseeing her staff and her position as hostess.170

Many White House staffers and employees generally stayed through multiple administrations and learning the idiosyncrasies of each presidential couple often posed a challenge. Lillian Rogers Parks lamented that it was strange “when the First Lady, whom we think of as the complete boss, suddenly goes out the door for the last time.

Immediately we must forget how she and her husband wanted things done…” After encountering so many first ladies, “the cardinal rule at the White House” became never

“tell a new First Lady how her predecessor did things, unless she asks. Each First Lady has her own ideas as to how the White House should be run”171

When the Eisenhowers moved in, Mrs. Eisenhower determined which space in the mansion her staff could occupy. Early in the administration, one of the housemen, George

Thompson, used the elevator in the mansion to move between floors. Mrs. Eisenhower was attempting to leave at the same time but had to wait her turn. When the elevator doors opened, Mr. Thompson received an earful from the first lady; “Never use my elevator again!” and from then on “none of the household staff” used the “family

168 Ibid., 137, 138, 149. 169 David Eisenhower, interview. 170 Parks, My Thirty Years Backstairs at the White House, 315, 318-319. 171 Ibid., 82.

99 elevator,” at least in the presence of the first lady. Mrs. Eisenhower also decreed that the staff was not allowed to receive gratuity from any guest or the First Family, and all household staff was required to address each other by their last name and not a nickname.172 While a few employees complained about Mamie’s habits and directions, most of the mansion’s workforce believed that the “White House was easier to operate during Mrs. Eisenhower’s regime. She knew her own mind, and we appreciated it.” 173

The president and first lady treated all of the White House and Gettysburg staffs with respect and admiration. Although Mamie generally ruled with absolute authority, she trusted the work and discretion of her employees.

After the Eisenhowers purchased their first home in Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, in

1950, Mamie made plans to renovate the house and property. She had little free time to devote to overseeing the construction, so she delegated the job to J.B. West. “I don’t want anybody working up there—decorators, carpenters, anybody—unless either you or I are there,” Mamie told West firmly. Mamie often stationed herself in a room where workers were constructing or installing a piece of the house. It was important to observe and lend a critical eye.174 Ike and Mamie’s grandson David attributed this watchfulness as a feeling of security. “She always posted herself somewhere in the house which would be kind of the center of any activity going on,” he remembered, “She was like my

172 Parks, My Thirty Years Backstairs at the White House, 98; West, Upstairs at the White House, 83, 133. 173 West, Upstairs at the White House, 132, 150. 174 Elisabeth Draper, interviewed by James Roach and Laurie Coughlan, New York, New York, February 21, 1991, transcript, ENHS, Gettysburg, PA.

100 grandfather she just liked company and the sense of being somewhere and knowing everything was under control.”175

Mrs. Eisenhower hired interior designer Elisabeth Draper to design the furnishings for her new home. Draper had previously been hired to decorate the

Eisenhower’s penthouse apartment in New York City when Ike was president of

Columbia University. The first lady took same approach the first lady took at the White

House was employed at her home in Gettysburg; she was in charge of her home and made all final decisions. Mrs. Draper often made suggestions, but these not all were heeded. Mary Jane McCaffree noted that Mrs. Eisenhower always wanted a red dining room. Despite the objection of Mrs. Draper, but Mamie was firm in her decision. “This was what she always wanted and this was what she was going to have, so [Mrs. Draper] tried to make it as attractive as possible” remembered McCaffree.176

Mamie also had a personal relationship with many on her household staff. She was considered very thoughtful and because she took a special interest in the personal lives of the people who worked for her. With the same awareness and respect, many staff members returned the same sentiments. Chief Usher J.B. West described Mamie as “Gay, breezy, open—we all got to know her better than we did any other First Lady because she let us in on almost everything that went on in her life, and she took an interest in everything in ours.”177 Ann Parsons, one of Mamie’s social secretaries, described “the loyalty that both the President and Mrs. Eisenhower had to their former friends and

175 David Eisenhower, interview. 176 Ann Parsons and Mary Jane McCaffree Monroe, interview. 177 West, Upstairs at the White House, 129.

101 employees,” as the reason why the presidential couple was so popular and had so many friends.178

The first lady had long discussions about the domestic staff’s “activities, their families, their homes, their state of health,” and as Mr. West remarked, “she seemed, for a First Lady, to bestow an unusual amount of concern.”179 Mamie presented a gift to each staff member at Christmas and had a special cake made for each member’s birthday. In

1955, when the renovations to their Gettysburg farm were complete, Ike and Mamie hosted a housewarming/anniversary party and invited everyone on the staff at the White

House.180 As first lady, Mamie played hostess to the nation’s guests and to the men and women who served her and her husband. “It was the first time a President had ever entertained like that for all of us,” J.B. West wrote.181 Lillian Rogers Parks echoed the same sentiments, “Mrs. ‘E’ stood on one of the three stone steps, and shook hands with each guest, making us feel very welcome.”182

The staff members in Washington, D.C. and Gettysburg reciprocated the warm feeling the president and first lady shared with them. Lillian Rogers Parks compared working at the White House to “being on a stage, where tragedies and comedies play alternately. And we, the servants of the White House are the supporting cast.” She remembered, “We bit players protected our stars, the President and First Lady, and in no way did we embarrass any member of the cast.”183 Loyalty and mutual respect

178 Ann Parsons and Mary Jane McCaffree Monroe, interview. 179 West, Upstairs at the White House, 150. 180 Ann Parsons and Mary Jane McCaffree Monroe, interview. 181 West, Upstairs at the White House, 164. 182 Parks, My Thirty Years Backstairs at the White House, 320. 183 Ibid., 27.

102 contributed to the lasting, personal relationship shared by the presidential couple and the staff. Along with the nation, the White House group bestowed gifts of appreciation on the presidential family. During the staff picnic in 1955, Ike and Mamie were presented with two folding tables resembling the ones used at the White House and a silver-serving tray.184

Mamie also relied heavily on the White House staff during periods of distress and crisis. On one such occasion early in the morning, Mr. West received a panicked call from the first lady to immediately come to her bedroom once the president left for his office. When he arrived, Mrs. Eisenhower was not in bed and “all over the sheets, covers, pink dust-ruffle, headboard, everything, were big black spots…” Mrs. Eisenhower explained after the housekeeper took the sheets to the laundry room that her nose had been stuffed up all night. “I had a jar of Vicks on my bedside table. So during the night when I woke up, I reached over to put some in my nostrils. Well it seemed to just get drier, instead of moister,” she described. “So I kept applying more and more. I didn’t want to wake up Ike, so I didn’t turn on the light. Then this morning, I discovered I was using ink to cure my cold.” Both the president and first lady were covered with ink and she made the chief usher promise not to tell anyone.185 For a first lady who valued her home and constant perfection in it, she valued the confidence and trust of Mr. West to keep her secret.

Mrs. Eisenhower also relied on the White House staff after the president suffered from a heart attack in September 1955. The Eisenhowers were visiting Mrs. Doud’s home

184 West, Upstairs at the White House, 164. 185 West, Upstairs at the White House, 143-144.

103 in Denver, Colorado, when Ike suffered a moderate coronary thrombosis. When Chief

West arrived at the White House the following day, Mamie called to talk to the staff herself. During the next seven weeks, the first lady called to provide updates on the Ike’s health and to see how the mansion was running without her after she moved into the hospital. She even canceled the social season so she could oversee the President’s daily routine.186 President Eisenhower recovered from the heart attack, but required emergency surgery after a serious attack of ileitis in June 1956. Lillian Rogers Parks recalled the staff “shared all the agonies with her,” and as Mrs. Eisenhower was away from the mansion more frequently, she “spent much time on the phone to the White House, giving us directions. Especially orders to send this and send that.”187

President and Mrs. Eisenhower also revealed their easygoing nature around the staff, particularly in their relationship to one another. West recognized that when the

Eisenhowers “moved from the official, ceremonial world of the Presidency to the private world of their families and close friends,” he continued, “the pomp and circumstance which the Eisenhowers seemed to enjoy and accept as a highly important part of their official roles gave way to a very easy going, informal style of living. They were just

Mamie and Ike at home.”188 The couple was also not shy about displays of anger or affection. Staff members “saw more bits of temperament in both President and Mrs.

Eisenhower than any other presidential couple, but each knew exactly how to soothe and handle the other.”189 Unlike other presidents and first ladies, the Eisenhowers made a

186 Ibid., 165-167. 187 Parks, My Thirty Years Backstairs at the White House, 331-332. 188 West, Upstairs at the White House, 154. 189 Parks, My Thirty Years Backstairs at the White House, 84.

104 recognizably effective team. “As a couple, the Eisenhowers were openly affectionate, unlike the more reserved, though devoted Trumans, or the distant Roosevelts.” It was not uncommon and “perfectly natural for President Eisenhower to reach over and put his arm around ‘Mrs. Ike’ as he called her. Having shared their home life with a staff for many years, they didn’t seem to mind if we observed them holding hands or exchanging a goodbye kiss,” J.B. West observed, “They simply ignored us.”190 Mamie provided balance and softened Ike’s rough edges and “he wouldn’t have had the grace of the

Eisenhower years” without her.191

In the post-White House years, the Eisenhowers became more reliant on their domestic staff in Gettysburg. Sargent John Moaney and his wife Delores helped run the farm when the couple went into retirement. Sgt. Moaney had worked for Ike since World

War Two as a valet, which he continued to do through the White House and retirement years. Delores cooked and occasionally helped clean and dress Mrs. Eisenhower.192 The

Eisenhower’s relationship with the Moaneys was one of friendship and trust. John

Eisenhower recalled that the Moaneys were “really the soul” of the farm.193 Mamie also had the help of her maid, Rose Woods, who assisted Mrs. Eisenhower with laundry and dressing.

There was more of a relaxed atmosphere at the farm. Sgt. Moaney decorated for

Christmas, chose the china, and served the food cooked by Mrs. Moaney. “They treated us just like we were part of their family,” Delores remembered, “We weren’t pushed back

190 West, Upstairs at the White House, 136-137. 191 David Eisenhower, interview. 192 John S. D. Eisenhower, interview. 193 Delores Moaney, interviewed by Carol Hegeman, Washington, D.C., January 26, 1999, transcript, ENHS, Gettysburg, PA.

105 in the back or neglected.” Mamie never forgot either birthday and there would always be a celebration thrown by the Eisenhowers for their staff members. The Moaneys also accompanied the Eisenhowers on all their trips. Dolores Moaney told interviewer, Carol

Hegeman, “We went everywhere they went and we slept in the rooms right next to them.” The Moaneys were African American and Delores was frequently asked how they were treated and she replied, “we were treated just like they were treated.”194 The majority of the staff members at the White House and at the Gettysburg farm were white.

Ike and Mamie never saw the Moaneys as inferior in the age of segregation and specifically brought the couple on trips to show them hospitality and respect. The

Eisenhowers did not flaunt their ideas of racial equality because their actions made a deeper impression. In 1957, Eisenhower proposed the first Civil Rights Act since

Reconstruction which established the Civil Rights Commission and ruling against any interferences with the right to vote.

When Dwight and Mamie Eisenhower came to the White House they brought their military practices and organization. Mamie employed strict policies and demanded perfection in everything she oversaw. She also relied on the staff for support as the nation’s hostess and to ensure that her home was always comfortable for Ike. She maintained an authoritative influence and reflected the same balance of control and ease as her husband. Over the years, Mamie developed close relationships with many of the

White House staff members and in return they offered friendship and encouragement.

Overall, the presidential couple’s White House experience can be summarized by West,

“Whether at Gettysburg, Camp David, or at home in the White House, it always seemed

194 Ibid.

106 to us that President Eisenhower had everything under tight control, and that Mrs.

Eisenhower’s ‘taut ship’ approach to directing activities in the Executive Mansion only reflected the way the General ran the presidency.”195

195 West, Upstairs at the White House, 164.

Chapter 5:

“A Number One Housewife and Hostess”

In March 1953, nine-year-old Carol Warner wrote to Mamie Eisenhower asking for a souvenir and describing her role portraying the First Lady in a production sponsored by the Junior Women’s League of the Reformed Church in South Bound Brook, New

Jersey. The Junior Women’s League created a mock wedding between President and Mrs.

Eisenhower to raise money for the American Cancer Society, of which Mamie

Eisenhower was an honorary chair. Mamie was delighted at the thought of Carol’s portrayal and she courteously sent the young girl a handwritten note and handkerchief smelling of the First Lady’s perfume. “Carol carried her treasured possession at the first performance of the ‘wedding,” debuting in late April. In order to raise further funds,

Mamie attended the performance along with the Secretary of State, Secretary of the

Treasury, Secretary of Commerce, Secretary of Labor, several ambassadors, and the Vice

President and Mrs. Nixon. This adolescent play marked another instance when the First

Lady of the nation coerced men and women of influence to bend to her political leanings.

Most of these individuals served at the pleasure of the president, however, they also looked to Mrs. Eisenhower for her stimulus in the political field. Although Mamie was an honorary chair of the American Cancer Society, she still maintained enough sway to call attention to the cause. Having lawmakers and political stalwarts attend a simple play demonstrated her power over even the straight-laced of politicians. Mamie did not

108 directly shout out her appreciation for a cause, but her invitation often spoke louder than words.196

One of the most important aspects of Mamie Eisenhower’s residency in the White

House was her subtle way of including politics in non-political situations. Mamie was clear that she did not weigh in on political decisions nor did she give political speeches, however her actions contradicted her non-verbal response. Mamie enjoyed her time as

First Lady and she relished in meeting new people and entertaining anyone from a local union worker to an infamous ruler. Mamie was able to make people comfortable and her demeanor was always one of friendliness and candor. Understanding that people looked to her to catch the ear of the president, Mamie took the time to listen and respond to those who wrote and visited. Mamie welcomed students, politicians, friends, unions, civic and service organizations, and anyone who wanted to take the time to shake her hand.

Frequently, visitors wanted to simply meet Mrs. Eisenhower as she was more available and approachable than other politicians, and even the president.

Mamie’s sally into her new position as First Lady was much anticipated by the

American people. Years of war, and to some extent First Lady Bess Truman, left the

White House without a rousing social schedule and much needed energy. Mrs.

Eisenhower proved herself to be charismatic on the campaign trail, so her introduction as the nation’s new hostess only exceeded expectations. “The White House is putting the white tie plank back into the social platform with a return official to the good old peacetime programs of 9pm galas and 8pm dinners at 1500 Pennsylvania avenue.” What

196 “First Lady to Attend Premier: Mock Wedding is Serious Business,” newspaper clipping, April 29, 1953, MDE Scrapbook, 1952-1953, M-108, #13139, EL.

109 was noted as most impressive about Mamie was her ability to entertain world monarchs and the average person, making everyone feel welcome. Mrs. Dorothy McCardle of the

Washington Post, praised the First Lady for her affability, proclaiming Mrs. Ike, as “No.

1 Hostess.” “Mrs. Dwight D. Eisenhower is gaining the title [number one hostess] because of the graciousness and obvious relish with which she has plunged into receiving and inviting Mr. and Mrs. and Miss America to the White House.”197 Even noting

Mamie’s own opinion on her new position, it was not uncommon for reporters to state,

“the call of duty as the wife of the President of the United States to Mrs. Eisenhower has been to be A number one housewife and hostess.” Jokingly underplaying her role, Mamie frequently chortled, “I have been a housewife in every possible type of house except an igloo.”198

After Ike’s first six months in office most reporters posted on his accomplishments and reflected on his performance to date. Mamie also received a report card with glowing reviews. “Reporters have been writing summaries…and Mrs.

Eisenhower’s first six months as Frist Lady add up to a noteworthy devotion to the job.”

Columnist Bess Furman expressed, “few First Ladies have reached out to the people in a more folksy fashion than has Mamie Eisenhower…She has shaken hands with visitors to a sum total that would be amazing if anybody counted.” What set Mamie apart was her ability to make everyone she met feel like a friend. She was genial in a way that exuded

197 Dorothy McCardle, “Is the First Lady Taking Over That No. 1 Hostess Title?” Washington Post, February 15, 1953. 198 Elizabeth Ford, “Society: White House Galas Will Bring Out White Ties,” Times- Herald, Washington, D.C., October 4, 1953; Marie McNair, “White House Social Season Open,” newspaper clipping, MDE Scrapbook, 1952-1953, M-108, #13139, EL; “Mrs. Eisenhower Has Biggest Hostess Job,” newspaper clipping, MDE Scrapbook, 1952-1953, M-108, #13139, EL.

110 comfort and approachability. “She was never at a loss for conversation with White House visitors…and she has given strong indication that she probably will be remembered longest, not for the gay smile she gives humanity in the mass, but for thoughtfully ‘going out of her way’ to bring the White House to individuals.” Mamie understood the

American people deserved to see, her home and she wanted to make them feel at ease in her presence.199

The First Lady was also credited with a keen memory that only added to her clear devotion to her job as hostess. One reporter recounted a story of a woman who visited the

White House once and then made a bet with a friend that Mamie would not recognize her when she visited the White House again with the Society of Sponsors of Navy Ships. To the woman’s surprise, Mamie greeted her with a warm, “Nice to see you again.” Mamie’s hospitality and pleasantness extended to everyone and it did not go unnoticed. Even while out representing the President, Mamie’s memory was put to the test. “At West Point earlier this week, she was able to call by their first names many Army officers and their wives she had not seen in a number of years. Nothing could have been more flattering to the persons whose names were called, as it seemed, out of the blue.”200 Mamie’s enhanced memory only made her more of an asset for the Eisenhower White House.

As many politicians understand, a good handshake can sway a potential supporter’s opinion. Just like any public figure, Mamie also understood the power of shanking a person’s hand; exuding respect and equality. Betty Beale, reporter for the

199 Bess Furman, “First Lady’s Hospitality Wins Many Friends,” Boston Herald, August 8, 1953. 200 Bess Furman, “Folksy’ Air Marks First Lady’s Rule,” New York Times, August 9, 1953. Merriman Smith, “Remembering Names Easy For Mamie,” newspaper clipping, MDE Scrapbook, 1952-1953, M-108, #13139, EL.

111

Washington Post, specifically noticed the First Lady’s handshake, “Mamie doesn’t shake hands as though she’s eager to get over with it. As a matter of fact, she prolongs it. For the first time since anyone in Washington can remember, here is a First Lady who refuses to give the recognized, accepted, ‘White House handshake.’” Previous hostesses shook hands then pushed the “person aside in one gesture.” “But, Mrs. Eisenhower offers a firm grasp—which may be the reason her hand doesn’t get sore—looks directly into the person’s eyes and says something nice and chatty.” The individual attention Mamie delivered made her appear more approachable and those who shook her hand genuinely felt befriended by the First Lady. In a 1955 comic strip of “The Girls,” a group of well- dressed women are seated in a meeting-like setting with one woman standing and addressing the crowd. The quote at the bottom says, “I might be able to get Mrs.

Eisenhower to come. I shook hands with her two years ago.” This cartoon by Franklin

Folger insinuates Mamie attending a function held by this group and reflects the friendliness of the First Lady and her willingness to connect with the average

American.201 The Kansas City Star reported in 1953, Mamie had “shaken hands with an average of 600 to 700 persons daily, six days a week ever since she has been in the White

House. She has been there, as of today, fifteen weeks…” At that point in May, Mamie had personally greeted around 63,000 visitors.202

In a 1954 “close-up” on Mamie’s role in the White House, Parade, focused on her love of the job. Being hostess to the nation required time, patience, commitment, a reliable memory, and charm. Without a doubt, Mamie demonstrated each of these

201 Franklin Folger, “The Girls,” cartoon, 1955. 202 Betty Beale, “Mamie Thrives on Greeting People,” Kansas City Star, May 6, 1953.

112 characteristics and it was not only visitors who noticed. The American press often wrote about Mamie’s remarkable achievement of shaking hands with hundreds of people and having the charisma to invent small talk with anyone who crossed her path. This role was not seen as a burden to the First Lady, but a privilege and honor. During a meet and greet with the women of the American-Korean Relief Fund, Mamie “obviously enjoyed herself. She shook hands firmly. Some got an extra squeeze; for added emphasis she clasped others with both hands. Friends who bypassed the line rather than take up her time were thrown an engaging wink.” Making people feel noticed and appreciated was an important part of Mamie’s charm. No matter how many people she met, she made each person feel special. “Shaking hands doesn’t bother me one bit,” Mrs. Eisenhower noted, the good part, relayed Parade, is that “the First Lady can shake up to 4,000 hands without a breather and yet not look a bit wilted. She can stand for hours, too, thanks to an extra square of carpet and solid Cuban heels. Sometimes when she’s utterly exhausted, she’ll catch a glimpse of a waiting crowd of handshakers and perk up instantly. People are the stimulus that keeps Mamie clicking—and happy—in one of the most demanding jobs a woman can fill.”203

Mamie’s job was demanding, yet she gladly accepted the post. The press also noticed the hard work the First Lady embraced and that it was above and beyond not only what a normal day would look like for a housewife, but that Mamie was surpassing previous first ladies in the number of hosted events and visitors greeted. Daisy Cleland reported in the Washington, D.C. Evening Star, “one look at a normal day for Mrs.

203 Mary Van Rensselaer Thayer, “Mamie Eisenhower Loves Her Job,” Parade (July 4, 1954): 9-10.

113

Eisenhower would send most house wives into a state of complete exhaustion.” Mamie held “the biggest housekeeping job in the Government…with no salary.” Yet, Mamie accepted her role without complaint because she “has been one of the most well-trained

President’s wives ever to enter the White House.”204 Mamie did not see housekeeping as chore, but as a way to make her home presentable for everyone who visited. To Mamie, there was no distinction between housewife and hostess. She saw her position as one of importance and a way she could serve her husband and the people who admired him. “It’s understood that the First Lady is determined to ‘shake as many hands as she possibly can.’ And not merely because these are the hands of the women of America who cast their overwhelming vote for her husband,” reported Dorothy McCardle, “But chiefly because Mamie Eisenhower has very definite ideas about a woman’s place at the White

House and that’s where she can greet all the American people who want to meet the wife of the President.”205

The Eisenhowers regularly entertained government officials, heads of state, diplomats, and members of both political parties. It was important for the President and

First Lady to connect with the people who worked with them in a semi-relaxed fashion to ensure comfort, yet remain respectful and business orientated. In the first few months

Mamie played hostess to the Diplomatic Corps, the Supreme Court, officials from the

Treasury, Post Office, Interior, Agriculture, Commerce and Labor Departments. The Vice

President also received his own honorary dinner and the largest reception was intended to honor the Army and Navy. At first, Mamie admitted that such a hectic schedule was

204 Daisy Cleland, “Mrs. Eisenhower Again May Face Biggest Hostess Job,” The Evening Star, Washington, D.C., February 20, 1956. 205 McCardle, “Is the First Lady Taking Over That No. 1 Hostess Title.”

114

“pretty concentrated…it makes me feel a little weary,” but “as she told the newsgals that there were no difficulties and she was actually looking forward to everything.”206

According to official White House social records, the Eisehowers hosted 1,372 members of the cabinet, supreme court, diplomatic corps, and special speakers from 1952-1957 with a year off between 1955-1956 due to President Eisenhower’s heart attack.207

Not everyone in Washington was a fan of the First Lady’s methods of hosting. A dominant precedent was already established by previous presidents’ wives as to who is invited to an event or who is allowed to pour tea. Although Mamie was completely refined and understood strict protocol, she often deviated from what was expected by

Washington elite and provided her own sense of charm or mixed up a guest list as she pleased. In “Today in Society,” the religiously ready section of D.C.’s Evening Star,

Betty Beale described the shock the ladies of the Daughters of the American Revolution experienced when each lady was not given the opportunity to “impress listeners,” by casually mentioning “some prominent hostess’ house at which they have been asked to pour tea,” including at the White House. Mamie may not have realized it, but she may have “revolutionized a social institution as firmly planted on the American scene as the

DARs themselves.” But if these specially chosen women were no longer asked by the

First Lady to do the honors, then who was? As Mrs. Beale reports, “who assisted Mamie last week when clad in a cocoa lace dress and matching satin shoes she received the wives of ambassadors?—Two butlers! Ach, that’s right! No women were seated pouring, in fact no one was seated at all. A butler standing at each end of the table filled the cups

206 McNair, “White House Social Season Opens.” 207 “State Dinners” White House Social Office, (hereafter WHSO) A.B. Tolley: Records, 1952-1961, EL.

115 with an efficiency hitherto unknown.” With astonishment, women read, “the First Lady has struck a moral wound at the very core of the Capital’s corps of cup-fillers.”208

Ike and Mamie also broke the mold when inviting their own friends to play cards and have dinner instead of the Washington elite. Cholly Knickerbocker reports in the

New York Journal, “Washington cave dwellers don’t like Ike, no siree. In fact, they’re even mad at Mamie.” What caused this unhappiness? “So burned up is the Old Guard over what it considers an unpardonable snub by the Chief Executive and his lady that smoke signals of discontent are rolling up from the banks of the Potomac…When the

Eisenhowers came to Washington the old-timers felt that carte blanche to the White

House was theirs without question.” The couple “confined their White House entertaining to their old friends, leaving the long-term Washington residents to file and forget their calling cards.” Some “conscientious GOP-ers” said they even had it better socially “under

FDR and Truman.” But Knickerbocker reminded her readers, “they should know that

Ike’s rise to the top never included social climbing.”209

Mamie prided herself on her ability to manage the White House with precision and efficiency. Her morning routine of approving menus, guest lists, and correspondence continued throughout her tenure without fail. Mamie also found it crucial for her guests and her husband to feel at home. Reminiscent of her years running “Club Eisenhower” while Ike was stationed all over the world, Mamie used the resources she had to welcome guests into whatever place the Eisenhowers called home at the time. At the White House,

208 Betty Beale, “Exclusively Yours: Mamie Discourages Pourers,” The Evening Star, Washington, D.C., February 17, 1956. 209 Cholly Knickerbocker, “Smart Set: Eisenhowers Irk Capital Society,” New York Journal-American November 26, 1954.

116 she earned the title “First Hostess,” because “of the amazing flair she has for making the humblest stranger feel as if she placed that White House latchstring out especially for him or her.” In order for Mamie to properly manage her household, she maintained that although a property may be temporary, it was still her home and she treated it as a possession. Mamie was a gracious hostess to all her guests, however, she denoted those who were closest, by personal or political means, by a special invitation. “At 11am on

Mondays—a day when the White House is normally closed for the usual 10-12 sightseeing tour—the First Lady has held informal ‘at homes.’”210 These informal meetings were a way for Mamie to connect with certain groups or individuals on a more personal basis. She dictated who received these special invitations and how long they were permitted to stay.

Each day Mamie addressed her staff and meticulously went over every possible detail of an upcoming event. While meeting with her social secretary, Mary Jane

McCaffree, Mamie noted the date and time, which type of invitation someone should receive, which entrance should be used, and the guest list. From day one, a log was kept with all of Mamie’s instructions along with the number of guests who actually attended the event. Although Mamie generally saw nearly every organization who requested to meet her, she did decide on the amount of her own time she would dedicate to shaking hands and making small talk. Hundreds of people filed by the First Lady in a matter of minutes. To see Mamie’s hidden-hand approach, it becomes imperative to look at the docket of events and who was allotted more time than others, which organization was invited back, and if Mamie graced her visitors with more than just a handshake and her

210 McCardle, “Is the First Lady Taking Over that No. 1 Hostess Title?.”

117 signature smile. Some “At Home” invitations also included the President if he was available or the event was particularly important.

From the beginning of her administration in the White House, Mamie made time to visit with many people, especially children. On Monday, February 16, 1953, “Mrs.

Eisenhower was photographed on the North Portico with Mrs. Roy F. Layton, National

President of the Girl Scouts of the U.S.A., and two Girl Scouts representing their national group. This was in connection with the investiture ceremony making Mrs. Eisenhower

Honorary President of the Girl Scouts.” Although it was traditional for the First Lady to be made Honorary President, beginning with Edith Wilson, it made an impact on the organization having an advocate in the White House.

In Mamie Eisenhower’s White House, everything went according to her plan.

Orders designated from the first lady needed to be followed efficiently and promptly.

Mrs. Ike’s command of the household was flawless and directions on which White House entrance to use, how the tables should align, the guest list, the particular flower arrangement for the tables and the set of china needing set was only affirmed after the flourishing signature of the First Lady was seen on the final memorandum. In a February

1953 memo to Mr. A.B. Tolley, Chief Calligrapher of the White House Office, Chief

Usher Crim notes the White House must be closed to visitors at specified times so “one half-hour should be devoted to showing the ladies the White House prior to their reception by Mrs. Eisenhower…they are invited by way of the East Entrance. They see the East Gardens as they pass through the Ground Floor corridor, they also see the

Ground Floor of the White House, the East Room, passing through the Green Room, the

Blue Room, the Red Room, and the State Dining Room.” Visitors loved touring the

118

White House before receptions with the President and First Lady and it was a very strict rule for “heavy traffic at the Northwest gate through which all the President’s appointments are fed, it has never deemed practical during daytime hours to invite other than guests for meals with the President and Mrs. Eisenhower through that point of admission…better to have guests invited for receptions only through the East

Entrance.”211

The guest lists approved by the First Lady explain more about her own politics due to her purposeful public silence. However, at home, she appeared more outgoing and comfortable entertaining her guests, making any type of political interaction feel at ease rather than hostile or coercive. Not all invitations were politically motived and not all conversations were politically charged, however, it was public knowledge who visited the

White House and was often reported on by major and minor news outlets. Mamie was also clear which individuals received a coveted “at home” invitation instead of a less familiar “White House” notice. Like many first ladies before her, it was tradition to host a special garden party for disabled veterans. According to A.B. Tolley, “the date is usually near the end of May or the early part of June so the Weather will be warm enough for a garden party. Because of wheelchair patients it is not possible to hold this party inside the

White House.” The planning for this May event began February 5, 1953 with a memorandum sent to Mrs. Mary Jane McCaffree, Mrs. Eisenhower’s social secretary.

Approximately 1,000 “hospitalized veterans from the government hospitals in

Washington” were invited in addition to “the Vice President, Mrs. Woodrow Wilson, the

211 H.G. Crim to A.B. Tolley, February 11, 1953, The White House, Mary Jane McCaffree Papers, 1953-1969, EL.

119

Cabinet, Chief of each branch of the military service, certain officials of the Veterans

Administration and recognized veterans organizations submitted by the VA.” To honor each guest, an “at home” invitation was sent to each invitee and it was made clear all invitations were “non transferable.”212

Other “at home” invitations were extended to political allies, personal friends, certain women journalists, family, old military acquaints, few civic organizations, and occasionally children. Mamie scheduled more time for her “at home” guests and frequently hosted a luncheon or tea in their honor. Examples include a luncheon for

White House staff wives,” tea for the “Colonial Dames of America-Chapter 111,” tea for the “Women’s City Club of Washington,” tea for the American Newspaper Women’s

Club, “tea for the members of the White House Spanish-Portuguese Study Group,” and tea for the “Columbian Women of George Washington University,” to name only a few.

Most of these special invitations were for women of influence. Although Mamie was not out on the campaign trail or speaking publicly about the Republican agenda or her husband’s politics, the attention she paid to select groups spoke volumes without the use of words.213

The White House Social Log was kept by the Chief Usher and checked by Mary

Jane McCaffree, Mrs. Eisenhower’s Social Secretary. The log records the date, time, guests, reason for the visit, number of invitations sent, and number of guests in attendance. Although these notes are not long in length, the information is valuable in

212 A.B. Tolley to Mary Jane McCaffree, February 5, 1953, The White House, MJM Papers, EL; Invitation to Veterans Garden Party at the White House, May 27, 1953, MJM Papers, EL. 213 White House Social Log, MJM Papers, EL.

120 determining which groups were allowed access to Mrs. Eisenhower and how long they were allowed to be in her company. Understandably, given the compact nature of Mrs.

Ike’s schedule, she did not have the ability to grant each person multiple minutes, however, she did approve the time table as to which organizations were pushed through more quickly and even if she and/or the president would actually be present when guests were at the White House.

Mamie always wanted to be recognized as a conscientious hostess, making time for anyone who wanted to meet her. Within the White House social log, there is no indication a group of people were turned away from approaching Mrs. Eisenhower, however those who did meet her were only allotted a certain amount of time approved by the First Lady. Often, the number of attendees in a group did not dictate the number of minutes, but the organization. At 12:15 p.m. on April 30, 1953, Mamie shook hands with

53 students from Hamilton Junior High School in Baltimore, Maryland, for five minutes.

Immediately afterward, she welcomed 22 seniors from Gamewell High School in Lenoir,

North Carolina., for five minutes, with the log specifically noting the presence of “Miss

Barbara Moore, a victim of infantile paralysis.” At 12:30 Mamie received 210 members of the Woman’s Eastern Shore Society of Maryland, and at 12:45 she shook hands with

100 members of the Women’s Auxiliary, American Institute of Mining and Metallurgical

Engineers. By 1:00 p.m., Mamie stood to receive 56 members of the Women’s

Republican Club of Middlesex County, N.J.214

Mamie’s hectic schedule also required her to miss opportunities to play hostess at home, while she attended other functions for the public. For a luncheon set for May 13,

214 White House Social Log, Thursday, April 30, 1953, WHSO, Box 6, EL.

121

1953, Mrs. Eisenhower received a group of 11 ladies, but “did not remain for luncheon because of an outside luncheon engagement.” In April 1954, 11,500 people attended the annual Easter Egg Roll but “the President and Mrs. Eisenhower were in Augusta,

Georgia.”215

As a “hidden-hand” politician herself, Mamie understood the importance of making time for women’s organizations specifically organized because of a man’s job.

Although each of these women had the ability to vote, many women held sway with their husbands and encouraged them to like Ike, too. On May 4, 1953, Mamie spent thirty minutes with 186 of the ladies attending the Triennial Convention of B’nai B’rith; fifteen minutes with 112 of the wives of members of the Maryland, Delaware, and District of

Columbia Jewelers’ Association; and fifteen minutes with 138 of the wives of members of the National Small Business Men’s association.216 Her notice of other women’s groups focused on men’s careers included the wives of members of the American Academy of

Dental Medicine, wives of officials of the American Bankers’ Association, “ladies of the

Supreme Council of the Scottish Rite (wives of 33rd degree Masons),” wives of members of the United Association of Pipefitters, and wives of the governing Board of Directors of the National Rifle Association of America. 217

Other meet and greet opportunities also came when Mamie was honored with a gift as recognition of her role, generosity, championing certain causes, or just because she

215 White House Social Log, May 13, 1953, WHSO, Box 7, EL; White House Social Log, April 18, 1954, EL. 216 White House Social Log, May 4, 1953, WHSO, Box 5, EL. 217 White House Social Log, June 26, 1953, WHSO, Box 9, EL.; White House Social Log, September 22, 1953, WHSO, Box 13, EL; White House Social Log, October 22, 1953, WHSO, Box 16, EL; White House Social Log, January 19, 1954 WHSO, Box 24, EL; White House Social Log, March 30, 1954, WHSO, Box 28, EL.

122 was so friendly. In May 1953, “received and was photographed with 8 members of the

American Federation of Hosiery Workers, AFL, including Mr. Alexander McKeown,

General President and Mr. Fred G. Held, 1st Vice President, in connection with their designation of Mrs. E. as their ‘Mother of the Year’ and a gift of hosiery.” Likewise in

June 1953, “Mrs. Eisenhower was photographed with Mr. H.H. Windsor, Jr., publisher of

Popular Mechanics, who presented a painting of the President done by Mr. Robert

Korta.”218

According to the social log in March 1953, Mamie made more time for women’s organizations such as the Women’s Medical College of Pennsylvania, the officers and leaders of the National Federation of Business and Professional Women’s Club, the members of the Women’s Group of the American Savings and Loan Institute, “a group of ladies visiting Washington under the auspices of Federation of Women’s Clubs of

Greater Cleveland,” Saxton Women’s Club. Other guests provide examples of the First

Lady’s true political intentions. In March 1953, “Mrs. Eisenhower received the current staff of the Republican National Committee,” with 164 members in attendance. She also entertained 40 members of the National Women’s Advisory Committee of the Federal

Civil Defense Administration, and the Board of Directors of the National Federation of

Republican Women. 219

Mamie understood the necessity of being a good hostess to everyone, but her dedication to her husband’s politics was also evident in certain invitations. A tea was

218 White House Social Log, May 2, 1953, WHSO, Box 7, EL; White House Social Log, June 30, 1953, WHSO, Box 12, EL. 219 White House Social Log, October 6, 1953, WHSO, Box 15, EL; White House Social Log, October 15, 1953, WHSO, Box 15, EL; White House Social Log, October 21, 1953, WHSO, Box 16, EL; White House Social Log, January 19, 1954, WHSO, Box 24, EL.

123 arranged for “Republican Women in the metropolitan area” and luncheon for “women delegates to the United Nations,” 259 members of the American Newspaper Women’s

Club, and 134 ladies of the Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers.220 She also provided special “at home” invitations to the members of the Society of the

Covenant, National Presbyterian Church, the American Association of University

Women, 213 members of the Board of Directors of the General Foundation of Women’s

Clubs and the wives of Ambassadors from South American countries. 221

Mrs. Eisenhower also made time to speak to members of organizations that maintained everyday order for citizens all over the United States. She recognized the need for these groups and made them feel as welcome as visiting generals, ambassadors, wealthy businessmen, and kings. A few of these organizations included the Association of Highway Officials of the North Atlantic States, District of Columbia Library

Association, Armed Services Hospital Committee, National Federation of Settlements and Neighborhood Centers, and members of the Salvation Army Auxiliary of D.C. 222

Although many presidents and first ladies hosted dignitaries and crowned heads from around the world, unlike many predecessors, the Eisenhowers did not show counterfeit emotion or express unnecessary adulation. Genuine charm and evenhandedness won over their supporters. Even “Fraulein Lotte Adenauer, daughter of the German Chancellor, went to tea with Mrs. Eisenhower well instructed that it was

220 White House Social Log, October 19, 1953, WHSO, Box 16, EL; White House Social Log, May 6, 1954, WHSO, Box 31, EL. 221 White House Social Log, February 11, 1954, WHSO, Box 26, EL. 222 White House Social Log, March 11, 1954, WHSO, Box 27, EL; White House Social Log, January 14, 1954, WHSO, Box 23, EL; White House Social Log, March 2, 1954, WHSO, Box 27, EL; White House Social Log, April 17, 1958, WHSO, Box 71, EL.

124 protocol to leave in half an hour. Falling under Mrs. Eisenhower’s spell, she stayed almost an hour…” and “just as President Eisenhower has managed to ‘break-bread’ with all members of Congress, Mrs. Eisenhower has extended White House hospitality to all the Congressional wives.223

Known for the love she doted on her grandchildren, many teachers also requested an audience with the first lady. In June 1953, Mrs. Eisenhower invited eight children to travel from the Athens County, Ohio, Children’s Home to visit her and she welcomed five groups of fifth and sixth graders from a and a “tiny mountain school in Walkersville,

W.V.… “town listed as having a population of 150” and “100 girls attending fashionable

Holton Arms in Washington.” Answering questions from a Kansas City Star reporter,

“Mrs. Louis K. Kaiser, teacher at the Hamilton junior high school in Baltimore, got an appointment for sixty-seven students, simply by writing Mrs. Eisenhower to ask if she

‘could spare a few minutes to talk.’” Mamie whole-heartedly greeted the students and heard of the “student election” at Hamilton that voted Eisenhower 1,600 to 75.224 One of the most powerful ladies in the world was willing to make time for children, no matter their background, and to welcome them into her home.

The Eisenhower official meals were also planned down to the last detail by both

President and Mrs. Eisenhower. Often Mamie worked with Ike to set the guest list for his

“stag” luncheon and dinners, and she was always present during business dinners as well.

President Eisenhower met with many senators, representatives, the Supreme Court, governors, National Security Council consultants, his West Point classmates, and

223 Bess Furman, “’Folksy’ Air Marks First Lady’s Rule.” 224 “Children Get Welcoming Hand from Mamie at White House,” newspaper clipping from the Kansas City Star, MDE Scrapbook 1952-1953, M-108, #13139, EL.

125 occasionally HRHs alone over a meal. Frequently, Mrs. Eisenhower entertained alone during tea and lunch so she could meet her friends and meet with wives of senators and representatives, wives of world leaders, and other groups of national influence. In 1953 alone, Mamie had tea with Mrs. Anthony Eden, Countess of Avon, Madame Chiang Kai-

Shek, Mexico and Chile Ambassadors and wives, wife of French politician, Georges

Bidault, and members of the American Newspaper Women’s Club. Mamie also entertained the women behind the men of her husband’s administration and held a luncheon for the cabinet wives.225 Traditionally, it was also important for the first lady to entertain the wives of senators and vice versa, to show goodwill and cooperation. “Before

1953, the cost of the picnic luncheon was almost shared by each of the cabinet ladies. In other words, it was a luncheon given by the First Lady and the wives of the Cabinet members.” However, “in 1953, the First Lady decided to invite only the members of the

Red Cross Senate group, without the Cabinet ladies. Entire expense born by her.” For reasons unrecorded in the log, Mamie decided not to invite the Cabinet ladies to this particular lunch, most likely because she hosted them with Mrs. Nixon several months earlier. It may also be that these particular women in the Red Cross Senate group were closer friends, and wives of members of the Republican majority. 226

Mamie Eisenhower took great pride in her role as hostess and housewife. To her, her position of hostess demanded that her home be kept to the highest standard and as the ultimate keeper of the White House, her priority was to see that it ran efficiently and to her every specification. When Mrs. Eisenhower first visited the White House upon the

225 White House Social Log Index. “Mrs. Eisenhower Entertains Cabinet Wives at Luncheon,” Times Herald February 11, 1953. 226 White House Social Log, May 8, 1956, WHSO, Box 55, EL.

126 invitation of Mrs. Truman, the New York Herald Tribune provided readers with a brief background on the executive mansion and how Mrs. Ike liked the house. “She told Mrs.

Truman she was especially pleased with the solarium and the playroom, both on the third floor. The playroom, a circular room with space for large toys, was of particular interest to Mrs. Eisenhower because she hopes her three grandchildren will visit her often.” And noting the kitchen, “one of the places many housewives would have looked over first…Mrs. Eisenhower did not see, but anyone who has seen it can readily assure her she has nothing to worry about there.” In a brief statement from Mamie about the tour, she said, “all housewives talk the same language,” when referring to her conversations with

Mrs. Truman.

Although media outlets often noted Mamie as the ultimate housewife for her managerial skills, a few White House staff members did not always find truth in the title.

White House seamstress, Lilian Rogers Parks, mentioned in her memoir, “I used to smile when I would read, ‘Mamie is such a good housekeeper,’ because I knew that, though the rug might be swept clean of footprints, back in the corners the dust was collecting.” The

White House housekeeper was kept to a specific regimen to keep the rugs as clean as possible. After Parks left the White House she recalled, “But Mrs. Eisenhower wanted the feeling of really running her White House, and for us, permission had to be granted for every little thing. For some reason, if the rugs were swept clean of footprints, she had a feeling that the house was sparking clean.” Apparently this was so ingrained into

127 everyone’s psyche, “everyone became so rug-conscious, that even the police, Secret

Service men, and ushers would step around the rugs.” 227

Mamie Eisenhower spent eight years publically devoted to welcoming people into her home. Unlike Eleanor Roosevelt, who was frequently absent from home, or Bess

Truman, who preferred privacy, Mamie shined in a way that dazzled the American people and media. Shyness never appeared as one of her dominant character traits and her apt conversations with politicians, White House visitors, luncheon guests, dignitaries, and the average person proved her ability to charm, carefully listen, and befriend anyone.

People wanted to be near her because she exuded charisma and sincerity. Mamie prided herself in her position as housewife and hostess just as she prided herself in her role as

Ike’s wife.

227 “Meeting at the White House,” New York Herald Tribune, December 2, 1952; Park, Backstairs at the White House, 322-323.

Chapter 6:

Mrs. Eisenhower Goes Shopping

On May 25, 1955, First Lady Mamie Eisenhower, “giving the museum what was probably its biggest moment in American history since President James A. Garfield’s inaugural ball was held there in 1881,” flipped the switch revealing the Smithsonian

Institution’s newly designed First Ladies Hall. There to be seen by all visitors was

Mamie’s pink pois-de-soie inaugural gown and “the gowns of all the other First Ladies from the time of Martha Washington in specially constructed cases that look like rooms of the White House.” Five hundred guests were on hand to see the spectacle as the

Marine Corps band played. Among the guests was designer, Nettie Rosenstein, who created Mrs. Eisenhower’s gown, and Laurence Gouverneur Hoes, son of the exhibit’s founding collector. “Like all of the mannequins used for the costume display, the figure representing Mrs. Eisenhower has facial features copied from the bust of Cordelia, daughter of Shakespeare’s ‘King Lear.” Each mannequin was distinguished by specific facial and hair features with Mamie’s sporting her signature hair-do. The mannequins were also sculpted to size for each dress to fit perfectly. Cornered by a reporter, President

Eisenhower “said that of all the gowns he like the best ‘that one of Mrs. McKinley with the high neck.” “He said he’s old enough to be ‘old fashioned.’” The American public has long since shown fascination with clothing worn by the nation’s first ladies. Many

128 first ladies were considered fashion experts, while others were politely appeased with compliments as they showed little interest in their wardrobes.228

Fashion played a major role in Mamie’s expression of her values as a modest homemaker and wife of the president. Always wanting to look her best, Mamie chose each outfit with care because she believed that clothing was an embodiment of a person’s character.229 As first lady, Mamie officially represented the character of the United States and she expressed her views through the clothing she wore. Although she did wear the latest trends from New York and Paris, like most American women, Mamie found bargains at J.C. Penny and in mail order catalogs. To the American people, and specifically to American women, Mamie was known for her friendly smile, her small stylish hats, and her short bangs. Newspapers and magazines printed and reprinted stories about Mamie’s wardrobe. Politicians, events, and even official White House activities took a backseat to Mamie’s ensembles. One reason this is important to remember is that the image of Mamie as fashion trend-setter was, like that of Eisenhower as a decisive if subtle leader, dimmed by the blinding glow of the John and Jackie Kennedy and their

Camelot era. They were young and glamorous; the Eisenhowers seemed to belong to yesterday, and it became fashionable – although inaccurate – to portray Mamie as dowdy in order to stress the glamor of Jackie. But that mistaken historical memory glosses over years in which Mamie Eisenhower was at the forefront of American women’s fashion.

The 1950s was also a new era in fashion. Over the previous two decades, Americans had faced years of economic depression and warfare. Money was saved, food was

228 Ruth Shumaker, “History’s ‘Fashion Parade’ Is Reviewed By Eisenhowers,” Times Herald, May 25, 1955; Rochester Times-Union, May 25, 1955. 229 Eisenhower, Mrs. Ike, 282.

129 rationed, and women were busy working while their men were away in battle. The early

50s subdued blues, greens, and grays were replaced with pale pretty colors and white accessories. Silhouettes were more feminine, with a full bust, small waist, and long skirt.

Because of a prosperous economy, more women were able to afford to buy the latest fashion look. This look also allowed women to be neat and feminine, yet still be able to perform duties as homemakers.230

The fashion of the 1950s suited Mamie Eisenhower perfectly. She wore a size 8 dress and a 6.5 shoe. Costume jewelry, small hats, long gloves, nylon stockings and high- heeled shoes fit Mamie’s style and personality. Mrs. Ike repeatedly remarked, “I hate old- lady clothes. And I shall never wear them.”231 Mamie favored the style of the “New

Look” that was first designed by Christian Dior in 1947. The fitted bodice, full skirt, matching hat became known as the “First Lady Look.” Her favorite designers were Molly

Parnis, Nettie Rosenstein, and Sally Victor. When Mamie became first lady, Molly Parnis in the New York Herald Tribune noted, “Mrs. Eisenhower brings a new viewpoint on clothes to the White House. She’s proving that a grandmother needn’t be an old lady…she’s making maturity glamorous.”232 Women desired the same glamorous look just like Mamie. At a fashion show in San Francisco, Mamie and the “First Lady Look” were cheered by one thousand women guests as models paraded in the same attire.233

230 Karal Ann Marling, “Mamie’s Hats: The White House, the New Look, and the Meaning of Style in the 1950s,” in Mamie Eisenhower—Wife, Mother, First Lady: Her Impact and Influence on Her Time, The Eisenhower National Seminar Proceedings (Gettysburg, PA: ENHS, 1998), 36. 231 Eisenhower, Mrs. Ike, 4. 232 Molly Parnis, New York Herald Tribune, January 12, 1953. 233 Shirley Lowry, “First Lady Look Modeled by Mamie,” Chicago Daily Tribune, August 23, 1956.

130

As media outlets pinpointed their focus on Mamie’s attire, so did women all over the world. What set Mamie apart from other fashion gurus was her marked ability to look fashionable while saving money. One of Ike’s honed political strategies was to focus on balancing the nation’s budget. Both Ike and Mamie were familiar with living life paycheck to paycheck as Ike moved throughout his military career. Mamie saw it as her duty to the nation to be consistently frugal with her spending as White House manager and to set a good example as a private citizen. The 1950s marked a period of economic growth and for many families; there was more money available for spending on nonessential items. Consumerism and booming industry caused retail sales to skyrocket and many women were aware of new trends in ready-made clothing and appliances promoting convenience. To underline Mamie’s appeal to the wider consumer market, a brief look at advertisements will note the First Lady’s fashion appeal. In a 1953 article,

Dorothy Rowe described, “Mamie Eisenhower buys her clothes with an eye to her budget and approaches each major occasion with the usual feminine wail of, ‘I haven’t a thing to wear!’” But unlike many previous first ladies, “Mrs. Eisenhower is the typical American woman—warm, feminine, and pretty; interested in clothes but thrifty about her selections, clever about accessories and colors, proud of her husband and son, crazy about her grandchildren, young in looks because she’s young in spirit.” Mamie was able to push for frugality amongst the other housewives of the nation without breaking the bank.

“Mrs. Eisenhower is no different from any other woman whose husband makes a good salary, but who can’t afford to throw her money around. Like most of us, she has just so

131 much to spend for her clothes. And she has found that a woman can be fashionably dressed without wrecking her budget.”234

Manufacturers and designers also benefited from the First Lady’s fashion sense as more women clamored for the latest fashion trend. In a Washington Star photograph caption, Sally Victor’s design for Mamie’s inaugural headpiece, “is probably the most photographed hat in America,” and a “navy brim of straw and cut-out crown of felt” version was available at Pasternak’s department store.235 Specialty attire also received a boost from the First Lady’s wardrobe as she was frequently photographed in fur. “The incoming fashion for fox fur undoubtedly got a big boost yesterday when Mamie

Eisenhower arrived in Washington wearing the beautiful Norwegian foxes… pale gray, frosted with white and marked with dark hairs in cross formation, these magnificent furs lit up her otherwise dark ensemble—a dark gray woplen suit with pleated skirt work with navy blue accessories.”236

American enthrallment with Mamie’s wardrobe assisted in bringing attention to well- known and silent designers all over the United States. Her favorites were Sally Victor,

Molly Parnis, and Nettie Rosenstein. But, Mamie also brought attention to unknown designers who wanted to serve their communities. In June 1953, an article in Pictorial

Magazine featured a story about Marine Corporal Joseph F. Joyce, a baker at the Naval

Annex in Arlington. Corpl. Joyce designed and created women’s hats in his spare time and made an appointment to present “a pink pillbox with fragile dotted pink veiling—in a

234 Dorothy Rowe, “Mamie’s Taste Trade Delight: Choice of Ready Made Clothes Boon to US Makers,” Concord, May 16, 1953. 235 “Cut Outs For Beauty,” Washington Star, March 28, 1953. 236 Evelyn Heyes, “Fox Fur Fashion Gets Big Boost from Mamie,” newspaper clipping from MDE Scrapbook, 1954, M-109, #13140, EL.

132 very small head size—which Corpl. Joyce had designed and made especially” for Mamie

Eisenhower. Doris Kanter reporter, “his hobby was considered something of a joke…until Mrs. Eisenhower invited him to bring a hat to the White House. Since then, his coworkers not only have developed a serious inters in what does into making a hat, but have besieged him with request to make millinery for wives and mothers back home.”237

Many newspapers also published pictures of Mamie attending fashion shows so she would be aware of new seasonal styles and her choices were frequently published for women to replicate. In 1953 a fashion show was sponsored by the Daughters of the

United States Army which featured new fall collections of “top designers including

Jacques Fath, Philip Mangone, Charles James, Vera Maxwel, Christian Dior, and Mollie

Parnis, the First Lady’s current favorite.” In the following pages, journalist Catherine

Harrington provided sketches and descriptions of the First Lady’s four favorite pieces seen during the show. In another article it was revealed Mrs. Eisenhower selected her favorite styles, “and not one of them conforms with what Christian Dior wants women to wear.” “The First Lady indicated her independence weeks ago by spurning Dior’s new short skirts…and ignoring another Dior detail—the sheath skirt, snug around the hips and narrow at the hem.” Molly Parnis received the most accolades during the show indicating many women were of the same conservative mind.238

237 Doris Kanter, “Marine Baker Is Spare-Time Miliner,” Pictorial Magazine, June 28, 1953. 238 Catharine Harrington, “1st Lady Wears Brand New Dress to See Fashion Show,” The Washington Post, October 11, 1953. “First Lady Will Shun Dior’s Tight Skirts,” Newspaper clipping, MDE Scrapbook, 1952-1953, M-108, #13139, EL.

133

Mamie even shopped local which boosted business for retail storeowners in

Washington, D.C. and Gettysburg. To further lend legitimacy to the claim of the

Eisenhowers epitomizing average American culture, an article in the World Telegram advised readers, “Don’t get the idea living in Europe--and in the White House—has spoiled Mamie Eisenhower. She still does a lot of her shopping in neighborhood stores.”

Calling attention to a few of Mamie’s previous shopping trips, Scrippe-Howard Staff

Writer, Andrew Tully, mentions, “the cavalcade,” of Mamie and her mother, “stopped for two hours while the two women browsed,” through P.J. Nee, a Washington furniture dealer’s store, “and bought a truckload of furniture including some wall-to-wall carpeting. It was Rockville’s biggest day since Confederate General Jubal Early was chased out of town by the Union forces.” Mamie was also caught shopping in a local

Dime Store in Gettysburg for “a white summer bracelet and necklace—27 cents each plus tax. She also paid 57 cents for a pair of pink pearl earrings with a rhinestone center. Mrs.

Eisenhower also purchased some nail polish, thumb tacks and cloth.” The First Lady’s

“home town shopping” sparked a new fad in purchasing costume jewelry.239

In 1955 the Rocky Mountain News, a Denver, Colorado, publication, announced three new typewriters were installed in the White House for Mamie and her secretaries to write thank you notes. What set these three typewriters apart from others? The “type looks remarkably like fine feminine handwriting.” This type is “known as Corinthian Script and is the creation of Edwin Frost, an inventive young International Business Machines type designer.” Mr. Frost took up the challenge when a “request came from Mrs. Eisenhower’s

239 Andrew Tully, “General’s Delivery,” World Telegram, April 9, 1956. “Mamie Shops For Jewelry in Dime Store,” The Washington Post and Times Herald, July 12, 1956.

134

White House office for a distinctive type style. Mamie had exclusive rights to the type for six months, “when similar machines were placed on the retail market at $395.” Now any woman would be able to emulate Mamie’s notes, including “purchasers since then have included Mrs. Frank C. Clement, wife of the governor of Tennessee; Mrs. Everett M.

Dirksen, wife of Sen. Dirksen of Illinois, and Mrs. Oveta Culp Hobby, former secretary of health, education, and welfare.”240

Mamie’s shopping trips also provided news to the nation in a hidden-hand way. In

September 1955, Ike suffered from a heart attack and was convalescing first at Walter

Reed Medical Center, then his Gettysburg Farm. Mamie stayed at his side the entire time until late November 1955 when she was spotted Christmas shopping at Woodward and

Lothron’s Chevy Chase, Maryland, store. “Christmas shoppers did a double-take when they realized they were rubbing elbows with the First Lady. Many were rewarded with the famous “Mamie” smile.” Washington Post columnist, Elinor Lee, determined “Mrs.

Eisenhower’s Christmas shopping expedition reflects the increasing tempo of the

President’s recovery. This is the first time she has left her husband’s side since he was stricken with a heart attack Sept. 24.” Like many Americans, Lee was concerned with the health of the President, especially since he was close to finishing a first term and possibly pursuing a second. Mamie’s confidence in his health spoke volumes.241

When Mamie traveled and attended official functions, the press consistently noted her style. From 1952 until her death in 1979, Mamie’s iconic fashion sense was described in

240 “Special Script Designed For Mamie’s Typewriter,” Rocky Mountain News, October 25, 1955. 241 Elinor Lee, “First Lady Here for Shopping,” The Washington Post, November 23, 1955.

135 magazines like Parade, McCalls, Coronet, Life, Time, Newsweek, Family Circle,

Saturday Evening Post, The American Ladies Magazine, Colliers, Good Housekeeping, and Ladies Home Journal. In 1954 Mamie topped “Best Hatted” List of U.S. Women.242

She was also voted one of the best-dressed women of the world for eight years by the

New York Dress Institute.243

After Mamie showed off her rose colored inaugural gown in 1953, designers of fabric, paint, and plastic created “First Lady Pink,” or “Mamie Pink” as a way to promote pink cloth, drapes, linoleum, appliances, and any type of plastic. Women redecorated their homes to match Mamie’s pink in the White House.244 From her fashion sense to her love of pink, Mamie’s “name and image were used more extensively in merchandising than those of any previous first lady since Frances Folsom Cleveland.”245

One of the most flattering recognitions of Mamie’s favorite color was the introduction of a new Mamie Pink flower. One of Ike’s favorite past-times was gardening, and in honor of the first couple and Mrs. Eisenhower’s ceremonial opening of the 1953 National

Capital Flower and Garden Show, the President and First Lady became the namesake of a new breed of red roses, Eisenhower roses. Mamie was also honored with her name designated for a pink climbing rose. These roses were available on a national scale, so much so, that a 1956 cartoon in The Washington Daily News depicted an inquisitive women

242 “Mrs. Eisenhower Tops ‘Best Hatted’ List of U.S. Women,” Chicago Daily Tribune, April 8. 1954. 243 Associated Press, “Mamie Eisenhower, Mrs. Hobby Named Among Best Dressed,” The New York Times, December 17, 1952. 244 Kate Murphy, “Bathrooms: Pretty in Pink, Again,” The New York Times, December 29, 2010; Kim Palmer, “Bathrooms Still in the Pink,” The Star Tribune, January 25, 2011. 245 John Roberts, Rating the First Ladies: Women Who Influenced the Presidency (New York: Kensington Publishing Corporation, 2003), 265.

136 asking the Flower and Garden Show attendant, “About how long would it take Mrs.

Eisenhower to hide a garage?”246

After the media’s introduction to Mamie’s love for everything pink, more references to anything in pink became more evident in reporting all over the United States. During

Mamie’s 58th birthday celebration, The Evening Star Women’s World section focusing on

“Society—fashion—clubs,” reported pink candles, pink icing, pink tablecloths, and

“Mamie” pink carnations, flown from Colorado, were present to bring color to the festivities. Mamie was even graced with a gift of steaks from Iowa, her birth state.247

Mamie took great pride in her appearance. She always wore fake pearls (even though she had a safe full of real ones) and had her nails painted to match her wardrobe.248 She also always liked to wear fake fur because she felt it pulled her look together. She wanted to impress the American public for Ike’s sake.249 His interest in clothing was less focused on the style and more on the color. He also always had a say in which fur jacket and hat she bought.250 Mamie’s clothing made her look younger than her age. She entered the

White House when she was fifty-seven, but she maintained a youthful appearance even after she left Washington. Eleanor Roosevelt and Bess Truman were seen as matronly figures, but Mamie wanted to stand out in a crowd. When Mamie attended her first

246 James Birchfield, “12,245 Attend Flower Show Opened by Mrs. Eisenhower,” Washington Evening Star, March 6, 1953; “The Girls,” The Washington Daily News, March 5, 1956. 247 Ruth Dean, “First Lady Moved By Birthday Salute,” The Evening Star Women’s World, March 23, 1956; “Ike Still Hasn’t Purchased Gift for Mamie’s Birthday,” Abilene Reflector, November 10, 1958. 248 West, Upstairs at the White House, 142. 249 Eisenhower, Mrs. Ike, 294. 250 Brandon, Mamie Doud Eisenhower, 297

137 campaign luncheon, reporter Dorothy Brandon overheard a women say, “I thought she’d be tall and dowdy and taken with herself—most General’s wives are.”251 However, the public soon realized that “the small, smiling lady in the curly bangs simply took over.”252

Mamie’s strong personality made her appear lively because she was “determined to stay young as long as she could.” “Other women wanted her to act like a grandmother, just became she was one,” Lillian Parks continuously said of the First Lady.253 During an impromptu fashion spree in New York, Nettie Rosenstein designed “white satin damask and pink peau de soie” evening gowns so Mamie was able to “look 10 years younger than she is.”254

One of Mamie’s most famous fashion secrets was not always how to dress, but how to wear one’s hair. Mamie’s signature bangs received almost the same amount of attention as her wardrobe. In the majority of photographs, Mamie is wearing bangs from an early age onward to hide what she called, “a high forehead.” Women around the world began cutting their hair to look like Mamie’s and the media singled out many instances related to the bangs craze. In Washington, D.C.’s Times Herald an article appeared in

March 1953 stating, “Mamie’s Hairdo (Bangs, You Know) Spreads to France,” in an effort to demonstrate the popularity of a simple haircut. In an “Everyday Movies,” cartoon created by Denys Wortman, a well-dressed woman looks in a hand mirror at a beauty salon saying to her hair dresser, “…but I don’t think I look any more like Mamie than I did before I had the bangs cut.” Even film stars sported Mamie bangs, which also

251 Brandon, Mamie Doud Eisenhower, 281. 252 West, Upstairs at the White House, 131. 253 Parks, My Thirty Years Backstairs at the White House, 51. 254 “Flying Mamie Goes Buying; 12 Hats, etc.” The Chicago Daily Tribune, November 16, 1954.

138 bolstered their popularity. “The ‘Mamie bangs’ are now official. Hollywood has adopted and recognized them.” “Joanne Dru will sport the new hairdo in her current film,

‘Drifting,’ which is being shot at Universal-International Studios.” Top hairdresser at the studio echoed the sentiments of many American women, “the new First Lady has revived a hairstyle fad first introduced 25 years ago…several attempts have been made to revive bangs throughout the years but all unsuccessful.” The hairdresser quipped, “ ‘All it needed…was the advent of Mamie Eisenhower and a movie with bangs.’”255

Several newspapers also reported young girls emulating Mamie’s bangs and feeling encouraged and empowered by the First Lady’s fashion statements. In a poem inspired by a photograph of President and Mrs. Eisenhower, banged seven-year old, Mable Carlen, wrote, “I like Ike; Ike likes Mamie, but Mamie likes bangs.” “The poem was forwarded to the White House and pleased the First Lady of the Land very much.” In an “Angel

Face” cartoon by Gene Hazelton, four little girls are seated having a tea party. The little girl with pigtails and bangs, pouring tea, says, “Why couldn’t I be a president’s wife when I grow up—I’ve got bangs, haven’t I…?256

Mamie’s love of and influence over fashion was also singled out by various charities across the United States. Like many other first ladies, Mamie championed many causes, but her involvement was often criticized, as she was more influential in creating awareness rather than hands-on participation. Numerous charities made Mamie honorary

255Araminta, “Mamie’s Hairdo (Bangs, You Know) Spreads to France,” Times Herald, March 1953; Denys Wortman, “Everyday Movies,” The Troy Record, February 25, 1953; Associated Press, Newspaper clipping, MDE Scrapbook, 1952-1953, M-108, #13139, EL. 256 “Bangs? Mamie Likes Kids, So!” Newspaper clipping, MDE Scrapbook, 1952-1953, M-108, #13139, EL. “Angel Face,” Gene Hazelton, McNaught Syndicate, Inc., State Journal, Lansing, Michigan, February 23, 1955.

139 chair due to her national appeal and popularity. Mamie used her impact on the fashion market to help raise funds for various organizations. Known for her charm bracelets,

Mamie was received “a miniature Stop Arthritis sign for her charm bracelet from Mrs.

Joseph Smith, the national Arthritis Mother of the Year.” Mamie was deemed “honorary campaign chairman of the Arthritis and Rheumatism Foundation,” in which she used her influence to assist in a funding campaign with Ringling Brothers and Barnum and Bailey

Circus at Madison Square Garden. Mamie was also guest of honor at a special “fashion show” to “aid the National Symphony orchestra” in Washington, D.C. and another

“fashion show and luncheon” with “at least one thousand” women to benefit the

Washington Heart Association. In 1953, the Chicago Hearing Society requested to borrow a dress belonging to Mamie in order to entice more women to attend a “card party, fashion show, and tea,” to benefit this group dedicated to empowering deaf people.

In 1959, Mamie posed “for photographs to promote the sale of TB Christmas Seals and for the Arthritis and Rheumatism Campaign.” In the same year, Mamie was asked to attend a fashion show to benefit the Cherry Blossom festival where the grower, Edward

Geiger, presented her with “Mamie Carnations.” “This newly developed species of one of

Mrs. Eisenhower’s favorite flowers is a huge, lush white blossom candy striped in red which took six years to produce.” As honorary president of the Commissioned Officers’

Club, a fashion show fundraiser was also created with Mamie in mind when looking for funds to support the Soldiers, Sailors, Marines and Airman’s Club. 257

257 Evelyn Hayes, “1st Hands Applaud High Style,” Washington Post, February 16, 1953; “Mrs. Eisenhower Aids Drive,” New York Herald Tribune, February 17, 1959; INP photo in MDE Scrapbook, 1952-1953, M-108, #13139, EL. Judith Cass, “Mrs. Eisenhower Gown to Be Shown at Benefit,” Chicago Tribune, May 13, 1953. Marie Smith, “Party to

140

Mamie was consistently called a fashion icon and compared to previous first ladies from how she compared as a hostess, to the clothing she wore in public. In 1953, “Edith

Head, Paramount’s Oscar-winning fashion designer, calls Mamie Eisenhower the best dressed first lady of this century.” Dressing famous women like Gloria Swanson and

Elizabeth Taylor, Ms. Head spoke with authority when stating, “Mrs. Eisenhower puts us designers right in our place. While highpowered [sic] designers try to put over the tight- tight-tight look, Mamie does instead for something feminine and not extreme. She’s no cloths rack. She doesn’t set out to sell clothes. He lets clothes sell her.” Aptly stated, “She sees clothes as the perfect background for herself—and that’s what everyone should do.”

“She’ll give a great lift to American design and perhaps we’ll have no more silly trends as the little boy look or the mannish fashions.” Josephine Ripley, in the Christian Science

Monitor, “probably one of the most smartly dressed First Ladies to grace the White

House, is listed among the nation’s twelve best-dressed women and has become something of a style setter. Copies of the pert little gray hat she wore at the inauguration are now on sale in hat shops all over the country.” Ripley suggests “the First Lady is a working member of the administration with a specific job to do, and one by which a tremendous amount of good will can be built for the President and his party, particularly amount the nation’s most numerous voters, the women.” The Philadelphia Inquirer

Magazine echoed the importance of Mamie’s position, “What a President does in the

White House is important to the world of politics, but what his wife wears there is probably just as important in the world of fashion. For the country’s distaff side always

Be Happy Return for First Lady,” The Washington Post, November 4, 1959. Washington Daily News, April 11, 1953. “President’s Wife at Lunch,” Evening Star, February 13, 1953.

141 has kept close tabs on the gowns of First Ladies who more than once have influenced fashion trends.”

Wardrobes of the First Ladies became a consistent feature during luncheons, fashion shows, and social club meetings. The Congressional Club hosted Mrs. O. W. McNeese, who gave a presentation on previous first ladies’ garb. “Out of the ordinary,” is one way to describe many presidents’ wives, “but old frumps—never.” Each first lady brought her own style to the White House based on her personality and preferences. In a piece by

Evelyn Peyton Gordon, Mamie is described, compared to other first ladies, as “few other

First Ladies have been notable for their smarter even elegant appearance. Mamie

Eisenhower may be the exception. She loves clothes, wears them well, has a youthful figure on which to hang them.” Previously, “one thing the Truman Administration gave us was an inferiority complex about mink coats! Unless you’re REALLY rich and have had mink for years, you scare date to wear a newly acquired mink without apology or explanation.” When media outlets posted about Mamie’s inaugural gown, it was said

“Mamie Eisenhower may be an all out Republican, but she’ll be the most ‘democratically dressed’ first lady ever to grace a United States inaugural ball.” Mamie’s style was accessible yet glamorous, and women everywhere wanted to dress like her. 258

In the wider fashion world, Mamie was frequently compared to Queen Elizabeth II as the quintessential fashion expert. In January 1953, The Washington Post published an

258 “Mamie Named Best-Dressed First Lady,” The Houston Chronicle, April 12, 1953; Josephine Ripley, “A Medal for the First Lady,” The Christian Science Monitor, June 1, 1953; “First Lady Fashion Show,” The Philadelphia Inquirer Magazine, January 18, 1953; “No ‘Old Frumps’ Among First Ladies,’” The Washington Post and Times Herald, March 5, 1955; Evelyn Peyton Gordon, “Mamie May Be One of Our Best-Dressed First Ladies,” Newspaper clipping, MDE Scrapbook, 1954, M-109, #13140, EL; Photo caption, The Daily Mirror, January 15, 1953.

142 article headlining, “Fashion Taking Cues From Two Queens.” “Fashion will play its hand in 1953, leading from two queens—our new attractive, fashion conscious First Lady and the beautiful young Elizabeth of England.” The article goes on to cite each new trend expected to sweep the nation and what was popular previously in 1952. Each trend focused on one or both of the women noted in the article. The Washington Times Herald published a cartoon of a globe-headed painter labeled “fashion world” looking at Mamie

Eisenhower and Queen Elizabeth II as models for his canvas. These two women were seen as important figure heads, not only in fashion, but as political figures with influence over nations.259

During the early years of the Eisenhower administration, Elisabeth Draper came to

Ike and Mamie and proposed a new fabric that specifically represented the Eisenhowers, what she called, “A Living Toile.”260 Draper chose symbols that reflected the important events, places, and hobbies of the president. After looking over the fabric, Ike removed

Culzane Castle, his Scottish retreat during World War II, and replaced it with Mamie’s girlhood home in Denver. In an interview cited in the Washington Post, Draper quotes

Ike, “I would like to see a drawing of Mrs. Eisenhower’s home in the design. We were married there, and it holds strong ties for both of us.”261 Although Mamie wore the fabric

259 Evelyn Hayes, “Fashion Taking Cues From Two Queens,” The Washington Post, January 4, 1953; “Giving the Girls Something To Think About,” political cartoon, Washington Times Herald, Jan 30, 1953. 260 “A toile is a cotton or linen print, usually monorchrome, with intricately detailed pattern. The designs originally etched on copper rollers often depicted bucolic or rustic settings.” Richard Slavin III, Opulent Textiles: The Schumacher Collection (New York: Crown Publishers, Inc., 1992), 208. Elisabeth Draper, interview by James Roach and Laurie Coughlan, New York, NY, February 21, 1991. Elisabeth Draper to Charles H. Tompkins, October 3, 1955. 261 Jura Koncus, “The Quiet Decorator,” The Washington Post, July 22, 1993.

143 because it represented Ike, Ike changed the fabric so it could represent both of them.262

“Mrs. Ike”, the nickname given by the president, had drapes, dresses, and a matching raincoat and hat made out of the fabric.263 Mamie wore the clothes with honor because each image represented “her Ike.” Women already noticed her fashion sense, but now all

Americans knew that her husband came first in her life simply by the subtle political statement the fabric made. Mamie was chic and cosmopolitan, and although the symbols on the Eisenhower Toile were mostly military in nature, she wore them with pride as a representation of her career.

To date, the only scholarship available on Eisenhower Toile is Cindy Cook’s

“The Mystery of the Eisenhower Toile,” published in the January 1998 edition of Textile

Society of America Symposium Proceedings. Cook’s findings are based on the interviews conducted by rangers representing Eisenhower National Historic Site in Gettysburg,

Pennsylvania.

The Eisenhower Toile depicts buildings, emblems, and flowers that were significant during Dwight Eisenhower’s life. The buildings and what they represent:264

Columbia University where Eisenhower was president from 1948-49 Gettysburg Farm where the Eisenhowers stayed during the White House years and retired White House where the Eisenhowers resided while he was president

262 Elisabeth Draper to Dwight D. Eisenhower, August 13, 1955. Elisabeth Draper Collection, ENHS, Gettysburg, PA. 263 West, Upstairs at the White House, 137.; Cindy Cook, “The Mystery of the Eisenhower Toile,” Textile Society of America Symposium Proceedings (January 1998): 341. 264 Press Release from Elisabeth Draper, Inc., September 7, 1956. Elisabeth Draper Collection, ENHS, Gettysburg, PA.

144

Mamie’s childhood home and location of marriage in Denver Colorado (replaced Culzane Castle in Scotland) Eisenhower’s childhood home in Abilene Kansas West Point where he completed his military training

The flowers are symbols of traits that Eisenhower valued and representations of states where he lived and worked. Sunflower-Kansas Columbine-Colorado Bluebonnet-Texas (where Eisenhower was born) Rose-New York Laurel-Pennsylvania Oak-Strength Acorn-Fruitfulness Palm-Victory

The emblems that influenced and reflected Eisenhower’s personal, military, and political career.

Great Seal of the United States SHAEF-Supreme Headquarters Allied European Forces Five Star General insignia Weapons and flags symbolizing the victory over Germany in WWII Easel and paintbrushes represent Eisenhower’s hobbies Elephant as symbol of the Grand Old Party/Republican party Emblem of NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization)

145

Figure 1: Eisenhower Toile, samples of toile are located at Eisenhower National Historic Site, Gettysburg, PA.

After artist Katherine Sturges Knight drew the design, Eisenhower Toile was printed and sold in in conjunction with Rene Carrillo of F. Schumacher & Co. out of New

York.265 The toile pattern would be screen printed onto the fabric and sold to the

American people to use in their homes. Draper notes that it was 36” wide and sold for

265 Press Release, 1956. F. Schumacher & Co proof of advertisement to Elisabeth Draper, June 4, 1956. Elisabeth Draper Collection, ENHS.

147 around $2.25 a yard. 266 With Mrs. Eisenhower’s approval, Schumacher printed the fabric in ten different colors: Mistletoe Green, Pheasant Gold, Ruby, Charcoal & White, Joy

Blue, Carnation Pink, Toile Red & White, Apricot, Oak Brown, and Cinnamon.267

Partnering with F. Schumacher & Co. allowed Draper to advertise her toile in

Schumacher Digest and New Yorker Magazine and have a marketing partner when proposing stories in Look, Life and House and Garden.268 Mrs. Draper believed that after the American public saw the many shades of toile and that it represented not only the

Eisenhowers but American patriotism, it would sell and be placed in every home. She encouraged the President in a letter, “This I hope will enhance every good American home—split level or ranch type from coast to coast.” 269

Elisabeth Draper sent swatches of fabric out to hundreds of potential buyers and advertised the toile in magazines all over the United States. Any average American could purchase the fabric and decorate their home in presidential style. New York World

Telegram and Sun featured the wallpaper version of the toile pictured in a stylish office.270 The March 1956 issue of Home and Garden Magazine depicted the toile on a

266 Elisabeth Draper to Mrs. Clayton Knight, October 11, 1955, Elisabeth Draper Collection, ENHS, Gettysburg, PA. 267 Elisabeth Draper to Mamie Doud Eisenhower, August 29, 1955; Sample letter from H.L Rose of F. Schumacher & Co., Elisabeth Draper Collection, ENHS, Gettysburg, PA. 268 Andrea Hinkle to Elisabeth Draper, June 12, 1956. Schumacher Digest, February 16, 1956.; Elisabeth Draper to Gardner Cowles, September 13, 1956, Elisabeth Draper Collection, ENHS, Gettysburg, PA; “The Eisenhower Toile,” The New Yorker Magazine, March 17, 1956. 269 Elisabeth Draper to Dwight D. Eisenhower, August 22, 1955, Elisabeth Draper Collection, ENHS, Gettysburg, PA. 270 Felice Davis, “Antiques in a Modern Background,” New York World Telegram and Sun, January 27, 1956.

147 sofa and ottoman in a modern American living room.271 Local media like the St. Louis

Post-Dispatch, The Providence Evening Bulletin, The New York Times and The New York

Journal also ran advertisements for the toile to entice homemakers to request sample swatches of the ten available colors.272

In 1955, The Washington Post and Times Herald broke the story of “Eisenhower

Toile.” “President Eisenhower has been the inspiration for many things—including a fabric design.”273The product was publicized for “Ike-likers” to choose their favorites of the ten colors. In 1956, the American Society of Newspaper Editors presented Mamie with a wrap around dress “designed by Washington’s Philip Robertson of ‘Eisenhower

Toile.’”274

As Mamie decorated her own home and dressed in specially designed Eisenhower garb, families all over the United States purchased the toile as a way to support the first family and show their own patriotism. Charles Lamar, Elisabeth Draper’s public relations specialist, even sent bolts of fabric to museums all over the United States including The

Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York, The Denver Art Museum, and The American

Museum in Britain.275 By donating the fabric, Draper wanted to ensure that the

271 House and Garden Magazine, March 1956. 272 “’Eisenhower Epic’ Told in Fabric,” St. Louis Times- Dispatch, February 21, 1956; Photo of Eisenhower Fabric, Providence Evening Bulletin, February 24, 1956; “Home Furnishings Invaded by Politics,” The New York Times, October 31, 1955.’ The New York Journal-American, May 3, 1956. 273 274 “A Patio Dress For Mamie,” Washington Post and Times Herald, April 21, 1956; “Ike’s Life Is Inspiration For Colorful Fabric Design,” The Washington Post and Times Herald, November 9, 1955. 275 E.M. Gonin to Elisabeth Draper, February 8, 1973.; Imelda De Graw to Elisabeth Draper, December 17, 1973, Elisabeth Draper Collection, ENHS, Gettysburg, PA.

148

Eisenhower’s, and her design, would always be available for the sake of public memory and historical significance. During the Nixon administration, Draper redesigned the Blair

Houses’ Head of State bedroom into the Eisenhower room to commemorate Ike after his death. She chose Eisenhower toile for the bedspread, chair, and curtains. The color was aborigine because it was, “virile, resilient color with all the patina he brought to his life.”276

Mamie Eisenhower’s influence on 1950s fashion is undeniable. Her position in the lime-light caused a boom in manufacturing based on her preferred style. Other first ladies have been credited with manipulating the fashion industry, but Mamie Eisenhower was at the forefront of consumer awareness. Mrs. Ike did not openly advertise for any one designer or promote any the necessity of following only one style. Her choice to shop local, maintain a strict budget, and help her community caused more American women to follow her hidden-hand approach to marketing her role as a silent partner. Mamie always desired to look her best for her husband and for the American people and her role as a pop culture icon was attributed to the media’s fascination with her habits and not because of her words.

276 Mary Edith Wilroy and Lucie Prinz, Inside Blair House (Garden City, NY: Double Day & Company, Inc., 1982), 213.

Conclusion

“The gracious First Lady, always dainty, smiling and unobtrusive, has become a figure as greatly beloved as her famous husband.” This quote preceded “A Rhyme a Day” produced daily for the Atlanta Constitution by Georgia Poet Laureate, Ollie Reeves. In keeping with this description, Reeves composed a poem reflecting the truth about most successful men, especially President Eisenhower:

Whatever good that might have been Accomplished in the past by men Has not been done by men alone The was a “power behind the throne” A sweetheart or a wife, no doubt That he was simply wild about Inspiring him to do his best And he complied with her request. And yet you see few monuments Commemorating great events That bear the figure or the name Of some great woman who became A public figure during life She’s only mentioned as “the wife” Of General Brown of Governor Green But, always she’s behind the scene And ever busy “laying down The law” to Green or General Brown. Old General Brown may sit astride A horse that he will never ride Because it’s made of bronze or brass And Governor Green will never pass On anything until he knows That mama will approve of those. Such is the glory and the power Of lovely Mamie Eisenhower.277

Many Americans recognized the quiet strength within Dwight Eisenhower, and yet had no problem attributing much of his success and overall wellbeing to Mamie. This suggests that they saw her as possessing a quiet strength of her own, as well as an

277 Ollie Reeves, “A Rhyme a Day,” Atlanta Constitution, January 10, 1957.

150 enormous reserve of spousal loyalty. She felt her duty as keenly as he did. When Ike suffered his first heart attack in 1955, Mamie was determined to care for him as the core part of her first lady duties. Worried for the President’s health, the American people looked to Mamie to take charge and heartily approved when she did just that.

Although doctors were always consulted and their medical advice followed,

Mamie was frequently credited by the press for contributing to Ike’s recovery. “Nobody underestimates the power of the good housewife in Washington. Certainly not the very considerable influence of one particular wife upon one particular man. That woman is

Mamie Eisenhower.” Interestingly, “the talk of the Washington party circuit these days concerns Mamie’s determination to be a good housewife, even at the White House.”

Dorothy McCardle of the Washington Post recalls, “those who have analyzed the medial reports on President Eisenhower have read between the lines and approving nod from

Boston’s famous heart specialist, Dr. Paul Dudley White, for the woman who makes a career out of looking after her husband’s health.” McCardle went further and noted Ike’s weight was no more than “when he was a cadet at West Point. Well, the Nation can thank

Mamie for her help there,” as it was made clear by the doctor that being overweight increased the risk of a heart attack.278

Reports of Mamie’s interaction with doctors also made headlines when she was invited to their conferences regarding the President’s recovery. This is a good place to consider the changing ethos of the term ‘housewife.’ Today, in a far more feminist- minded world, after the notion of women having careers of their own distinct from their

278 Dorothy McCardle, “First Lady’s Determination Pays Off: Mamie—the Housewife— Gets Applause of Ike’s Doctor,” Washington Post, 1955, newspaper clipping from MDE scrapbook, 1955, M-110, #13141, EL.

151 husband’s job, the term housewife is loaded with connotations. Most of these are not positive. Indeed, even women who do not work outside the home are today likely to use a different descriptor, such as “stay-at-home-mom,” in the event of having children. To modern ears, the term may sound outdated at best, or synonymous with gendered subservience. But not to Mamie Eisenhower. Mamie, operating in a very different era, and protective of a very unusual husband with a radically singular career, embraced the term for its best connotations. To her, it carried no hint of incapability. Quite the contrary. And doctors recognized this when they made her the major part of Ike’s medical recovery. Otherwise, it would have been easy for them to shunt her aside. But she was no docile background woman, and she commanded the care plan of the leader of the free world.

Major General Howard McSnyder, the president’s personal physician, said, “we

(the doctors) all spend some time after every examination discussing her husband’s progress with her. Naturally she wants to know every possible detail.” Major General

McSnyder’s comments reflected a twofold illustration: Mamie was naturally concerned, like any wife, for the health and safety for her husband. But unlike all wives, Mamie took

Ike’s health into her own hands and although she relied on the advice of doctors, she also understood Ike and his health better than most people. This is one more example of the way in which Mamie interpreted her role, took control of the term ‘housewife,’ and set about living according to her own intentions and maximizing her agency.

Like taking charge of Ike’s health, Mamie understood her role as a homemaker to mean taking charge of the private space in which she shared her life with her husband, children, grandchildren, and intimate friends. This had never been easy, since the earliest

152 days of Ike’s army career. It was a mammoth task when he became president. Since the beginning of their marriage, Mamie made a conscious choice to remain an outwardly silent partner. But this was never the obvious or easy choice, despite what confident modern gender critics living in different circumstances might think. Raised in an affluent family with all possible advantages within reach, Mamie left her comfortable lifestyle for one of practicality, discipline, and bordering poverty. She might easily have chosen to be a society wife, with a retinue of servants and nothing more challenging than a rigorous social calendar. But she led a life marked by moving around the world at short notice, making an American home in far-flung Army posts.

Choosing Ike displayed Mamie’s own sense of empowerment against the social norms of high society. By willingly forsaking her expectations of plentiful domestic help, a guaranteed generous allowance, and a life led in influential, even ritzy, social circles,

Mamie demonstrated the reality of her love for Ike. Love is a hard topic for scholars to handle; poets might do a better job. But Mamie loved Ike and lived that mysterious value.

In doing so, she left behind her familiar life and embraced a unique routine that challenged her physically and emotionally. She was, in some respects, like a pioneer wife: certainly confined by gendered expectations in her time and situation, yet living a married life that none can credibly call easy or subservient.

Without any training -- for there was none but experience -- Mamie was thrown into a unique world demanding precision, efficiency, and compliance with unwritten rules. Logistics, which came to be seen as Ike’s main strength, especially after Operation

Overlord, was a strength of Mamie’s, too. Mamie was not forced to be a silent partner, working behind the scenes because her husband desired the spotlight for himself. Indeed,

153

Ike’s success as a staff officer stemmed from his dedication to outcomes. He was the opposite of a martinet. Mamie, likewise, was not concerned with striking a pose.

Humbling herself for what she believed to be the key to a successful marriage, of which her husband’s career was admittedly a major part, Mamie defined herself as a willing wife and homemaker. It was not Ike’s career, or Mamie’s silent servitude that defined their marriage, but strength in unity. A psychological approach indicated not that Mamie was devoid of agency or power, but rather that she and her husband epitomized an extremely tight alliance. Here, let us recall that unit cohesion is a supreme military value.

Mamie knew this and lived it, too.

Ike and Mamie’s marriage and values were products of a time before they moved to the White House. Looking to their parents, Ike and Mamie saw devotion through stewardship, willing submission, and loyalty. Here again, we must treat the concept of submission with care. It did not equate to gendered humiliation, but rather to an ethos of service: giving up something by serving another and valuable goal. This was a form of duty, as she saw it.

By the end of World War II and into the 1950s, women across the United States set about decisively redefining their roles and making strides in the area of civil rights and equality. The older notions upon which Mamie built her marriage and life – including the career military values – were not destined for long-term cultural appreciation. This was no less true for First Ladies. Her predecessor, Bess Truman, brought to Washington a life led in Missouri politics, alongside her husband. Her successor, Jackie Kennedy, brought a vivid spirit reflecting youthful glamor and high-society roots. Today, the role of First Lady is in flux, especially after Hillary Rodham Clinton’s experience of being a

154 parallel professional alongside her husband, and nearly occupying the White House on her own.

But these changes were still to come. In 1952 and for two terms thereafter, Mamie

Eisenhower recognized the individual agency women deserved; she saw their right to define themselves in a changing world. To her, standing beside her husband, leader of the free portion of that world and the most powerful democratic nation in that world, was obviously the most effective way for her to identify herself and to live effectively. It extended her matrimonial record of duty. This role allowed her to be the strength behind her husband and support him in a way that conformed to his own personality and values.

This of course required molding herself to fit Ike. But likewise, he molded himself to fit her. From their life in the military to the White House, Mamie complemented Ike as a solid partner, sounding board, and strategic ally. By providing a well-balanced home life,

Ike was able to take on the challenges of warfare and politics, without the pressure of a dissolved or empty marriage.

Fred Greenstein described Ike as leading with a hidden hand, focused on results and not on public postures of leadership-affirming visual opportunities. Ike’s career was not one built largely by image, but by record of achievement. Mamie, in many ways, was more visually arresting than Ike, and did more to provide him with a comfortable and attractive public ‘look.’ Mamie must be credited with the same hidden-hand techniques.

After decades of marriage, scores of moves, numerous promotions, high-profile positions with maximum sensitivity, topped off by two national elections, Mamie understood the power of steadiness and silence. She kept herself steady in support and strategically silent on public matters not for fear of retribution by gender police hostile to actualized women,

155 but rather out of a sense of opportunity. Mamie’s quiet public nature spoke volumes to the American people, who had experienced two decades of charismatic politicians both friendly and hostile. Ike took office during a strong economy, not during a depression.

Unlike Eleanor Roosevelt, Mamie spent huge amounts of time hosting people at her White House home, rather than being hosted at speaking functions or writing weekly articles analyzing the current political climate. Eleanor’s activism accentuated Franklin’s aura of being aggressively at work on behalf of the American people. But that was not the need in 1952. Mamie’s public silence came with her strong presence. She attended functions and accepted invitations, but she did not feel it was her place to comment on political matters. Where she felt most confident, was her home, the White House. She dictated who visited, how rooms were decorated, each menu, and the way the carpet was vacuumed. She was in charge of the physical plant, as it were. Her home reflected who she was as a wife and First Lady. After long days of working, Mamie made their private quarters, a warm, inviting, place for Ike to relax and remove the distractions of the office.

Many women in the 1950s were embracing autonomy and relinquishing the all- encompassing duties of a homemaker. But many also embraced presumably placid domestic family life as an antidote to the exciting disruption of wartime living.

Mamie relished being a housewife and publically described herself as such. She carried out the demands of the role before and after Washington, D.C. Establishing their official residence in Gettysburg, Mamie registered to vote, and “like other Gettysburg residents, had to give her occupation.” According to Doris Kanter in the Sunday Star

Magazine, Mamie “stated simply: Housewife.” The American people respected and recognized Mamie’s self-defined role as housewife. After five years in the White House,

156 journalists remained fascinated with Mamie’s role as “First Housewife.” “A graduate of the Army school of break-house-and transfer, Mrs. Eisenhower was as prepared for the

White House as a woman could be,” noted Kanter, “Still, no other Government-furnished quarters reminds its occupants so constantly that 169 million people own it.”279

Mamie proved to the American people she was the perfect steward of the White

House. For Mamie, “the Theory of Relative Homemaking holds true: A woman’s own personality plus her husband’s job determine the kind of housewife she is.” But Mamie’s role as a traditional housewife never materialized. “Mrs. Eisenhower who is vital and friendly loves flowers and decorating, but abhors cooking and sewing, summed up her ambition early in her married life. ‘I have found my career—and its name is Ike.’”

Kanter’s article sums up the type of housewife Mamie identified herself as, which according to Kanter, differed from a traditional housewife definition. Mamie recognized her strengths were not in domestic chores, but managing the home in a way that relieved stress for Ike. Mamie “manages all her own finances…and she also takes a personal interest in housekeeping details, going over such items as light bulbs, a broken washing machine, and spotted furniture.” Mamie’s management of her home was a way she could silently contribute to her husband’s success and ensure the nation reaped the benefit of a calm leader.

Mamie most often spoke to supporters when entertaining or hosting at her home, but her silent public charm still awed and endeared her to crowds. Unlike other first ladies or female heads of state, Mamie’s embrace of her hidden-hand role made her more

279 Doris Kanter, “Mamie Eisenhower, Housewife.” The Sunday Star Magazine, Washington, D.C. January 20, 1957.

157 popular, and thus more influential, than leaders seeking the limelight. Here, we certainly see 1950s gender attitudes at work. Had Mamie acted otherwise, she might have been accused of being over-the-top. She would not be. The Chicago Daily Tribune reported

“Mrs. Eisenhower does extraordinary things, none of them the acts of the traditional great lady. She hasn’t a shred of pomp. She flips a right hand in salutation. She winks at wry— even momentous—occasions.” Her non-verbal actions called attention to her charm and vitality, and even when she does make small talk, “she drops her g’s, using colloquialisms and slang, wears more jewelry than a movie cashier, twists protocol around her little finer, take off her shoes when her feet hurt, which is often, and does it all without losing dignity. She is gay, chatty, and unassuming, and probably the most popular woman in the United States.”280

My argument is strengthened by an informed understanding of Mamie’s skill at non-visual communication, especially perhaps to other women. She cannily knew that a

First Lady could influence public notice. Unlike nearly every other American wife,

Mamie had lived an international life to an extreme degree. She could hardly be parochial. A fashion leader and avatar of the New Look, she embraced a sort of glamor that was admirable, if non-threatening. Most men of the era probably had no clue about her dressing style. But many women surely did. Mamie’s strong sense of identity and of her power to project her image as she wanted, was reflected in her fashion. The fashion industry reveled in her style as more women wanted to dress, accessorize, and design their hair like the First Lady’s. From the charms on her bracelet to the fabric designed for

280 Marcia Winn, “Lighthearted and Kindly, Mamie is ‘Next Door Neighbor’ to Millions,” The Chicago Daily Tribune, January 15, 1957.

158 her husband, Mamie made it clear her focus was on Ike. Her choice of silhouette, the cut of a hat, or the jewelry she wore were conscious manifestations of a pleasing (to the public) desire to look lovely for her husband, as well as for the nation at large Those who noticed, approved. Mamie’s influence in the fashion community was formidable. Unlike

Bess Truman, she was not moving from the hinterlands to the capital. Instead, she came to Washington as a woman of worldly experience. She paved the way for a solid “First

Lady Look” later championed by other first ladies, by garnering accolades for her wardrobe from journalists, fashion gurus, and the average American woman. “Mamie

Pink,” “Mamie bangs,” and dozens of outfits similarly designed for off the rack shopping allowed women of all generations to feel connected to the woman who hosted kings and queens, managed a 54-room home, and sat with her husband at night watching, “I Love

Lucy.”281 Again, to the modern eye, this could seem contrived or even demeaning. But it hardly looked that way during the Fifties. Yet she was not merely a passive reflection of a greater husbandly force. She worked hard to cast a complementary light upon ‘her’ president.

When Mamie Eisenhower was first introduced to the American public, she appeared reserved, perhaps shy and a bit anxious. But as crowds continued to gather to cheer her husband’s victory in Europe, Mamie relinquished her apprehension and became more herself. I think we can see her finding strength and confidence from her own record of managing household changes and serving as a de facto domestic staff officer to Ike.

281 “Our Mamie is in the Pink,” The Washington Post and Times Herald, April 17, 1958; Marie Smith, “Mamie Models a ‘New Look,’ The Washington Post, March 29, 1960. Daisy Cleland, “Mrs. Eisenhower Again May Face Biggest Hostess Job,” The Evening Star, Washington D.C., February 29, 1956.

159

She knew her experience was unique and suited her for the First Lady role. She might be a new kind of First Lady, but she would be the kind that her husband needed. Mamie demonstrated to everyone she encountered that Ike was her number one priority and she would sacrifice anything for his success. As Ike’s popularity grew, so did Mamie’s, yet she made efforts to never outshine him. The media began to recognize the influential asset Mamie was to Ike’s career and attributing his achievements to her help. The First

Lady was never shy about her commitment to Ike, “the deep devotion Mrs. Eisenhower has for her husband is evident whenever they appear together.” In a photograph caption in The Washington Post, Mamie “flashes him a wink and a smile over some secret shared only by the two,” legitimizing the carefully formed opinion of Mamie’s role as silent, but important partner.282

282 “In the Public Eye for Almost a Decade,” The Washington Post, January 15, 1961.

Bibliography

Primary Sources

Archival Material and Unpublished Sources

The Eisenhower Presidential Library, Abilene, Kansas Mamie Doud Eisenhower Papers Mary Jane McCaffree Papers Elivera Carlson Doud Papers White House Social Office Records Barbara Walters Interview with Mamie Eisenhower, 1979.

Eisenhower National Historical Site, Gettysburg, Pennsylvania Elisabeth Draper Collection-Eisenhower Toile Carol Hegeman Interview with David Eisenhower, 1987. Carol Hegeman Interview with John S.D. Eisenhower, 1986. Carol Hegeman Interview with Mary Jean Eisenhower, 1987. Carol Hegeman Interview with Mary Jane McCaffree and Ann Parsons, 1983. Carol Hegeman Interview with Deloris Moaney, 1999.

The U.S. Army Military Institute, Carlisle, Pennsylvania Lieutenant Colonel Robert L. Decker Interview with Mrs. Virginia Lee Galvin, 1994.

Newspapers, Magazines, and Journals Abilene Reflector, 1958. Associated Press, 1948. Atlanta Constitution, 1957. Baltimore Sun, 1953. Biloxi Daily Herald, 1952. Boston Herald, 1953. Chester Times, 1946. Chicago Daily Tribune, 1953, 1954, 1956, 1957. Chicago Sun-Times, 1952. Collier’s, 1953. Columbia Spectator, 1948. Concord, 1953. Family Circle, 1955. Good Housekeeping Magazine, 1944. House and Garden Magazine, 1956.

161

Jacksonville Journal, 1952. Kansas City Star, 1953. Life Magazine, 1952. McCalls, 1966. Newspaper Enterprise Association, 1956. Newsweek, 1952, 1955. New York Herald Tribune, 1952, 1953, 1959. New York Journal-American, 1954, 1956. New York World Telegram, 1951. New York World Telegram and Sun, 1956. Parade, 1953. Pictorial Magazine, 1953. Providence Evening Bulletin, 1956. Rocky Mountain News, 1955. Rochester Times-Union, 1955. Schumacher Digest, 1956. St. Louis Times- Dispatch, 1956. Sunday Mirror Magazine, 1952. The American Magazine, 1948. The American Weekly, June 1952. The Atlanta Constitution, 1948. The Augusta Chronicle, 1953. The Christian Science Monitor, 1953. The Daily Mirror, 1953. The Evening Star, 1952, 1953, 1954, 1955, 1956. The Houston Chronicle, 1953. The Philadelphia Inquirer Magazine, 1953. The News Bureau, 1955. The New York Herald Tribune, 1952, 1956. The New York Times, 1948, 1952, 1953, 1955, 1956. The Pittsburg Press, 1953. The Sunday Star Magazine, 1957. The Springfield Union, 1951. The Times Washington, 1952. The Washington Daily News, 1956. The Washington Post, 1951, 1953, 1959, 1960, 1961. The Washington Post and Times-Herald, 1955, 1956, 1958. The Washington Evening Star, 1953. The Washington Star, 1953. The Washington Times Herald, 1953. Time, 1953. Timees-Herald,1953. Times Herald, 1955. Tipton Daily Tribune, 1952. Today’s Woman: The Magazine for Young Wives, June 1948. United Features Syndicate, 1955.

162

U.S. News and World Report, 1953. Women’s Illustrated, 1952. World Telegram, 1956.

Published Primary Sources Brandon, Dorothy. Mamie Doud Eisenhower: A Portrait of a First Lady. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1954.

Eisenhower, Dwight D. Letters to Mamie, ed. John S. Eisenhower. New York: Doubleday & Company, Inc., 1977.

Gunther, John. Eisenhower: The Man and the Symbol. New York: Harper & Row, Publishers, 1951.

Hatch, Alden. Red Carpet for Mamie. New York: Henry Holt and Company, 1954.

Marshall, Katherine Tupper. Together: Annals of an Army Wife. Kingsport, TN: Kingsport Press Inc., 1946.

Parks, Lillian Rogers. My Thirty Years Backstairs at the White House. New York: Fleet Publishing Corporation, 1961.

Shea, Nancy. The Army Wife. New York: Harper and Row, Publishers, 1941.

West, J.B. Upstairs at the White House: My Life With the First Ladies. New York: Warner Paperback Library Edition, 1973.

Secondary Sources Allen, Craig. Eisenhower and the Mass Media: Peace, Prosperity, and Prime-time TV. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1993.

Alt, Betty Sowers and Bonnie Domrose Stone, Campfollowing: A History of the Military Wife. New York: Praeger Publishers, 1991.

Angelo, Bonnie. First Families: The Impact of White House on Their Lives. New York: HarperCollinsPublishers, 2005.

C-SPAN, “First Lady Mamie Eisenhower,” National Cable Satellite Corporation, https://www.c- span.org/video/?314532-1/lady-mamie-eisenhower (accessed June 24, 2019).

Cook, Cindy. “The Mystery of the Eisenhower Toile,” Textile Society of America Symposium Proceedings (January 1998): 339-348.

Crossley, Ann. The Army Wife Handbook: A Complete Social Guide. Sarasota, FL: ABI Press, 1990.

163

Dewhirst, Robert E. Dutiful Service: The Life of Mrs. Mamie Eisenhower. New York: Nova History Publications, 2004.

“Eisenhower Military Chronology,” Eisenhower National Park Service, https://www.nps.gov/features/eise/jrranger/chronomil1.htm, accessed April 19, 2019.

Eisenhower’s Secret War, produced by George Colburn, Starbright Media Corporation, 2013.

Eisenhower, Susan. Mrs. Ike: Memories and Reflections on the Life of Mamie Eisenhower. New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux, 1996.

Fisher, Roger. Tippecanoe and Trinkets Too: Material Culture of American Presidential Campaigns, 1828-1984. Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1988.

German, Kathleen M. “Mamie Geneva Doud Eisenhower: Reflecting the Mood of the Nation,” Inventing a Voice: The Rhetoric of American First Ladies of the Twentieth Century, ed. Molly Meijer Wertheimer. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc., 2004.

Greenstein, Fred I. The Hidden-Hand Presidency: Eisenhower As Leader. New York: Basic Books, Inc., Publishers, 1982.

Gruber, J. Richard We Like Ike: The Eisenhower Presidency and 1950s America. Wichita, KS: Wichita Art Museum, 1990.

Gutin Myra G. The President’s Partner: The First Lady in the Twentieth Century. New York: Greenwood Press, 1989.

Holt, Marilyn Irvin. Mamie Doud Eisenhower: The General’s First Lady. University of Kansas Press, 2007.

Jamieson, Kathleen Hall. Packaging the Presidency: A History and Criticism of Presidential Campaign Advertising. New York: Oxford University Press, 1992.

Kempton, Murray “The Underestimation of Dwight D. Eisenhower.” Esquire (September 1967): 108-156.

Kimball, D.L. I Remember Mamie. Fayette, IA: Trends and Events, Inc., 1981.

Koncus, Jura. “The Quiet Decorator,” The Washington Post, July 22, 1993.

May, Elaine Tyler, Homeward Bound: American Families in the Cold War Era. New York: Basic Books, 1988.

Mayo, Edith. “Be a Party Girl: Campaign Appeals to Women,” Hail to the Candidate: Presidential Campaigns from Banners to Broadcasts, ed. Keith Melder. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1992.

Marling, Karal Ann. “Mamie’s Hats: The White House, the New Look, and the Meaning of Style in the 1950s,” in Mamie Eisenhower—Wife, Mother, First Lady: Her Impact and Influence on Her Time, The Eisenhower National Seminar Proceedings. Gettysburg, PA: ENHS, 1998.

Murphy, Kate. “Bathrooms: Pretty in Pink, Again,” The New York Times, December 29, 2010.

Palmer, Kim. “Bathrooms Still in the Pink,” The Star Tribune, January 25, 2011.

Perret, Geoffrey. Eisenhower. New York: Random House, 1999.

Pickett, William. Eisenhower Decides to Run: Presidential Politics and Cold War Strategy. Chicago: Ivan R. Dee, 2000.

Plateris, Alexander. “100 Years of Marriage and Divorce Statistics: 1867-1967,” Vital and Health Statistics. Series 21 no. 24, December 1973): 1-68.

Roberts, John. Rating the First Ladies: Women Who Influenced the Presidency. New York: Kensington Publishing Corporation, 2003.

Slavin III, Richard. Opulent Textiles: The Schumacher Collection. New York: Crown Publishers, Inc., 1992.

Summersby Morgan, Kay. Past Forgetting: My Love Affair with Dwight D. Eisenhower. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1976.

Swain, Susan and C-SPAN, First Ladies: Presidential Historian on the Lives of 45 Iconic American Women. New York: Pubic Affairs, 2015.

Teasley, Martin M. “Mamie (Geneva Doud) Eisenhower,” American First Ladies: Their Lives and Their Legacy, ed. Lewis L. Gould. New York: Garland Publishing, Inc., 1996.

Troy, Gil. Affairs of State: The Rise and Rejection of the Presidential Couple Since World War II. New York: The Free Press, 1997.

Truman, Margaret. First Ladies: An Intimate Group of White House Wives. New York: Random House, 1995.

Weiss, Jessica. To Have and to Hold: Marriage, the Baby Boom, and Social Change. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 2000.

Wilroy, Mary Edith and Lucie Prinz, Inside Blair House. Garden City, NY: Double Day & Company, Inc., 1982.

VITAE

Stefanie Strosnider Basalik is the Executive Director of the Washington County Historical Society in Hagerstown, Maryland. She obtained a B.A. in History and Political Science from Bridgewater College and M.A. in History from James Madison University. Before working for the Washington County Historical Society, Stefanie was the Museum Curator for the Carroll County Farm Museum and a Museum Technician for Gettysburg National Military Park and Eisenhower National Historic Site.