Network Analysis of the Interaction Between Different Religious and Philosophical Movements in Early Judaism

Home , Essenes, Qumran Caves, Sadducees, Teacher of Righteousness, Yigael Yadin, Zealots

Article Network Analysis of the Interaction between Different Religious and Philosophical Movements in Early Judaism

Igor R. Tantlevskij 1 , Ekaterina V. Gromova 2,3 and Dmitry Gromov 2,*

1 Department of Jewish Culture, Saint Peterburg State University, 199034 St. Petersburg, Russia; [email protected] 2 Faculty of Applied Mathematics and Control Processes, St. Petersburg State University, 199034 St. Petersburg, Russia; [email protected] 3 Higher School of Economics, National Research University, St. Petersburg Campus, 190121 St Petersburg, Russia * Correspondence: [email protected]

Abstract: This paper presents an attempt to systematically describe and interpret the evolution of different religious and political movements in Judaea during the period of the Second Temple using the methods of the theory of social networks. We extensively analyzed the relationship between the main Jewish sects: Pharisees, Sadducees, Essenes (Qumranites), and later also Zealots. It is shown that the evolution of the relations between these sects agreed with the theory of social balance and their relations evolved toward more socially balanced structures.

Keywords: Judaean sects; social networks; social network analysis; signed graphs; Essenes; Qumran- ites; Sadducees; Pharisees; Zealots

1. Introduction

Citation: Tantlevskij, I.R.; Gromova, There has been a lot of interest in understanding and interpreting the evolution of E.V.; Gromov, D. Network Analysis of Judaism during the early stage of Jewish history, in particular during the periods of the the Interaction between Different First and Second Temple. In this contribution, we consider the relations between different Religious and Philosophical schools of Judaism during the period of the Second Temple. It is argued that the evolution Movements in Early Judaism. of the relations between different schools of thought that existed in that time can be better Philosophies 2021, 6, 2. https:// captured and understood using the theory of social networks, in particular the theory of doi.org/10.3390/philosophies6010002 signed social graphs, which has proved to be very efficient in analyzing different historical, political, and social interactions (see Section 4.1 for a detailed introduction to the theory of Received: 15 December 2020 signed networks and its applications). Accepted: 31 December 2020 In this contribution, we consider the following Jewish sects: Pharisees, Sadducees, Published: 8 January 2021 Essenes (Qumranites), and Zealots. Those sects continuously interacted with each other, forming friendly ties, or developing animosity. Identifying the genesis, development, Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neu- interactions, and relationships of Judaean sects in the Hellenistic era and up to the de- tral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutio- struction of the Second Temple poses a major challenge. This is due to the fact that their nal affiliations. extant descriptions by their contemporaries are extremely scant and biased and are mostly directed at non-Jews; as for the rabbinic accounts of these Judaean sects, they are recorded about two to five centuries after these sects left the historical scene. Moreover, the Essenes are not mentioned at all either in the New Testament or in the Talmud. The Qumran Copyright: © 2021 by the authors. Li- scrolls (2nd century BCE–1st century CE) shed a whole new light on the emergence of censee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. sectarian Judaism. Following most researchers, we identify the Qumran community as This article is an open access article a congregation of the Essene trend (see Section2 for a detailed account on the identifica- distributed under the terms and con- tion of Qumranites and their relation to Essenes). On the other hand, the esoteric nature ditions of the Creative Commons At- of manuscripts from Qumran caves, the use of symbols, pejorative nicknames, ciphers, tribution (CC BY) license (https:// tendentious judgments, and direct language of hostility do not allow us to clearly restore creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ the picture of the emergence, interactions, and relationships of key Jewish sects in the 4.0/).

Philosophies 2021, 6, 2. https://doi.org/10.3390/philosophies6010002 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/philosophies Philosophies 2021, 6, x PhilosophiesFOR PEER REVIEW2021, 6, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 13 2 of 13 Philosophies 2021,, 6,, xx FORFOR PEERPEER REVIEWREVIEW 2 of 13 Philosophies 2021, 6, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 13

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In Section 2 we briefly introduce the main Judaean sectsThe and paper outline issects organizedtheir and origins outline as follows. and their main In origins Sectionfeatures. and2 we We main briefly specifically features. introduce considerWe the specifically main Essenes Judaean consider and Essenes and sects and outline their origins and main features. We specifically consider Essenes and sectsshow and that outline it can show theirbe identified originsthat it can andwith be main the identified sect features. of Qumranites.with We the specifically sect Sectionof Qumranites. consider 3 is devoted Essenes Section to and the3 is devoted to the show that it can be identified with the sect of Qumranites. Section 3 is devoted to the showanalysis that of it the can dynamicsanalysis be identified of theinteraction with dynamics the sectbe tweenof ofinteraction Qumranites. the principal between Section Judaean the3 principalis sects: devoted Sadducees, Judaean to the sects: Sadducees, analysis of the dynamics of interaction betweentween thethe principalprincipal JudaeanJudaean sects:sects: Sadducees,Sadducees, analysisPharisees, of Essenes, the dynamicsPharisees, and later of Essenes, interaction also Zealots and between later and alsoSicarii. the Zealots principal Necessary an Judaeand Sicarii. facts sects:aboutNecessary Sadducees,the signed facts about the signed Pharisees, Essenes, and later also Zealots and Sicarii. Necessary facts about the signed Pharisees,graphs and Essenes, respectivegraphs and signed laterand respective alsonetworks Zealots signedtheory and networksare Sicarii. presented Necessary theory in Sectionare facts presented about4. Finally, thein Section signedSection 4. Finally, Section graphs and respective signed networks theory are presented in Section 4. Finally, Section graphs5 provides and an respective interpretation5 provides signed anof networks interpretationthe processes theory describedof are the presented processes in Section in described Section 5 in4 terms. Finally,in Section of the Section signed5 in 5terms of the signed 5 provides an interpretation of the processes described in Section 5 in terms of the signed graphsprovidesgraphs theory.theory. an interpretation TheThegraphs paperpaper theory. concludesconcludes of the The processes withpaperwith aa concludes DiscussionDiscussion described with in Section.Section. Section a Discussion 5 in terms Section. of the signed graphs theory. The paper concludes with a Discussion Section. 2.2. AA BriefBrief ExcursionExcursion2. A into intoBrief thethe Excursion PrincipalPrincipal into JudaeanJudaean the Principal SectsSects Judaean Sects 2. A A Brief Brief Excursion Excursion into the Principal Judaean Sects JosephusJosephusJosephus FlaviusFlaviusFlavius Josephus (37/38–after(37/38–after(37/38–after Flavius 100100100 CE),CE), CE),(37/38–after descridescridescribingbing 100 thethe CE), riserise descri ofof threethreebing principal principalthe rise of JudaeanJudaean three principal Judaean Josephus Flavius (37/38–after 100 100 CE), CE), descri describingbing the the rise rise of of three principal Judaean sects—thesects—the Pharisees Phariseessects—the (lit. (lit. “set “set Pharisees apart, apart, separate separate (lit. “setd”),d”), apart, the the Sadducees Sadduceesseparated”), (probably (probably the Sadducees after after Zadok, Zadok, (probably the the after Zadok, the sects—thesects — the Pharisees Pharisees (lit. (lit. “set “set apart, apart, separate separated”),d”), the theSadducees Sadducees (probably (probably after after Zadok, Zadok, the firstfirstfirst HighHighHigh PriestPriestPriest ofofoffirst thethethe High FirstFirstFirst Priest Temple),Temple),Temple), of the andandand First EssenesEssenesEssenes Temple), (according(according(according and Essenes tototo VitaVita (according,,, II,II,II, 10–12,10–12,10–12, hehetohe Vitastudiedstudiedstudied, II, 10–12, he studied firstthe firstHigh High Priest Priest of the of First the Temple), First Temple), and Essenes and Essenes (according (according to Vita,to II, Vita10–12,, II, he 10–12, studied he thesethesethese JewishJewishJewish sectssectssectsthese “in“in“in Jewish practice”),practice”),practice”), sects singlessinglessingles“in practice”), outout thethe singlesattitudeattitude out towatowa therdsrds attitude predestinationpredestination towards predestination thesestudied Jewish these Jewishsects “in sects practice”), “in practice”), singles singles out outthe the attitude attitude towa towardsrds predestinationpredestination ((εἱμαρμένηεἱμαρμένη;; lit.lit. “lot”,“lot”,(εἱμαρμένη “fate”,“fate”,; lit.destiny”,destiny”, “lot”, “fate”,sc.sc. Providence)Providence) destiny”, as assc. the theProvidence) mainmain aspectaspect as oftheof religious religiousmain aspect of religious (εἱμαρμένηε µαρµε´νη;; lit.lit. “lot”, “lot”, “fate”, “fate”, destiny”, sc. Providence)Providence) as as the the main aspect of religious “schools”“schools” separationseparation“schools” inin JudaeaJudaea separation inin thethe middlemiddle in Judaea ofof the thein the 2nd2nd middle centurycentury of BCEBCE the 2nd ((AntiquitatesAntiquitates century BCE JudaicaeJudaicae (Antiquitates Judaicae “schools”“schools” separationseparation inin JudaeaJudaea in the middle of the 2nd century BCE (Antiquitates Judaicae [further–Antt.], XIII,[further– 171–173).Antt. ],The XIII, hist 171–173).orian notes The that hist theorian very notes essence that theof thevery Essenes’ essence of the Essenes’ [further–[further–Antt.Antt.],],], XIII,XIII, 171–173).171–173). TheThe The histhist historianorian notes notes that that the the very very essence essence of of the the Essenes’ Essenes’ doctrine is “that alldoctrine things is are “that best all ascribed things areto God” best ascribed (ib., XVIII, to 18,God” see ( ib.also:, XVIII, ib., XIII, 18, see172). also: ib., XIII, 172). doctrine is “that all things are best ascribed to God” ( ib.ib.,, XVIII,XVIII, 18,18, seesee also:also: ib.ib.ib.,,, XIII,XIII, XIII, 172).172). 172). Pliny the Elder (HistoriaPliny the Naturalis Elder (Historia, V, 15, 73)Naturalis asserts, V,that 15, the 73) numbers asserts that of the the Essenes numbers “are of the Essenes “are Pliny the Elder ( Historia Naturalis ,,, V,V, V, 15,15, 73)73) assertsassertsasserts thatthatthat thethethe numbersnumbersnumbers ofof thethethe EssenesEssenesEssenes “are“are fully recruited byfully multitudes recruited of bystrangers multitudes that resortof strangers to them, that driven resort thither to them, to adoptdriven their thither to adopt their fullyfully recruitedrecruited recruited byby by multitudesmultitudes multitudes ofof of strangersstrangers strangers thatthat that resort resort to them, to them, driven driven thither thither to adopt to adopt their usages by the tempestsusages ofby fortune”. the tempests The mentionof fortune”. of fortuna The mention (this term of fortuna correlates (this with term the correlates with the usagestheir usages by the by tempests the tempests of fortune”. of fortune”. The mention The mention of fortunafortuna of (this(thisfortuna termterm(this correlatescorrelates term correlates withwith thethe εἱμαρμένη in Josephus’εἱμαρμένη account) in Josephus’ in this context account) can in imply this context the Essenes’ can imply belief the in Essenes’ predesti- belief in predesti- εἱμαρμένηwith the ε µαρµ inin Josephus’Josephus’ε´νη in Josephus’ account)account) account)inin thisthis contextcontext in this cancan context implyimply can thethe imply Essenes’Essenes’ the beliefbelief Essenes’ inin predesti-predesti- belief in nation, accordingnation, to which according the sectarians, to which as thethey sectarians, thought, foundas they themselves thought, found in the themselves com- in the com- nation,predestination, according according to which to the which sectarians, the sectarians, as theythey as thought,thought, they thought, foundfound foundthemselvesthemselves themselves inin thethe in com-com- the munity. Cf.: Solinus,munity. De mirabilibus Cf.: Solinus, mundi De ,mirabilibus XXXV, 9, who mundi used, XXXV, the word 9, who providentia used the (“prov-word providentia (“prov- munity.community. Cf.: Solinus, (Cf.: Solinus, De mirabilibusDe mirabilibus mundi,,mundi XXXV,XXXV,, XXXV, 9,9, whowho 9,usedused who thethe used wordword the providentia word providentia (“prov-(“providence”) in this connection.)idence”) in thisThe connection.)widely spread The Essene widely practice spread of Essene the prediction practice ofof thefuture prediction of future idence”)(“providence”)idence”) inin thisthis inconnection.)connection.) this connection.) TheThe widelywidely Thewidely spreadspread spread EsseneEssene Essene practicepractice practice ofof thethe predictionprediction of the prediction ofof futurefuture of events (includingevents personal (including fates), well personal known fates), to Josephus well known Flavius to Josephus (see, e.g., Flavius Bellum Judai-(see, e.g., Bellum Judai- eventsfuture events(including (including personal personal fates), well fates), known well known to Josephus to Josephus Flavius Flavius (see, e.g., (see, Bellum e.g., Bellum Judai- cum [further – BJcum], I, 78–80;[further II, – 111–113, BJ], I, 78–80; 159; Antt.II, 111–113,, XIII, 311–313; 159; Antt. XVII,, XIII, 346–348; 311–313; XV, XVII, 371– 346–348; XV, 371– cumJudaicum [further[further[further –– BJ],], – I,I,BJ 78–80;78–80;], I, 78–80; II,II, 111–113,111–113, II, 111–113, 159;159; Antt. 159; ,,Antt. XIII,XIII,, 311–313;311–313; XIII, 311–313; XVII,XVII, XVII,346–348;346–348; 346–348; XV,XV, 371–371– XV, 379; XVII, 345–348;379; cf. XVII, also: 345–348;Hyppolitus cf. also:of Rome, Hyppolitus Philosophumena of Rome,, IX, Philosophumena 27), was likely, IX, to 27), be was likely to be 379;371–379; XVII, XVII, 345–348; 345–348; cf. also: cf. also: Hyppolitus Hyppolitus of Rome, of Rome, PhilosophumenaPhilosophumena,, IX,IX,, IX,27),27), 27), waswas was likelylikely likely toto bebe to based on their beliefbased in on predetermination. their belief in predetermination. (In Antt., III, 214–218, (In Antt. Joseph, III,us 214–218, speaks Josephof the us speaks of the basedbe based on ontheir their belief belief in inpredetermination. predetermination. (In (In Antt.Antt.,, III,,III, III, 214–218,214–218, 214–218, JosephJoseph Josephusus speaks speaks of the Judaean High Priest’sJudaean breastplate High Priest’s and describes breastplate its androle describesin the process its role of inpredictions. the process He of predictions. He JudaeanJudaean High High Priest’s Priest’s breastplate breastplate and and describes describes its its role role inin the processprocess ofofof predictions.predictions.predictions. HeHe transcribes the Hebrewtranscribes word the ḥḥō Hebrewšen for a word“breastplate” ḥōšen for as a ἐσσήν“breastplate”, and correlates as ἐσσήν the, and latter correlates the latter transcribestranscribes thethe HebrewHebrew wordword ḥh. ōošen¯šen forfor a a “breastplate”“breastplate” as as ἐσσήνσση´ν,, and and correlatescorrelates thethe latterlatter term with the Greekterm λόγιον with the, “oracle” Greek λόγιον(ib., III,, 163,“oracle” 217; cf.(ib. the, III, Se 163,ptuagint’s 217; cf. correlatethe Septuagint’s term correlate term termterm with with the the Greek Greek λλόγιονóγιoν,, “oracle” “oracle” ((ib.ib.,, III,III, 163,163, 217;217;217; cf.cf.cf. the Septuagint’sSeSeptuagint’s correlate termterm λογεῖον). It is notλογεῖον impossible). It is that not Josephus impossible perceived that Josephus the implicit perceived meaning the implicit “prediction” meaning “prediction” λογεῖονλoγε oν).). ItIt It isis notnot impossibleimpossible thatthat JosephusJosephus perceivedperceived thethe implicitimplicit meaningmeaning “prediction”“prediction” from the designationfrom Ἐσσηνοί theσσην designation.) In the Ἐσσηνοίlight of these.) In theconsid lighterations, of these it consid seemserations, most natural it seems most natural fromfrom the the designation designation Ἐσσηνοίoι´.).) In In the the light light of of these these consid considerations,considerations, it seems most natural to correlate the hithertoto correlate unclarified the hitherto etymology unclarified of the etymology term Ἐσσαῖοισσα of ιthe / Ἐσσηνοίtermσσην Ἐσσαῖοι with the/ Ἐσσηνοί with the toto correlate correlate thethe hithertohitherto unclarifiedunclarifiedunclarified etymologyetymology ofof thethethe termtermterm Ἐσσαῖοιo /// Ἐσσηνοίoι´ withwith thethe Aramaic notion ḥḥAramaicšy /ḥḥš᾿ [1] notion (p. 508); ḥšy cf.: /ḥ š[2]᾿ [1] (p. (p. 217), 508); which cf.: [2] is (p.interpreted 217), which as “whatis interpreted man has as “what man has Aramaic notion notion ḥh.šyšy // /ḥh.šš᾿᾿ [1][1][1 ](p.(p. (p. 508);508); 508); cf.:cf.: cf.: [2][2] [ 2(p.(p.] (p. 217),217), 217), whichwhich which isis interpretedinterpreted is interpreted asas “what“what as “what manman man hashas to suffer, predestination,to suffer, fortune” predestination, [1] (p. 508). fortune” The term[1] (p. ḥḥ šy508).h isšy attested The term in ḥthešy isMidrash attested on in the Midrash on totohas suffer,suffer, to suffer, predestination,predestination, predestination, fortune”fortune” fortune” [1][1] (p.(p. [1] 508).508). (p. 508). TheThe The termterm term ḥšy .isis attestedattestedis attested inin thethe in the MidrashMidrash Midrash onon onthe theBook Book of Lamentations, of Lamentations,the Book ofor Lamentations, Eichah or Eichah Rabbah Rabbah (89:14;or Eichah(89:14; ib. Rabbah20),ib. which, (89:14;20), along which, ib. 20), with along which, thewith Bereshith along the with the Bereshith thethe BookBook ofof Lamentations,Lamentations, oror Eichah Rabbah (89:14;(89:14; ib.ib. 20),20), which,which, alongalong withwith thethe Bereshith BereshithRabbah and Rabbah the PesiqtaandRabbah the de-Rab andPesiqta the Kahana de-Rab Pesiqta, is Kahana de-Rabthe oldest, Kahana is the composition oldest, is the composition oldest of the composition Midrashic of the Midrashic literature.of the Midrashic literature. Rabbah andand thethe Pesiqta de-Rab Kahana,, isis thethe oldestoldest compositioncomposition ofof thethe MidrashicMidrashic literature.literature. literature.It was written It was in writtenItthe was so-called written in the Jewish so-called in the Palestinianso-called Jewish PalestinianJewish Aramaic, Palestinian Aramaic,which continued,Aramaic, which continued, which as opposed continued, as as opposed ItIt waswas writtenwritten inin thethe so-calledso-called JewishJewish PalestinianPalestinian Aramaic,Aramaic, whichwhich continued,continued, asas opposedopposed opposedto the other to theWestern otherto the WesternAramaic other Western Aramaiclanguages Aramaic languages of the languagesmiddle of the stage, middle of the one stage,middle of the one writtenstage, of the one Old written of Ara- the written Old Ara- toto thethe otherother WesternWestern AramaicAramaic languageslanguages ofof thethe middlemiddle stage,stage, oneone ofof thethe writtenwritten OldOld Ara-Ara- Oldmaic Aramaic languages languages ofmaic the languageswestern of the westernbranch. of the Onewestern branch. can Onebranch.try to can reconstruct One try tocan reconstruct try a conjecturalto reconstruct a conjectural noun a conjectural(m. noun (m. maic languages of the western branch. One can try to reconstruct a conjectural noun (m. pl.) of the same root after the model C1aC2C2aC3 (normally designations of persons by their pl.nounpl.))) of ofof the the(them. same samesame pl.) ofroot rootroot the after afterafter same the thethe root model modelmodel after C C111aCaC the222CC model222aCaC333 (normally (normally(normallyC1aC2C 2designations designationsdesignationsaC3 (normally of ofof persons persons designationspersons by byby their theirtheir of pl.) of the same root after the model C1aC2C2aC3 (normally designations of persons by their personsprofession, by theirusualprofession, profession,activity, et usualc. usual are activity, activity,formed afteret etc.c. are areit) formedas formed ḥḥaššayy after afterā᾿ init)it) st. as as det. ḥhaššayyaššayy, respectivelyā᾿a¯ inin st.st. det. , respectively profession, usual activity, etc. are formed after it) as ḥaššayyā᾿ inin st. det.. ,, respectivelyrespectively ḥdet.ḥš(᾿,)(y)yn respectively in st. abs.ḥhš(š( The᾿)(y)yn)(y)yn etymology inin st.st. abs. abs. of The theThe etymology term etymology Ἐσσαῖοι of theof / Ἐσσηνοί theterm term Ἐσσαῖοι derivedσσα / oἘσσηνοί fromι / σσηνthis derived hy-oι´ from this hy- ḥš(᾿᾿)(y)yn)(y)yn inin st. abs.. TheThe etymologyetymology ofof thethe termterm Ἐσσαῖοι // Ἐσσηνοί derivedderived fromfrom thisthis hy-hy- derivedpothetical from term this appearspothetical hypothetical to termbe termrelevant appears appears not to only tobe be relevant semantically, relevant not not only only but semantically, semantically,also linguistically. but also In linguistically. In pothetical term appears to be relevant not only semantically, but also linguistically. In linguistically.connection with In theconnection correspondence with with the the of correspondence correspondence the beginnings of in of the spelling, the beginnings beginnings the following in inspelling, spelling, transcrip- the the following transcrip- connection with the correspondence of the beginnings in spelling, the following transcrip- followingtions are attested transcriptionstions to in areHellenistic are attested attested sources:to to in in Hellenistic Hellenistic ḤḤаmmoṯṯ sources:is normally HḤ. ammoаmmo renderedtṯ isis normallynormally as Ἐμμαοῦς rendered rendered [3] as Ἐμμαοῦς [3] tionstions areare attestedattested toto inin HellenisticHellenistic sources:sources: Ḥаmmoṯ isis normallynormally renderedrendered¯ asas Ἐμμαοῦς [3][3] as(p. 108);µµα ḥoḥvō˜ςšen[3—as] (p.(p. ἐσσήν 108); 108);h. ošenḥ¯(Antt.,ōšen—as—as III, σσἐσσήν163,η´ν 217)(Antt., (Antt., (moreover, III, III, 163, 163, 217)on 217)e should (moreover, (moreover, bear one inon minde should should that bear bear the in mind that the (p.(p. 108);108); ḥōšen—as ἐσσήν (Antt.,(Antt., III,III, 163,163, 217)217) (moreover,(moreover, onone should bear in mind that the originalinoriginal mind pronunciation thatpronunciation the original ofof pronunciationthethe sect’ssect’s namename of could couldthe sect’s beginbegin name withwith could ἙἙ-,-,-, notnotnot begin ἘἘ-);-);-); withasasas forforfor Ἑ thethe-,the not GreekGreekGreek Ἐ-); as for the Greek originalas for the pronunciation Greek “endings” of the -α sect’soι/-ην nameoι´, they could can begin represent with transcriptionsἙ-, not Ἐ-); as of for the the Aramaic Greek

Philosophies 2021, 6, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 13

Philosophies 2021, 6, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 13 picture of the emergence, interactions, and relationships of key Jewish sects in the Hellen- Philosophies 2021, 6, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 13 istic era. In this regard, we find it promising to try to use the framework of signed social networks to better understand and visualize the processes in the development of sectarian Judaism that were taking place during those picturetimes. of the emergence, interactions, and relationships of key Jewish sects in the Hellen- The paper is organized as follows. In Sectionistic 2era. we In briefly this regard, introducepicture we thefind of main itthe promising Judaeanemergence, to tryinteractions, to use the and framework relationships of signed of key social Jewish sects in the Hellen- sects and outline their origins and main features.networks We tospecifically better understand isticconsider era. and InEssenes this visualize regard, and the we processes find it promising in the development to try to use of sectarianthe framework of signed social show that it can be identified with the sect Judaismof Qumranites. that were Section takingnetworks 3 place is devoted during to better to those understandthe times. and visualize the processes in the development of sectarian analysis of the dynamics of interaction between theThe principal paper is organizedJudaeanJudaism sects: as follows.that Sadducees, were In taking Section place 2 we during briefly thoseintroduce times. the main Judaean Pharisees, Essenes, and later also Zealots ansectsd Sicarii. and outlineNecessary their facts origins aboutThe andpaper the main signedis organized features. asWe follows. specifically In Section consider 2 we Essenesbriefly introduce and the main Judaean graphs and respective signed networks theoryshow are presentedthat it can in be Section identifiedsects 4. and Finally, with outline theSection theirsect oforigins Qumranites. and main Section features. 3 is Wedevoted specifically to the consider Essenes and 5 provides an interpretation of the processes analysisdescribed of in the Section dynamics 5 showin terms of interactionthat of itthe can signed be tweenidentified the principalwith the Judaeansect of Qumranites. sects: Sadducees, Section 3 is devoted to the graphs theory. The paper concludes with a DiscussionPharisees, Section.Essenes, andanalysis later also of the Zealots dynamics and Sicarii.of interaction Necessary between facts theabout principal the signed Judaean sects: Sadducees, graphs and respective Pharisees,signed networks Essenes, theory and arelater presented also Zealots in Section and Sicarii. 4. Finally, Necessary Section facts about the signed 2. A Brief Excursion into the Principal Judaean5 provides Sects an interpretationgraphs of and the respective processes signeddescribed networks in Section theory 5 in are terms presented of the signed in Section 4. Finally, Section Josephus Flavius (37/38–after 100 CE), descrigraphsbing theory. the rise The of paper three5 provides concludesprincipal an Judaeaninterpretationwith a Discussion of the Section. processes described in Section 5 in terms of the signed sects—the Pharisees (lit. “set apart, separated”), the Sadducees (probablygraphs after theory. Zadok, The the paper concludes with a Discussion Section. first High Priest of the First Temple), and Essenes2. A Brief (according Excursion to Vita into, II, the 10–12, Principal he studied Judaean Sects these Jewish sects “in practice”), singles out Josephusthe attitude Flavius towa 2.(37/38–after Ards Brief predestination Excursion 100 CE), intodescri thebing Principal the rise Judaean of three Sectsprincipal Judaean (εἱμαρμένη; lit. “lot”, “fate”, destiny”, sc. Providence)sects—the Pharisees as the main (lit. “setaspectJosephus apart, of separatereligious Flaviusd”), (37/38–after the Sadducees 100 CE), (probably describing after the Zadok, rise of the three principal Judaean “schools” separation in Judaea in the middle firstof the High 2nd Priestcentury of BCEthe sects—theFirst (Antiquitates Temple), Pharisees Judaicae and Essenes (lit. “set (according apart, separate to Vitad”),, II, the 10–12, Sadducees he studied (probably after Zadok, the [further–Antt.], XIII, 171–173). The historian thesenotes Jewishthat the sectsvery essence“infirst practice”), High of the Priest Essenes’ singles of the Firstout Temple),the attitude and Essenestowards (according predestination to Vita , II, 10–12, he studied doctrine is “that all things are best ascribed to(εἱμαρμένη God” (ib., ;XVIII, lit. “lot”, 18, seethese “fate”, also: Jewish destiny”,ib., XIII, sects 172). sc. “inProvidence) practice”), as singlesthe main out aspect the ofattitude religious towa rds predestination Pliny the Elder (Historia Naturalis, V, 15, 73) asserts“schools” that separation the numbers in(εἱμαρμένη Judaea of the inEssenes the; lit. middle “lot”, “are of“fate”, the 2nd destiny”, century sc. BCE Providence) (Antiquitates as Judaicae the main aspect of religious fully recruited by multitudes of strangers that[further– resort toAntt. them,], XIII,driven 171–173).“schools” thither toThe separation adopt hist oriantheir in notes Judaea that in thethe middlevery essence of the 2ndof the century Essenes’ BCE (Antiquitates Judaicae usages by the tempests of fortune”. The mentiondoctrine of fortuna is “that (this all thingsterm[further– correlates are bestAntt. ascribed with], XIII, the 171–173). to God” (ib.The, XVIII, historian 18, see notes also: that ib. ,the XIII, very 172). essence of the Essenes’ εἱμαρμένη in Josephus’ account) in this contextPliny can the imply Elder the (Historia Essenes’doctrine Naturalis belief is in “that, V, predesti- 15, all 73) things asserts are that best the ascribed numbers to God” of the ( ib.Essenes, XVIII, “are 18, see also: ib., XIII, 172). nation, according to which the sectarians, as fullythey recruitedthought, foundby multitudes themselvesPliny the of strangersElder in the ( Historiacom- that resort Naturalis to them,, V, 15, driven 73) asserts thither that to adopt the numbers their of the Essenes “are munity. Cf.: Solinus, De mirabilibus mundi, XXXV,usages 9, who by the used tempests the wordfully of providentia fortune”. recruited The (“prov-by multitudesmention of of fortuna strangers (this that term resort correlates to them, with driven the thither to adopt their idence”) in this connection.) The widely spreadεἱμαρμένη Essene practice in Josephus’ of theusages account)prediction by the in of thistempests future context of canfortune”. imply Thethe Essenes’mention beliefof fortuna in predesti- (this term correlates with the events (including personal fates), well knownnation, to Josephus according Flavius to which (see,εἱμαρμένη e.g., the sectarians,Bellum in Josephus’ Judai- as they account) thought, in this found context themselves can imply in the the com- Essenes’ belief in predesti- cum [further – BJ], I, 78–80; II, 111–113, 159; Antt.munity., XIII, Cf.: 311–313; Solinus, XVII, Denation, mirabilibus 346–348; according mundiXV, 371– to, XXXV, which 9, the who sectarians, used the asword they providentia thought, found(“prov- themselves in the com- 379; XVII, 345–348; cf. also: Hyppolitus of Rome,idence”) Philosophumena in this connection.), IX,munity. 27), Thewas Cf.: widelylikely Solinus, to spread be De mirabilibus Essene practice mundi ,of XXXV, the prediction 9, who used of future the word providentia (“prov- based on their belief in predetermination. (Inevents Antt. ,(including III, 214–218, personal Josephidence”) fates),us speaksin thiswell connection.) ofknown the to Josephus The widely Flavius spread (see, Essene e.g., Bellum practice Judai- of the prediction of future Judaean High Priest’s breastplate and describescum its [further role in – the BJ], process I, 78–80;events of II, predictions. (including 111–113, 159;personal He Antt. ,fates), XIII, 311–313;well known XVII, to 346–348;Josephus XV, Flavius 371– (see, e.g., Bellum Judai- Philosophies 2021, 6, x FOR PEER REVIEW transcribes the Hebrew word ḥōšen for a “breastplate” as ἐσσήν, and correlates3 of 13 the latter 379; XVII, 345–348; cf. cumalso: [further Hyppolitus – BJ ],of I, Rome, 78–80; Philosophumena II, 111–113, 159;, IX, Antt. 27),, XIII,was likely311–313; to beXVII, 346–348; XV, 371– term with the Greek λόγιον, “oracle” (ib., III,based 163, 217; on theircf. the belief Septuagint’s in379; predetermination. XVII, correlate 345–348; term cf. (In also: Antt. Hyppolitus, III, 214–218, of Rome, Joseph Philosophumenaus speaks of the, IX, 27), was likely to be Philosophies 2021, 6, 2 3 of 13 λογεῖον). It is not impossible that Josephus perceivedJudaean High the implicit Priest’s meaningbasedbreastplate on “prediction”their and belief describes in predetermination. its role in the process (In Antt. of predictions., III, 214–218, He Joseph us speaks of the “endings”from -αῖοι the/ - ηνοίdesignation, they can Ἐσσηνοί represent.) In transcriptions the light oftranscribes these of the consid Aramaic theerations, Hebrew endingsJudaean it word seems -ayy ḥ ā᾿ Highōmost/-înšen for Priest’snatural a “breastplate” breastplate as and ἐσσήν describes, and correlates its role in the the latter process of predictions. He (pl. m. in tost. correlatedet. and pl.the m. hitherto in st. abs., unclarified respectively) etymology plusterm the of Greek withthe term the ending Greek Ἐσσαῖοι m. λόγιον pl.transcribes /- οίἘσσηνοί proper., “oracle” the with Hebrew (ib. the, III, 163,word 217; ḥō šencf. thefor aSe “breastplate”ptuagint’s correlate as ἐσσήν term, and correlates the latter So, if theAramaic suggested notionendings derivation ḥšy-ayy /ḥaš¯᾿ /-în[1]of (p.the(pl. 508); m.Ἐσσαῖοιin cf.:st. [2] det./Ἐσσηνοί (p.and λογεῖον217),pl.’s which m. etymology).in Itst. is abs.,interpretednot impossiblerespectively)fromterm the as with “whatrecon- that plus the Josephus man theGreek Greekhas λόγιον perceived ending, “oracle” the implicit (ib., III, meaning 163, 217; “prediction” cf. the Septuagint’s correlate term structed toAramaic suffer, termm.predestination, pl. ḥšy(y)-oι´ proper.᾿/ḥš(᾿ )(y)ynfortune” So, is if correct, the [1] suggested(p. 508).thenfrom Thethe derivation the “Essenes”term designation ḥšy ofis are theattested 1) Ἐσσηνοί λογεῖονthose,σσα in o whotheι/.)). InItMidrashbe-σσην isthe not olightι´ ’simpossible on etymology of these considthat Josephuserations, perceived it seems most the implicit natural meaning “prediction” lieve in predestinationthe Book fromof ,Lamentations, that the is reconstructed to say, “fatalists”,or Eichah Aramaic Rabbah “determinists”, term (89:14;to correlateh. šy(y) ib. 20),or/h. š(2)the which, )(y)ynthose hitherto, whoisalongfrom correct, predictunclarified with the then designationfate,the Bereshith theetymology “Essenes” Ἐσσηνοί of arethe.) Interm the Ἐσσαῖοι light of these/ Ἐσσηνοί consid witherations, the it seems most natural the “foretellers”.Rabbah and In(1) connection thethose, Pesiqta who de-Rabwith believe the Kahana in latter predestination, interpretation,is the oldestAramaic, that composition is let to notion us say, point “fatalists”, ḥ šyof out /theḥšto ᾿that [1]Midrashic correlate “determinists”, (p.in Antt.508); literature.the, cf.: hitherto[2] (p. or 217), (2) unclarifiedthose which, is etymology interpreted of as the “what term man Ἐσσαῖοι has / Ἐσσηνοί with the XIII, 311 (cf.It was also: written BJwho, I, 78), predict in theJosephus fate,so-calledthe Flavius “foretellers”. Jewish even Palestinian mentions Into connection suffer, Aramaic,a special predestination, with schoolwhich the of lattercontinued,Aramaic the fortune” interpretation,Essenes, notion as [1] opposed (p. ḥšy 508). let/ḥš ᾿ us [1]The point (p. term 508); ḥ šycf.: is [2] attested (p. 217), in which the Midrash is interpreted on as “what man has who “learnedto the the other artout Westernof that foretelling in Antt.Aramaic things, XIII, languages to 311 come” (cf. also:of (it the flourishedtheBJ middle ,Book I, 78), of atstage, Josephus Lamentations, the veryone Flaviusofendto the suffer, of orwritten the evenEichah 2ndpredestination, mentionsOld Rabbah Ara- (89:14; a special fortune” ib. 20), [1] which, (p. 508). along The with term the ḥšy Bereshith is attested in the Midrash on century BCE),maic languagescf. also:school BJ of, of II, the the 159; western Essenes, according branch. who to “learned Antt. One, caXV,Rabbahn the try373, art andto the ofreconstruct the foretellingEssenes Pesiqta hada thede-Rab thingsconjectural theBook Kahana“fore- to of come” Lamentations, noun, is the (it (m. oldest flourished orcomposition Eichah Rabbah of the (89:14; Midrashic ib. 20), literature. which, along with the Bereshith knowledgepl.) (ofπρόγνωσιν the atsame the root; very ‘predetermination’) after end the of themodel 2nd C century1ofaC future2C2aCIt BCE),3 events(normallywas cf.written given also: designations inBJby the, II,God”; so-called 159;Rabbah cf.of according personsib. and Jewish 379: the by to PesiqtaPalestinian Antt.their ,de-Rab XV, Aramaic, 373, Kahana, whichis the oldest continued, composition as opposed of the Midrashic literature. “…Manyprofession, of these the(Essenes) usual Essenes activity, have, had by theet theirc. “foreknowledge are exce formedllent virtue,afterto the (πρ it) óotherbeenγνωσιν as ḥ Westernthoughtaššayy; ‘predetermination’)ā᾿ worthyinAramaicIt st.was det. ofwritten languages, thisrespectively in of the future of so-calledthe eventsmiddle Jewish stage, Palestinian one of the Aramaic,written Old which Ara- continued, as opposed knowledgeḥš( ᾿of)(y)yn divine givenin st. revelations”. abs. by God”;The etymology cf. (Onib. the379: ofother “ the... possibletermManymaic Ἐσσαῖοι of languagesetymologies these / (Essenes)Ἐσσηνοί of ofthe the toderivedwestern have, theterm other by from“Es-branch. their Western this excellent One hy- Aramaic can virtue, try tolanguages reconstruct of thea conjectural middle stage, noun one (m. of the written Old Ara- senes”, see,pothetical e.g., [4]been (II,term 619f).; thought appears [5] (I, worthy to 262f.); be relevant of[6] this (pp. knowledge 61–75).not onlypl. )The of semantically, the ofmost divinesame widespread root revelations”. but after maicalso etymologythe linguistically.languages model (On the C1aC of other2 Cthe In2aC western possible3 (normally branch. designations One can oftry persons to reconstruct by their a conjectural noun (m. is the derivationconnection ofetymologies withthe termthe correspondence Ἐσσαῖοι of the term/Ἐσσηνοί “Essenes”, of the from beginningsprofession, see,the Syriac e.g., in [ 4spelling, usualword] (II, 619f).; activity,ḥ ăthesēpl.n following) [(st. 5of ]et (I,theabs.)c. 262f.); aresame transcrip-/ formed root [6] (pp. after after 61–75).the it) model as ḥaššayy C1aC2Cā᾿2 aCin 3 st.(normally det., respectively designations of persons by their ḥăsayya᾿ (st.tions det. are (emph.)), attestedThe most to“pious”, widespreadin Hellenistic but this etymology sources: etymology Ḥ isаḥmmoš( the encounters᾿)(y)ynṯ derivation is normally in st. a abs. great of rendered theThe profession,phonological termetymology asσσα Ἐμμαοῦς usual of oι /the σσηνactivity, [3]term o Ἐσσαῖοιι´ from etc. are / Ἐσσηνοίformed afterderived it) asfrom ḥaššayy this hy-ā᾿ in st. det., respectively difficulty:(p. in 108); 1 Macc. ḥtheōšen 2:42, Syriac—as 7:12–13, ἐσσήν word (Antt.,h2. ă Macc.sen¯ (st. III, 14:6, abs.)163, its 217) / Aramaich. ă pothetical(moreover,sayya equivalent—(st. term det. one (emph.)),shouldappearsḥăsîḥ ḏbearš( ayyato᾿ “pious”,)(y)yn bein᾿ (Heb. mindrelevant in butst. that abs. this not the The etymology only etymology semantically, of the butterm also Ἐσσαῖοι linguistically. / Ἐσσηνοί In derived from this hy- ḥăsîḏîm), original“pious”, pronunciation isencounters transliterated a great of asthe phonological᾿Ασιδαῖοι sect’s name.) difficulty: couldconnection begin in 1 with Macc. with Ἑ the2:42,-, not correspondence 7:12–13,pothetical Ἐ-); as2 for Macc. term the of14:6, Greek appearsthe itsbeginnings Aramaic to be relevant in spelling, not the only following semantically, transcrip- but also linguistically. In equivalent—hăsîdayyaPhilosophies(Heb. h 2021ăsîd, îm6, x), FOR “pious”, PEER REVIEW is transliterated as Aσιδα oι.) 2 of 13 Judging by the accounts of. some¯ ancient authors. ¯ tions(first areof all, attested Philo ofto Alexandriainconnection Hellenistic [ca. with sources: the correspondence Ḥаmmoṯ is normally of the rendered beginnings as Ἐμμαοῦςin spelling, [3] the following transcrip- 25 BCE–before 50 CE], JudgingJosephus by Flavius, the accounts Pliny the of someElder(p. ancient 108);[23/24–79 ḥō authorsšen —asCE], ἐσσήνsee, (firsttions e.g., of (Antt., all, [7]),are Philo attested theIII, 163, of Alexandria to217) in (moreover,Hellenistic [ca. onsources:e should Ḥа mmobearṯ in is mindnormally that therendered as Ἐμμαοῦς [3] 25 BCE–before 50 CE], Josephus Flavius, Pliny the Elder [23/24–79 CE], see, e.g., [7]), the distinctive features of the Essenes were the following:original common pronunciation property, collective(p. of 108);the sect’s laborḥōšen —asname ἐσσήν could (Antt., begin III,with 163, Ἑ -,217) not (moreover, Ἐ-); as for onthee Greekshould bear in mind that the distinctive features of the Essenes were the following: common property, collective labor and meals, preferably observance of celibacy; it is most likely that thepicture Essenes oforiginal the used emergence, pronunciation the interactions, of the sect’s and rela nametionships could ofbegin key withJewish Ἑ -,sects not inἘ -);the as Hellen- for the Greek and meals, preferably observance of celibacy; it is most likely that the Essenes used the solar calendar. According to Pliny the Elder (Historia Naturalis, V, 15,istic 73; era.cf. also: In this Solinus, regard, we find it promising to try to use the framework of signed social solar calendar. According to Pliny the Elder (Historia Naturalis, V, 15, 73; cf. also: Solinus, De mirabilibus mundi, XXXV, 9, 12; see further, e.g., [8] (pp. 133–137);networks [9] (I, pp. to 480–481); better understand and visualize the processes in the development of sectarian De mirabilibus mundi, XXXV, 9, 12; see further, e.g., [8] (pp. 133–137); [9] (I, pp. 480–481); [7] [7] (3, n. 9); [4] (II, p. 620); cf.: [10] (pp. 6–8)), their central settlementJudaism (Dio Chrysostomthat were taking place during those times. (3, n. 9); [4] (II, p. 620); cf.: [10] (pp. 6–8)), their central settlement (Dio Chrysostom called it called it “a whole happy city by the dead water in the interior of Palestine”;The see: paper Synesius is organized as follows. In Section 2 we briefly introduce the main Judaean “a whole happy city by the dead water in the interior of Palestine”; see: Synesius of Cyrene, of Cyrene, Dio, 3, 2) was apparently located northwest of the Dead Seasects coast. and It wasoutline in this their origins and main features. We specifically consider Essenes and Dio, 3, 2) was apparently located northwest of the Dead Sea coast. It was in this region—in region—in the Khirbet Qumran area near the northwest coast of theshow Dead that Sea—that it can bethe identified with the sect of Qumranites. Section 3 is devoted to the the Khirbet Qumran area near the northwest coast of the Dead Sea—that the manuscripts manuscripts were discovered in the middle of the 20th century, belonginganalysis to ofthe the Judaean dynamics of interaction between the principal Judaean sects: Sadducees, were discovered in the middle of the 20th century, belonging to the Judaean community community (official publication of the full corpus of the Dead Sea scrollsPharisees, was completedEssenes, and later also Zealots and Sicarii. Necessary facts about the signed (official publication of the full corpus of the Dead Sea scrolls was completed relatively graphs and respective signed networks theory are presented in Section 4. Finally, Section relatively recently;recently; see: [11]), see: which [11]), the which vast themajority vast majorityof researchers of researchers identify identifywith the withEs- the Essenes (see, 5 provides an interpretation of the processes described in Section 5 in terms of the signed senes (see, e.g., [12,e.g.,13]) [;12 as,13 for]); the as forQumran the Qumran settlement settlement itself, itself,these theseresearchers researchers consider consider it it to have been to have been the mainthe main center center of the of theEssenes. Essenes. The The fact fact is that is that the the doctrine doctrinegraphs of of theory.absolute absolute The pre- predestination paper concludes played with a Discussion Section. destination playeda a key key role role inin thethe religiousreligious outlookoutlook ofof thethe QumranQumran communitycommunity (see,(see, e.g.,e.g., 1QHa IX (= 4Q432 a 2. A Brief aExcursion into the Principal Judaean Sects 1QH IX (= 4Q432 2),2), 7–34; 7–34; 1QS1QS IX,IX, 24–25; 24–25; 1QpHab1QpHab VII,VII, 13–14, 13–14, etc.; etc.; cf., cf.,e.g. e.g.,, 1QH1QH IX,a 23–24:IX, 23–24: “Everything “Everything is engravedis engraved before before You… You for ...all forthe allperiods the periods of eternity, of eternity, forJosephus the fornumbered the Flavius numbered (37/38–after seasons 100 of CE), describing the rise of three principal Judaean seasons of eternal eternalyears in years all their in all appointed their appointed times”. times”.See further, See further,e.g.,sects—the [14] e.g., and Pharisees [ 14[15]] and (pp. [(lit.15 ] (pp.“set apart,184–189 separate)), d”), the Sadducees (probably after Zadok, the 184–189)), and thisand aspect this aspectis considered is considered to be one to be of onethe ofmost the important mostfirst important High arguments Priest arguments of inthe First in favor Temple), of the and Essenes (according to Vita, II, 10–12, he studied favor of the Qumranites’Qumranites’ identification identification with th withe Essenes the Essenes (cf., e.g., (cf., [16] e.g., these(pp. [16 71–74)). ](Jewishpp. 71–74 A sectsQum-)). A“in Qumran practice”), Hebrew singles out the attitude towards predestination ran Hebrew etymologicaletymological and semantic and semantic equivalent equivalent of the ofterm the εἱμαρμένη term(εἱμαρμένηε µαρµ, usedε´νη,; usedbylit. Jose-“lot”, by Josephus “fate”, destiny”, Flavius, sc. Providence) as the main aspect of religious phus Flavius, is theis notion the notion gōrāgl,or¯ “lot”,al¯ , “lot”, “share”, “share”, sc. destiny, sc. destiny, which which is frequently“schools” is frequently separationattested attested to toin inJudaea the scrolls in the (cf. middle of the 2nd century BCE (Antiquitates Judaicae in the scrolls (cf. alsoalso the the Hebrew Hebrew notions notions ḥh.ēeleq¯leq in the meaningmeaning “share”,“share”,[further– “portion”,“portion”,Antt.], “lot”“lot”XIII, (e.g.,171–173). CD-B TheXX, hist 10, orian notes that the very essence of the Essenes’ (e.g., CD-B XX, 10, 13)13) and tĕe˘ʽuḏdāah¯h, “destiny”, “destiny”, “predestination” “predestination” (e.g., (e.g., 1QH1QHdoctrinea aIX,IX, 19)). is 19)). “that Judging Judging all things by theare sectarianbest ascribed to God” (ib., XVIII, 18, see also: ib., XIII, 172). ¯ by the sectarian manuscripts,manuscripts, mainly mainly the the so-called PesharimPesharim(i.e., (i.e., Commentaries CommentariesPliny the Elder on on the(Historia the Latter Naturalis Prophets, V, and 15, 73) asserts that the numbers of the Essenes “are Latter Prophets andPsalms), Psalms), the the members members of of the the Qumran Qumran community, community,fully like like recruited the theEssenes Essenes by (inmultitudes(in this connection of strangers cf. that resort to them, driven thither to adopt their this connection cf. especiallyespecially Josephus’Josephus’BJ BJ,, II, II, 159), 159), predicted predicted the the fates fates ofusages of the the whole bywhole the world, world,tempests as well of fortune”. as of certain The mention of fortuna (this term correlates with the as well as of certainindividuals. individuals. εἱμαρμένη in Josephus’ account) in this context can imply the Essenes’ belief in predesti- According to the RuleAccording of the toQumran the Rule community of the Qumran (1QS; community4QSa-j, nation,5QS ((=1QS; according5Q11 4QS)) anda–j, to 5QS a which (= 5Q11 the ))sectarians, and a as they thought, found themselves in the com- number of documentsnumber related of documents to it (see, e.g., related [17]), to the it (see, Qumranites e.g., [17]), weremunity. the Qumranitescharacterized Cf.: Solinus, were by De characterized mirabilibus mundi by , XXXV, 9, who used the word providentia (“prov- the same rare socio-economicthe same rare characteristics socio-economic as the characteristics Essenes in the as thedescriptionsidence”) Essenes in in ofthis the ancient connection.) descriptions The of ancient widely spread Essene practice of the prediction of future authors—above all,authors—above common ownership, all, common collective ownership, work, and collective wayevents of work,life; (including the and Qumran way personal of life; the fates), Qumran well known to Josephus Flavius (see, e.g., Bellum Judai- sectarians observedsectarians celibacy (perhaps, observed celibacywith rare (perhaps, exceptions with in some rare exceptions historicalcum [further periods in some – BJ ],(cf., historical I, 78–80; periodsII, 111–113, (cf., 159; Antt., XIII, 311–313; XVII, 346–348; XV, 371– e.g., [18] and [19] (p.e.g., 111)) [18] and and kept [19] (p.the111)) solar and calendar kept the(of solar364 days), calendar379; cf. [20].XVII, (of 364Thus, 345–348; days), using cf.cf. [also:20]. Thus,Hyppolitus using of Rome, Philosophumena, IX, 27), was likely to be Ockham’s razor—Ockham’snot sunt multiplicanda razor—not suntentia multiplicandapraeter necessitatem entia praeter—it basedis necessitatemhard on not their to —itbeliefagree is hardin predetermination. not to agree (In Antt., III, 214–218, Josephus speaks of the with the Essene identificationwith the Essene of the identification Qumran community. of the Qumran community.Judaean High Priest’s breastplate and describes its role in the process of predictions. He transcribes the Hebrew word ḥōšen for a “breastplate” as ἐσσήν, and correlates the latter term with the Greek λόγιον, “oracle” (ib., III, 163, 217; cf. the Septuagint’s correlate term λογεῖον). It is not impossible that Josephus perceived the implicit meaning “prediction” from the designation Ἐσσηνοί.) In the light of these considerations, it seems most natural to correlate the hitherto unclarified etymology of the term Ἐσσαῖοι / Ἐσσηνοί with the Aramaic notion ḥšy /ḥš᾿ [1] (p. 508); cf.: [2] (p. 217), which is interpreted as “what man has to suffer, predestination, fortune” [1] (p. 508). The term ḥšy is attested in the Midrash on the Book of Lamentations, or Eichah Rabbah (89:14; ib. 20), which, along with the Bereshith Rabbah and the Pesiqta de-Rab Kahana, is the oldest composition of the Midrashic literature. It was written in the so-called Jewish Palestinian Aramaic, which continued, as opposed to the other Western Aramaic languages of the middle stage, one of the written Old Ara- maic languages of the western branch. One can try to reconstruct a conjectural noun (m. pl.) of the same root after the model C1aC2C2aC3 (normally designations of persons by their profession, usual activity, etc. are formed after it) as ḥaššayyā᾿ in st. det., respectively ḥš(᾿)(y)yn in st. abs. The etymology of the term Ἐσσαῖοι / Ἐσσηνοί derived from this hypothetical term appears to be relevant not only semantically, but also linguistically. In connection with the correspondence of the beginnings in spelling, the following transcriptions are attested to in Hellenistic sources: Ḥаmmoṯ is normally rendered as Ἐμμαοῦς [3] (p. 108); ḥōšen—as ἐσσήν (Antt., III, 163, 217) (moreover, one should bear in mind that the original pronunciation of the sect’s name could begin with Ἑ-, not Ἐ-); as for the Greek

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3. Evolution of the Relations between Judaean Sects The Qumran community was headed by the priests of the Zadokite lineage (“the sons of Zadok (that is, the descendants of the High Priest Zadok), the priests who keep the Covenant”), who went from Jerusalem to the Judaean Desert to an area northwest of the Dead Sea around the middle of the 2nd century BCE (or slightly later) and organized the congregation there. The leader of the community, called the Teacher of Righteousness in the Qumran scrolls, was probably a major priest in the Jerusalem Temple, perhaps even serving as the High Priest during the Intersacerdotium (159–152 BCE), see: [17](p. 15). This probably explains the fact that a number of Qumran “halakhic” regulations, as described in early Qumran works—the Temple Scroll (11QTa–c) and the Halakhic Letter (4QMMTa–f)— largely coincide with the ritual regulations attributed to the priestly sect of the Sadducees in rabbinic compositions ([21] (pp. 157–170), [22] (pp. 27–36), [23] (pp. 11–79), [24] (pp. 179–200), [25] (pp. 35–49), [26] (pp. 123–147)). On the other hand, the Halakhic Letter— which is probably a letter of the Qumran Teacher of Righteousness and his followers to the Judaean High Priest (ex hypothesi Jonathan I Hasmoneus (152–142 BCE), apparently standing mainly in the Pharisaic positions, cf.: 4QpPs37 4:7–10)—contains a rigid polemic with the Pharisaic halakhah. It should be also noted that, based on the content of this document, the separation of Jewish sects was not primarily due to disagreements on issues of worldview, theology, soteriology, etc. (see, for example, Acts 23:6–8), but on halakhic regulations and calendar (lunar or solar) issues. Sharp anti-Pharisee attacks are also present in the so-called Thanksgiving Hymns of the Teacher (1QHa X–XVIII) as well as in some other Thanksgiving Hymns (1QHodayota–b, 4QHodayota–f). Severe criticism of the Pharisees (= the “interpreters/expounders of smooth things (slippery)”, “Ephraim”) and “their false teaching (talmû¯ d)(4QpNah, fr. 3–4, 2:8–10) ¯ is present in the Qumran Pesharim, i.e., special “commentaries” on books of the Latter Prophets and Psalms, which reflect historical events in Judaea in the first half of the 1st century BCE ([27,28] (pp. 329–338), [29]). At the same time no direct anti-Sadducee polemics are found here (at least it does not seem to be explicitly expressed), only their failures are stated (cf., e.g., 4QpNah, fr. 3–4, 4:1–4). The Hasmonean High Priest and ethnarch John Hyrcanus I (134–104 BCE) started to move away from the Pharisees, and his son, High Priest and King of Judaea Alexander Jannaeus (= Jonathan II; 103–76 BCE) abandoned the Pharisaic regulations openly and aligned himself with the Sadducees (cf.: Josephus Flavius, Antt., XIII, 293–298, see also: [22] (pp. 30–31)). By the end of the 2nd century BCE, the Essenes appeared in Jerusalem (BJ, I, 78–80; Antt., XIII, 311–313, also cf.: B.T. Kiddushin, 66a and Antt., XIII, 290–292). As for the Sadducees, they actively supported Alexander Jannaeus during the uprising against him in 94/93–88 BCE, which was led by the Pharisees and which Alexander suppressed in the most brutal way, including the crucifixion of the Pharisees who did not have time to flee the country (BJ, I, 92; Antt., XIII, 376–379; see also: 4QpNah and in more detail: [30] (pp. 221–231)). However, the Pharisees, led by Shimon ben Shetakh, brother of Alexander Jannaeus’ widow, Queen of Judaea Alexandra Salome (76–67 BCE), recovered under her reign: Josephus Flavius claims that “the Pharisees governed” the queen and were “the real administrators of the public affairs” (BJ, I, 110). Ideology in Judaea changed dramatically with the arrival of the Romans in 63 BCE. According to Josephus Flavius (BJ, I, 204–212; II, 56; Antt., XIV, 158–179; XVII, 271–272; see further: BJ, I, 304–316; Antt., XIV, 415–433), a powerful armed rebel movement emerged in Galilee in the early 40s of the 1st century BCE. At a certain stage, Yehuda from Gamala took over the leadership of the uprising (cf.: BJ, II, 56; Antt., XVII, 271–272). According to Josephus’ account (BJ, II, 56, 118, 433; Antt., XVIII, 4–10, 23–25, XX, 102, cf. also: Acts 5:37; Lk. 13:1–3), when Judaea was incorporated into the Syrian province in 6 CE, i.e., at the beginning of direct Roman rule, Yehuda, together with the Pharisee Zadok, founded the “fourth philosophical school” (after the Pharisees, the Sadducees, and the Essenes), and thus consolidated the movement of the Zealots, who “in all other things are quite adjacent to the teaching of the Pharisees, but they are distinguished by an unconstrained love of Philosophies 2021, 6, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 13

“endings” -αῖοι/ -ηνοί, they can represent transcriptions of the Aramaic endings -ayyā᾿/-în Philosophies 2021, 6, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 13 (pl. m. in st. det. and pl. m. in st. abs., respectively) plus the Greek ending m. pl. -οί proper. So, if the suggested derivation of the Ἐσσαῖοι/Ἐσσηνοί’s etymology from the reconstructed Aramaic term ḥšy(y)᾿/ḥš(᾿)(y)yn is correct, then the “Essenes” are 1) those, who believe in predestinationpicture of, that the emergence,is to say, “fatalists”, interactions, “determinists”, and relationships or 2) those of key, who Jewish predict sects fate, in the Hellen- the “foretellers”.istic era.In connection In this regard, with wethe findlatter it interpretation,promising to try let tous use point the out framework that in Antt. of signed, social Philosophies 2021, 6, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 13 XIII, 311 (cf. networksalso: BJ, I, to78), better Josephus understand Flavius and even visualize mentions the a processesspecial school in the of development the Essenes, of sectarian Philosophies 2021, 6, 2 who “learnedJudaism the art thatof foretelling were taking things place to come”during (it those flourished times. at the very5 of end 13 of the 2nd century BCE), cf.The also: paper BJ, II, is 159;organized according as follows. to Antt. In, XV,Section 373, 2 the we Essenesbriefly introduce had the “fore- the main Judaean unconstrained love of freedom:knowledge They (sectsπρόγνωσιν consider and outline God; ‘predetermination’) to theirbe their origins only andRuler of mainfuture and features.Lord”. events In given We66 specifically by God”; cf.consider ib. 379: Essenes and CE, Yehuda’s youngest“…Many son, Menachem, of showthese proved that(Essenes) it tocan be have, be one identified byof thetheir most excewith powerfulllent the sectvirtue, leaders of beenQumranites. of thought Section worthy 3 of is this devoted to the the rebellionfreedom: against TheyRomeknowledge consider in its early Godofanalysis divine days to be ofand theirrevelations”. the would onlydynamics Ruler take (On over andof theinteraction Lord”. power other In inpossible 66 beJerusalem CE,tween Yehuda’s etymologies the for principal youngest of Judaeanthe term sects: “Es- Sadducees, a short timeson, (see: Menachem, BJ, II,senes”, 433-449; proved see, Vita e.g.,Pharisees, to, I, be[4] 21, one(II, 46); 619f).;Essenes, of as the for [5] most Menachem’sand(I, 262f.); powerful later [6] also (pp. relative, leaders Zealots 61–75). ofEleazar an theThed Sicarii. rebellion most ben widespread Necessary against etymologyfacts about the signed BJ Yair, he ledRome the patriot in its is earlydetachment the daysderivation and graphsin Masada, would of and the take respectivetheterm overlast Ἐσσαῖοι stronghold power signed/Ἐσσηνοί in networks Jerusalem of the from rebellious theory for the ashort areSyriac Jews, presented time word (see: ḥinăs ēSection,n (st. abs.) 4. Finally, / Section II, 433-449; Vita, I, 21, 46); as for Menachem’s relative, Eleazar ben Yair, he led the patriot which fell in 73/74 CE. ḥăsayya᾿ (st. 5det. provides (emph.)), an interpretation“pious”, but thisof the et ymologyprocesses encounters described ina Sectiongreat phonological 5 in terms of the signed detachment in Masada, the last stronghold of the rebellious Jews, which fell in 73/74 CE. The appearance ofdifficulty: the Romans ingraphs 1in Macc. Judaea theory. 2:42, in 7:12–13,63 The BCE paper probably2 Macc. concludes 14:6, radically its with Aramaic changeda Discussion equivalent— the Section.ḥă sîḏayya᾿ (Heb. The appearance of the Romans in Judaea in 63 BCE probably radically changed the Qumranites’ ideology asḥă well.sîḏîm ),It “pious”,seems that is transliteratedit was during asthis ᾿Ασιδαῖοι period that.) the Qumran so- Qumranites’ ideology as well. It seems that it was during this period that the Qumran called War Scroll (1QM, 4QMJudginga-h, 4Q2852. by A(?) theBrief; s ee,accounts Excursion e.g., [31]) of some andinto relatedtheancient Principal documents authors Judaean (first were of Sects all,cre- Philo of Alexandria [ca. so-called War Scroll (1QM, 4QMa–h, 4Q285(?); see, e.g., [31]) and related documents were ated, the central idea behind25 BCE–before which was 50 Josephusthe CE], liberation Josephus Flavius war Flavius, (37/38–after with thePliny Romans 100the CE),Elder (“the descri [23/24–79 kittimbing” theCE], rise see, of e.g., three [7]), principal the Judaean created, the central idea behind which was the liberation war with the Romans (“the kittim” in the scrolls) to the victoriousdistinctive end. featuressects—the (In the of Qumran the Pharisees Essenes Pesharim (lit. were “set, the apart, following:appearance separate common d”),of the the Ro- property,Sadducees collective (probably labor after Zadok, the in the scrolls) to the victorious end. (In the Qumran Pesharim, the appearance of the Romans mans in Judaea was mostand likely meals, still preferablyfirst expected; High Priestobservance see, ofe.g., the our ofFirst celibacy;works Temple), listed it isand inmost References.)Essenes likely (according that the Essenes to Vita ,used II, 10–12, the he studied in Judaea was most likely still expected; see, e.g., our works listed in References.) Starting Starting from 6 CE, thesesolar moods calendar. seemthese Accordingto beJewish only gettingtosects Pliny “instronger. the practice”), Elder Let (Historia us singlesalso Naturalis mention out , theV,ad 15,attitude 73; cf. also:towa Solinus,rds predestination from 6 CE, these moods seem to be only getting stronger. Let us also mention ad hoc hoc that judging from BJDe, mirabilibusII, 111–113(εἱμαρμένη mundiand Antt., XXXV,;, lit.XV, “lot”,9, 371–379, 12; see“fate”, furtheXVII, destiny”, r,346–348, e.g., [8] sc. the (pp. Providence) Essenes 133–13 7); as[9] the (I, pp.main 480–481); aspect of religious that judging from BJ, II, 111–113 and Antt., XV, 371–379, XVII, 346–348, the Essenes lived lived in Jerusalem under[7] King (3, n. Herod 9); “schools”[4] (37–4 (II, p. BCE), separation620); whosecf.: [10] in respect Judaea(pp. 6–8)), and in the patronagetheir middle central ofthey thesettlement en- 2nd century (Dio BCE Chrysostom (Antiquitates Judaicae in Jerusalem under King Herod (37–4 BCE), whose respect and patronage they enjoyed, called it “a whole happy city by the dead water in the interior of Palestine”; see: Synesius joyed, and probablyand probably under under his son, his ethnarch[further– son, ethnarch Antt.Herod], Herod XIII,Archelaus 171–173). Archelaus (4 BCE–6 The (4 BCE–6hist CE).orian It CE).seems notes It that seems that the that very the essence of the Essenes’ of Cyrene, Dio, 3, 2) was apparently located northwest of the Dead Sea coast. It was in this the emergenceemergence of the Essenes of the Essenesin Jerusalemdoctrine in Jerusalem in is th“thatis period all in thisthings correlates period are best correlateswith ascribed the fact with to that God” the the fact(ib. , thatXVIII, the 18, see also: ib., XIII, 172). region—in the Khirbet Qumran area near the northwest coast of the Dead Sea—that the Qumran settlementQumran settlementwas destroyed was destroyedPlinyby an the earthquake Elder by an ( earthquakeHistoria in 31 BCENaturalis in (cf.: 31 BCE ,BJ V,, I, (cf.:15, 370; 73)BJ ,Antt asserts I, 370;., XV,Antt that ., the XV, numbers 121) of the Essenes “are manuscripts were discovered in the middle of the 20th century, belonging to the Judaean 121) and wasand left was by left its by inhabitants its inhabitantsfully for recruiteda for time a time (the by (the end multitudes end of archeological of archeological of strangers period periodthat resortIb). Ib). But Butto them, Qumran driven thither to adopt their community (official publication of the full corpus of the Dead Sea scrolls was completed Qumran againagain settles settles down down at ataround aroundusages 6 6CE CEby (the the (the beginningtempests beginning of of offortune”. archeological archeological The mention period period II). II).of Itfortuna It cannot (this be term correlates with the cannot be ruledruled out thatthatrelatively thethe restoration restoration recently;εἱμαρμένη of of see: the the Qumran[11]),in Qumran Josephus’ which settlement settlement theaccount) vast was majority inwas somehowthis somehow context of researchers connected can con- imply identify with the the Essenes’ with the belief Es- in predesti- nected withintroduction the introductionsenes of direct (see,of direct Roman e.g.,nation, Roman [12, rule 13])according inrule; as Judaea. forin Judaea. tothe which Qumran the sectarians,settlement asitself, they these thought, researchers found themselvesconsider it in the com- A number Aof numbersourcesto have ofsuggest sources been thatmunity. the suggest themain Cf.:Qu that centermranites, Solinus, the Qumranites,of the De like mirabilibusEssenes. some like other The somemundi fact communities other, isXXXV, that communities the 9, who ofdoctrine used of ofthe the absolute word providentia pre- (“prov- the Essene Essenetrend, took trend, destinationpart took in part the inplayedpatrioticidence”) the patriotic a keyinmovement this role movement connection.) in the for religiou the for liberationThe thes liberationoutlookwidely of spread ofJudaea of the Judaea Qumran Essene from from practice community Roman of the (see, prediction e.g., of future a a Roman rulerule and and even even in1QH the in thearmed IX armed(= 4Q432 uprisingevents uprising 2), (including of7–34; 66–73/74 of 66–73/741QS personal IX, CE. 24–25; CE.Hippolytus fates), Hippolytus 1QpHab well of VII, knownRome of 13–14, Rome (ca. to (ca.etc.;Josephus170– 170–235cf., e.g Flavius., CE)1QH (see, IX, 23–24: e.g., Bellum Judai- 235 CE) in Philosophumenain Philosophumena“Everything, IX,, IX, 26, 26, 2 cum andis 2 andengraved John[further John Chrysostom Chrysostom –before BJ], I, You…78–80; (344/354–407 (344/354–407 forII, 111–113,all the CE) periods CE) 159;in Homilies in Antt.Homilies of ,eternity, XIII, on on 311–313; the for Acts the XVII, numbered 346–348; XV, 371– the Acts of theof Apostles the Apostles (400/401seasons(400/401 CE), of eternal CE),46,379; 3 XVII,(to 46, years Acts 3 (to345–348; in21:38)Acts all their21:38) directlycf. also: appointed directly identifiedHyppolitus identified times”. the of Essenes Rome,See the further, Essenes withPhilosophumena e.g., with [14] the and, IX, [15] 27), (pp.was likely to be the ZealotsZealots and their and radical184–189)), their radical wing, andbased wing,the this Sicarii theon aspect their Sicarii (from isbelief (fromconsidered Latin in Latin predetermination.sica sica–to “crooked be– “crooked one of dagger”), the(In dagger”), mostAntt. cf.: , importantIII, cf.: 214–218, Philo ofarguments Josephus inspeaks of the Philo of Alexandria,Alexandria, QuodfavorQuod omnis of omnis the probus Qumranites’Judaean probus liber liber sitHigh, sit75, identification ,Priest’s 75,91; Id. 91;, Id.Apologiabreastplate, Apologia with, (I);the , and Josephus (I);Essenes Josephusdescribes Flavius(cf., Flaviuse.g., its, BJ role[16], , BJ (pp.in, II,the 71–74)). 119. process A ofQum- predictions. He II, 119. We seeWe an see implicit an implicitran indication Hebrew indication transcribesetymological to the to theaccession accession the and Hebrew of semantic a of patriotic a word patriotic equivalent ḥgroupingōšen grouping for aof of “breastplate” the the of the termEssene- Essene-Qumran εἱμαρμένη as ἐσσήν, used, and by correlates Jose- the latter Qumran trendtrend to tothe the Zealots Zealotsphus Flavius,and and the theterm Sicariiis Sicarii the with notion around around the Greekg ō55r 55ā lCE, CE“lot”, λόγιον in in BJBJ “share”,, ,II,, II,“oracle” 254–265. 254–265. sc. destiny,(ib. This This, III, grouping grouping 163, which 217; is is cf.frequently referred the Septuagint’s attested tocorrelate term is referred toto by by Josephus Josephusin theFlavius Flavius scrolls as asλογεῖον στῖφος(cf.στ alsoϕo).,ς “body ,theIt “body is Hebrew not of of impossiblemen men notions in inclose close thatḥ array”,ēleq array”,Josephus in the “battle “battlemeaning perceived array”, array”, “share”, the i.e., implicit “portion”, the meaning “lot” “prediction” designation and ((mama tĕʽʽuăărḏra¯ākhḵah¯ ,āἘσσηνοί “destiny”,h;; “array”, “array”,.) “row”, In“predestination” “row”, the light “battle-line” “battle-line” of these (e.g., (perhapsconsid 1QHerations,a IX, this 19)). it Judging seems most natural מערכה(i.e., the termterm equivalent equivalent(e.g., to to CD-the the BHebrew Hebrew XX,from 10, the 13 ¯ (perhaps thisterm term means meansby a “row athe “row sectarian of worshippers”ofto worshippers” correlate manuscripts, inthe 1QSin hitherto 1QS mainlyX, 14;X, unclarified14; see the see further: so-called further: etymology [32 ][32]Pesharim (pp. (pp. 413–415)), of 413–(i.e. the, termCommentaries which Ἐσσαῖοι is / onἘσσηνοί the with the 415)), whichrepeatedly is repeatedly usedLatter used in Prophets the in QumrantheAramaic Qumran and WarPsalms), notion War Scroll ḥ Scrollthešy to / referḥmembersš ᾿to [1] refer to (p. the 508);ofto combat thethe cf.: Qumrancombat [2] orders (p. orders 217),community, of the which of “sons is like ofinterpreted the the Essenes as “what(in man has the “sons ofLight” the Light” fighting thisfighting the connection “kittim the to“”—thekittim suffer, cf. especially”—the Romans. predestination, Romans. Josephus’ The fact The fortune” that BJ fact, JosephusII, that 159), [1] Josephus (p.predicted Flavius 508). FlaviusThe does the term notfa tes explicitlyḥ ofšy theis attested whole world, in the Midrash on does not explicitlyrefer to therefer sectarianas to well the assectarian affiliation ofthe certain Book affiliation of individuals. thisof Lamentations, group of this can group be explainedor Eichahcan be Rabbahexplained by his explicit(89:14; by hisib. sympathy 20), which, for along with the Bereshith explicit sympathythe Essenes for the and EssenesAccording his desire andRabbah his toto disguise desirethe and Rule the to theirdisguisePesiqtaof the direct Qumrande-Rab their mass directKahana community participation mass, is the participation oldest(1QS; in thecomposition4QS anti-Roman a-j, 5QS (= of 5Q11 the Midrashic)) and a literature. in the anti-Romanmovement. movement.number of documentsIt was written related in the to itso-called (see, e.g., Jewish [17]), Palestinianthe Qumranites Aramaic, were which characterized continued, by as opposed Indirect evidenceIndirect inthe evidence favor same of rare in theto favor socio-economicthefact ofother that the atWestern fact least that characteristics part atAramaic least of the part languagesEssenes ofas thethe EssenesparticipatedEssenes of the participated middlein the in descriptions stage, in one the of of the ancient written Old Ara- the uprisinguprising against against Romeauthors—above Romein 66–73/74 inmaic 66–73/74 all,CE languages cancommon CE be can foundof beownership, the found inwestern the in thetext collective branch.text of BJ of, BJOne II,work,, II,152, ca 152, n andwhere try where wayto reconstruct Josephus of life; the a Qumranconjectural noun (m. Josephus FlaviusFlavius spoke spokesectarians about about the the observedterriblepl. terrible) of thetort celibacy torturessameures to root (perhaps, which to after which the the with theRomans model Romansrare C exceptionssubjected1aC2 subjectedC2aC3 the (normallyin somesec- the sectarians. historical designations periods of persons(cf., by their tarians. In theIn the same same work,e.g., work, the[18] the Jewish and Jewishprofession, [19] hist (p. historianorian 111)) usual says and says activity,that kept that the the thecommander etsolarc. commander are calendar formed of the(of ofafter the364Tamna Tamnait)days), as ḥ cf.aššayy district [20].ā᾿ Thus,in st. usingdet., respectively district waswas the theEssene EsseneOckham’s Johanan Johanan duringrazor—ḥ duringš(᾿)(y)yn thenot the inJewishsunt Jewishst. multiplicandaabs. War WarThe (II, etymology (II, 566–568 566–568;entia praeter; ofIII, III, the 9–12). 9–12).necessitatem term Judging Ἐσσαῖοι Judging—it from/is Ἐσσηνοί hard the not derived to agree from this hy- from the archeologicalarcheologicalwith findings, findings, the Essene thethepothetical Qumran Qumran identification settlementterm settlement appears of the was wasQumranto attacked be attacked relevant community. by the by not Roman the only Roman troopssemantically, (probably but also linguistically. In troops (probablyby the by tenth the legion tenth fromlegionconnection Caesarea— from Caesarea— withLegio the X FretensisLegiocorrespondence X Fretensis) and completely of) and the beginningscompletely destroyed in (thespelling, end the following transcrip- destroyed (theof the end Qumran of the archeologicalQumran tionsarcheological periodare attested II). period This to in likelyII). Hellenistic This happened likely sources: happened in the Ḥ summerаmmo in ṯthe is ofnormally 68 CE as rendered as Ἐμμαοῦς [3] summer ofmost 68 CE researchers as most researchers believe,(p. following 108); believe, ḥōšen R.following—as de Vauxἐσσήν R. ([ 8 (Antt.,de]; cf.: Vaux [III,33 ], ([8];163, also: 217)cf.:Josephus [33], (moreover, also: Flavius on, BJe should, IV, bear in mind that the Josephus Flavius449—450,, BJ, IV, 477, 449—450, 486), but 477,original perhaps 486), butpronunciation later, perhaps in 73 CE later, (see,of thein e.g.,73 sect’s CE [34 (see,name] (19–23); e.g., could [34] [35 begin]( (19–pp. 121–165with Ἑ-,)). not Ἐ-); as for the Greek 23); [35] (pp.The 121 numismatic–165)). The numismatic evidence ofevidence Qumran of Qumr closelyan resemblesclosely resembles that of that Masada. of Masada Some. Qumran- Some Qumranitesites apparently apparently managed managed to to escape escape to to the the fortress fortress of of Masada, Masada, thethe last strong- stronghold of the hold of therebellious rebellious Jews Jews controlled controlled by by the the Sicarii. Sicarii. This This seems seems to to be be evidenced evidenced by by the the discovery of MasShirShabb discovery offragments fragments of of the the Qumran Qumran texttext SongsSongs of the Sabbath Sabbath Sacrifice Sacrifice in in Masada Masada (Mas- ( ) during excavations of this fortress (see, e.g., [36] (pp. 120–132)). ShirShabb) during excavations of this fortress (see, e.g., [36] (pp. 120–132)).

Philosophies 2021, 6, 2 6 of 13

Thus, it seems reasonable to assume that the military and political situation that developed in Judaea since the appearance of the Romans in Jerusalem in 63 BCE and especially after the introduction of direct Roman rule in Judaea in 6 CE brought the communities of the Essene-Qumran trend closer to the Pharisees, especially to their radical anti-Roman groupings. Eventually, all three major Jewish sects—the Pharisees (including the Zealots), the Essenes, and the Sadducees—perished in the ﬁre of the First Jewish War with Rome in 66–73/74 CE.

4. Social Balance in Signed Networks 4.1. The History of Social Balance Analysis for Signed Social Networks When people (groups, countries) interact, they form a structure called a social network. Typically, a network is represented as a set of vertices corresponding to different actors and a set of edges, i.e., the links connecting these actors. The theory of graphs offers a natural framework for studying such systems. During most of the 20th century, such social graphs were studied by both sociologists and mathematicians, but the field of their application did not go beyond rather specific sociological problems. However, the advent of modern age social networks such as Facebook, Twitter, etc. has led to a surge of interest in the theory of complex networks—an extension of the classical theory of social graphs that takes into account the inherent complexity and somewhat vague character of the problems studied. Within just two decades, the theory of complex networks has become a well-established area of research. Dozens of monographs have been published on the subject (see, e.g., [37–39]), and a wealth of papers have been devoted to this topic (see, for instance, [40] and [41] for a good overview and introduction). The scope of classical complex network theory is mostly restricted to the study of statistical properties of undirected and/or unweighted graphs. However, there are numerous applications that cannot be considered within this framework and require the use of more general graph structures. In particular, there has been a growing interest in studying signed networks, i.e., the networks where two nodes are connected by a signed relation. The idea of a systematic study of positive and negative interpersonal relations was initiated by Heider [42] and further developed by Cartwright and Harary [43] within a graph-theoretic framework. In that setup, one considers different individuals as vertices of a (large) network, whereas the interpersonal relations are represented by edges (or links) that can be either positive (which corresponds to friendship, trust, esteem, etc.) or negative (enmity, distrust, disrespect, etc.) The elementary building blocks of such a network are the triangles, i.e., the groups of three individuals (vertices) that are mutually connected by edges of either sign. It had been postulated that the distribution of edges’ signs determines whether the considered triple is balanced or not. For instance, if Mary is friends with Mike and Zoe, but Mike and Zoe hate each other, such a group will not likely be balanced. More formally, a triangle is said to be balanced if the product of edges’ signs is positive and unbalanced otherwise. In Figure1, all possible interrelation structures (up to an edge relabeling) within a triangle are shown. The balanced triangles are drawn in blue, while the unbalanced ones are drawn in red. More complex structures, e.g., consisting of 4, 5, or more individuals, can be classified along this line, but the interpretation of the results is not that straightforward. Since the seminal work by Harary [44], many results aimed at formally characterizing and measuring the extent of balance in a given signed network have been presented. See, e.g., [45] for an overview and [46] for recent results. The theory of structural balance can be naturally generalized to the case when we consider various social groups instead of individuals: religious communities, political parties, or countries. In [47], a signed social network describing the relational structure of tribes, living in the Eastern Central Highlands of New Guinea, was presented. This network contains 16 tribes connected by friendship (“rova”) and enmity (“hina”) relations. It had been shown that all tribes can be separated into two groups such that the respective tribes are connected by the friendship relation within each group, while the tribes from different groups are set against each other. In the paper by Kropivnik and Mrvar [48], a similar Philosophies 2021, 6, 2 7 of 13

analysis was performed for the parliamentary parties in Slovenia in 1996. It turned out that all parties could be divided into two groups such that parties within one group were close to each other and the parties from different groups were far apart. It is interesting to note that the relations of closeness (or similarity) and distance (or dissimilarity) were estimated according to several criteria however, the results remained the same. We also mention a Philosophies 2021, 6, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 13 recent paper [49], where the dynamics of the international relations of nations within the period from 1946 through 1999 were studied within the framework of signed networks.

Figure 1. All possible signed triangles. The blue triangles (above) are balanced, while the red ones Figure 1. All possible signed triangles. The blue triangles (above) are balanced, while the red ones (below) are unbalanced. (below) are unbalanced. While the examples described above study the static structure of signed social net- The theory of structural balance can be naturally generalized to the case when we works, it is of interest to analyze the temporal evolution of such networked structures. Inconsider the paper various [50], the social authors groups used instead signed of social individuals: networks religious to describe communities, the evolution political of theparties, political or countries. relations In between [47], a signed leading social European network countries describing within the relational the period structure from the of establishmenttribes, living of in Three the Eastern Emperors’ Central League Highlands in 1872 ofto the New beginning Guinea, of was World presented. War I. The This authorsnetwork showed contains that the16 developmenttribes connected of international by friendship relations (“rova had”) led and to the enmity emergence (“hina of”) arelations. balanced It structure had been comprised shown that of twoall tribes antagonist can be groups. separated While into being two inherentlygroups such balanced, that the suchrespective a structure tribes turned are connected out to be unstableby the friendship at a meta-level: relation two within alliances each clashed group in, while a global the conflict,tribes from now different knownas groups the First areWorld set against War. Furthereach other. along In thisthe line,paper it by has Kropivnik been argued and inMrvar [51] that [48] the, a notionsimilar of analysis structural was balance performed must for be refinedthe par toliamentary satisfy anumber parties in of additionalSlovenia in requirements1996. It turned (see out [45 ] that for anall overview parties could of different be divided notions into of balance two groups and partialsuch that balance parties in signedwithin networks). one group Usingwere close the introduced to each other formulation, and the parties the author from showeddifferent that groups some were social far networksapart. It is that interesting were previously to note that declared the relations balanced of closeness turned out(or similarity) to be highly and imbalanced, distance (or whichdissimilarity) indeed agreedwere estimated with the empiricalaccording evidence. to several However, criteria however, it remains the an results open questionremained whetherthe same. the We formulated also mention set of a conditionsrecent paper does [49] indeed, where ensure the dynamics that the of balanced the international network remainsrelations stable. of nations within the period from 1946 through 1999 were studied within the framework of signed networks. 4.2. TheWhile Dynamics the examples of Achieving described Social Balance above study the static structure of signed social networks,Since most it is of real interest signed to networks analyze arethe totemporal some extent evolution unbalanced, of such it networked is natural to structu considerres. theIn processthe paper of balancing.[50], the authors By balancing, used signed we understand social networks the gradual to describe change the of evolution the parameters of the andpolitical structure relations of a network between aimed leading at increasing European its countries balance. within The most the natural period model from ofthe balancingestablishment consists of Three of “flipping” Emperors’ the signsLeague or evenin 1872 breaking to the certainbeginning edges of inWorld order War to get I. ridThe ofauthors “dissenting” showed relations. that the development of international relations had led to the emergence of aWe balanced believe thatstructure such actions comprised might of be two too antagonistradical within groups. the context While of being social inherently relations. Indeed,balanced, in realsuch life a structure we often turned observe out the to people be uns tendtable toat changea meta- theirlevel: attitudestwo alliances rather clashed than completelyin a global breakingconflict, now relations known with as the each First other. World Following War. Further this line, along we this consider line, it a has signed been networkargued asin a[551] dynamic that the system, notion in whichof structural the attitudes balance tend must to changebe refined in a to way satisfy that leadsa number to a moreof additional balanced requirements network. To illustrate (see [45]this for idea,an overview let us assume of different that the notions weights ofof balance the edges and maypartial take balance values in within signed an networks). extended set Using {–2, –1,the 0,introduced 1, 2}, where formulation, the respective the attitude author showed ranges that some social networks that were previously declared balanced turned out to be highly imbalanced, which indeed agreed with the empirical evidence. However, it remains an open question whether the formulated set of conditions does indeed ensure that the balanced network remains stable.

4.2. The Dynamics of Achieving Social Balance Since most real signed networks are to some extent unbalanced, it is natural to consider the process of balancing. By balancing, we understand the gradual change of the

Philosophies 2021, 6, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 13

parameters and structure of a network aimed at increasing its balance. The most natural model of balancing consists of “flipping” the signs or even breaking certain edges in order to get rid of “dissenting” relations. We believe that such actions might be too radical within the context of social relations. Indeed, in real life we often observe the people tend to change their attitudes Philosophies 2021, 6, 2 rather than completely breaking relations with each other. Following this line, we consider8 of 13 a signed network as a dynamic system, in which the attitudes tend to change in a way that leads to a more balanced network. To illustrate this idea, let us assume that the weights of the edges may take values within an extended set {–2, –1, 0, 1, 2}, where the respective fromattitude –2 (veryranges negative) from –2 through(very negative) 0 (neutral) through to 2 (very0 (neutral) positive). to 2 (very Consider positive). two trianglesConsider showntwo triangles in Figure shown2: it is in intuitively Figure 2: clear it is that intuitively the left clear triangle that is the more lef unbalancedt triangle is than more theunbalanced central one than even the thoughcentral bothone even are formallythough both equally are formally unbalanced, equally as the unbalanced product of, as the the weightsproduct of of the the edges weights is negative of the edges in both is negative cases. in both cases.

FigureFigure 2. 2.An An exampleexample of of re-balancing re-balancing in in a a signed signed triangle. triangle.

LetLet us us dwell dwell a while a while upon upo then two the left two triangles. left triangles. We can give We the can following give the interpreta- following tioninterpretation to the evolution to the depictedevolution therein. depicted The therein. structure The of structure interaction of interaction presented presented in the most in leftthe triangle most left is clearlytriangle unbalanced. is clearly unbalanced. Each actor experiencesEach actor aexperiences tension: actor a tension: 3 is friends actor with 3 is actorsfriends 1 andwith 2 actors which, 1 inand turn, 2 which, hate each in turn, other. hate On each the otherother. hand, On the actors other 1 andhand, 2 areactors stressed 1 and by2 are the stressed fact that by their the friendfact that (actor their 3) friend has great (actor relations 3) has great to their relations enemy. to None their enemy. of the actors None isof ready the actors to break is ready the respective to break the positive respective connection positive (and connection it is not clear (and at it allis not how clear to break at all ahow negative to break tie). a Thisnegative seems tie). to This be a stalemate.seems to be But a stalemate. in real life, But there in real is seldom life, there a stalemate. is seldom Typically,a stalemate. the situationTypically, evolves the situation according evolves to the according following to scenario: the following one of thescenario: actors one starts of tothe rethink actors the starts respective to rethink relations the respective by either relations impairing by their either positive impairing tie(s) their or improving positive tie(s) the negativeor improving one(s). the In negative the described one(s). case In itthe was described actor 1 who case yielded it was actor to the 1 pressure who yielded by impair- to the ingpressure the tie by with impairing actor 3 and the improving tie with actor the tie3 and with improving actor 2. While the tie it is with not necessaryactor 2. While the case, it is itnot seems necessary conceivable the case, that such it seems a re-balancing conceivable is likely that to such be symmetric: a re-balancing deteriorating is likely one to tie be issymmetric: accompanied deteriorating by improving one the tie other is accompanied one. Such dynamics by improving are to some the extent other profitable one. Such fordynamics the respective are to actorsome asextent their profi losstable is (at leastfor the partially) respective compensated actor as their for byloss the is gain.(at least In this case, actor 3 is in the worst position as the only option that is left is to deteriorate some partially) compensated for by the gain. In this case, actor 3 is in the worst position as the of their ties without a chance to get compensation. This suggests that actors 1 and 2 are only option that is left is to deteriorate some of their ties without a chance to get most likely candidacies for playing a pivotal role in the re-balancing procedure. compensation. This suggests that actors 1 and 2 are most likely candidacies for playing a Now assume that actor 1 continues rethinking their relations and becomes neutral pivotal role in the re-balancing procedure. with respect to both other actors, as shown in the most right triangle in Figure2. There is Now assume that actor 1 continues rethinking their relations and becomes neutral no longer an imbalance in the system. One might say that the respective triangle is now with respect to both other actors, as shown in the most right triangle in Figure 2. There is neutral. In fact, there are only two befriended actors and a third one that is no longer no longer an imbalance in the system. One might say that the respective triangle is now involved in the respective intergroup relations. neutral. In fact, there are only two befriended actors and a third one that is no longer To formalize the preceding observations, we introduce several definitions. involved in the respective intergroup relations. DefinitionTo formalize 1. We say the that preceding a network observations, is an extended we signed introduce network several if the setdefinitions. of weights contains zero: W = {-1, 0, 1}. Furthermore, we call a signed network weighted if its set of weights contains moreDefinition than one 1 positive. We say (or that negative) a network weight. is an extended signed network if the set of weights contains zero: W = {-1, 0, 1}. Furthermore, we call a signed network weighted if its set of weightsClearly, contains the signed more network than one shown positive in Figure (or negative)2 is an extended weight. weighted signed network. In the rest of the paper, we only consider such networks without explicitly mentioning this. Next, we defined the notion of the degree of social balance. We formulated the definition for a triangle, but it can readily be extended to a general (extended, weighted) signed network.

Deﬁnition 2. Given an extended weighted signed network with 3 vertices (a triangle), the degree of social balance is deﬁned as the average of absolute values of all weights (that is the sum of all absolute values of the weights divided by the number of weights, i.e., by 3) multiplied by 1 if the product of all weights is positive (the network is balanced), by 0 if the product of all weights is equal to 0 (the network is neutral), and by -1 if the product of all weights is negative (the network is imbalanced). Philosophies 2021, 6, 2 9 of 13

We say that a triangle is balanced if the respective degree of social balance is positive, neutral if it is equal to zero, and unbalanced otherwise. We say that one triangle is more imbalanced than the other if its degree of balance is less than the respective degree of the other triangle. To illustrate this deﬁnition, let us consider the triangles shown in Figure2. The degrees of balance of the respective triangles are (from left to right): –2, –4/3, and 0. We thus immediately observe that the left triangle is most imbalanced, while the right one is neutral.

Remark 1. Note that the deﬁnition of the degree of social balance agrees with the conventional characteristic that is deﬁned as a product of all the weights of a triangle.

4.3. Balancing through Splitting While the balancing process described above reflects many real-life processes, we suggest one more possible scenario of balancing evolution. This scenario is restricted to the case when the actors are not individuals, but rather are groups of people, schools of thought, countries, etc. In this case, there is another possible reaction to the pressure imposed by social imbalance: when an actor feels “stretched” between to mutually exclusive tendencies, one possible response would consist of splitting into two. This is the scenario that we observe when countries divide over religious or nationalistic tensions, when religious movements split over different interpretation of certain dogmas, and so on. To illustrate the described scenario, let us consider the situation depicted in Figure3. Consider a triangle describing the relations between three different parties. We assume that parties A and B enjoy good relations with party C, while A and B oppose each other. This forms a tension within this system. One possible way to relax this tension would be to change the attitude of either the first or the second party. However, in practice it is often impossible for the whole party to change its attitude. Rather, the party gets increasingly divided into those who seek to normalize their relations with their opponents and those, who do not wish to do so. This division is indicated by a dashed line that goes through vertex A. As this division grows and gets deeper, it becomes increasingly difficult to maintain the integrity of the party. So, at some point the party splits into two parts: B-phobes (A1) and B-philes (A2). Now the A1 wing gets even more opposed to B, while A2 seeks to improve its relations with B. Also, the relations between A1 and A2 sour as it often happens after a split. Will the new pattern of relations be more stable than the old one? To check that we compute the degrees of balance for both triangles shown in the right part of Figure3. Indeed, the degree of balance of the triangle A1–A2–B is 4/3, while for the triangle A2–C–B Philosophies 2021, 6, x FOR PEER REVIEWthis characteristic is equal to 5/3. Both numbers are positive, thus implying that the10 new of 13

structure of relations is structurally balanced.

FigureFigure 3. 3.Rebalancing Rebalancing an an unbalanced unbalanced triangle triangle by by splitting splitting one one vertex. vertex.

5. Graph-Theoretic Interpretation and Formalization of Relations between Judaean Sects In line with the analysis and interpretation detailed in Section 2, we will identify early Essenes with Qumranites. Hence, all observations, made on the basis of the analysis of Qumran scrolls, will be extended to characterize the movement of Essenes. Following this convention and the analysis, presented in Section 3, we can describe the original structure of relations between Essenes, Sadducees, and Pharisees by using the triangle shown in Figure 4a. While good relation between Sadducees and Essenes was determined by their common origin (priests of the Zadokite lineage) and can be estimated—at least originally—as good enough, the relationship between Essenes and Pharisees was notably bad (“interpreters of slippery things”, etc.) The relations between Sadducees and Pharisees were ambivalent and during different periods of the second and the first centuries BCE were characterized both by animosity and (sporadic) cooperation (especially after the invasion of the Romans in Judaea). However, both Sadducees and Pharisees participated in the temple service, sat together in the Sanhedrin, were alternately favorites at the courts of the Hasmonaeans and Herod the Great, and then were mediators at the Roman prefects and procurators. Thus, we assessed the respective relationship as being sufficiently good (except for during the periods of Alexander Jannaeus and Alexandra Salome).

(a) (b) (c)

Philosophies 2021, 6, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 13

Figure 3. Rebalancing an unbalanced triangle by splitting one vertex.

Will the new pattern of relations be more stable than the old one? To check that we compute the degrees of balance for both triangles shown in the right part of Figure 3. Indeed, the degree of balance of the triangle A1–A2–B is 4/3, while for the triangle A2–C– B this characteristic is equal to 5/3. Both numbers are positive, thus implying that the new structure of relations is structurally balanced. Philosophies 2021, 6, 2 10 of 13 5. Graph-Theoretic Interpretation and Formalization of Relations between Judaean Sects In line with the analysis and interpretation detailed in Section 2, we will identify early 5. Graph-Theoretic Interpretation and Formalization of Relations between Judaean Sects Essenes with Qumranites. Hence, all observations, made on the basis of the analysis of QumranIn line scrolls, with thewill analysis be extended and interpretation to characterize detailed the movement in Section of2 ,Essenes. we will Following identify early this Essenesconvention with and Qumranites. the analysis, Hence, presented all observations, in Section 3, we made can on describe the basis the oforiginal the analysis structure of Qumranof relations scrolls, between will beEssenes, extended Sadducees, to characterize and Pharisees the movement by using of the Essenes. triangle Following shown in thisFigure convention 4a. While and good the relation analysis, between presented Sadducees in Section and 3Essenes, we can was describe determined the original by their structurecommon of origin relations (priests between of the Essenes, Zadokite Sadducees, lineage) and and Pharisees can be by estimated using the— triangleat least shownoriginall inyFigure—as good4a . Whileenough, good the relation relation betweenship between Sadducees Essenes and and Essenes Pharisees was determinedwas notably bybad their (“interpreters common origin of slippery (priests of things”, the Zadokite etc.) The lineage) relations and can between be estimated—at Sadducees least and originally—asPharisees were good ambivalent enough, the and relationship during different between periods Essenes of and the Pharisees second and was thenotably first badcenturies (“interpreters BCE were of slippery characterized things”, etc.) both The by relations animosity between and Sadducees (sporadic) and cooperation Pharisees were(especially ambivalent after the and invasion duringdifferent of the Romans periods in of Judaea). the second However, and the both ﬁrst Sadducees centuries BCE and werePharisees characterized participated both in by the animosity temple and service, (sporadic) sat together cooperation in the (especially Sanhedrin, after were the invasionalternately of favorites the Romans at the in Judaea).courts of However,the Hasmonaeans both Sadducees and Herod and the Pharisees Great, and participated then were inmediators the temple at service, the Roman sat together prefects in theand Sanhedrin, procurators. were Thus, alternately we assessed favorites the at the respective courts ofrelation the Hasmonaeansship as being and sufficiently Herod the Great, good and (except then for were during mediators the periodsat the Roman of Alexander prefects andJannaeus procurators. and Alexandra Thus, we Sa assessedlome). the respective relationship as being sufﬁciently good (except for during the periods of Alexander Jannaeus and Alexandra Salome).

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 4. Visualization of the relations between Judaean sects during the period 2nd century BCE–74 CE. The vertices are denoted S (Sadducees), P (Pharisees), E (Essenes), and Z (Zealots). The panels illustrate the relations during different periods: (a) the period from the 2nd century BCE to the advent of the Romans in Judea in 63 BCE; (b) the ﬁrst half of the 1st century BCE; (c) the period from 6 BCE until 74 CE.

As time went on, the relations between different sects underwent substantial changes that were partially determined by the evolution of political and religious creeds of the respective groups, but also reﬂected the changing geopolitical situation in the region. The relations between the Sadducees and the Essenes had soured to some extent due to halakhic, i.e., ritual differences and the fact that the Essenes used the solar calendar. The latter immediately separated the Essenes from the temple service and caused strong disagreements with other movements (holidays on different days, etc.) This disagreement was perceived as a violation of world harmony as a whole by those who are wrong in terms of rituals, rest, etc. On the other hand, the relations of the Essenes with the Pharisees somewhat improved due to the external pressure exerted on the whole Jewish community by the Romans. The appearance of the common enemy had led to a partial political alignment of the Essenes and Pharisees. These changes resulted in a new relation structure, as shown in Figure4b. We observe that the new structure has a larger degree of balance than the previous one, which reﬂects an overall tendency to achieving a more balanced structure. Later, pressure from the Roman Empire started to play an increased role in the political life of Judaea. This led to the appearance of a new movement, Zealots, who were utterly Philosophies 2021, 6, 2 11 of 13

opposed to direct Roman rule. This movement joined parts of both the Pharisees and Essenes and thus it enjoyed relatively good relations with both sides. On the other hand, the relations between the Essenes and Sadducees continued to worsen. The structure of relations at the ﬁrst half of the 1st century CE is presented in Figure4c. We note that the resulting structure is completely balanced. We might also conjecture that—as the theory of social balance predicts—the relations between Zealots and Sadducees should be rather negative, than positive. However, there is not enough historical evidence to conclude this with certainty.

6. Discussions In this contribution, we have shown that while the relations between different Jewish sects were determined by different factors, both of local and global nature, the overall evolution of their relations developed toward more socially balanced structures. It is interesting to observe that during this evolution, we observed different scenarios aimed at achieving social balance: redistribution of the weights between different edges (i.e., rethinking the relations between different sects) and splitting of a single agent into two, thus relieving the tension within the respective group. This paper does not present an ultimate answer to the problem of relations between different Jewish sects, but it can point towards different aspects that require additional attention from researchers. Our future work will concentrate on considering the described problem within a more general framework and ﬁnding further evidence reinforcing the formulated results.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, E.V.G.; methodology, I.R.T. and D.G.; validation, I.R.T.; formal analysis, D.G.; investigation, I.R.T. and D.G.; data curation, I.R.T.; writing—original draft preparation, I.R.T. and D.G.; writing—review and editing, E.V.G., I.R.T. and D.G.; visualization, D.G.; supervision, E.V.G.; project administration, E.V.G.; funding acquisition, E.V.G. and I.R.T. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript. Funding: The reported study was funded by Russian Foundation for Basic Research under the research project N 18-00-00727 (18-00-00725, 18-00-00628). Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable. Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable. Data Availability Statement: The data presented in this study are contained within the article. Acknowledgments: The authors are grateful to the anonymous reviewers for their valuable and insightful remarks. In particular, we wish to thank one of the reviewers for bringing to our attention the fact that if the idea that “those who were driven by the vagaries of fortune into the company of the Essenes believed themselves to be predestined to do so” is right, “it would be the sole known exception to the general picture of monastic society, in which people’s bad fortune is financial distress or social isolation. They join monasteries because they are down and out or alienated”. Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

References 1. Jastrow, M. A Dictionary of the Targumim, the Talmud Babli and Yerushalmi, and the Midrashic Literature; Luzac & Co.: London, UK; G. P. Putnam’s Sons: New York, NY, USA, 1926. 2. Sokoloff, M. A Dictionary of Jewish Palestinian Aramaic of the Byzantine Period, 2nd ed.; Bar-Ilan University Press: Ramat Gan, Israel, 2002. 3. Albright, W.F.L.; Mann, C.S. Qumran and the Essenes: Geography, Chronology and Identiﬁcation of the Sect. In The Scrolls and Christianity. Historical and Theological Signiﬁcance; Black., M.L., Ed.; Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge: London, UK, 1969. 4. Collins, J.J. Essenes. In Anchor Bible Dictionary, Freedman, D.N., Ed.; Yale University Press: London, UK, 1992; Volume 2, pp. 619–626. 5. Beall, T.S. Essenes. In Encyclopedia of the Dead Sea Scrolls; Shiffman, L., VanderKam, J., Eds.; Oxford University Press: Oxford, UK, 2000; Volume I, pp. 262–268. Philosophies 2021, 6, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 13

Philosophies 2021, 6, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 13

picture of the emergence, interactions, and relationships of key Jewish sects in the Hellen- istic era. In this regard,picture we find of theit promising emergence, to interactions,try to use the and framework relationships of signed of key social Jewish sects in the Hellen- networks to better understandistic era. andIn this visualize regard, the we processes find it promising in the development to try to use of thesectarian framework of signed social Judaism that were takingnetworks place duringto better those understand times. and visualize the processes in the development of sectarian The paper is organizedJudaism as follows.that were In taking Section place 2 we during briefly those introduce times. the main Judaean sects and outline their originsThe paperand main is organized features. as We follows. specifically In Section consider 2 we brieflyEssenes introduce and the main Judaean show that it can be identifiedsects and withoutline the theirsect oforigins Qumranites. and main Section features. 3 is We devoted specifically to the consider Essenes and analysis of the dynamicsshow of thatinteraction it can bebe tweenidentified the principalwith the sectJudaean of Qumranites. sects: Sadducees, Section 3 is devoted to the Pharisees, Essenes, andanalysis later alsoof the Zealots dynamics and Sicarii.of interaction Necessary between facts theabout principal the signed Judaean sects: Sadducees, graphs and respectivePharisees, signed networks Essenes, theory and laterare presented also Zealots in Section and Sicarii. 4. Finally, Necessary Section facts about the signed 5 provides an interpretationgraphs of and the respective processes signeddescribed networks in Section theory 5 in are terms presented of the signed in Section 4. Finally, Section graphs theory. The paper5 provides concludes an interpretationwith a Discussion of the Section. processes described in Section 5 in terms of the signed graphs theory. The paper concludes with a Discussion Section. 2. A Brief Excursion into the Principal Judaean Sects Josephus Flavius 2.(37/38–after A Brief Excursion 100 CE), into descri thebing Principal the rise Judaean of three Sects principal Judaean sects—the Pharisees (lit. “setJosephus apart, separate Flavius d”),(37/38–after the Sadducees 100 CE), (probably describing after the Zadok, rise of the three principal Judaean first High Priest of thesects—the First Temple), Pharisees and Essenes (lit. “set (according apart, separate to Vitad”),, II, the 10–12, Sadducees he studied (probably after Zadok, the these Jewish sects “infirst practice”), High Priest singles of the Firstout Temple),the attitude and Essenestowards (according predestination to Vita , II, 10–12, he studied (εἱμαρμένη; lit. “lot”,these “fate”, Jewish destiny”, sects sc. “in Providence) practice”), as singlesthe main out aspect the attitudeof religious towa rds predestination “schools” separation in(εἱμαρμένη Judaea in the; lit. middle “lot”, of“fate”, the 2nd destiny”, century sc. BCE Providence) (Antiquitates as Judaicaethe main aspect of religious [further–Antt.], XIII, 171–173).“schools” The separation historian in notesJudaea that in the the middle very essence of the 2nd of the century Essenes’ BCE (Antiquitates Judaicae doctrine is “that all things[further– are bestAntt. ascribed], XIII, 171–173). to God” (Theib., XVIII,historian 18, seenotes also: that ib. ,the XIII, very 172). essence of the Essenes’ Pliny the Elder (Historiadoctrine Naturalis is “that, V, 15, all 73) things asserts are thatbest theascribed numbers to God” of the (ib. Essenes, XVIII, “are 18, see also: ib., XIII, 172). fully recruited by multitudesPliny the of Elderstrangers (Historia that resortNaturalis to them,, V, 15, driven 73) asserts thither that to adoptthe numbers their of the Essenes “are usages by the tempestsfully of fortune”. recruited Theby multitudes mention of of fortuna strangers (this that term resort correlates to them, with driven the thither to adopt their εἱμαρμένη in Josephus’usages account) by the in thistempests context of canfortune”. imply The the Essenes’mention beliefof fortuna in predesti- (this term correlates with the nation, according to whichεἱμαρμένη the sectarians, in Josephus’ as they account) thought, in this found context themselves can imply in thethe com-Essenes’ belief in predesti- munity. Cf.: Solinus, Denation, mirabilibus according mundi to, XXXV, which 9,the who sectarians, used the as word they providentia thought, found (“prov- themselves in the com- idence”) in this connection.)munity. The Cf.: widely Solinus, spread De mirabilibus Essene practice mundi, ofXXXV, the prediction 9, who used of futurethe word providentia (“prov- events (including personalidence”) fates), in thiswell connection.) known to Josephus The widely Flavius spread (see, Essene e.g., Bellumpractice Judai- of the prediction of future cum [further – BJ], I, 78–80;events II, (including 111–113, 159;personal Antt. fates),, XIII, 311–313;well known XVII, to 346–348;Josephus XV,Flavius 371– (see, e.g., Bellum Judai- 379; XVII, 345–348; cf. cumalso: [further Hyppolitus – BJ], of I, Rome,78–80; PhilosophumenaII, 111–113, 159;, IX, Antt. 27),, XIII, was 311–313;likely to beXVII, 346–348; XV, 371– based on their belief in379; predetermination. XVII, 345–348; cf. (In also: Antt. Hyppolitus, III, 214–218, of Rome, Joseph Philosophumenaus speaks of the, IX, 27), was likely to be Philosophies 2021, 6, 2 12 of 13 Judaean High Priest’sbased breastplate on their and belief describes in predetermination. its role in the process (In Antt. of predictions., III, 214–218, He Joseph us speaks of the transcribes the HebrewJudaean word ḥ Highōšen for Priest’s a “breastplate” breastplate as and ἐσσήν describes, and correlates its role in the the latter process of predictions. He term with the Greek λόγιονtranscribes, “oracle” the Hebrew (ib., III, word163, 217; ḥōšen cf. forthe a Se “breastplate”ptuagint’s correlate as ἐσσήν term, and correlates the latter λογεῖον). It6. is notTantlevskij, impossibleterm I.R.with that Further the Josephus Greek Considerations λόγιον perceived, “oracle” on the Possible implicit (ib., III, Aramaic meaning 163, 217; Etymologies “prediction”cf. the Se ofptuagint’s the Designation correlate of term the Judaean Sect of Es- from the designationsenes ( Ἐσσηνοίλογεῖονσσα oι/)..) ItInσσην is the noto ι´light) inimpossible the of Lighttheseof thatconsid the Josephus Ancienterations, Authors perceived it seems Accounts mostthe implicit natural of Them meaning and the Qumran“prediction” Community World-View. to correlate theΣ hithertoXOΛHfrom (Schole) unclarified the2016 designation, 10 etymology, 61–76. Ἐσσηνοί of the.) Interm the Ἐσσαῖοιlight of these / Ἐσσηνοί consid erations,with the it seems most natural Aramaic notion7. Verm ḥšy /èḥs,što᾿ G.; [1] correlate Goodman, (p. 508); the cf.: M. hitherto [2]The (p. Essenes: 217), unclarified Accordingwhich is etymology tointerpreted the Classical of as Sourcesthe “what term; JSOT man Ἐσσαῖοι Press: has Sheffield, / Ἐσσηνοί UK, with 1989. the to suffer, predestination,8. De Vaux,Aramaic R. fortune”Archaeology notion [1] and (p.ḥšy the508). /ḥ Deadš᾿ [1] The Sea(p. term Scrolls508); ḥ ;cf.:šy Oxford is [2] attested (p. University 217), in which the Press: Midrash is Oxford,interpreted on UK, 1973.as “what man has Greek and Latin Authors on Jews and Judaism the Book of9. Lamentations,Stern, M.to suffer, or Eichah predestination, Rabbah (89:14; fortune” ib. 20), [1] which, (p.; Eisenbrauns:508). along The with term Winona the ḥšy Bereshith is Lake, attested IN, USA, in the 1984; Midrash Volume on 1. 10. Taylor, J. On Pliny, the Essene Location and Kh. Qumran. Dead Sea Discov. 2009, 16, 1–21. [CrossRef] Rabbah and the Pesiqta thede-Rab Book Kahana of Lamentations,, is the oldest or composition Eichah Rabbah of the (89:14; Midrashic ib. 20), literature. which, along with the Bereshith 11. Emanuel Tov, J.L. (Ed.) Discoveries in the Judaean Desert; The Clarendon Press: Oxford, UK, 1995; Volume I-XL, pp. 1951–2011. It was written12. inDupont-Sommer, the so-calledRabbah and Jewish A. theLes EcritsPesiqta Palestinian Esseniens de-Rab Aramaic, DecouvertsKahana, iswhich Presthe oldest de continued, la Mer composition Morte as; PAYOT: opposed of Paris,the Midrashic France, 1996. literature. to the other13. Western Maier, Aramaic J.;It Schubert,was written languages K. Die inQumran-Essener the of so-called the middle Jewish; Ernst stage, Reinhardt: Palestinian one of the München, Aramaic,written Germany, Old which Ara- 1982.continued, as opposed maic languages14. Merrill, of theto E.H.western theQumran other branch. Western and Predestination. One Aramaic can try A tolanguages Theological reconstruct Studyof the a conjectural of middle the Thanksgiving stage, noun one Hymns(m. of the; Brill: written Leiden, Old The Ara- Netherlands, 1975. pl.) of the same15. Lichtenberger,root aftermaic the languages H.modelStudien C1 zumaCof 2theC Menschenbild2aC western3 (normally branch. in Texten designations One der Qumrangemeinde can tryof persons to reconstruct; Vandenhoeck by their a conjectural und Ruprecht: noun Gëttingen, (m. Germany, 1980; profession, usualpp. activity, 184–189.pl.) of etthec. sameare formed root after after the it) model as ḥ aššayyC1aC2Cā᾿2 aCin3 (normallyst. det., respectively designations of persons by their ḥš(᾿)(y)yn in16. st. Wise,abs. The M.profession, 4QMMTetymology and usual of the the Sadducees: activity, term Ἐσσαῖοι et Ac. Look are / at Ἐσσηνοίformed a Recent after Theory.derived it) Qumranas from ḥaššayy this Chron. ā᾿hy- in1993 st., 1–3det.,, 71–74. respectively pothetical 17.termCharlesworth, appearsḥš( ᾿to)(y)yn be J.H. relevantin (Ed.) st. abs. Rule not The of only the etymology community semantically, of and the related butterm also documents.Ἐσσαῖοι linguistically. / Ἐσσηνοί In The DeadIn derived Sea Scrolls. from Hebrew, this hy- Aramaic, and Greek Texts with English Translations; Mohr Siebeck: Tübingen, Germany; Westminster John Knox Press: Louisville, KY, USA, 1994; Volume I. connection with the correspondencepothetical term of appears the beginnings to be relevant in spelling, not theonly following semantically, transcrip- but also linguistically. In 18. Magness, J. 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