Introducing Computational Thinking in K-12 Education: Historical, Epistemological, Pedagogical, Cognitive, and Affective Aspects
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Alma Mater Studiorum · Universit`adi Bologna Dottorato di Ricerca in COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING Ciclo XXXII Settore Concorsuale: 01/B1 INFORMATICA Settore Scientifico Disciplinare: INF/01 INFORMATICA INTRODUCING COMPUTATIONAL THINKING IN K-12 EDUCATION: HISTORICAL, EPISTEMOLOGICAL, PEDAGOGICAL, COGNITIVE, AND AFFECTIVE ASPECTS Presentata da: MICHAEL LODI Coordinatore Dottorato: Supervisore: Chiar.mo Prof. Chiar.mo Prof. DAVIDE SANGIORGI SIMONE MARTINI Esame finale anno 2020 Contents Contents i Abstract vii Publications by the Author ix Terminology xiii Introduction1 I Literature Review 15 1 CS in K-12 Education 17 1.1 The Importance of CS in Society and in Schools................ 17 1.2 CS in School Curricula............................. 19 1.3 Other Initiatives................................. 20 1.3.1 Code.org................................. 21 1.4 The Situation in Italy.............................. 21 1.4.1 The Italian School System....................... 21 1.4.2 CS in the Curriculum.......................... 22 1.4.3 Teacher Training............................ 23 1.4.4 Recent Developments.......................... 23 1.4.5 The \Programma il Futuro" Project.................. 24 1.5 Conclusions................................... 25 2 Computational Thinking and Coding 27 2.1 Computational Thinking............................. 27 2.2 Five Definitions of CT.............................. 28 2.2.1 Common Aspects............................ 30 2.3 Misconceptions about CT definitions...................... 33 2.4 Coding...................................... 34 2.5 Conclusions................................... 36 i ii CONTENTS 3 Pedagogy 37 3.1 Learning Theories and Paradigms........................ 37 3.1.1 Behaviorism............................... 37 3.1.2 Cognitivism............................... 39 3.1.3 Constructivism.............................. 40 3.1.4 Humanism................................ 44 3.2 Constructionism................................. 44 3.2.1 Situating Constructionism........................ 45 3.2.2 Constructionism vs. Instructionism................... 45 3.3 Creative Learning................................ 46 3.4 Conclusions................................... 49 4 Transfer 51 4.1 Transfer of Learning............................... 51 4.2 Transfer and HOTS............................... 53 4.3 Current Pedagogical Research on Transfer................... 55 4.3.1 Transfer and Learning Approaches................... 57 4.4 Transfer and CS Education........................... 57 4.4.1 A Recent Meta-Review......................... 61 4.5 Conclusions................................... 61 5 Implicit theories 63 5.1 Mindset Theory................................. 63 5.1.1 Mindset Effects............................. 64 5.1.2 Mindset Interventions.......................... 64 5.1.3 Teachers' Mindset............................ 65 5.1.4 Critics and Responses.......................... 65 5.2 Growth Mindset in Computer Science..................... 66 5.3 Conclusions................................... 68 II History, Epistemology and Pedagogy 69 6 CT from Papert to Wing 71 6.1 Introduction................................... 71 6.2 Prehistory.................................... 72 6.3 Papert's Computational Thinking, in Context................. 74 6.4 The Digital Discontinuity............................ 78 6.5 Views, Misinterpretations, Perspectives..................... 79 6.5.1 Wing's CT................................ 80 6.5.2 Papert's CT............................... 83 6.6 Conclusions................................... 84 CONTENTS iii 7 A Curriculum Proposal 87 7.1 Context, Process and Background of the Proposal............... 87 7.1.1 Writing and Revision Process...................... 87 7.1.2 Other Curriculum in Europe...................... 88 7.2 A Core Informatics Curriculum......................... 89 7.2.1 Area of Algorithms........................... 90 7.2.2 Area of Programming.......................... 91 7.2.3 Area of Data and Information...................... 92 7.2.4 Area of Digital Creativity........................ 93 7.2.5 Area of Digital Awareness........................ 93 7.3 Conclusions and Future Perspective....................... 94 8 Learning CT in a Constructive Way 97 8.1 Constructionism and Learning to Program................... 97 8.2 What Does It Mean to Learn Programming?.................. 98 8.2.1 Notional Machines........................... 101 8.2.2 Misconceptions............................. 102 8.3 Educational Programming Languages...................... 104 8.3.1 LOGO.................................. 104 8.3.2 Smalltalk................................. 106 8.3.3 Boxer.................................. 107 8.3.4 BASIC, Pascal.............................. 107 8.3.5 Scheme, Racket............................. 108 8.3.6 Visual Programming Languages..................... 109 8.3.7 Stride.................................. 113 8.3.8 Common features............................ 114 8.4 (CS) Unplugged................................. 115 8.4.1 Applying CS Unplugged......................... 117 8.4.2 CS Unplugged, Constructivism and Constructionism.......... 118 8.4.3 Unplugged and transfer of CT skills.................. 120 8.5 Learning to Program in Teams......................... 121 8.5.1 Iterative Software Development..................... 121 8.6 Conclusions................................... 122 9 Unplugged and Plugged for Primary School 125 9.1 Principles.................................... 125 9.2 Activities..................................... 126 9.2.1 Domo: a \Computational" Butler................... 126 9.2.2 Activity with Scratch.......................... 128 9.3 Conclusion.................................... 132 iv CONTENTS III Teachers' Conceptions 135 10 Sentiment About PiF Project 137 10.1 Participation Data................................ 137 10.2 Project Monitoring............................... 138 10.2.1 Data Collection............................. 138 10.2.2 Quantitative Data Analysis....................... 138 10.2.3 Qualitative Data Analysis........................ 139 10.3 Conclusions and Future Perspectives...................... 144 11 Conceptions About CT and Coding 145 11.1 Purpose of the Study.............................. 146 11.2 Related Work.................................. 146 11.3 Methods..................................... 147 11.3.1 Instrument................................ 147 11.3.2 Sample Description........................... 148 11.3.3 Procedures................................ 150 11.4 Technology and Preparation Perceptions.................... 151 11.4.1 Q2 and Q3: Technology and Computational Thinking......... 151 11.4.2 Q4 and Q5: Teachers' Preparation................... 153 11.5 Q1: Teachers' Definition of CT......................... 153 11.5.1 Categories................................ 153 11.5.2 Analysis of Category Distribution.................... 156 11.5.3 Analysis of Answer Values Distribution................. 157 11.5.4 Conceptions and Misconceptions Regarding CT............ 159 11.6 Conceptions on Coding............................. 160 11.6.1 Q6 - Coding is. ............................. 160 11.6.2 Q7 - Is coding different from writing programs?............ 163 11.6.3 Q8 - The difference between coding and writing programs is. .... 164 11.6.4 Joint Distribution of Q6 and Q8.................... 168 11.7 Conclusions and Further Work......................... 169 IV Implicit Theories 171 12 CS Does Not Automatically Foster GM 173 12.1 Introduction................................... 173 12.2 The Study.................................... 175 12.2.1 Participants............................... 175 12.2.2 Methods................................. 175 12.3 Results...................................... 178 12.3.1 Quantitative Analysis.......................... 178 12.3.2 Qualitative Analysis........................... 182 12.4 Discussion, Conclusions, and Further Work................... 182 CONTENTS v 13 Creative Computing Could Foster GM 185 13.1 Introduction and Motivations.......................... 185 13.2 Computer Anxiety................................ 186 13.3 The Study.................................... 186 13.3.1 The Context............................... 186 13.3.2 The Course............................... 187 13.3.3 Data Collection............................. 189 13.4 Data Analysis and Results............................ 190 13.4.1 Growth Mindset............................. 191 13.4.2 Computer Anxiety............................ 192 13.4.3 Data Validity.............................. 192 13.4.4 Limitations of the Study........................ 193 13.5 Discussion, Conclusions, and Further Work................... 193 V Conclusions, Appendix and Bibliography 195 14 Conclusions 197 14.1 Results...................................... 197 14.2 Limitations.................................... 199 14.3 Future Work................................... 200 A Other CT Definitions and Classifications 203 B CS K-10 Curriculum Proposal 211 B.1 Foreword..................................... 211 B.2 Preamble..................................... 212 B.3 Primary School................................. 214 B.3.1 Competence Goals at the End of Primary School........... 214 B.3.2 Knowledge and Skills at the End of the Third Grade of Primary... 214 B.3.3 Knowledge and Skills at the End of the Fifth Grade of Primary.... 215 B.4 Lower Secondary School............................. 217 B.4.1 Competence Goals at the End of Lower Secondary School...... 217 B.4.2