Thesis Submitted for the Award of the Degree Of

GENDER DISPARITY IN FOOD AND NUTRITION SECURITY IN ALIGARH DISTRICT

THESIS SUBMITTED FOR THE AWARD OF THE DEGREE OF

Doctor of Philosophy IN GEOGRAPHY

BY SADHANA SINGH

UNDER THE SUPERVISION OF PROF. SYED NAUSHAD AHMAD

DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY ALIGARH MUSLIM UNIVERSITY ALIGARH (INDIA) 2018

Dr. Syed Naushad Ahmad Department of Geography (Professor) Aligarh Muslim University Aligarh-202002

Dated:………………..

Certificate

This is to certify that Sadhana Singh has completed her doctoral thesis on the title Gender Disparity in Food and Nutrition Security in Aligarh District under my supervision. The present research work in my opinion is fit for evaluation.

(Prof. Syed Naushad Ahmad) Supervisor

CANDIDATES’S DECLARATION

I, Sadhana Singh, Department of Geography, certify that the work embodied in this Ph.D thesis is my own bonafide work carried out by me under the supervision of Prof. Syed Naushad Ahmad at Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh. The matter embodied in this Ph.D thesis has not been submitted for the award of any other degree.

I declare that I have faithfully acknowledge, given credit to and referred to the research workers wherever their works have been cited in the text and the body of the thesis. I further certify that I have not willfully lifted up some other’s work, para, text, data, result etc. reported in the journals, books, magazines, reports, dissertations, theses, etc. or available at websites and included them in this Ph.D thesis and cited as my own work.

Date:……………….. (Signature of the Candidate) Sadhana Singh ……………………………………………………………………………………………… CERTIFICATE FROM THE SUPERVISOR

This is to certify that the above statement made by the candidate is correct to the best of my knowledge.

Signature of the Supervisor Prof. Syed Naushad Ahmad (Professor) Department of Geography Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh

(Signature of the Chairman of the Department with seal)

COURSE/COMPREHENSIVE EXAMINATION/PRE- SUBMISSION SEMINAR COMPLETION CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that Ms. SADHANA SINGH Department of Geography Aligarh Muslim University has satisfactory completed the course work/comprehensive examination and pre-submission seminar requirement which is part of her Ph.Dprogramme.

Date…………………… (Signature of the Chairman of the Department)

Title of the Thesis : Gender Disparity in Food and Nutrition Security in Aligarh District

Candidate’s Name: Sadhana Singh

The undersigned hereby assigns to the Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh copyright that may exist in and for the above thesis submitted for the award of the Ph.D degree.

(Signature of the Candidate)

. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The Journey of writing this thesis has been fascinating and extremely rewarding. First of all, I thank Almighty God for His blessings in the successful completion of this research work. I am also thankful to the great visionary Sir Syed Ahmad Khan, founder of this great institution of learning. It will always be a matter of honour for me to be a student of Aligarh Muslim University.

I express my sincere regards and gratitude to my esteemed and learned supervisor, Prof. Syed Naushad Ahmad. His expertise, invaluable guidance, constant motivation and encouragement, affectionate attitude, and healthy criticism made the backbone of this research work.I am honestly fortunate to avail opportunity of getting him as my supervisor, without whom this work could not have been completed successfully.

I also wish to express my heartfelt gratitude to Prof. Ateeque Ahmad, Chairman, Department of Geography, A.M.U., Aligarh, for his guidance and constant encouragement which made it possible to conduct the research work smoothly. I am also very much grateful to Prof. Syed Waseem Ahmad Ashraf for providing me all possible advice to get this work completed.

I am thankful to all non-teaching staff of the Department for their co-operation and encouragement. My thanks are due to Dr. ShafiquallahSiddiqui, Mr. Q.I. Hashmi, Mrs. TalatQuadri, and Mohd. Arif for their coordination. I am also thankful to staff members of Maulana Azad Library for their help to access relevant materials and data for my research purpose.

I express my gratitude to my seniors Miss Rajni Sharma, Mrs. Gomatee, Mrs. SumanLata,Miss TabassumJahan, Dr. MD.NaiyerZaidy, Dr. ShabbirAhamad, Dr. AshishParashari, Dr. ZafarTabrez and Mr. H.K. Sharma. My friends and colleague supported me in many ways during my research period and they really deserve my sincere thanks. My thanks are due to Miss. AmirahBano, Miss. RaziaBano, Miss. NaushabaAhamad, Miss. Nida Fatima and Mr. DaudAhamad, Mr. MahtabAlam, Mr. Rajkumar, Mr. Jitendra, Mr. Nisar Ahmad, Mr. Dilshad, Mr. Manish, Mr. Yogesh, Miss. InayatBano, Miss. Mariya, Miss. Zoveriya, Miss. Rumana, Miss. Atika, Miss. Nida, Miss. Sadafand many others.

I am extremely grateful to my parents, Mrs. Kamlesh, Mrs. Saroj Devi and Mr. Padam Singh, Mr. Narendra Singh for their love, prayers, caring and sacrifices for educating and nurturing me for my future. I am very much thankful to my husband Mr. Nitin Kumar, (Asst. Professor) for his love, understanding and continuing support to complete this research work. Also, I express my special thanks to my family members, my sisters Rashmi, Poonam and Poojadidi and my younger brothers, Yatendra Singh and Kuldeep and Lalit. I am thankful also to my brother-in-law Mr. Kuldeep Kumar (SPG) for his proper guidance and motivation, whenever it was needed. I also would like to thank dear Kupoo, whose sweet talk and playful activities kept me cheerful when I was getting bored and tired.

Here, it is not possible to mention every name, who helped me during my research. But I would also like to thank the people of my study area villages for their co-operation during the survey for data collection.

At last, I am also thankful to University Grants Commission, New Delhi, for financial support through Research Fellowship.

Sadhana Singh

ABSTRACT

Gender Disparity is the worst form of human rights violations in a society. The unequal gender relations result in the form of inequality and biasness in access, sharing, utilization of productive resources and power by women. Traditional roots of gender disparity forces the women not to equally enjoy the most basic human rights like- education, health, food and opportunities to become active human resources; and they become the unequal constitute of the major percentage of poverty, illiteracy and hunger and nutritional deprivations. Women are thus the most vulnerable sections of the society.

The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO, 2006) report on hunger and malnutrition states that the female are the largest victims of the hunger and malnutrition non-proportionally and suffered from the high rate of anaemia, chronic energy deficiency (CED) and other nutritional disease in comparison to male. This gender dimension inclusion in the food and nutritional well-being recognised by FAO further point out that the gendered aspects of food security are visible along the all four pillars of food security: availability, access, utilization and stability.

The Gender and Food issues are so threatening to humanity that they received highest priority in United Nations in their Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). United Nation’s MDG goal No.1 has main focus for eradicating the extreme hunger. Priority of hunger removal on top slot clearly points out the severity of the problem. Enlisting the elimination of all dimensions of gender disparity and promotion of gender equity as its MDG goal No.3 by United Nation (UN) clearly bring the world focus on women’s inequality issues in all spheres of life. The grimness of these two issues are thus combinedly be analyzed as a research topic in this doctoral work.

The gender disparity in the food and nutritional security not only affects women but it causes the multiplier intergenerational effect on children because the underweight and undernourished mothers give birth to the undernourished children. The poor nutritional and health situation increases the mortality rate in children causing unbalanced sex ratio in the society. This deprivation in food resources also has the cultural and ethical dimension which emphasis that the social upbringing in the society is highly gender biased. It also indicates the violation of all the natural

1 justice and constitutional provisions which secure the equal access and treatment for women in the society in all aspect of life.

Objectives

To make a comprehensive study, following objectives are selected

1. To analyze the patterns of gender inequality in health and nutritional status at household level.

2. To measure the nature and extent of gender inequality in dietary intakes in intrahousehold food consumption.

3. To explain the underlying factors which determine the gender disparity in nutrition and household food security.

4. To access the role of women empowerment on food and nutrition.

5. To suggest suitable measures and sustainable policy interventions to reduce the gap in food and nutrition and overall inequalities at district level.

Hypotheses

In order to understand the role of gender relations in explaining the gender inequality in food and nutrition in Aligarh district following research hypothesis have been formulated:

1. Females are more vulnerable to food and nutrition security.

2. Gender disparity in the food and nutrition security is the outcome of unequal gender relations within the household.

3. Women empowerment has positive impact on reducing the gender disparity in food and nutrition security.

4. Women’s education and Nutritional knowledge has positive role on food and nutrition.

Rationale Behind Selection of Study Area

 Aligarh district is ranked by World Bank and HUNGAMA report in the most 100 vulnerably food insecure districts of India. So, to analyse the overall food security condition and especially with reference to gender at village level has been attempted.

 Out of total 75 districts in Uttar Pradesh, World Food Programme (WFP) selected 28 priority districts from the state of U.P. and Aligarh is one of them. The study area is vulnerable to food insecurity as it is inhabited by substantial Scheduled Caste (SC) population and high proportion of agricultural labourers with low wage rates. Female literacy rate is also low in these priority districts with poor rural connectivity. So, the micro level analyses at grass root level with gender focus provide the opportunity to lay down the precise framework for further understanding of the problem in the area.

Data Base and Methodology

Data related to gender issues such as education, decision making, empowerment, access to resources, freedom of mobility, and awareness were asked in questionnaire and on the basis of these questions the gender disparity was analyzed. A wide range of raw data is then processed into pertinent indicators for portraying gender inequality in the study area. The important statistical techniques used in the present study are Z-Score, and Karl Pearson’s Correlation. The data is processed with the help of Microsoft Excel and SPSS 16 and represented in the forms of tables, graphs comparative bar diagrams and maps.

The present research work has been analyzed in terms of a large number of appropriate indicators of women empowerment and their status in food and nutritional security. The present study uses the both primary and secondary sources of the data but largely based on primary data collected from survey of 24 villages of Aligarh District. There are 12 blocks in the district. Two villages have been randomly selected from each block for filed survey. 30 household have been chosen from each village for data collection on the basis of systematic random sampling. Thus, a total of 720 households were surveyed with the help of well-structured questionnaire/ schedule. The study is also substantiated by secondary sources. Important sources of secondary data include the Census data 2011and Sankhiyiki Patrika (U.P.), Food Security Atlas of UP, various reports of Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO), International Food Policy Research Institution (IFPRI), National Nutrition Monitoring Bureau (NNMB), and National Family Health Survey (NFHS).

Organisation of Study

The present doctoral work structurally divided into seven chapters excluding the introduction and conclusion. Chapter -I gives an account of the conceptual framework of general gender disparity and its different dimensions. Chapter-II deals with literature review on gender disparity in food and nutrition security. Chapter -III focuses on physical and socio-economic description of the study area. Social and Economic profile the study area is discussed in Chapter-IV. Status of food and nutrition security has been analyzed in Chapter-V. Chapter-VI presents a detailed account of women empowerment. Chapter-VII explores the gender disparity in food and nutrition security. At last, in light of main findings of the study conclusions and suggestions have been made.

Aligarh District is located between 27°27' N to 28° 11' N latitudes and 77°27'E to 78° 38' E longitudes. The greatest East-West extension is about 116 kilometers whereas maximum stretch from North to South is about 62 kilometers. Its elevation from mean sea level is 611.62 feet (190 meters). Two important rivers the Ganga and the Yamuna form its extreme North Eastern and North Western boundary respectively. It is bounded by Bulandshahr district in the north, Haryana in the North West, Mathura in the west and south-west, Hathras in the south and Etah in the east.

Aligarh is an important district in the Northwestern Uttar Pradesh and it also has administrative headquarter of Aligarh division. The district consists of five sub- divisions/ tehsils namely Koil, Khair, Gabhana, Atrauli, and Iglas. The tehsils are further subdivided into 12 development blocks namely Atrauli, Gangiri, Bijauli, Jawan Sikandarpur, Chandaus, Khair, Tappal, Dhanipur, Lodha, Akrabad, Iglas, and Gonda.

Physiographically Aligarh district is an important part of fertile upper Ganga- Yamuna Doab. The alluvial plain of the district has a gentle slope from north to south and South-East. The district has no marked physiographic features except with some depressions and elevations. The depressions are formed by the river valleys and natural drainage lines, while the elevations consist merely of slight ridges of sand which are most prominently found in tehsil Khair. The district topographically represents a shallow trough of saucepan like appearance. On the basis of structure and geomorphic features the district has been divided into the following five

4 physiographic divisions from the west to the east direction in a series of lowlands and uplands as follows: (a) the Ganga khaddar, (b) the eastern uplands, (c) the central low- lying tract, (d) the western uplands, (e) the Yamuna khadar.

Food accessibility has been measured on the basis of consumption of income elastic food in the household, livestock availability in the household, consumption of different food items (pulses, milk, vegetables, and cereals). It has been found that 59.9% population has no access to extra diversity (high protein, rich fat, outside junk food, and income elastic food) to the food basket. Only the 10% population in the district has access to the income elastic food, which comprises the high income group or having higher assets availability. Remaining percentage of district population, including the Muslims, Jats, SCs, and Thukars have the extra protein rich source from their non-veg food items. The low percentage of the non-veg consumption is mainly attributed to the higher percentages of the Hindu population in the areas. Religious taboo about non-consumption of meat in Hindu population is breaking down. The junk food, a product of the urbanization and globalization is rapidly spread in the villages which have higher urban influence and 12% rural population of the district consume this extra diverse food resource; which also result in the obesity and overweight in population.

Nearly 65% population of district is food secure and remaining population is food insecure. Food insecurity intensity has also been analyzed at district level and maximum food insecure people face the daily food insecurity (47%), which indicates that the food insecure people in the district have more vulnerability. 31% people have weekly food insecurity while remaining 22% have monthly food insecurity.

As far as the different vitamins deficiency is concerned, Vitamin A deficiency at district level is recorded as 9.6% in male population and 10 % in female population. Approximately 5.4 % male and 7.8 female of the district has suffered from the vitamin B group deficiency. While, vitamin C deficiency is also prevalent in district and affects 6.9% male population and 9.2 % female. The Vitamin D deficiency is also found in both male and female in Aligarh District and 4.2 % male and 7.4 % female suffered from this deficiency. Vitamin E deficiency at district level is also recorded differently for male (5.7 %) and female (8.7 %). Iron deficiency is strongly

5 predominant in Aligarh district as 27.6 % male and 56.1 % female suffered from this. Iodine deficiency at district level is recorded 1.3 % in male and 1.7 % in female.

Thus, it may be concluded that the nutritional profile of male and female shows marked gender disparity in Aligarh District. Village wise data indicate that at district level out of the total population 54.40% of male population is found in the healthy category, whereas it is 45.60% to that of female population. Thus, it is showing a gender gap of 8.80% in nutritional status of men and women. Gender disparity in healthy category is highest in Samaspur, Dado, Adhon, Kharai, while it is lowest Chandaus, Andala, Salempur villages. The highest difference indicates that women have lower socio-economic condition in comparison to male. The villages with minimum gender disparity reflect the women’s better socio-economic conditions. The share of male and female in underweight category has no wide gap (3.67%). Land ownership by females in the rural Aligarh indicates that there is higher gender gap in asset ownership and its inheritance. Females share a meager percentage in land ownership in comparison to male in all villages irrespective of their socio- economic conditions. At the district level only 7.74% women are land owner in comparison to the male. This pattern indicates that the females have no share in economic value chain of the agriculture. Deprivation of women from the land ownership also hampers their status as a decision maker in agriculture value chain. The negative effect of this gender disparity reflected in the high prevalence of under nutrition and malnourished population; because in these areas female neither maximize their potential as a producer nor transform themselves as an agent against hunger through land utilization.

Economic role of women is very significant to analyze from perspective of food and women empowerment. Female participation in different economic activities also reveals the quality aspect of women’s role in economic structure of country. Primary data on economic role of women reflect the general trend that women have 16% share in primary sector, 7% share in secondary sector and only 6% share in tertiary sector and remaining 70% women are housewives in the district.

6 and nutritional security conditions. The women’s failure in the economic participation is mainly because of their illiteracy and unskilled nature.

Women have least participation in decision making in all spheres of life and this is represented by primary data collected from the study area. Women in household’s decision making have only 32.12% share in very effective manner because of the rigid patriarchal setup. The low literacy and socio-economic status of female reduced their active participation in decision making.

Women’s illiteracy, rigid patriarchal setup and restriction on mobility are the main reasons of their least inclusion in social and political spheres in India. However their inclusion in political participation is gradually increasing on account of reservation of seats for females in Panchayat. Primary data on the women’s political and social participation reveal that women have very less representation in these spheres despite positive measures taken by government.

Correlation matrix of the different indicators of women empowerment indicates that that they have positive relations with most of the indicators. Land ownership is highly positive to education (0.897), decision making (0.919) and political social representation (0.933). Land ownership has negative relation with primary activities (-0.400) and secondary activities (-0.163) because the women having land do not prefer to engage in these activities. Landless women are compelled to go for primary activities in other’s field or for secondary activities to distant places. Education has highest positive relation with decision making (0.942) and politico- social representation (0.949). Education has also high positive relation with Nutritional knowledge (0.970) because it broaden the mind-set and thinking of women to exercise their rights. Resource ownership by female improves the other factors of food security also. The lesser relation of education with income (0.308) for women indicates that all educated women are not going to share the income earing activities in rural areas. Similarly, decision making power has high relation with political and social representation and tertiary sector activities. Mobility has good relation with nutritional knowledge as the women moves to new places they know the new information related to food and nutrition security.

The correlation matrix of women empowerment and food security indicates that women empowerment has positive relation with food and nutrition security. The

7 improved women empowerment status results in better food security and healthy conditions. Women empowerment also raises the consumption score of different food items up to RDA level and household diet diversity score. Similarly food security has positive relation with healthy population, consumption score and household diet diversity score which means that positive changes in all these factors improve the food and nutrition security. Thus, women empowerment mainly in terms of education, economic, political and other spheres of life can improve the food and nutrition security in general and reduce gender disparity in particular.

It is well evident from the above analysis and discussion that the female discrimination in food and nutrition security is present in different forms and intensity in the study which can only be reduced by improving women’s status.

CONTENTS

Page No.

Acknowledgement i - ii List of Tables iii - iv List of Figures v - vii

INTRODUCTION 1 -7  Objectives  Hypotheses  Rationale Behind Selection of Study Area  Data Base and Methodology  Organisation of Study

CHAPTER 1 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK OF GENDER DISPARITY AND GENDER RELATIONS 8 - 28 1.1 Concept of gender and gender disparity 1.2 Origin of Gender Disparity 1.3 Gender Disparity and Its Different Dimensions 1.4 Evidences of Gender Disparity in India in Different Aspects of Life 1.5 Gender Dimension of the Food and Nutrition Security 1.6 Gender and Food: Tools and Methodologies 1.7 Intrahousehold dynamics of Gender Disparity 1.8 Effects of Gender Disparity

CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 29 - 48 2.1 Indian Studies 2.2 International studies 2.3 Research Gaps

CHAPTER 3 ALIGARH DISTRICT - A GEOGRAPHICAL OUTLINE 49 - 80 3.1 Location 3.2 Administrative Settings 3.3 Geographical Characteristics of Study Area 3.3.1 Physiography 3.3.2Drainage System 3.3.3 Soils 3.3.4 Vegetation 3.3.5Climate 3.3.6 Agro-climatic Zone Characteristics of Aligarh District 3.3.7 Agro Ecological Situation Characteristics of Aligarh District 3.4 Cultural Settings of the Aligarh District 3.4.1 Demographic Characteristics 3.4.2 Infrastructural Facilities 3.5 Economic and Land Use Characteristics

CHAPTER 4 SOCIO ECONOMIC PROFILE OF SMAPLED VILLAGES 81 - 101 4.1 Average Size of Households 4.2 Household Headship 4.3 Nature of Family 4.4 Electronic Gudgets and Vehicles 4.5 Housing Condition 4.6 Dwelling Rooms Availability 4.7 Food Fuel 4.8 Drinking Water Facility 4.9 Location of Drinking Water Facility 4.10 Location of Sampled Villages CHAPTER 5 FOOD AND NUTRITIONAL STATUS OF SAMPLED VILLAGES 102 – 131 5.1 Food Availability 5.1.1 Sources of Food 5.1.2 Frequency of Meals per Day 5.1.3 Household Diet Diversity Score (HDDS) 5.2 Food Accessibility 5.2.1 Consumption of Income Elastic Food in the Households 5.2.2 Livestock Availability 5.2.3 Consumption of Pulses 5.2.4 Vegetable (Green Leafy) Consumption 5.2.5 Milk Consumption 5.2.6 Cereals Consumptions 5.3 Food Security Level 5.4 Food Insecurity Intensity

CHAPTER 6 WOMEN EMPOWERMENT AND ITS IMPACT ON FOOD AND NUTRITION SECURITY 132- 156 6.1 Women Empowerment in Different fields and Its Impact on Food Security 6.2 Women Empowerment in Economic Sector and its Impact on Food Accessibility 6.3 Women’s Literary Level 6.4 Share in Decision Making 6.5 Political and Social Participation 6.7 Women’s Voluntary Mobility 6.8 Nutritional Knowledge among Women 6.9 Leissure Time Availability 6.10 Representation of Women in Panchayats

CHAPTER 7 GENDER DISPARITY IN FOOD AND NUTRITION SECURITY 157 – 196 7.1 Gender Difference in Food Intake on the basis of Discrepancy Ratio 7.2 Vitamin A Deficiency (VAD) 7.3 Vitamin B Deficiency 7.4 Vitamin C Deficiency 7.5 Vitamin D Deficiency 7.6 Vitamin E Deficiency 7.7 Vitamin K Deficiency 7.8 Iron Deficiency Anaemia (IDA) 7.9 Iodine Deficiency Disorder (IDD) 7.10 Gender Disparity in Nutrition Security in Aligarh District 7.11 Gender Disparity in Nutritional Status in Aligarh District 7.12 Food Allocation, Consumption, Buffering and Influence of Social Taboos and Customs by Gender 7.13 Serving of Food to Male and Female 7.14 Frequency of Meal by Gender 7.15 Food Buffering Practices by Gender 7.16 Influence of Social Taboos and Customs in Food Consumption by Gender 7.17 Food Cooked in the House according to Gender Choice 7.18 Favouritism for Male in Nutritional Intensive Food

CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTIONS 197 – 206

BIBLIOGRAPHY 207 – 216

PLATES

LIST OF TABLES

Table Title Page No. No. 1.1 Different Dimensions of Gender Disparity 13 3.1 Administrative Divisions in Aligarh District (2011) 49 3.2 Population Growth Rate in Different Census in Aligarh District 60 3.3 Block Wise Occupational Structure of Population in Aligarh 67 District (2011) 3.4 Age-Sex Structure of the Population in Aligarh District (2011) 69 3.5 Religious Composition of Population in Aligarh (2001) 70 3.6 Block Wise Production of Major Crops in Aligarh District 78 4.1 Average Household Size in Sampled Villages 82 4.2 Household Headship in Sampled Villages 84 4.3 Nuclear and Joint Families in Sampled Villages 86 4.4 Electronic Gadgets and Vehicles Availability in Sampled Villages 88 4.5 Housing Nature in Sampled villages 90 4.6 Dwelling Room Availability in Sampled Villages 92 4.7 Sanitation Facility in Sampled Villages 94 4.8 Type of Cooking Fuel 96 4.9 Sources of Drinking Water Facility 98 5.1 Village Wise Sources of Food in Aligarh District 104 5.2 Village Wise Frequency of Meals Per Day in Aligarh District 106 5.3 Village Wise Household Diet Diversity Score in Aligarh District 108 5.4 Household Diet Diversity Score Classification 109 5.5 Village Wise Consumption of Income Elastic Food in Aligarh 111 District 5.6 Village Wise Livestock Availability in Aligarh District 114 5.7 Villages Wise Pulses Consumption in Aligarh District 117 5.8 Villages Wise Vegetables Consumption Aligarh District 118 5.9 Village Wise Milk Consumption in Aligarh District 121 5.10 Village Wise Cereals Consumption in Aligarh District 123 5.11 Z Score of Less than RDA Consumption of Different Items in 125 Sampled Villages of Aligarh District

iii

5.12 Z score of Food security in Aligarh district 127 5.13 Village Wise Food Insecurity Intensity (Z Score) in Aligarh District 129 6.1 Land ownership by female in Aligarh District 134 6.2 Female Participation in Economic Activities in Aligarh District 136 6.3 Female’s Sharing in Income Earning in Aligarh District 138 6.4 Female Literacy in Aligarh District 140 6.5 Share of Women in Decision Making in Aligarh District\ 141 6.6 Political and social representation of female in Aligarh District 142 6.7 Mobility of Women in Aligarh District 144 6.8 Nutritional Knowledge among Rural Women in Aligarh District 146 6.9 Village wise Leisure Time Availability for women in Aligarh 147 District 6.10 Composite Z Score of Women Empowerment in Villages of 150 Aligarh District 6.11 Correlation Matrix of Women Empowerment Indicators in Aligarh 153 District 6.12 Women Empowerment and Its Impact on Food and Nutrition 154 Security in Aligarh District 7.1 Male and female share to their food on basis of Discrepancy Ratio 160 method in Aligarh District 7.2 Nutritional Disease in Male and Female in Aligarh District 162 7.3 Z Score of Vitamins Deficiency (Male) in Aligarh District 172 7.4 Z Score of Vitamins Deficiency (Female) in Aligarh District 173 7.5 Village Wise Underweight (CED) Healthy and Overweight 176 Population in Aligarh District 7.6 Gender Differences in Nutritional Categories 179 7.7 Order of food serving to male and female in Aligarh District 184 7.8 Village wise frequency of meal consumption by gender in Aligarh 186 District 7.9 Food Buffering In Favor of Male in Aligarh District 188 7.10 Cooking of Food According to Gender Choice 191 7.11 Village Wise Male Favoritism in Nutritional Resources Allocation 193 in Aligarh District

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Title Page No. No. 1 Inter relations of Different types of Disparities 5 1.1 GDI Performance of India in Comparison to Other Asian 27 Countries 3.1 Location Map of Study Area 50 3.2 Physiographic Regions of Aligarh District 52 3.3 Drainage Map of Aligarh District 54 3.4 Average Monthly Temperature of Study Area 58 3.5 Mean Monthly Rainfall of Aligarh District 59 3.6 Decadal Population Growth in Aligarh District 61 3.7 Block Wise Population Density in Aligarh District 62 3.8 Block Wise Population Density in Aligarh District 63 3.9 Block Wise Distribution of Sex Ratio in Aligarh District 63 3.10 Sex Ratio in Different Age Groups in Rural and Urban Areas in 64 Aligarh District (2011) 3.11 Gender Disparity in Literacy Rates in Aligarh District 65 3.12 Block Wise Literacy Rates (Aligarh District) 66 3.13 Gender Dimension of Occupational Structure (Aligarh District) 68 2011 3.14 Rural-Urban Composition of Religious Community (Aligarh 70 District) 3.15 Percentages of SC/ ST Population in Different Blocks of Aligarh 71 (2011) 3.16 SC/ST Population in Aligarh District 72 3.17 Rural Health Infrastructural Facilities 73 3.18 Educational Infrastructure Facilities 74 3.19 Road Infrastructure Facilities 75 3.20 Land Use Pattern in Aligarh District 77 3.21 Block Wise Net Sown Area 79 4.1 Average Household (HH) Size in Sampled Villages 82 4.2 Male and Female Headed Household Headship in Sampled 85 Villages 4.3 Nuclear and Joint Families in Sampled Villages 87

4.4 Electronic Gadgets and Vehicles Availability in Sampled 89 Villages 4.5 Electronic Gadgets and Vehicles Availability in Aligarh District 89 4.6 Housing Nature in Aligarh District 91 4.7 Type of Housing in Sampled Villages 91 4.8 Availability of Dwelling Rooms in Households of Sampled 93 Villages 4.9 Percentages of Dwelling Rooms in the Household of Aligarh 93 District 4.10 Sanitation Facility in Sampled Villages 94 4.11 Locational Nature of Sanitation Facility in Aligarh District 95 4.12 Locational Nature of Sanitation Facility in Aligarh District 97 4.13 Nature of Cooking Fuel Used in the Sampled Villages 97 4.14 Sources of Drinking Water in the Sampled Villages 99 4.15 Sources of Drinking Water Facilities in Aligarh District 99 4.16 Location of Drinking Water Sources 100 4.17 Nature of Drinking Water Source in the Households of Surveyed 100 Villages 4.18 Location of Sampled Villages in Aligarh District 101 5.1 Village Wise Sources of Food in Aligarh District 104 5.2 Village Wise Household Diet Diversity Score in Aligarh District 109 5.3 Village Wise Consumption of Income Elastic Food in Aligarh 112 District 5.4 Village Wise Livestock Availability in Aligarh District 114 5.5 Villages Wise Pulses Consumption in Aligarh District 116 5.6 Villages Wise Vegetables Consumption in Aligarh District 119 5.7 Villages Wise Milk Consumption in Aligarh District 122 5.8 Village Wise Cereals Consumption in Aligarh District 124 5.9 Village Wise Less than RDA Consumption of Different Items 126 5.10 Status of Food security in Aligarh district 128 6.1 Land Ownership by Female in Aligarh District 134 6.2 Participation of Female in Economic Activities in Aligarh 137 District 6.3 Female's Share in Income Earning in Aligarh District 139 6.4 Female Literacy in Aligarh District 140 6.5 Female’s Participation in Decision Making in Aligarh District 141

6.6 Political and Social Participation of women in Aligarh District 143 6.7 Women’s Voluntary Mobility in Aligarh District 144 6.8 Nutritional Knowledge Level of Rural Women In Aligarh 146 6.9 Leisure Time Availability for Women in Aligarh District 148 6.10 Representation in Panchyat (Male Female Ratio) 149 6.11 Village wise Women Empowerment Status in Aligarh District 151 7.1 Village wise Male and female share to food on basis of 161 discrepancy ratio method 7.2 Village wise Vitamin A Deficiency in Aligarh District 164 7.3 Village wise Vitamin B deficiency in Aligarh District 165 7.4 Village wise Vitamin C Deficiency in Aligarh District 166 7.5 Village wise Vitamin D deficiency in Aligarh District 167 7.6 Village wise Vitamin E deficiency in Aligarh District 168 7.7 Village Wise Vitamin K Deficiency in Aligarh District 169 7.8 Village wise Iron deficiency in Aligarh District 170 7.9 Village wise Iodine deficiency in Aligarh District 171 7.10 Vitamins Deficiency Score (Female) in Aligarh District 174 7.11 Vitamins Deficiency Score (Male) in Aligarh District 174 7.12 Village Wise Underweight (CED) Healthy and Overweight 177 Population in Aligarh District 7.13 Village Wise Male and Female Population In Underweight 180 Category in Aligarh District 7.14 Village Wise Male and Female Population In Healthy Category 180 in Aligarh District 7.15 Village Wise Gender Disparity In Underweight Category in 181 Aligarh District 7.16 Village Wise Gender Disparity in Healthy Category in Aligarh 181 District 7.17 Food Serving order to male and female in Aligarh District 185 7.18 Gender Disparity in Meal Consumption Frequency in Aligarh 187 District 7.19 Village Wise Food buffering Practices between Genders in 189 Aligarh District 7.20 Food Consumption and Influence of Social Taboos and Customs 190 in Aligarh District 7.21 Cooking of Food as Per Gender Choices in Aligarh District 192 7.22 Male Favoritism in Nutritional Rich Food in Aligarh District 194

vii

Introduction

INTRODUCTION

“Women and men still live in an unequal world” United Nation Development Programme UNDP (1995)

The Gender and Food issues are so threating to humanity that they received highest priority in United Nations in their Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). United Nation‟s MDG goal No.1 has main focus for eradicating the extreme hunger. Priority of hunger removal on top slot clearly points out the severity of the problem. Enlisting the elimination of all dimensions of gender disparity and promotion of gender equity as its MDG goal No.3 by United Nation (UN) clearly bring the world focus on women‟s inequality issues in all spheres of life. The grimness of these two issues are thus combinedly be analyzed as a research topic in this doctoral work.

Women‟s vulnerability in food insecurity status thus bring the gender and food relations issues as the core themes in the modern welfare and human rights based societies because food and nutrition insecurity is a gender justice issue. Many evidences also show strong correlations between gender inequality and food and nutrition insecurity (BRIDGE Report, 2014; FAO, 2012) and is approved by many

1 studies which considered that the gender is the most statistically significant determinant of nutritional status. Women‟s vulnerability during food crisis and its gender rooted causes are pointed by Quisumbinget al. (2008), and stated that during food shortages women suffers unequally because women effectively become ‘shock absorbers of household food security’ through the liquidation of their own nutritional status. Neogy (2012) states that women and girls eat last, when there is very little or no food left and in many societies poor women practising food buffering despite gendered norms because they are considered of lower status and less of a priority than men and boys.

Women‟s nutritional status in worldwide reports and surveys reveals that women food insecurity status is a salient feature of many low-income economies and all developing countries but it is much worst in South Asian region‟s countries especially in India, Bangladesh, Pakistan and China because the region is income poor and identified as the most deprived region in the world (HDSA, 1997) and most importantly as a “patriarch belt” (Caldwell, 1982), where women are subordinated to men in a kin-ordered social structure, have low status, little or no access to property and land. In developing countries, women are attributable to the vast majority of food production which make them the backbone of local food security (World Hunger Report2015, US) and the principle agents of food security and household welfare in rural areas (IFAD 2009) but still they are the great sufferer of food insecurity because they faced systematic and institutionalise disparity in these countries which is mainly due to prevalence of deep-rooted gender and patriarchal ideologies, practices and relevance of the historical gender roles even in present situations.

A number of noted food and nutritional studies reveal the gender discriminatory practices especially in terms of neglect and lack of adequate care in feeding girls, looking after their nutrition and health, in South Asia Lincoln C. Chen, EmdadulHuq 1981; RadheshyamBairagi 1986; Jere R. Behrman 1988;Though, the food security scenario in South Asia has witnessed rapid progress over the last few decades, yet nutrition outcomes, especially those related to women and children, have failed to keep pacedue to poor and unequal gender relations.

Amartya Sen also accepted that the traditional indicators of food security like, food availability pattern, food consumption pattern and per capita income now alone cannot explain the nutrition puzzle of India because in India‟s nutritional puzzle, poor

2 socio-economic factors have not so much impact as the gendered relations governed. All this is due to the lowest social status faced by women and high gender disparity which further fuelled the malnutrition and hunger in country. „The South Asian Enigma‟ which now has become as the “India Enigma” is mainly explained by the researchers as the cause of the existence of very complex governing factors of unequal gender relations. Thus, here this is due to mainly the gender biased nature of the patriarchal society which systematically marginalised the women to access the equal rights for food and health. Beside it, a number of reasons are provided by the researchers which link up to the son preference, gender bias against girls in health care, nutrition, food allocation and so on. Statistics of different reports published by Indian Government and other international institutes support this widespread prevailing gender disparity in food and nutritional security in India as the Report of the Working Group on Nutrition (For the XII Five Year Plan, 2012-2017) states that in India the maternal and child under nutritional level remain persistently and unacceptably high and 35.6% of the women have low BMI and among women who are thin 44 percent women are moderately or severely thin. 36% women suffer from the chronic energy deficiency. 56.2% women are anaemic and approximately 1/3 adolescent girls out of total women population are undernourished. Anaemic and CED condition of urban women in India is also worsening M.S.Swami Nathan Research Foundation (2010) found in its report.

Addressing the issue of vulnerable people‟s food security is gaining importance in the recent years because earlier approaches of food security overlooked the demand side of the issue specially the access of the vulnerable groups to the enough food for a normal life. The vulnerable population comprises mainly the children, women and elderly. The most disadvantaged of all are the women the “silent majority” of world‟s hunger. The food insecure women are the worst face of social injustice and food insecurity in the society. The modern paradigm shift in food and nutritional security toward the gendered individual entitlement especially for the vulnerable people (women and children) incorporates the both demand and distributive sides of the food and health resources and also focus on intrahousehold gender relations because majority of the household in developing countries have the unequal gender relations patterns and the nature and dimension of these relations determine the level of gender well-being within the intrahousehold and make the

3 female as most vulnerable sufferer in intrahousehold resources allocations even in food, nutrition and health.

The gender disparity in the food and nutritional security not only affect women but it causes the multiplier intergenerational effect on children because the underweight and undernourished mothers give birth to the undernourished children. The poor nutritional and health situation increases the mortality rate in children causing unbalanced sex ratio in the society. This deprivation in food resources also has the cultural and ethical dimension which emphasis that the social upbringing in the society is highly gender biased. It also indicates the violation of all the natural justice and constitutional provisions which secure the equal access and treatment for women in the society in all aspect of life.

Gender disparity in the different areas of the life like education, political, economic and social sphere is also interrelated with the disparity in nutrition and health care because these disparities combinedly reduce the women‟s position in bargaining of food resources. The disparity in education hampers the women‟s overall growth as they are unable to understand the broad spectrum of their rights and potential to grow as the qualitative humans. The education disparity further leads to the political and economic disparity in which, women have no position in the decision making process about the distribution and accessibility to productive resources. The economic disparity strongly effects the position of women and their bargaining status. Their little access to the economic and productive resources results in the poor value to their needs and demands and thus they suffer from the unequal treatment in the society and household. These different dimensions of the disparities lead to the dominance of patriarchal behavioural and cultural set up in the societies in which women are ranked as lower than men counterpart. Their food and nutritional need thus also considered as lower than the male and they practising the food resources liquidation for the male members on the cost of their nutritional need and this lead to them hunger and malnutrition vulnerability.

Figure 1

Inter Relations of Different types of Disparities

Food and nutritional disparity on gender basis

Poor biological and intellectual growth

Low economic productivity

Low social status and unequal social relations

Low preferences and values to their needs and demands

Low bargaining power for the resources

Source:Researcher

Thus, all other gender disparities are integrated in the vicious cyclic process which firstly wants intervention in gender disparity in food and nutrition security to make the gender sensitive society in all aspects of the life.

Objectives

To make a comprehensive study, following objectives are selected

1. To analyze the patterns of gender inequality in health and nutritional status at household level.

2. To measure the nature and extent of gender inequality in dietary intakes in intrahousehold food consumption.

3. To explain the underlying factors which determine the gender disparity in nutrition and household food security.

4. To access the role of women empowerment on food and nutrition.

5. To suggest suitable measures and sustainable policy interventions to reduce the gap in food and nutrition and overall inequalities at district level.

Hypotheses

In order to understand the role of gender relations in explaining the gender inequality in food and nutrition in Aligarh district following research hypothesis have been formulated:

1. Females are more vulnerable to food and nutrition security.

2. Gender disparity in the food and nutrition security is the outcome of unequal gender relations within the household.

3. Women empowerment has positive impact on reducing the gender disparity in food and nutrition security.

4. Women‟s education and nutritional knowledge has positive role in food and nutrition.

Rationale BehindSelection of Study Area

Data Base and Methodology

6 the help of Microsoft Excel and SPSS 16 and represented in the forms of tables, graphs, comparative bar diagrams, maps and figures.

The present research work has been analyzed in terms of a large number of appropriate indicators of women empowerment and their status in food and nutritional security. The present study uses the both primary and secondary sources of the data but largely based on primary data collected from primary survey of 24 villages of Aligarh District. There are 12 blocks in the district. Two villages have been randomly selected from each block for field survey. 30 household have been chosen from each village for data collection on the basis of systematic random sampling. Thus, a total of 720 households were surveyed with the help of well-structured questionnaire/schedule. The study is also substantiated by secondary sources. Important sources of secondary data includethe Census data 2011and SankhiyikiPatrika (U.P.), Food Security Atlas of UP, various reports ofFood and Agricultural Organization (FAO),International Food Policy Research Institution (IFPRI), National Nutrition Monitoring Bureau (NNMB), and National Family Health Survey (NFHS).

Organisation of Study

The present doctoral work structurally divided into seven chapters excluding the introduction and conclusion. Chapter -I gives an account of the conceptual framework of general gender disparity and its different dimensions. Chapter-II deals with literature review on gender disparity in food and nutrition security. Chapter - IIIfocuses on physical and socio-economic description of the study area. Social and Economic profile the study area is discussed in Chapter-IV. Status of food and nutrition security has been analyzed in Chapter-V. Chapter-VI presents a detailed account of women empowerment. Chapter-VII explores the gender disparity in food and nutrition security. At last, in light of main findings of the study conclusions and suggestions have been made.

Chapter 1

Conceptual Framework of Gender Disparity and Gender Relations

CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORKOF GENDER DISPARITYAND GENDER RELATIONS

Gender disparity is a sensitive issue and its presence in food and nutrition security unravels the worst face of women‟s marginalization in the society. This form of social discrimination, leads the all other forms of inequalities faced by female. Though, women and food relation issues are as ancient as the human civilization. But, the continuous adulterations in framework of society by male favoured social institutions and cultural practices lead to deprivations of female even in food resources. Food is considered as sole domain of female. They produce it, cooked it, served it but are not entitled to access it equally to the men. This dichotomy is the sole reason for female suffrage in food security. The access dimension of any resource is governed by ownership and entitlements. But, ownership is never being a field of women in any aspect of her life; because, she herself is owned by male in forms of different relations. Male never share this privilege with women throughout the history and this is termed as “the greatest historical defeat of the feminine sex”by Engels. This historical defeat is thus the nucleus of gender inequality.

1.1 Concept of Gender and Gender Disparity

The term “Gender” is defined by FAO as „the relations between men and women, both perceptual and material. Gender is not determined biologically, but is constructed socially. It is a central organizing principle of societies, and often governs the processes of production and reproduction, consumption and distribution‟ (FAO, 1997). Gender defined those qualities or characteristics that society ascribes to each sex. Thus, gender defines traits forged throughout the history of social relations. Perceptions of gender deeply rooted in the culture and society and directly control the allocation dimensions of power, productive resources, services and opportunities resources to male and female in a society. Conceptual understanding of Gender and its functioning in the society is explained by its various expressions. Gender role refers to those attitudes, behaviours, and responsibilities that a society considers appropriate for men, women. Gender roles are the „social definition‟ of women and men. They vary in different societies and cultures, classes, ages and during different periods in history. Gender-specific roles and responsibilities are often conditioned by household structure, access to resources, specific impacts of the global economy, and other

8 locally relevant factors such as ecological conditions (FAO, 1997). Gender Relations refers to the ways in which a society defines rights, responsibilities and the identities of men and women in relation to each another (Bravo-Baumann, 2000). Gender discrimination is any form of exclusion or restriction made on basis of gender relations and gender roles which prevents a person from enjoying full human rights.

The cost of gender inequality cut across all of society and the economy, and ultimately harm everyone (World Bank, 2001).It remains pervasive around the world today, despite the significant economic and social progress of the last century.(Ryan Barclay Edwards, 2010). Gender inequality in basic rights tends to be more prevalent in less-developed regions and agriculturally predominant societies because of the predominant patriarchal set up. The gender disparity refers to the unequal treatment for male and female in all terms of opportunities and outcomes in different aspects of life. The women suffer the unequal treatment in health, education, social- economic and political perspectives because of their inferior status in comparison of men. The Anthropologists largely agree that women have never occupied a position of higher status or greater political power than men in any society, anywhere, anytime (Ryan Barclay Edwards, 2010).

The gender disparity is analysed and pointed out by the different researchers and academic reports. Global Gender GapReport of World Economic Forum, Gender Inequality Index of UNDP and Social Institutions Gender Index (SIGI) of OECD annually ranked the countries on basis of their gender environment in socio- economic- political and participative perspectives. Global pattern of the gender disparity indicates that the developed countries has more gender neutral social- economic and political setup which in turn enable their women to become an active economic agents and contribute equally to sustain the nation‟s development and growth. But this phenomenon is bleak in India because of its rigid patriarchal set up; and results in India's low sex ratio, women's poor nutritional and health conditions over their lifetimes, their low educational attainment, and less economic participation in the country‟s economy. In 2017 report of World Economic Forum (WEF) India ranked at 108 in Global Gender Gap Index. India slips 21 slots in this ranking because of the less participation of women in economy and low wages. India ranked 125 in Gender Inequality Index. In these reports, India‟s performance is below than the other South Asian countries which indicated that in India the female suffers from the most

9 vulnerable conditions. Thus, the gender inequality in India is a multifaceted issue and reflected in the terms of socio- economic- political, health and nutritional inequalities.

Government of India consider this social problem in its policy framework and evolve the mechanisms to create the gender just society. In its five year plans, government shifts from welfare to empowerment and inclusive development approach. It also launches the Women Empowerment policy (2001). Inspite of these efforts the women‟s situation in India is not improved which emphasis that there is an urgent need to analyse the root problems of women, and their causes. Specially the analysis of women‟s basic rights violation and their origin factors will help to plug out the loopholes in women empowerment.

1.2 Origin of Gender Disparity

The origin factors of gender disparity are core intellectual issues of many academic researches and their systematic discussion can happen only after the rise of modern feminism. The prevalence of universal male dominance across time, space, and social circumstances is beyond denial. The reasons for this male superiority are also supported by the universal institutions like family and socio-cultural norms and traditions. Women‟s subordination began with the origin of society and social structure (PoonamChauhan, 1996). Engels retraces the history of women‟s subjugation since written history and concluded that male and female in primitive ages started the demarcation of labour. Domestic works were assigned to women and men were the incharge of outside productive works. The gender typing of occupations gave the economically productive public spheres for men and limited the women in uneconomic private spheres (households). This division of labour between male and female not only build the differential power relations between them. But, also initiated the diversification of roles for two sex. Such, labour division between men and women also changed the economic value of work of both genders. Men got the control on productive resources which raised his dominance status over female. Male‟s authority significantly started to overpower the social structure in the form of Patriarchy; which initiated the subjugation of female. Male‟s authority extended to intergenerational by Hierarchy. Famous French sociologist Louis Dumont in his famous work “Homo Hierarchicus”, has mentioned that hierarchy is a major supplemental value system to patriarchy. It emphasised that individuals are not equal and totally different form each other on various bio-social features and hence cannot

10 be treated equally in different spheres of life. These two values patriarchyand hierarchy thus inscribed the all-time universal supremacy of male over female with the help of cultural and religious institutions. Preference of son over daughter is the biggest symbol that how religious texts are manipulated to bring permanency in male‟s sovereignty over female. Religious roots in culture‟s ideologies made it very difficult for female to change their social status (RehanaGhadially, 1988). Sustenance of the discriminatory practices in the society is mainly attributed to take them as natural and normal. This rationalization influences the behaviour and attitude of both the exploiter (male) and victims (females).

The research studies evidenced that the biological differences between male and female are the sources of this gender disparity and stated that specially the reproductive biological characteristics of female leads to their unequal treatment. Because the reproductive and productive gender roles of females are allotted to her because of her biological features. These gender roles are time and energy intensive and are the important determinant of the gender relation in the family and society. Research studies also pointed out that socialization, tradition, and biology are interwoven basic factors that help to traces the current subordination of women to its pre-historical origins. These three ideas of socialization, tradition, and biology all refer to the conservation of gender inequality.

In India the origin of gender inequality is as old as the Ancient Indian social set up. The women in India suffer the double marginalization and their situation is passed through many stages. The Vedic tradition though has some equality in education but the combination of religious text with patriarchal social set reduced the women‟s status to the productive and reproductive gender roles in the family. The medieval era further leads to deterioration in the women‟s condition. Though, in modern times the emergence of human rights and feminist approach revive the need of equality for women in the society. But, the ancient advantageous condition of the male to the female still manifest in all aspects of life and women suffers from the different dimensions of gender disparity.

1.3 Gender Disparity and Its Different Dimensions

Gender inequalities are varied in dimension and nature. Women suffer from different types of inequalities because of their gender roles and relations. Female‟s

11 subjugation in different aspects of life, point out the fact that rights of female are subordinate to male dominance. Gender discrimination is suffered by women from womb to womb. In its nature gender disparity is diverse in nature and influences the all aspects of female life. The Gender disparity in its extreme form heavily impacts on the life expectancy of female. Females suffer gender inequality not only because of the social- economic forces but they are also the victim of behavioural and attitudinal forces of the members of the society.

AmartyaSenalso pointed out the seven types of inequalities faced by the South Asian women in their whole life cycle as follows:

1. Mortality inequalities

2. Natality inequalities

3. Basic facilities inequalities

4. Special facilities inequalities

5. Professional inequalities

6. Ownership inequalities

7. Household inequities

Mortality Inequalities

In South Asian and some African countries the gender inequality is so threatening that it directly influence the life span of female and results in the high female mortality rates and poor sex ratio. The unequal mortality rates for females due to unequal health and care facilities are pointed out by the various researchers (Rajeshwari, 1991; Chen et al., 1981; Das Gupta, 1987; Gangadharan and Maitra, 2000) etc.

NatalityInequalities

The gender inequality in this form leads to the parents preferring for male child over female child and for this they adopt the selective sex abortion leading to the worst sex ratio in the region. India‟s many states specially North Indian states have poor sex ratio which may results in imbalance in demographic and social structure of the society.

Table 1.1 Different Dimensions of Gender Disparity

Areas of Dimensions of Gender Disparity Disparity Education Low literacy rate Low gross enrolment ratio (GER) High drop outs from the schools Low enrolment in higher education Low women participation in technical and professional education Women‟s low representation in the skill up gradation programmes Health and High percentage of anaemic adolescent girls and women Nutrition High number of low BMI women High percentages of women suffers from nutritional diseases Low vaccination and care time for female Life High female child infant mortality rate Expectancy High maternal mortality rate Low sex ratio(0-6 year) Overall low sex ratio Low life expectancy of female Employment Female‟s low percentage share in work force Low wages for females Differences in wages for male and female Female‟s high percentage in agriculture and unorganised sector Female low %age in secondary and tertiary sectors Female low percentage share in company‟s management and administration Considering of female‟s work as un-economic and un-productive Females have low share in assets for livelihood diversification Politics Female‟s low percentage in decision making Female‟s low percentage in representative democracy Social- Preferences for male child in birth Cultural set- Sex selective abortion up Unequal labour division in the household Women‟s maximum share in time and energy intensive works No rights for females in property inheritance Early marriages of females Sex- biased attitudes and behaviour of parents in bringing up of children Gender biased allocation of resources in the households Females low bargaining power in the household Females low decision making power in the household in comparison to male Unequal gender roles and gender relations in the households Household violence against females Sexual and physical assault of females High rate of dowry deaths of females Source: Researcher

Basic Facilities Inequalities

The gender inequality also manifests itself in the form of the denial of basic facilities to the women. The females have no right to equally utilize the health, education, political and other socio- economic opportunities and facilities which hamper their growth as a potential human resource. The poor female literacy rates and their low participation in resource decision making evidenced that the female have denial of those basic fundamental facilities that are essential not only for female growth but also for whole society development.

Special Facilities Inequalities

The females in many patriarchal dominant societies are unable to equally avail the skill up-gradation and higher and technical education which hinders their productive capacity and reduced their potentiality to functionally participate in the economy of the country. These special facilities are dominantly overtaken by male and establish the edge difference in other aspect of life.

Professional Inequalities

Women‟s active participation in the economy has beneficial impact on the economic growth and women‟s status in the household. But the gender inequality hinders the women‟s share in total work force of the population. The female‟s household and agricultural work is considered as non- economic and they are treated as dependent members of the family. The FAO and ILO data indicate that the women shares more than 85 %age work in the agriculture sector but their contribution is not calculated as they engaged only in production activities not in the marketing and income generating activities of the agricultural sector. The female work force is mainly constitutes the unorganised sector and thus suffer from low and unequal wages because of lack of their professional qualities.

Ownership Inequalities

The gender inequality in the assets ownership is the major hindrance in maximization of women‟s bargaining power. FAO also pointed out that lack of women ownership in agriculture‟s productive resources cost to the maximum production. BinaAgrwal‟s bargaining concept and Amartya Sen‟s entitlement concept emphasises on the differential impact of women‟s asset ownership. BinaAgrwal researched that women‟s asset ownership enhanced the women‟s bargaining power in

14 the household resources allocation. Patriarchal social set up also causes the inequality in the asset ownership and favours the male dominantly.

Household Inequities

Female suffers the basic inequalities in gender relations within the families in terms of unequal burden sharing the household work and child care. The women in the household share the maximum energy consuming work. This unequal division of labour leaves the women without leisure and care time for them and heavily cost to their health status.

1.4 Evidences of Gender Disparity in India in Different Aspects of Life

Gender disparity in India is very complex and diversified, because it is present in many ways, many fields and many classes (Thomas 2013). Gender disparity in India is widely attributed because of the patriarchal set up of the society and determines the fundamental quality-dimension of life and development for females. The females‟ suppression in different aspects of the life is researched and evidenced by many academicians and policy makers. The disparity in health, education, economic and political perspectives combinedly reduced the status of the women as non-productive human resources. Some important areas of the gender discrimination in India are as follows:

Education

In India, the education of girls has historically lagged behind that of boys (Aggarwal, 1987) because of the differential treatment of sons and daughters by parents (Kingdon, 2002). The differential treatment of the boys and girls influence the intra household allocation of education and schooling years. The gender disparity in education in India is found at all primary, secondary and higher levels. Thomas 2013 found the gender disparity in the education in India. The education discrimination also results in lack of employment opportunities for females in labour market and hampers their economic empowerment. Different census of India also evidenced the gender differences in literacy rates. In 1951 census, female‟s literacy was just 8.9% against the men‟s literacy rate (27.2%). In later census, the female literacy increased as 15.4% (1961), 39.3%(1991) and 65.41%(2011) census but remain lower than male‟s literacy rate.

Sex Ratio

The sex ratio in India is unfavourable for female. Its declining trend especially in the child (0-6 age group) evidenced the discriminatory upbringing of children in that age group.Declining sex ratio is a silent emergency. But the crisis is real, and its persistence has profound and frightening implications for society and the future of humankind.Strong son preference, social and economic causes and sex selective abortions are the main reasons for the skewed sex ratio. „Son complex‟ situation should be demoralised to prevent the happening of „no girl zone‟ one day in the society. Sen‟s idea of “missing women” is the result of this trend of poor sex ratio in the country.

Infant Mortality Rate

The poor sex ratio in India evidenced that the girls suffers unequal mortality pattern in childhood hood in spite of having higher biological survival rate and this higher female infant mortality is attributable to gender bias in the form of a gender gap in infant care: inequalities in essential inputs necessary for the survival, health, nourishment, and overall well-being of an infant, including breast milk, food and nutrition, and vaccination. Various studies have documented gender gaps in infant care in India, including vaccination (PerianayagamArokiasamy 2004), breastfeeding, nutrition (milk, fats, cereals, and sugars), clothing, medical expenses and illness treatment which results in the excess female infant mortality.

Life Expectancy at Birth

In India, both genders have experienced acontinuous rise in life expectancy since the 1970s, and the transition to female dominancein life expectancy also occurred around 2000 (Registrar General of India 2004, 2007).Women enjoyed longer life expectancy at birth than men for the first time in human history in the mid- 2000s.Age specific pattern of the life expectancy at birth for male and female indicated that the higher female mortality due to communicable diseases at the youngest ages and excess male mortalitydue to external and non-communicable diseases at adult and older ages.

Work Force Participation Rate

Women in India face enormous challenges for their participation in the economy that mirrors the many injustices they suffer in the society at large. The

16 labour participation rate of women provides an indicator of some of these challenges. Indian economic scenario evidenced the huge gender disparities in women‟s economic participation.Another dimension of female work force in India is that the rate of female participation is falling continuously. In 2005, the labour participation rate in India was 36.9% for females as compared to 81% for males. But it reduced to 23.70% in 2016. Gender composition of the labour force in India not only influences the economic growth but also hinder the overall socio-economic development of the society. Females share the largest percentage in the informal and agricultural sector in developing countries. A mix of social constraints and dearth of employment opportunities has kept women out of the labour market, leading to a huge opportunity cost to the nation.

1.5 Gender Dimension of the Food and Nutrition Security

Analysis of food and nutritional security concept through gender frameworks give it the opportunity to enter in the paradigm shift. The focus on women and children as the vulnerable population to food and nutritional insecurity became the more fundamental issue to be discussed because the women and food relation has many vulnerabilities and loopholes which further threats the sustenance of overall food security at different levels. Though the women are always sufferer from inaccessibility of all resources, many rights and well-fare opportunities but the inequality and deprivation in the most fundamental aspect of life, i.e., food and health, is the most shameful to human dignity and raises the most ethical and social justice issues. Even when girls are born, they are discriminated against in a number of ways (UN, 1998; UN Secretariat, 1988).

The ground realities of food security for women are ignored until recent even after knowing the fact that in most of the countries women are the key to food and nutrition security (Quisumbing, 2003) and in developing countries especially they bear the maximum responsibilities of the food production, collecting water and fuel and labour sharing in the farm and in non-farm activities. Women‟s contribution in the food cycle from production to consumption is most important. Women‟s role as the sole provider of food, nutrition, health and care to the other family members is well recognised by FAO and point out that the women‟s role in ensuring household food security is invaluable and noteworthy in the rural areas especially. The nutritional status of the household and the children and elderly within the house hold

17 unit is largely a responsibility of women. Inspite of having this important position in the nutritional and food cycle the women are the most vulnerable section of the food insecure within the household and society.

Different studies on the nutritional status of population reveal that worldwide, around 60% of undernourished people are women or girls (ADB 2012) and they are the “silent sufferer majority”. The female malnutrition should be more importantly understand as a whole because the female malnutrition has not only impact on the individual female itself but it also has multiplier effect on the household nutritional status because of the dependency of household functioning on female in multiple roles and on children because of intergenerational effect. Thus, to understand the food and nutritional security pattern, analysis of the impact of gender disparity as an underlying factor is necessary.

The choice of gender evaluation in food security issues is crucial because this is one of the important issues of gender relation which until have no proper lens to be easily visible or tend to be get overlooked. Over the past few decades, a wide range of tools, methods and frameworks have been developed to measure changes in gender relations with food and nutrition. After the increasing recognition of the fact in the field of international health and nutrition that gender has multiplier effect on social and economic realms and particularly the gender inequities and gender relation dynamics act as major social determinants of health and nutrition outcomes, an urgent need was felt to include women and food relation in the academic research with the different angle- gendered perspective.George Kent, (2002) also points out two major points that why women and food issue should be deal in research and policy framework as: First, women have special nutritional vulnerabilities. Second, women play important roles in providing food, health and care - the three major factors contributing to good nutrition.

1.6 Gender and Food:Tools and Methodologies

Though the human and food relation was general in its initial stage of evaluation but became complex and multi-layered when analysed with amorphous links to culture, patterns of consumption and production and especially to the social and political response to the gender inequality. This emergence of analysis of different aspects of relation between gender and food starts with the movement of

18 feminist. Beside it the household level analysis of the food security, Sen.‟s concept of entitlement and the human welfare approach and women empowerment dimension evolution raises the need to the inclusion of women and food relation in the academic research. UN also turned its focus on gender and food very seriously through Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) and to pay tribute to rural women‟s role in food and nutrition security it declared the 1976-85 decade as the “Decade of Women” and 16 October as “Wold Food Day”. This leads to the starting the framing of gender sensitive policy and guidelines to deal with the issues of food and nutrition security for women. After this the all nations follows the same pattern to reduce the gender gap in nutrition. In India, Gender gap in nutrition is likely to be more complex because women and men are equally disadvantaged in one aspect whereas the women are unequally disadvantaged in another aspect of nutrition (Sunny Jose, 1987).

The gender and food relation studies are evolutionary in nature and grow in dimensions; methodologies specially with the development of the “gender evaluation culture” particularly in South Asia which starts with the notion of Women in Development (WID) 1960‟s and later shifts to Women and development” (WAD) approach in 1970‟s. WID draws on liberal feminist ideas, WAD on Marxist feminist ideas and Gender And Development (GAD) is said to have emerged as an alternative to both WID and WAD (RadhikaGovinda, 2012). Both the approaches were unable to deals with the gender informed analysis until GAD approach is invent because of the fact that although they may be mentioned 'females', but the centrality of gender relations is denied (Barraclough 1991; Devereux 1993; Pinstrup-Andersen and Pandya-Lorch 1996; Conway1997) in earlier approaches. This approach was an improvement to WID because it provides the better means of analysis about the wellbeing of women in the society by emphasising on gender relations or on the relationships between women and men rather than simply researched on women (RadhikaGovinda, 2012). Thus, GAD approach provides a new framework to understand the women‟s issue by analysing their relation to other members of the society. The WID approach focus simply on the welfare approach to women while the GAD discourse emphasis on the women empowerment.Gender development, within the gamut of human development emphasises upon multiple roles of women, their rights and opportunities in relation to male and lead to the inclusions of different underlying aspects which influence the phenomenon of food and gender. This gender

19 evaluation culture provides a range of the gender analysis framework and new model of intra household level analysis. Food and nutritional aspect of women became an important aspect of systematic micro level research after addition of the gender analysis framework and gender analysis approach. The role of gender relation in determining the intra-household resource allocation has thus influenced the food securities studies, shaping their focus on individual access under the gender analysis and gender analysis framework.

Gender analysis is performed with the help of various gender analysis frameworks which provide a structural foundation to analyse the gender issues. A number of gender analysis frameworks were developed in the nutrition literature during 1980‟s and 90‟s along with the shift from WID to GAD approach. These frameworks are modelled to collect and analysis the gender information on different issues and provide a theoretical terrain for measuring change in gender relations in different aspects of the sustenance. Sara HlupekileLongwe (2002) observes that frameworks in gender evaluation are like „spectacles‟, which allow us to see different aspects of gender issues, to differentiate between the various aspects of the project/ programme, and to ask different types of evaluation questions. About the variety of the settings of the gender analysis framework SrilathaBatliwala and Alexandra Pittman (2010) have collated and reviewed data the over 50 frameworks currently used for gender evaluation (RadhikaGovinda, 2012).Out of these conventional evaluation frameworks Batliwala and Pittman (2010) identify two overarching trends namely, (a) causal frameworks that demonstrate the causal chains leading to programme impact; and (b) contribution frameworks which track the multiple and variable forces involved in producing change, and high- light the contribution of change agents to the change process and intended outcomes. The logical frames and results-based management approaches are parts of the causal frameworks while outcome mapping and participatory approaches are amongst the prominent contribution frameworks.

A third group of gender evaluation is classified as “alternative frameworks” which is most commonly used by those gender evaluators who have feminist inclinations include “Gender analysis frameworks” which draw conclusions from both causal and contribution frameworks. These gender analytical frameworks are broadly classified in six important namely as:

1. Harvard analytical framework 2. Moser gender planning framework 3. Gender analysis matrix 4. Women‟s empowerment framework 5. Social relations approach 6. Capacities and vulnerabilities analysis framework

 Harvard Analytical Framework

It is also known as the Gender Roles Framework or the Primary Gender Analysis Framework.The Harvard analytical framework focuses on the fact that the economic efficiency or the inequitable allocation of different resources is the major causes of the gender inequality. This examines the women‟s multiple social and economic roles as reproductive, productive and domestic roles. In this framework micro level data is collected on (i) activity profile (ii) access and control profile and (iii) influencing factors at the individual/household level to better understanding the phenomena of gender inequality.

 Moser Gender Planning Framework

This framework is an improvement of Harvard framework and provides a more systematic description of the women‟s roles and implications of these roles for women‟s participation in the development process. This framework introduced the idea of triple roles of women‟s in production, reproduction and community management, and divided these roles in 4 categories: a). 24 hour time practical needs, b).Strategic needs (power and control), c). Access and control over resources, d) Decision making and assets.

 Gender Analysis Matrix

Gender Analysis Matrix is unique and complex tool to analyse the gender issues because it provide a matrix to analysis at 4 levels- women, men, household and community. It provides a better framework for the community development intervention design and planning because it considered the female as an important and active agent with strong participatory skills in development process.

 Women’s Empowerment Framework

This framework was developed in Zambia. It considered that gender inequality is political and women‟s poverty is a result of oppression and exploitation not because of lack of productivity/efficiency. Thus this framework shifts the focus from economic to the political one. This framework provides that the solution of gender inequality is women‟s empowerment and have five levels progressively as follows: 1. Control – decision-making and production 2. Participation in all decision-making and planning 3.General understanding of gender equality 4.Access – to production and the law 5. Welfare – access to services and basic needs.

 Social Relations Approach

This framework was developed by NailaKabeer. It pointed out that the gender inequality is result of the structural and institutional forces like- Rules (how things get done), Activities (what is done), Resources (what is used and/or produced), People (responsibilities, other inequalities, who is in/out), and Power (who decides, whose interests).It is more broadly oriented than the other frameworks and draws on explicitly feminist roots (Batliwala and Pittman, 2010).

 Capacities and Vulnerabilities Analysis Framework

This framework focuses on vulnerabilities, strengths/capabilities and resilience power of particular gender to face the gender discrimination. It has major emphasis on sustainable development, in both planning and assessment and is primarily used in humanitarian responses.

In this research, Women Empowerment Framework is adopted to analyse the gender disparity.

These gender approaches revolutionized the concept of gender and food studies and provide a new understanding of the concept. The food and gender studies gain more impetus after the household level analysis and application of Sen‟s entitlement approach to food and health resources. These studies tools provide the deeper understanding of the dynamics of food resources allocation within the households with more individual focus to women‟s nutritional and health status. The gender and food relation studies after entering in this phase received a versatile range of the research questions which broaden the dimensions of the concept. A detailed

22 literature review of the concept reveals that various dimensions of the intra-household food and nutrition resource allocation and gender relations are explored by researchers. Some important are as follows:

(i). Female bargaining power and effect on the food and nutriments allocation to children. (ii). Female employment and impact on the nutritional wellbeing of the household. (iii). Intra household resource modelling and evidenced study on the gender disparity in nutrition food and health allocation in the household. (iv). Effect of seasonal variations and emergencies on food consumption pattern on different gender. (v). Gender disparity in food and nutritional security and implication of the MDG‟s. (vi). Effects of birth order on children nutritional status. (vii). Institutional intervention and their applicability to the gender sensitive food and nutritional security. (viii). Differential household structure ship and its implication for food and nutritional security.(ix). Impact of climate change and difference in the level of resilience and copping strategies to both gender. (x). Impact of price rise and inflations on food and nutritional security for both gender.

Thus livelihood, sustainability, resilience, sensitivity, efficiency, human rights, cost effectiveness, cultural and ecological aspects of gender and food security are major issues that dominate the research literature and analysed that the dimensions and extent of gender inequality in these aspect is ultimately results in the gender disparity in food and nutrition security.

1.7 IntrahouseholdDynamics of Gender Disparity

Gender and food security is directly related to the household concept because the household is the basic unit of analysis in many social, microeconomic and government models, and is important to the fields of economics (Sullivan Aurthur, Steven M. Sheffrin, 2003) for production purposes and in social sciences to understand and analyse the social relations for labour division and resources allocations. A household is generally defined as “being composed of a person or a group of person who co-exist in or occupy a dwelling” (Statics of Canada, 1998) or as “a unit consists of one or more people who live in the same dwelling and also share at meals or living accommodation, and may consist of a single family or some other grouping of people” (Haviland, W.A., 2003).A household can be classified as one- person household and multi-person household, extended household and composite

23 household. The gender relations and roles in the households directly influence the food and nutritional security of the females. The evolution of the analysis of the food and nutrition security at household level emerged in 1980‟s and the UNICEF programme took as a starting point of the idea of “household food security” and emphasis that “the all households should be able to assure adequate food for all family members throughout the year”(Toole Daniel,1989). Raising of the importance of household level analysis gain momentum after reviewing of the fact that much of the recent literature on food security concerns only what we might call a country‟s aggregate food security not the individual food security discussion so far (Thompson, R. L., 1983) and the food security concept thus lacks in analysis about the household, which links and provides food assurance to individual. The individual level food security must be the focus of analysis because the food security is an issue more related to individual need, choices and priorities rather than the aggregate of it. To understand and analyse the individual food security we must frame the household as the most basic unit because it is only the household structure, organisation and intra household relations that govern the individual‟s food and nutritional status. It is the bottom to top approach of human and food relations and necessary condition and determinant of the other levels of food and nutrition security. The inclusion of the household in food security concept thus changes the nature of concept and establishes it as “people-driven food security”. The food and nutritional resources allocation in the household are determined by many factors.

Though, past research has provided a sufficient account about the determinants of household level food consumption but little focused on the governing factors of intra-household distribution pattern. This problem of intra-household studies is because of two reasons-first, most past food consumption studies "have stopped at the door of the household" (Piwoz and Viteri, 1984) and second, much of the work on the intra-household allocation of food is descriptive and has not considered underlying causes (Benjamin Senauer, Marito Garcia and Elizabeth Jacinto, 1988).

Intra-household allocation of food and nutrition is an outcome of complex interactions of socio, economic, ecological, cultural and ideological factor and a range of interlinked factors and determinants are pointed out by many researchers. Unequal gender relations, entitlement assess by female (Land,and other productive assets),

24 bargaining power of the female, educational status of female, employment status of the female, family composition, female as an food buffer agent, female participation in extra household sphere (informational, and political service extension), social, political and institutional infrastructure are some of the important determinants effecting intrahousehold gender disparity in food and nutrition.

1.8 Effects of Gender Disparity

The modern human and rights based society promotes the radical equality for all; yet there is dominant inequality in the rights of women. Throughout much of the world, especially families and societies in the developing countries treat girls and boys unequally, with girls disproportionately facing privation, lack of opportunity and lower levels of investment in their health, nutrition and education and so forth. Unequal power relations between females and males lead to these widespread violations of health and human rights of females.

Gender inequality due to the violations of the female‟s human rights impacted the society adversely. The different dimension of inequality widens the horizon of the gender disparity effects on the society and also influences the intergeneration level. Quentin Brummet found that high levels of gender inequality have a damping effect on growth also. The gender disparities in education, health, social- economic and political opportunities not only affect the women‟s alone but also cumulatively influence the whole society. Its worsening effect makes it the most burning social, ethical and human rights issue.

Gender disparity in education is the most concerning dimension of the disparity because of its outcomes. The lower female education results in poor child health, high fertility, and high infantmortality. The researches evidenced that the children of uneducated mothers have lower performances in education and health attainments. They have higher risks to mortality and poor cognitive growth because of the unscientific care practices. Female‟s lower education attainment also causes the harmful impact on them and reduces their economic participation dimension which leads to their low bargaining power and decision making power in the household. Females low education standard have more societal impact than the individual effect.

The women‟s low education is directly correlated with the poor health outcomes. The women‟s poor health is most serious issue because of its

25 intergenerational effect on the children. The gender disparities in health care have female disfavouring outcomes: low sex ratio, high infant and child mortality rate, high anaemic condition in women, and low BMI, etc. These poor health outcomes for females are because of gender biased investments in health and resource allocation in the households. This gender biased attitudes reduces the females‟ potentiality as a productive human resource.

The females‟ low health also reduces their labour market returns and impacted their participation in the active work force participation rates. The researches pointed out that the workforce share of females in India is very low and they are mainly engaged in unproductive activities. They also receive low employment opportunities and unequally low economic wages. These employment and economic inequalities results in the women‟s low economic empowerment. They also not have the shares in the inheritance property and thus have the low assets shares in the households. The women‟s low economic participation reduces their status in the household by reducing their bargaining power. The many researchers concluded that the women‟s low economic status reduces the investment in children health and the female children‟s health adversely affected by the women‟s low assets ownerships and control. The gender disparity in the decision making governmental process results in the less policy inclusion of the women‟s issues.

All these effects of the gender disparity result in the lower ranking of India in Gender Development Index. The India‟s performance in gender development index indicated that the India has poor female supportive environment and ranked below the other South Asian countries. United Nations Development Programme (2013) points out that India continues to remain towards the bottom of the Human Development Index (HDI) and ranks abysmally low in gender equity.

Figure 1.1 GDI Performance of India in Comparison to other Asian countries

1.2

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0 2000 2005 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2016

Bangladesh China India Pakistan Sri Lanka

Source: Human Development Reports (UNDP)

Figure 1.1 indicates that the India has poor performance in GDI in comparison to other countries in Asia. Among all countries China and Sri Lanka are best performing countries whereas India and Pakistan are lowest in gender development index. India‟s poor ranking in GDI evidenced that the nation has less favourable development environment for female. The country lacks even in the basis sanitation facility for the females at household which poses the threatening to the dignity and health measurements for them.

Gender disparity emerged out from the male favouring attitude and patriarchal setup thus heavily cost to the society and nation as whole because it affect the pivot of the basic unit of the nation - the women in the family. The gender disparity not only has socio- economic loss to the nation but also cause the loss of coming future generations‟ full potentiality because it depends on the mother‟s empowerment in the household.

So, the women‟s issues in the policy matters must be included to reduce the gender disparity. The gender equality and gender empowerment are now inclusive in all aspects and receive major thrust because gender equality have more positively co- relates with higher economic growth. The investment in women‟s health and education has higher returns than the male and directly benefited the society, and nation as a whole.

References

1. Edwards,R. (2010). Gender Inequality And Socioeconomic Development‟ An ECON7920 Economic Project submitted to the school of Economics, The University of Queensland.

2. Senauer, B., Garcia,M. &Jacinto,(1988) .Determinants of the intrahousehold allocation of food in the rural Philippines, IFPRI

3. Govinda, R. (2012). Mapping „Gender Evaluation‟ in South Asia.Indian Journal of Gender Studies, Vol 19, Issue 2,

4. Longwe, S.,(2002). Spectacles for Seeing Gender in Project Evaluation

5. Chauhan, P. (1996), Lightning Shadows Status of Women in India, Manak Publication, Jaipur.

6. Ghadially, R(1988). Women in India Society, Sage Publication, London.

7. Kent,G. ( 2002), "Food Trade and Food Rights", United Nations Chronicle, Issue 1 (2002)

8. ADB (2012), Annual Report

9. Quisumbing, Agnes R. and John A. Maluccio. 2003.Resources at Marriage and Intrahousehold Allocation: Evidence from Bangladesh, Ethiopia, Indonesia, and South Africa Oxford Bulletin of Economics and Statistics 65 (3): 283-328.

10. Gangadharan, L. and Maitra, P. 2 (2000). Does Child Mortality Reflect Gender Bias? Evidence from Pakistan : Indian Economic Review, New Series, Vol. 35, No. pp. 113-131, Published by: Department of Economics, Delhi School of Economics, University of Delhi

Chapter 2

Literature Review

LITERATURE REVIEW

Since the evolution of the concept, a compilation of the literature on food security and its related aspects to gender grew many folds. The Book of The City of Ladies (1405) by Christine de Pizan was the first publication on issues of women. It discussed the influence of women in society and politics. Ann Oakley (1972) in her book „Sex, Gender, and Society' pioneered the concepts of Sex and Gender. Feminism movement brought women‟s problems to pen down extensively. Present literature review tries to outlines a more considerable range and breadth and systematic overview of available research and the research findings on different dimensions of the relation between gender and food. It also aims for providing the research gaps for future investigations of these issues by critically analyze the previous methods, tools data sources, and research questions. The organization of the present literature review is arranged as follows:

Gender Disparity in Food and Nutritional Security: Pieces of Evidence from India and Other Countries

2.1 Indian Studies

Jere R. Behrman (1988) concludes that differential nature of parental preferences for sons and daughters and unequal labor-market returns are underlying factors in the intrahousehold distribution of nutrients and health care in rural India.

Jere R. Behrman et al. (1988) in their study investigated that there is a positive relationship between mother‟s income and status of food and nutrition among children.

Alaka Malwade Basu and Kaushik Basu (1991) on basis of their research evidenced that children's survival in India has a crucially adverse impact of women's employment because of the shortage of time but has a positive impact with levels of mother's education.

Narendra Gupta and Pritam Pal et al. (1992) conducted their study in Rajasthan and found that fundamentally most of the women's health problems are of a gender origin and unequal gender relations.

Rajeshwari (1996) in her research explained that in Haryana in spite of better public healthcare infrastructure and provisions, the state ranks lowest in women's nutritional and health well-being because of gender-biased utilization of healthcare infrastructure.

Richard W. Franke and Barbara H. Chasin (1996) in their research supported the Kerala model of female-headed households as a unique sustainable agenda for well-being because despite gender differentials in employment opportunities and wages women achieve economic parity with their male counterparts.

Sudhanshu Handa (1996) found that though, FHHs are poorer in comparison to MHHs but, the nutritional status of an individual in FHHs is well secured because female as a decision maker positively increases the share of the household budget allocation to the child and family food resources.

Government Home Science College, Chandigarh (1997) conducted a survey on adolescent mothers of low-income households to assess the impact of early marriages and pregnancy on nutritional well-being of children and adolescent mothers. The findings of research concluded that these two factors manifested the severely poor nutritional-anthropometric indicators for mothers. Their children registered a 100 percent third-degree wasting because of intergenerational maternal malnutrition.

P. Arokiasamy and Jalandhar Pradhan (1998-99) on basis of NFHS (1998- 99) data find regional variations in gender bias in India and demonstrate that except south Indian states female children are systematically neglected in indices of curative health care services and nutritional status.

Indu Capoor et al. (2000) observed that women in India are victims in food resources sphere because of patriarchal system, gender-biased social, cultural and religious norms. These constraints lead to the women's secondary position in health and nutrition status in the household and world‟s highest maternal mortality in India.

National Nutrition Monitoring Bureau Report (2000) “Diet and Nutritional Status of Adolescents in India” pointed out the gender differences in nutritional status of adolescent in India and evidenced that 23% adolescent girls are getting married

30 before the age of 18 years which leads to their poor nutritional and anthropometric condition giving birth to underweight children.

Lata Gangadharan and Pushkar Maitra (2000) in their study for Pakistan found the gender differences in child mortality and observed that the higher mortality of girls in biologically higher survival age group 1-5 reflects discrimination against girls in the form of lower health and other resource inputs. This research also evidenced that the education of mother has a major negative effect on child mortality.

Visweswara Rao, K. et al. (2000) conducted a research study in urban Hyderabad to find out the determinants that governed the gender differentials in childhood malnutrition. The research findings concluded that improvement in maternal literacy and occupation has a more positive impact than paternal literacy and per capita income to reduce the gender differentials in food and nutrition significantly.

Bhalani, K. D. et al. (2002) in their research survey for slums of Vadodara city found that the girls have a high percentage of moderate and severe malnutrition than boys and also evidenced that the government programmes like ICDS failed to reduce the gender gaps in food and nutritional status.

Alain Marcoux (2002) in his study reviews the available evidence regarding sex differentials in nutritional status for children, based on survey findings for the classical anthropometric indicators and explain the actual extent of the phenomenon and process of "feminization of hunger."

Saibaba, A. et al. (2002) in their research on the nutritional status of adult girls in the slums of Hyderabad and Secunderabad (Andhra Pradesh) and concluded that the most of the girls are suffering from anaemic deficiency because of the lack of nutritional resources availability and their poor utilization practices. The intervention in terms of nutritional knowledge has effective impact to improve their nutritional status.

National Nutrition Monitoring Bureau in its Report (2002) entitled “Diet and Nutritional Status of Rural Population” points out that about 37% of the males and 39% of the females have chronic energy deficiency. It also reveals that the average intake of cereals and millets (538 g) was more than RDA (520g) in males while in adult females the consumption of cereals and millets was only (389 g).

Females‟ consumption pattern also registered the highest deficit with respect to green leafy vegetables (82%).

Perianayagam Arokiasamy (2002) by using NFHS (1992-1993) data explores the dynamics of gender bias in child mortality in India and concluded that excess female child mortality in India varies considerably but is highest in the northern part of the country.

National Nutrition Monitoring Bureau Report (2003) entitled “Prevalence of Micronutrient Deficiencies” in India find out that the overall prevalence of anaemia is highest among lactating women (78%), followed by pregnant women (75%), adolescent girls (about 70%). The spatial patterns of overall prevalence of anaemia are relatively higher in the states of West Bengal (95.9%) and Orissa (91.2%). Twenty-six percent of the women were identified with dietary inadequacy as the main cause of anaemia.

Vinod Mishra et al. (2004) on basis of NFHS- 1 and NFHS-2 data find out that discrimination against girls is not wide and universal in India. The study reveals that though in breastfeeding, immunization, and medical treatment sex differences exist but it depends greatly on the birth order of child and the sex composition of older living siblings.

Maithreyi Krishnaraj (2005) pointed out that women‟s lack of command over productive resources acts as a major constraint in their food affordability capacity. She further stated that the low 'endowment' and 'exchange entitlements' to women make them more vulnerable to hunger and malnutrition than men.

Nitya Rao (2006) in her research found that the land rights to women have more direct and positive links with household food security and gender equality.

Santosh Mehrotra (2006) concludes that the higher rates of child malnutrition in South Asian countries (India, Pakistan and Bangladesh) than in sub- Saharan Africa is directly related to gender discrimination against women in South Asia.

DLHS and RCH Report of India (2006) entitled “Nutritional Status of Children and Prevalence of Anaemia among Children, Adolescent Girls and Pregnant Women” evidenced that out of 28 states, in 18 states more than 90 percent of pregnant women suffered from any type of anaemia. At district level out of 542 districts in

India 295districts have the high percentage of anaemic adolescent girls, 186 districts medium percentage and 61 low anaemic percentages of adolescent girls. Uttar Pradesh, MP, and Chhattisgarh registered the highest number of districts with anaemic adolescent girls.

Kavita Sethuraman and Nata Duvvury (2007) in their research in India and Bangladesh point out that there are the pieces of evidence of the complex relationship between gender discrimination and malnutrition.

Neetu Choudharyd and Parthasarathy (2007) on basis of a quantitative study of food and nutrition in two villages in Nanded, Maharashtra concluded that heavy burden of work and less leisure to women made them vulnerable to hunger and nutrition-deficient.

Sunny Jose and K. Navaneetham (2008) on basis of NFHS data for (1998- 99) and (2005-06) presents the levels of women's malnutrition in India and found that malnutrition and anaemia have increased among women and the adverse impact of maternal malnutrition extends to child malnutrition and increasing prevalence of chronic diseases.

Sunny Jose and K Navaneetham (2008) on basis of NFHS –3 data analysis found that women‟s access to different social infrastructures, such as toilet facilities, drinking water within premises and clean cooking fuels have significant role in enhancing the women's nutrition in India and out of these three aspects, the influence of access to clean cooking fuels remains quite significant to reduce the level of undernutrition among Indian women.

K.S. Kavi Kumar et al. (2009) on basis of their research findings concluded that in Uttar Pradesh ever-married women in the age group of 15-49 years has high rates of chronic energy deficiency (CED) vulnerability. The study pointed out that social- physical infrastructure, household features (HH size, HH headship, livelihood) and individual features (education level, bargaining, and decision making power) are important determinants responsible for this women's high vulnerability to chronic energy deficiency in rural areas.

M.S. Swami Nathan (2010) in his institutional report “State of Food Insecurity in Urban India” concluded that about half the women in urban areas are

33 estimated to be anaemic and undernutrition and thus having gender differences in nutritional well-being.

Laura Zimmermann (2011) in her pan India level research study clearly detects gender discrimination among children in the intra-household allocation of goods and education expenditures.

Upadhyay, R.P. and Palanivel, C. (2011) point out that the one of the biggest challenge to achieve the food and nutrition security in India is the prevalence of gender biases in socio-economic and policy development and suggested that the priority to women empowerment with other factors will significantly help to achieve the first Millennium Development Goal.

The latest report of the Working Group on Nutrition of India (For the XII Five Year Plan, 2012-2017): clearly recognize the women‟s vulnerability for nutritional deficiency in their whole life cycle and also points out its multiplier and intergenerational effect on children. It reveals that in India the maternal and child under nutritional level remain persistently and unacceptably high as 36 percent women suffer from the chronic energy deficiency and 56.2 percent are anaemic.

Tiwari A.K. (2013) on basis of NFHS-3 data found that most of Indian states witnessed the gender disparity in the different aspect of health and nutritional well- being. The female have low parity index in terms of adult nutrition, vaccination, food consumption, life expectancy and child nutrition and Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Orissa, Andhra Pradesh have high gender biased pattern.

2.2 International Studies

Chen et al. (1981) in their research found that gender biases in favor of male children in food intake and health care are the two important determinants that cause higher female child mortality in Bangladesh.

Rosenzweig and Schulz (1982) in their study explained that gender difference in household resource allocation in ladies is a function of future economic returns from children, which is in favor of male children. The research also points out that the higher mortality among girls in India is the direct result of this gender differences in investment among children in terms of health, education, and care.

Mohammad Abdullah and Erica F Wheeler, (1985) examined the impact of seasonal variations on intra-household distribution of food in 53 villages of Bangladesh and evidenced that young girls particularly receive low intakes than boys.

Radheshyam Bairagi (1986) analyzed the effect of the food crisis on the sex- biased allocation of food among children aged 1-4 year in different socio-economic groups and find clear-cut sex differentials in Bangladesh.

Mark M. Pitt et al. (1990) observed that there was higher calorie consumption by men than women in Bangladesh due to the gender difference in the working and earning pattern, in which men were engaged in higher productive activities than women.

Duncan Thomas (1990) on basis of the nutritional data of Brazil, pointed out that unearned income in the hands of a mother has almost twenty times bigger effect on child survival probabilities and her family's health than income under the control of a father. The study also evidence for gender preference: mothers prefer to devote resources to improving the nutritional status of their daughters and fathers to sons.

Bina Agarwal (1992) in her research pointed out that in South Asia, coping burden of the food crisis is shared more by female family members than the male counterparts because of these unequal gender relations female shares the largest burden of the food crisis.

Kennedy, E. and Peters, P.E. (1992) on basis of data for Kenya and Malawi point out that children's nutritional status is the reflection of the combined effect of the income/resource ownership and the gender of the household head. The research evidenced that in spite of having lowest income, nutritional state of children in female-headed households is significantly better than in higher income male-headed households because of the combination of nutritional practices and other nurturing behaviors.

Haddad, L. (1992) on basis of Living Standards Survey (1987-88) data for Ghana observed that women employment status with different income levels has a different effect on food and nutrition security at household. Food security is negatively affected, by women work at the mean income level while it is improved with high incomes, because of the improved bargaining capacity and purchasing power of women.

Alderman, H. and Garcia, M. (1992) in their nutritional study of Pakistan point out that raising mother's education level has more significant and positive impact on the reduction of child stunting level than increasing per capita income or raising household food consumption.

Deborah S. De Graff and Richard E. Bilsborrow (1993) conducted a research to examine the relationships between female headship status of households and family welfare in rural Ecuador and indicates that female-headed households are worse off according to a variety of measures of welfare.

Lawrence Haddad (1994) analyzed the gender biases in utility effect of household income on children's nutritional status in the Cǒte d'Ivoire and found that increase in women‟s income significantly increases the boys' height-for-age in comparisons to female children.

Kennedy, E. and Haddad, L. (1994) made a comparative analysis of Ghana and Kenya to study the relations between female-headed households and child well- being. It concluded that though most of the female-headed household were poor and have lower access to resources some of them have significantly better nutritional state of individual household members.

Agnes R. Quisumbing et al. (1995) in their worldwide research studied different dimensions of women's status and role in food security system. The research revealed that women are the primary producer of food resources but the gender disparity in productive resources and property rights hinders their capacity as food securing agent and deprived the household of adequate food resources. On the issue of women's economic access to food study, it concluded that women's earned income has a more positive impact on children's health and household food security. Study evidenced that women have the significant role in utilization dimension of FNS through her education level, time allocation schedule, sharing in decision making. Research also concluded that women's nutritional status is an indicator and crucial input to nutritional well- being of other family members.

Simon Appleton’s (1996) research study for Uganda evidenced that not all FHHs but some subgroups like widow-headed households are more vulnerable to food insecurity and it is mostly attributed to the gender disparity in educational attainment which results in economic disadvantages to these households.

Mita Chakrabarty (1996) in South Asian studies examined the possible impacts of lean and peak season and role of social group affiliation on the gender difference in cereal intake and found that food may not be equitably distributed within the household. Study interestingly found that the male-female differences in net intakes were higher in peak season than in lean season.

Beatrice Lorge Rogers (1996) in the Dominican Republic study points out that the children in FHHs have better anthropometric status than the MHHs because the female as a decision maker for resources allocation favors children's welfare and nutritional needs.

Joanne Leslie et al. (1997) in their research found that women in Sub- Saharan Africa also had the evidence of poor nutritional status but it was not due to discrimination and biases against women rather it was because of many risks factors and multiple time energy roles of African women.

Carol E. Levin et al. (1999) conducted a survey in Ghana to know the women's nutritional status and their role as a food securing agent in urban households along with their livelihood and income expanding strategies. The study finds that in spite of earning lower wages in comparison to male; women have more contribution for achieving household food security because they tend to allocate most of their budget for securing food and nutritional resources, but their own nutritional status still remains low because of less leisure and time intensive employment with additional household work.

Valerie S. Tarasuk and George H. Beaton (1999) in their study for Canada found that in household food insecurity condition, women‟s individual food security suffers severely because women have systematically low intake of nutrients due to scarce resources and voluntary curtailing their food resources in favor to children and male members of the household.

Bouis, Howarth E., and Hunt, Joseph (1999) point out that the non- inclusion of women's issue of gender biases in asset ownership, decision making, education, and lack of empowerment in present policies is the cause of their failure to reduce the malnutrition. The consideration of women's time and energy schedule in their role as food and child producer and caretaker provide the new opportunities for improving the food and nutritional security and reducing the gender differences.

Penny Van Esterik (1999) described that the women enjoy the “right to feed” their family as a powerful cultural right but their legal right the “right to food” as an individual suffers severely; because of differential treatment against women and the excessive demand to implement their cultural responsibility.

Agnes R. Quisumbing and John A. Maluccio (1999), in their empirical study of developing countries such as Bangladesh, Indonesia, Ethiopia, and South Africa finds that "bargaining power" and control of assets by women determine the distribution of resources within the household. The research also points out that parents have no identical preferences for the girl and male child.

Laurie F. Derose et al. (2000), in their paper, reviewed the South Asian nutritional studies and find the gender biases in food and nutritional resources. The study revealed the plentiful evidence of gender biases in health and other forms of care but limited in calorie adequacy and suggested that women's disadvantage in food and nutrition is a problem of quality (micronutrient intake) rather than of quantity (calorie intake).

Wei Luo et al. (2001) on basis of health and nutrition survey in eight provinces of China explained that intrahousehold food distribution is largely governed by the „contribution rule‟ according to which, the individuals who make a greater contribution to the family receive a larger share of the family‟s food and nutrients resources. Their research findings also indicated that gender is also a strong factor in food allocation and males had a higher proportion of nutrient intake than females.

Sheryl Hendriks (2002) explained that women‟s individual food insecurity was because of unfair burden of household responsibilities and exhausting labor demands upon them; while their lack of entitlement to land and assets increases vulnerability to overall household food insecurity by reducing the livelihood strategies.

Elizabeth I. Ransom and Leslie K. Elder (2003) suggested that improvement in women‟s nutrition is so effective that this single instrument can help to achieve the three MDGs (Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger; Reduced child mortality; and Improve maternal health). Socio-cultural and gender norms are the main causes of women‟s poor nutritional status which also leads to the economic cost

38 to the country because of reduction in women‟s productivity and underweight offspring.

Adnan A Hyder and Suzanne Maman (2005) on basis of their study in Kenya and Tanzania find out that, Sub Saharan rural women also face the gender differences in food and nutrition security and it is attributed to the unequal burden shared by women in time-consuming activities i.e. food production, health, and care provisions; lack of independent decision making and gender inequity. All this produces vicious health and social consequences for women and society.

Ian Darnton-Hill and Patrick Webb (2005) in their paper reviewed the impact of micro-nutritional deficiency on gender and its socio-economic cost. The paper points out that the micro-nutritional deficiencies are unequally affected by sex. Women are at high risk due to their high physiological need in adolescent and pregnancy and lack in supply due to cultural and gender biases. The micro-nutritional deficiencies resulted in the higher mortality and poor neuro intellectual growth in women. The study suggests that investment in micro-nutrient fortification for women will help to break the intergenerational cycle of malnutrition.

IFPRI (2005) Report “Women Still the Key to Food and Nutrition Security” finds the following important key points in gender and food relations: (i) women are at disadvantage condition in food and nutrients resources allocation in the household. (ii) Women's education and status within the household contribute more than 50 percent to the reduction of child malnutrition. (iii) Increasing women's assets raises investments in education and girls' health. (iv). The study also estimates that equalizing gender status in South Asia would reduce the rate of underweight children under age three by approximately 12 percentage points.

Naila Baig Ansari and Mohammad Hossain Rabbar (2006) in their research in Pakistan found that that gender is a strong determinant of children‟s nutritional status in food insecure households as the female children are three times more stunted than male children. Lack of maternal formal schooling, large household size, and biases in care and feeding practices have a profound impact on female malnutrition. Direct policy intervention accompanied with mother's educational and empowerment status is an effective tool to reduce this biases.

Nira Ramachandran (2006) in her paper reviews the interlinkages between women and food security in South Asia. The paper pointed out that in spite of high economic development, the South Asian region is failed to improve the women's food and nutritional status because of the prevalence of high discrimination against females in intrahousehold resource allocation.

Steven A. Block (2007) in his research study for Indonesia studied the impact of maternal nutrition knowledge and schooling level as determinants of child micronutrient status and found that mother's schooling has a direct effect than mother's nutritional knowledge on the children' nutritional status. The child‟s gender, age, and household assets are the other additional determinant of child‟s nutritional status.

Keera Allendorf (2007) on basis of Nepal Demographic and Health Survey found that women's land rights directly benefit the nutritional status of young children's because land ownership empowers women and increase their decision making power in the household.

IFPRI report entitled “Nutrition and Gender in Asia: From Research to Action” (2008) states that in South Asia undernutrition and poverty are considered as inheritable to women because they have widespread low nutritional and social status. It also points out that, women‟s low socio-economic status deprives them the ability to invest resources in children's health, which is the prime reason for high children undernutrition in South Asia.

Ruth Oniang’o and Edith Mukudi in their article “Nutrition and Gender” analyzed the different dimensions of the gender and nutrition. The article pointed out that women‟s were particularly more vulnerable to nutrition deficiencies because of their biological role and socially constructed gender roles and biases. Women's malnutrition has an adverse impact on the economic development of a country because it affects the human capital by means of high maternal and child mortality and reducing human productivity.

Tefera Belachew et al. (2011) in their research for Ethiopia, found that gender is the most strong determinant of nutritional status in adolescents. The female in food insecure household has three times more hunger and morbidity risk in comparison to male and this risk is significantly reduced for the female in the urban environment.

Catherine Ragasa et al. (2012) in their IFPRI discussion paper strongly evidenced that the gender disparity in the access to agriculture productive resources resulted in HHs nutritional insecurity. It also investigated the rural-urban difference in HHHs impact on child's well- being and found that in urban areas the FHHs have an edge to MHHs, unlike rural areas where MHHs have better nutritional well- being. Mother‟s education and age were also found as the strong determinants of children‟s health.

Eleanor M. Schmidt (2012) in his Bangladesh study analyzed the effect of women‟s bargaining power on the child‟s nutritional well- being. The research strongly evidenced that the households with high women's bargaining power have improved nutritional well- being for children because it directly increases the investment for child's health, education, and food resources. Women's education level and decision-making power also directly links with improved nutritional and health status of children.

Aminur Rahman (2013), Study in rural Bangladesh evidenced that gender disparity is more prominent in critical nutrients than calories. Wife‟s bargaining power is an important tool to reduce this gender disparity because women‟s high intrahousehold bargaining power provides more micronutrients to younger females in the household. Findings further indicate that pregnant and lactating women unequally receive fewer nutrients than their requirement.

Alisa Tang (2013) pointed out that gender equality, women's socio-economic development, and empowerment are the most inexpensive and effective tools in the fight against hunger and malnutrition. The integration of these tools in the policies for nutritional wellbeing will have the sustainable effect.

Report of UN Women entitled “Gender Equality and Sustainable Development” (2014) clearly states out that the achieving food security is an important pillar to sustainable development and it cannot be secured without integrating gender equality in all dimensions of food security. Complex gender relation dynamics at household level determine the individual nutritional well- being especially for women.

2.3 Research Gaps

The ground realities of women‟s vulnerability to food insecurity urgently want the more comprehensive and sustainable academic and policy focus on the issue. The discussion on gender disparity in food and nutritional security seriously emerged when people consider the importance of equality and concerned with social justice (Jackson 1997; Peet 1997; Corbridge 1998). Sen.'s concept of entitlement and the human welfare approach and women empowerment dimension evolution raises the need for the inclusion of women and food relation in the academic research. But the systematic consideration of women as a means and end to food security to all starts with the efforts of FAO and UN. These leading institutions start the focusing on the rural women's contribution in the food cycle and as a pivot to food security, especially in the developing countries. UN Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEADW, 1975) in its charter also enshrined the equal right to food for the women.

The present literature review highlights that the gender and food as a research topic have been incorporated by many subjects and its different dimensions also have been included in international and national research studies. Earlier researchers though revealed that factors such as preferential treatment to son, low asset access and poor social status which make rural females as a larger proportion of undernutrition population but this research work tries to find the other basic factors of this dynamic situation with micro-level analysis at household level with new research questions. This study analyses the influence of social taboos and customs on the allocation of food resource in the household. The gender and food relation studies are generally more qualitative in nature and have no exact quantification of food resources consumption between male and female. This work tries to point out the gender disparity in food consumption between male and female on basis of discrepancy ratio method which is a new addition to the research literature of gender and food studies. By this method, male and female are classified in three categories: equal to their share of food resources in the household, less than their share of food resources in the household and more than their share of food resources in the household. This doctoral work further analyses the practicing of food buffering by the female in the households not only in normal conditions but also in an emergency. The pattern of male favoritism in nutrient-rich food is also pointed out in this work. This research study

42 also analyses women empowerment indicators and their impact on food and nutritional status of the population. Women's leisure time availability, their nutritional and gender-related knowledge, their political and social representation, decision making power and mobility are quantified to understand their impact on food and nutrition security. The selection of study area and the time during which the survey is conducted also enriches the literature by filling the research gaps.

References

1. Agarwal, B. (1997). Bargaining and Gender Relations: Within and Beyond the Household, FCND DISCUSSION PAPER. 2. Allendorf, K. (2007) Do Women‟s Land Rights Promote Empowerment and Child Health in Nepal? World Development Vol. 35, No. 11, pp. 1975–1988, 3. Appleton S. (1996) Women-Headed Households and Household Welfare: An Empirical Deconstruction for Uganda World Development. Vol. 24, No. 12, pp. 181 l-1827, 4. Arokiasamy, P., (2002). Regional Patterns of Sex Bias and Excess Female Child Mortality in India, Population (Vol. 59, No. 6 (Nov. - Dec., 2004), pp. 833-863, Institut National d'ÉtudesDémographique 5. Arokiasamy, P., and Pradhan, J. (1998). Gender bias against female children in India: Regional differences and their implications for MDGs 6. Bairagi, R. (June, 1986). Food Crisis, Nutrition, and Female Children in Rural Bangladesh. Population and Development Review, Vol. 12(2), pp. 307-315. 7. Basu, A., & Basu, K. (April, 1991). Women's economic roles and child survival: the case of India. Health Transition Review, Vol.1 (1) pp. 83-103. 8. Behrman, J. (1988). Intra household Allocation of Nutrients in Rural India: Are Boys Favoured? Do Parents Exhibit Inequality Aversion? Oxford Economic Papers, New Series, Vol. 40(1), pp. 32-54. 9. Behrman, J., Deolalikar, A., & Barbara L. (1988). Nutrients: Impacts and Determinants. The World Bank Economic Review, Vol. 2(3) pp. 299-320. 10. Bhalani, K. D. et al. (2002).Nutritional status and gender differences in the children of less than 5 years of age attending ICDS Anganwadis in Vadodara city. Indian Journal of Community Medicine. 11. Chakrabarty, M. (1996). Gender difference in cereal intake: possible impacts of social group affiliation and season. Anthropologischer Anzeiger, Jahrg. 54, H. 4 pp. 355-360. 12. Chakrabarty, M. (1996). Gender difference in cereal intake: possible impacts of social group affiliation and season. Anthropologischer Anzeiger, Jahrg. 54, H. 4 pp. 355-360.

13. Chen, L. C., Huq, E., and D'Souza, S. (1981). Sex Bias in the Family Allocation of Food and Health Care in Rural Bangladesh. Population and Development Review, Vol. 7(1), pp. 55-70. 14. Choudhary, N., and Parthasarathy, D. (2007). Gender, Work and Household Food Security. Economic and Political Weekly, Vol. 42(6) pp. 523-531. 15. Deborah, S., & Richard, E. (1993). Female-Headed Households and Family Welfare in Rural Ecuador. Journal of Population Economics, Vol. 6, No. pp. 317-336. 16. District Level Household and Facility Survey 2007-08 (DLHS-3) factsheet, Ministry of Health and Family Welfare Government of India and International Institute for Population Sciences (Deemed University) Mumbai 17. Esterik, P. (1999). Right to food; right to feed; right to be fed. The intersection of women‟s rights and the right to food. Agriculture and Human Values, 16: 225–232. 18. Franke, R. and Chasin, B. (1996). Female-Supported Households: A Continuing Agenda for Kerala Model, Economic and Political Weekly, Vol. 31, No. 10 pp. 625-630, Economic and Political weekly 19. Gangadharan, L. and Maitra, P. (2000). Does Child Mortality Reflect Gender Bias Evidence from Pakistan. Indian Economic Review, New Series, Vol. 35, No. pp. 113-131. 20. Govt. Home Science College Chandigarh. Department of Foods and Nutrition (1997). 21. Gupta, N., Pal, P., Bhargava, M., & Daga, M. (1992). Health of Women and Children in Rajasthan. Economic and Political Weekly, Vol. 27(42) pp. 2323- 2330. 22. Haddad L. (1994). Women's income and boy-girl anthropometric status in the Côte d'Ivoire World Development, Vol. 22, Issue 4, pp. 543–553. 23. Handa S. (1996). Expenditure behaviour and children‟s welfare: An analysis of female headed households. Jamaica Journal of Development Economics, Vol. (50), pp. 165-187.

24. Hendriks and Sheryl Hendricks (2002). Unfair Burden: Women's Risks and Vulnerability to Food Insecurity Agenda, No. 51, Food: Needs, Wants and Desires, pp. 51-57 25. Howarth E. and Joseph (1999). Linking food and nutrition security: past lessons and future opportunities. Asian Development Review, 17(1/2): 168-213. 26. Hyder, A. & Maman, S. (2005). The pervasive triad of food security, gender inequity and women's health: Exploratory research from sub-Saharan Africa; African Health Science; 5(4): 328–334. 27. International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI). (2008). Nutrition and Gender in Asia: From Research to Action. 28. International Food Policy Research Institute. (2006). Nutrition and Gender in Asia: From Research to Action. IIFPRI, Washington D.C 29. Jose, S., and Navaneetham, K. (2010). Social Infrastructure and Women‟s Undernutrition. Economic and Political Weekly, vol. XLV (13). 30. Krishnaraj, M. (2005). Food Security: How and for Whom? Economic and Political Weekly, Vol. 40 (25) pp. 2508-2512. 31. Kumar, K. K. S., Ramachandranm M., and Viswanathan, B. (2009). What Characterises Women Vulnerable to Chronic Energy Deficiency? Social Indicators Research, Vol. 90(3) pp. 365-380. 32. Levin, C. and Ruel, M.et. al., (1999). Working Women in an Urban Setting: Traders, Vendors and Food Security in Accra; World Development Vol. 27, No. 11, pp. 1977-1991, 33. Luo,W., Zhai, F., Jin S., & Ge, K. (2001). Intra household food distribution: A case study of eight provinces in China. Asia Pacific Journal Clinical Nutrition 10(Suppl.): S19–S28. 34. M. S. Swaminathan (2010). Research Foundation, Centre for Research on Sustainable Agriculture and Rural Development. Report on The State of Food Insecurity in Urban India. 35. Marcoux, A. (June, 2002). Sex Differentials in undernutrition: A Look at Survey Evidence. Population and Development Review, vol. 28(2) pp. 275-284. 36. Mehrotra, S. (2006). Child Malnutrition and Gender Discrimination in South Asia. Economic and Political Weekly, Vol. 41(10), pp. 912-918.

37. Mishra, V., Roy, T. & Retherford, R. (2004). Sex Differentials in Childhood Feeding, Health Care, and Nutritional Status in India. Population and Development Review, Vol. 30(2), pp. 269-295. 38. National Nutrition Monitoring Bureau, Prevalence Of Micronutrient Deficiencies, National Institute of Nutrition, Indian Council of Medical Research, HYDERABAD, 2003 39. NNMB Technical Report No.20 Report On Diet And Nutritional Status Of Adolescents National Nutrition Monitoring Bureau, Special Report National Institute Of Nutrition Indian Council Of Medical Research Hyderabad, 2000.Nutritional Status Of Adolescents ...Nutritional Status Of Elderly…..Food & Nutrient Intakes Of Individuals, 40. NNMB Technical Report No.21, National Nutrition Monitoring Bureau, Diet and Nutritional Status of Rural Population, National Institute of Nutrition, Indian Council of Medical Research, Hyderabad-2002 41. Quisumbing and John A. Maluccio (2000). Intrahousehold Allocation And Gender Relations: New Empirical Evidence From Four Developing Countries. Food Consumption and Nutrition Division International Food Policy Research Institute ,Washington, D.C. U.S.A. 42. Rahman, A. (2013). Does A Wife‟s Bargaining Power Provide More Micronutrients to Females: Evidence from Rural Bangladesh. The World Bank International Finance Corporation Investment Climate Department Business Regulation Unit Policy Research Working Paper WPS6363. 43. Rajeshwari (1996). Gender Bias in Utilisation of Health Care Facilities in Rural Haryana. Economic and Political Weekly, Vol. 31(8) pp. 489+491-494. 44. Rao, N. (2005). Gender Equality, Land Rights and Household Food Security: Discussion of Rice Farming Systems. Economic and Political Weekly, Vol. 40(25), pp. 2513-2521. 45. Syamala, T.S. (2002). Nutritional status of adolescent girls in urban slums and the impact of IEC on their nutritional knowledge and practices. Indian Journal of Community Medicine. Vol. XXVII, pp.151-156. 46. Sethuraman, K., Duvvury, N. (2007). The Nexus of Gender Discrimination with Malnutrition: An Introduction. Economic and Political Weekly, Vol. 42(44), pp. 49, 51-53.

47. Tang, A. (2013). Gender Equality and Food Security; Women‟s Empowerment: as a Tool against Hunger. FAO and ADB. 48. Tarasuk V., & Beaton, G. (1999) Women‟s Dietary Intakes in the Context of Household Food Insecurity; The Journal of Nutrition 129: 672–679. 49. The Global Gender Gap Report (2014); World economic Forum, Geneva, Switzerland. 50. Thomas, D. (1990). Intra-Household Resource Allocation: An Inferential Approach. The Journal of Human Resources, Vol. 25(4), pp. 635-664. 51. Tiwari, A.K. (2013). Gender Inequality in Terms of Health and Nutrition in India: Evidence from National Family Health Survey-3. Pacific Business Review International, Vol. 5(12), pp 24-34. 52. Visweswara, Rao, K., Krishna, D., & Balakrishna, N. (2000). Gender differentials in malnutrition : a case study of preschool children. Man in India. 80(3):289-294 53. Zimmermann, L. (April 2011) Reconsidering Gender Bias in Intra-Household Allocation in India , Institute for the Study of Labour IZA Discussion Paper (DP) No. 5687 BONN ,SWITERZELAND.

Chapter 3

Aligarh District – A Geographical Outline

ALIGARH DISTRICT – A GEOGRAPHICAL OUTLINE

3.1 Location

Aligarh District is located between 27° 27' N to 28° 11' N latitudes and 77°27'E to 78°38' E longitudes. The greatest East-West extension is about 116 kilometers whereas maximum stretch from North to South is about 62 kilometers. Its elevation from mean sea level is 611.62 feet (190 meters).Two important rivers the Ganga and the Yamuna form its extreme North Eastern and North Western boundary respectively. It is bounded by Bulandshahr district in the north, Haryana in the North West, Mathura in the west and south-west, Hathras in the south and Etah in the east.

3.2 Administrative Settings

Aligarh is an important district in the Northwestern Uttar Pradesh and it also has administrative headquarter of Aligarh division. The district consists of five sub- divisions/ tehsils namely Koil, Khair, Gabhana, Atrauli, and Iglas. The tehsils are further subdivided into 12 development blocks namely Atrauli, Gangiri, Bijauli, Jawan Sikanderpur, Chandaus, Khair, Tappal, Dhanipur, Lodha, Akrabad, Iglas, and Gonda.

Table 3.1 Aligarh District: Administrative Divisions (2011) S. Tehsil S.No. Blocks Number of Villages No. Inhabited Uninhabited Total Villages Villages 1 .Atrauli 1 Atrauli 110 3 113 2 Gangiri 99 2 111 3 Bijauli 85 7 92 2 Ghabhana 4 Jawan Sikanderpur 108 1 109 5 Chandaus 92 2 94 3 Khair 6 Khair 96 0 96 7 Tappal 87 5 92 4 Koil 8 Dhanipur 98 0 98 9 Lodha 133 7 140 10 Akrabad 86 3 89 5 Iglas 11 Iglas 103 0 103 12 Gonda 83 0 83 Total 1,180 30 1,210 Source: Census of India 2011 and Sankhiyiki Patrika)

Figure 3.1

According to 2011census, there are total 1210 villages in Aligarh district. Out of which 1180 villages are inhabited while 30 villages are uninhabited. Lodha block has the highest number of total villages (140) followed by Atrauli, Gangiri and Jawan Sikendarpur. Lodha and Bijauli blocks have the highest number of uninhabited villages (7) followed by Tappal (5).The number of inhabited villages are maximum in Lodha blocks (133), followed by Atrauli( 110) and Jawan Sikendarpur(108). Khair, Iglas, Gonda, and Dhanipur blocks have no inhabited village.

3.3 Geographical Characteristics of Study Area

3.3.1 Physiography

Ganga Khadar region covers only a portion of Atrauli tehsil and is found along the Ganga River which determined the physical characteristics of the region and formed its northern boundary. Prominently it is a low lying area with sand dunes and shallow depressions as its main physiographic features. From the low Khadar of the Ganga River in the east, the level of the district rises sharply to the high uplands known as Eastern Uplands which crown the old flood bank of the river and then descends inland gradually to a depression, drained by the Nim and Chhoiya rivers, after which, it rises again up to the banks of the Kali Nadi. Along the right bank of the Kali Nadi, is another sandy to silty belt rising from the low and narrow Khadar belt of that stream. Adjoining it is a fertile belt of loamy soil which sinks gradually into the broad central depression called Central Lowlands. It is a broad belt of low-lying land running from north-west to south-east, which is the continuation of the belt which

Figure 3.2

52 begins from the district of Meerut, and passing through the Ghaziabad and Bulandshahar districts, enters Aligarh in Koil tehsil in the north. The depression is narrow in the north and gets wider towards the south and eventually enters the adjoining district of Etah. This tract is characterized by imperfect drainage and numerous jhils (lakes) in which the surface water collects. Beyond this depression, the surface rises to a level plain known as the Western Uplands. Beyond Western Uplands the region of Yamuna Khadar is found along the Yamuna River in a narrow strip having flat plain sloping towards the South. The Yamuna River forms its western boundary but the impact of this river on the physiography is very insignificant. There are few dry streams and shallow depression which retain water during the dry months also.

3.3.2 Drainage System

The drainage pattern of Aligarh is governed by two prominent rivers Ganga and Yamuna which form the fertile Ganga-Yamuna Doab. Ganga flows in eastern parts with its tributaries and Yamuna flows through central and western parts of the district and form the eastern and western boundaries of the district respectively. Drainage landscape of district is also marked by other small seasonal rivers namely Senger, Rind, Karan, Kali, and Neem; which follow the general slope of the land and flow from north to south and south-east direction. Nearly seventy villages are situated in the close vicinity of these rivers and directly affected by them.

In Aligarh the Ganga River enters after Bulandshahr and takes a Southeasterly direction separating Aligarh from Badaun and forms district’s eastern boundary for a length of 15 Km. The construction of the lower Ganga canal at Narora controlled the course diversion and overflowing of the river in the rainy season. Yamuna the mighty river in the district flows along its Northwestern border for 20 Km. and then moves towards South into Mathura and Agra district. Kali Nadi is an important perennial stream in the drainage system of the district and runs through a narrow valley marked by high banks. It takes Southeasterly course and separates the Atrauli tehsil from Koil and Sikandra Rao tehsils. It is properly known as river Kalindi. NeemNadi is a small stream that joins the Kali Nadi on its left bank. It is rarely dry in the summer season and overflows during the rainy season. The bed of this river has been deepened to improve the drainage and its water is used for irrigation purpose. Senger Nadi is a tributary of river Yamuna and rises from the

53 central depression of Aligarh district. It is usually dry during the summer months but during the rains, it becomes a very useful river. Rind Nadi is also known as Arind River rises in the central low lands of Aligarh and moves southwards following a Southeasterly direction. KaronNadi also was known as Karwan in some parts of Aligarh district passes through Khair, Iglas and Hathras tehsils. It follows a northwest to South-East direction. Besides, these rivers there are artificial drains, which facilitate the drainage systems of the district. The drain known as Aligarh drains as Ganda Nala is one of the important drains of the district that is linked to the main streams of the district.

Figure: 3.3

3.3.3 Soils

The Aligarh district is endowed with the rich fertile soils because it lies in the Ganga Yamuna Doab. Its soils are prominently characterized as alluvium in nature (both old and new alluvium) which helps to carry out all the agricultural activities in the district. The new alluvium is confined to the floodplains of the rivers and their tributaries while the old alluvium is found in the level plains above the flood level of the main rivers and their tributaries. Soils of the region vary in terms of texture, ranging from sandy to loamy and silty to clayey. Some poorly drained areas exhibit saline and alkaline character of the soil which is injurious to plant growth.

Soil Survey Department in 1985 broadly classified the soils of the districts into following soil regions:

i) Recent Alluvium is a narrow belt along the river beds of Ganga, Yamuna and Koli rivers, which deposited the recent alluvial along their banks during the rainy season. ii) Ganga loamy sands are found along the NE part of the Atrauli Tehsil iii) Ganga sandy loams, this soil covers the sizeable portion of the district. iv) Ganga clay loam, found in the Jawa, Lodha, Dahnipur, Gangiri and Atrauli block v) Yamuna sandy loam, found in the Iglas, Chandaus, Khair and eastern part of Tappal block vi) Yamuna khadar, its tract runs north to the South direction parallel to the Ganga River vii) Trans Yamuna khadar type, it covers the central and eastern part of Tappal block viii) Usar found in the western part of the district mainly Khair and Iglas

The above division of the soil regions can be broadly classified in to four major soil tracts on the basis of the texture of the soil as (a) The sandy soil tract; (b) The sandy loam soil tract; (c) The loamy soil tract; (d) The clayey loam soil tract.

 The Sandy Soil Tract: The sandy tract is located along both sides of river Ganga and Yamuna. This type of soil varies in texture and structure. The colour of the soil varies from light gray to ash gray. The groundwater table is usually near the

surface and during the monsoon months, it remains virtually on the surface itself. Agriculture in the Khadar soil is precarious but whenever cultivation is possible, good crops are raised. Sugarcane is also grown on these soils.

 The Sandy Loam Soil Tract: The sandy loam soil is spread over a sizeable area of the district. The soil is more leached than other soils of Aligarh district because the annual rainfall in this region is more than in other regions. This type of soil occurs in the entire Atrauli tehsil with the exception of narrow depression in the south and near the Ganga River. The soil is generally sandy in texture and is brown or reddish in colour. The water table is very low, going at places 50 feet from the surface. The pH varies from neutral to slightly alkaline.

 The Loamy Tract: The loamy tract is found between the Khadar lands of the river Ganga and Kali Nadi. The surface texture varies from good quality loam to sandy loam. The soil of this track is very fertile. The soils are light brown to brown and at places dark brown in colour with a marked alleviation of clay towards the bottom. The sub-soils being comparatively heavier retain large quantities of water. The common crops of the area cultivated in this soil type are millets and maize during the Kharif. Mixed cropping of bajra and arher is also prevalent. The common Rabi crops are barley and wheat, the former slightly more liked by cultivators.

 The Clayey Loam Soil Tract: This type of soil runs from the north to south, generally parallel to the course of the river Ganga. The drainage in this tract is bad and some part of this tract suffers from waterlogging during the monsoon months. The tract is underlined by a thick pan of Kankar, occurring in mild cases in the form of nodules which at places cement together forming a stiff impenetrable rock in the bottom layers. This type of soil is sticky and generally clayey or clayey loam in texture. It is gray, ash gray, or dark gray in colour tending to become black when moist on sandy elevated tracts. Peas are also successfully grown on these soils.

3.3.4 Vegetation

Aligarh has mainly the deciduous type of vegetation because it lies in the sub- tropical region. The vegetation coverage in the district is continuously diminishing because of its gradual conversion into the cultivable area. The early dominance of

56 dhank jungles are now remnant in scattered patches in the clayey and usar tracts. Jhau or tamarisk, an evergreen shrub dominates the Khadar of Ganga and Yamuna with thatching grass stretches. The wood coverage in the district has distinct features with the Eastern part as more wooded than the western one. The eastern part is dominated by babul as the commonest tree with other trees i.e., the neem, pipal, ber, faras, shisham, gular, and jamun. The western part of the district is marked by a comparative absence of trees.

3.3.5 Climate

Aligarh district lies in the region of monsoon type of climate characterized by the semi-arid condition. The district also has continental characteristics of climate and experiences the extremes of severe cold in winters (January maximum temperature 21° C and minimum 7° C) and oppressive heat in summers (June maximum temperature 43° C to 46°C). The district's climate has the influence of four distinct seasons in its climate as:

. The Cold Weather Season

Cold weather season ranges from mid-November to February and characterized by continuous blow of cold and dry air. During this season whole district comes under the influence of the high-pressure belt which develops over north India owing to low temperature. The beginning of this season is marked by a considerable fall in temperature. The mean monthly temperature falls from November to December and further in January as 20oC, 16.1oC, and 15oC respectively. The diurnal range of temperature during the winter months is high; making the nights cold while the days are relatively warm. The direction of prevailing winds is normally from west and northwest to east and southeast with an average speed of about 3.2 km per hour. Western disturbances are characteristics feature causes winter rains which are small, irregular and sporadic in nature and sometimes accompanied by hailstorms.

. The Hot Weather Season

This season begins in March and continues till mid-June. This season is characterized by rising temperature and falling pressure. The mean maximum and minimum temperature in March are 30.7oC and 14.9oC respectively. The temperature continues to rise in April when the respective maximum and minimum for the month are 41.7oC and 15.6oC. The month of May and June records relatively high

57 temperature. The hot days are characterized by intensive heat dry air and low relative humidity. In the summer months, hot and dry winds of great velocity locally called as loo is a regular phenomenon. During the month of March, winds blow with the average wind speed of about 5.5 km per hour whereas in the month of June it is 10.5 km. per hour. Another peculiar phenomenon of this season is the occurrence of dust and thunderstorms usually occur in the afternoon locally known as andhis. There is generally no rain during the summer months except for the small amount accompanied by the thunderstorms.

Figure 3.4

. Rainy Season

A Change occurs in the weather by the middle of June which is called the burst of monsoon. This season is characterized by falling temperature and rising humidity. The mean monthly temperature falls from 35oC in June to 31.7oC in July and relative humidity increases from 27% in May to 74% in July. The rain generally sets in by the middle of June and continues until the end of September or early October. The average annual rainfall of the whole district is about 65 cm.

. The Season of Retreating Monsoon

The season of retreating monsoon is characterized by the hot and sticky weather with a distinct rise in temperature which starts falling by the end of October. During this season the skies are clear due to which day temperature is high but the

58 night temperature falls. Relative humidity during this period falls to 47%. This period is considered a transitional phase between the hot weather season and cool dry weather.

Figure 3.5 Mean Monthly Rainfall of Aligarh District

Source: Indian Meteorological Department

3.3.6 Agro-climatic Zone Characteristics of Aligarh District

Aligarh lies in South-Western Semi-Arid Plain Agro climatic Zone. The soils are alluvial in nature and affected by salts. Average annual rainfall is 662 mm and the temperature ranges from 40oC to 47oC. The average relative humidity ranges from 32 to 82%. Cropping intensity of the zone is 146%. Pearl millet, maize, rice, wheat, rapeseed, and mustard are the major field crops of the zone. Potato, vegetable pea, garlic, onion, and flowers are also cultivated. According to Planning Commission, the district lies in Agro-Climatic Zone of Upper Gangetic Plain Region.

3.3.7 Agro Ecological Situation Characteristics of Aligarh District

The district is markedly divided into four Agro-ecological regions with following characteristics:

 AES 1st : Salt-affected soils, low soil fertility, tube-well and canal irrigation.  AES 2nd : Sandy loam, poor in soil fertility, canal & tube-well are the major irrigation source.  AES 3rd : Loamy soils, low in fertility, poor drainage, tube well irrigation.  AES 4th : Clay loam soils, brackish, and canal water.

3.4 Cultural Settings of the Aligarh District Aligarh is an important district which inherits the Ganga- Jamuni tahzib. Its cultural geographical aspects reflect the diverse demographic, economic, social and infrastructural features. The cultural aspects of the district can be described as follows: 3.4.1 Demographic Characteristics The demographic characteristics in the study area are important determinants to influence the food and nutritional status of the population. Different census data are the basis of the demographic analysis of the district. a. Population Growth: The population growth rate of Aligarh shows a positive trend except in the years 1911 and 1921. Decadal population growth in the district is more than the national average and state average in all census years. The population growth rate has rural-urban difference also. The rural population growth rate reflects the natural growth while the urban growth of population has the impact of migration. The urban growth rate is 40.8% while in rural areas it is only 15.5%.This urban growth is much higher than the rural population growth and is highest in the year 1981. The absolute number of the district increases from 2,992,286 in 2001 to 3,673,889 in 2011 census which is 1.84 percentage of total population of Uttar Pradesh. High population growth in the district indicates the continuous increase of pressure on the natural resources. This trend of population growth increase the unsustainability in the food resources allocation due to high demand and low supply. Table 3.2 Population Growth Rate in Different Census in Aligarh District Census Total Decadal Rural Decadal Decadal year Population population Population Population Urban population growth growth Population Growth (%) (%) (Rural) (%) (Urban) 1901 869,799 - 7,25,971 0 1,43,828 0 1911 844,344 -2.9 7,21,200 -0.7 1,23,144 -14.4 1921 769,060 -8.9 6,50,225 -9.8 1,18,835 -3.5 1931 848,737 10.4 7,16,341 10.2 1,32,396 11.4 1941 994,253 17.1 8,29,992 15.9 1,64,261 24.1 1951 1,118,017 12.4 9,17,170 10.5 2,00,847 22.3 1961 1,278,945 14.4 10,75,989 17.3 2,02,956 1.1 1971 1,541,536 20.5 12,68,242 17.9 2,73,294 34.7 1981 1,884,955 22.3 14,43,236 13.8 4,41,719 61.6 1991 2,449,597 30.0 18,10,294 25.4 6,39,303 44.7 2000 2,992,286 22.2 21,27,592 17.5 8,64,694 35.3 2011 3,673,889 22.8 2456698 15.5 12,17,191 40.8 Source: District Statistical Handbook 2012-13and Census of India.

Figure 3.6 Decadal Population Growth in Aligarh District

0 1901 1911 1921 1931 1941 1951 1961 1971 1981 1991 2000 2011 -10

-20 Decadal population growth (%) Decadal rural population growth (%) Decadal urban population growth (%)

b. Density of Population: Population density of the district increased from 820 in 1991 census to 823 in 2001 census and 891 in the 2011 year. The continuous increase in density in the district is because of the migration under the influence of high industrialization and urbanization. Blockwise density data indicate the variations. The blocks namely Tappal, Atrauli, Bijauli, and Gangiri have a low density ranging from 608 to 739 persons per square kilometer. Medium density is found in blocks include Khair, Jawan, Gonda, Iglas, Lodha, Dhanipur and Akrabad. Chandaus block recorded the highest density (1217 persons per square kilometre).

Figure 3.7 Block Wise Population Density in Aligarh District

Source: District Statistical Handbook (2012-13)

c. Sex Ratio: Sex ratio is an important indicator of gender relations of the population. Its high value indicates the better position of the female in the society. While poor sex ratio indicates their unfavorable and unequal socio-economic conditions. The sex ratio in different census decades shows gender disparity and improving trend. The overall sex ratio in the district in 2011 is 882 which are slightly higher than 2001 census sex ratio which was 862. The child sex ratio in 2011 census of the district is 877 which are lower than in 2001 census. The lower child sex ratio indicates that the gender disparity is more prevalent in child age group. Sex ratio in the district also has the impact of rural and urban settings. Urban areas have the higher sex ratio than the rural areas because of high literacy and better socio-economic opportunities for females.

Figure 3.8 Sex Ratio in Different Census in Aligarh District

890 880 870 860 850 840 830 820 810 800 (Per 1000) (Per 1000) Rural sex ratio Urban sex ratio Sex Ratio Child Sex Ratio

1991 2001 2011

Source: District Statistical Handbook (2012-13) Block wise distribution of the sex ratio also indicates the spatial variations. The spatial dimension of sex ratio for different blocks indicates that blocks recording lower sex ratio are Bijauli (865), Gonda (866), and Iglas (870). Low educational status and poor socio-economic conditions in these blocks are the main reasons for such poor sex ratio. Figure 3.9 Block Wise Distribution of Sex Ratio in Aligarh District

Source: Calculated on Basis of Data from District Statistical Handbook, 2013

Medium sex ratio is found in the blocks of Tappal, Chandaus, Kahir, Lodha, Dhanipur, Akrabad, while Atrauli (888), and Jawan (887) blocks have the high sex ratio. Urban influence is the most predominant factor in reducing the negative gender environment in blocks of medium and higher sex ratio.

The analysis of sex ratio data in 2011 among different age groups also indicates disparity. It is higher in the elder age group in comparison to the younger age group which reflect the greater gender disparity in lower age group due to male favoring attitude. When we compare rural and urban sex ratio we find that in case of old age group (55-59) it is higher in rural areas (1127) than urban areas (987). While it is reverse in case of 15-19 age group e.g. 684 for rural areas and 761 for urban areas. It is mainly due to child marriage and high maternal mortality rate in rural areas. The urban scenario represents that sex ratio is higher in 55-59 age groups. The little edge in sex ratio data in urban areas displays that slowly but steadily urbanization bringing some positive changes in our cultural attitude toward women.

Figure 3.10 Sex Ratio in Different Age Groups in Rural and Urban Areas in Aligarh District (2011)

1200 1000 800 600 400 200 0

total sex ratio sex ratio in rural areas sex ratio in urban areas

Source: District Statistical Handbook (2012-13)

d. Literacy: Literacy rate in Aligarh district has been continuously increasing since last four decades. In 1971 census, it was only 24.9% which increased to 45.21% in 1991 census. In 2001 total literacy rate in the district rose up to 58.48% and 67.52% in 2011. There is also gender inequality in literacy in the district. Female literacy in

Aligarh district has been much lower than male literacy throughout all census. In 1971 census, male literacy was 35.1% and female literacy was just 12.6%. With advancement in educational infrastructure and government programmes, the female literacy went up steadily in 1991, 2001 and 2011 census. However, it remained lower than their male counterpart. Male literacy rates in the district reached up to 77.97% while it was for female only 55.68% for 2011 census and this gender difference is further enhanced in rural-urban context. The gender disparity in education in the district was higher in the initial census because female had lower access to the education facilities. In 1971 the gender difference was 22.5%. It rose to 27.8% in 1981 and 33.02% in 1991 after which it started declining. In 2011 the gender difference in literacy stands as 22.2% which is still much more to claim the district as gender empowered. Positive effects of economic liberalization lead to the reduction in gender disparity because firstly, employment sectors demand more workers and open the door for female advancement in the economic arena and secondly the more economic earning in the families leads to some investment in female education. Figurer 3.11 Gender Disparity in Literacy Rates in Different Census in Aligarh District

100 80 60 40 20 0 1971 1981 1991 2001 2011

Male Female male female difference Total literacy rate

Source: District Statistical Handbook 2013

The block level literacy data indicate that Chandaus, Khair, Gonda, Iglas, and Jawan Sikendarpur blocks have higher literacy rate ranging from 68.7% to 72.1%. Among them, Chandaus block has the highest literacy because of high urbanization. In medium category Tappal, Lodha, Dhanipur and Atrauli blocks dominate. Bijouli and Gangiri blocks have lower literacy rates. The gender disparity in literacy is a major cause of other types of inequalities faced by women in the district. Literacy distribution in the district follows the pattern of better economic opportunities,

65 infrastructural development and nearness to urban centers. As the distance from the main urban centers increases the literacy advancement leads to declines. Bijauli because of having more distance from Aligarh city and less urbanized in itself has the lowest literacy rates in the district. Figure 3.12 Block Wise Literacy Rates in Aligarh District

e) Working Population: Table (3.2) shows the distribution of working population in the district which reveals that 23.43% of total population are main workers and 66.62% population of the district engaged as agricultural workers while only 4.65% people are engaged in household industries. At the block level Chandaus, Dhanipur and Iglas blocks have nearly one-fourth of their populations as main workers while the main workers' population is lowest in Gonda Block. All blocks except Lodha have a higher concentration of agricultural workers to the total workers (more than 50%) because Lodha block is very near to the main Aligarh city which generates employment to people in urban activities and thus reduces the number of agricultural workers. Household industries also provide employment to people of the district which is higher in the blocks of Chandaus and Iglas but lower in Tappal, Gonda, and Khair blocks. Thus, a large section of working population depends on agricultural practices to obtain their livelihood and agriculture largely determines the status of food and nutrition security in the district.

Table 3.3 Block Wise Occupational Structure of Population in Aligarh District, 2011

Blocks Name Percentage Percentage of Percentage of of Main Agri. Workers to Workers in Workers to Total Workers Household Industry Total to Total Population Population Atrauli 23.1 69.3 4.2 Gangiri 23.1 78.1 4.2 Bijauli 23.8 75.5 5.4 Jawan Sikanderpur 22.7 59.5 4 Chandaus 24.8 64.2 6.9 Khair 22.5 69.1 3.9 Tappal 23.1 76.3 2.2 Dhanipur 24 57.9 3.9 Lodha 23.9 40 5.2 Akrabad 23.7 71.7 5.6 Iglas 24.3 64.4 6.4 Gonda 22.2 73.4 3.9 Total 23.43 66.62 4.65

Source: Sankhiyiki Patrika (2012-13)

The gender analysis of the occupational structure of the population in Aligarh District indicates that females have the lower percentage of workers. Females' low share in the active working population reduces their economic empowerment and thus directly governs the allocation of food and nutritional resources and bargaining in the household. The gender biases in the occupational structure result in the poor food and nutrition security for the females in the households. Tehsil wise data indicates that Koil has the highest number of female workers followed by Atrauli, and Iglas. Ghabana tehsil has the lowest number of female workers in the district. Koil tehsil also recorded the highest number of male workers in the district and the main reason for this higher working population is the availability of economic opportunities owing to the located in the main Aligarh city.

Figure 3.13 Gender Dimension of Occupational Structure in Aligarh District, 2011 3,000,000

2,500,000

2,000,000

1,500,000

1,000,000

500,000

0 Koil Khair Iglas Gabhana Atrauli Total

Total workers Male workers Female workers Non workers

Source: Sankhiyiki Patrika (2012-13) f) Age-Sex Structure Aligarh district’s age sex structure reveals that child proportion to the total population in 2011 is 15.64% which is lower than 2001 census (18.81%) and the adoption of low fertility is the main reason for the overall drop in the child population. The female child share is also drastically reduced from 19.09% in 2001 census to 15.59% in 2011 census. Though the boys' proportion is also reduced due to the overall low birth rate still, they have a fair share in comparison to the female child in this age group. The female's overall lower share indicate that female face the different dimensions of disparity in their all whole life cycle. The disparity in nutritional and health results in the higher female mortality due to poor nutritional wellbeing. The age-sex data also indicate the working and dependent population of the study area. The data display that female have the higher share in older age group than male and it is highest in the age group of 60. Female population outnumbered male in 25-29 age group, 30-34 group 35-39 age group and reduced in 40-44 age group. Male population dominates in 10-24 year age group.

Table 3.4 Age-Sex Structure of the Population in Aligarh (2011) Age group Male in (%) Female in (%)

Total 53.72 46.28 00-04 12.15 12.63 05-09year 14.68 14.77 10-14 year 14.35 13.97 15-19 11.10 8.87 20-24 8.63 7.82 25-29 6.96 7.24 30-34 5.93 6.68 35-39 5.44 5.81 40-44 4.68 4.56 45-49 3.66 4.04 50-54 3.36 3.04 55-59 2.13 2.68 >=60 6.62 7.25 Source: Sankhiyiki Patrika (2012-13) g) Religious Composition: Religious composition of the district indicates that Hindu community constitutes more than 81% of the total population followed by Muslims (17.78%). Other communities (Christian, Sikh, Buddhist, and Jain) are lesser in the district. The rural-urban composition of the religious community also indicates spatial variations. Data display that that except Hindu and Buddhist, all other communities are predominantly urban residents. Nearly 78% Hindus and 77% Buddhists reside in rural areas. Majority of Jains are mainly concentrated in urban areas because this community is mainly dependent on trade and commerce as their main occupation. Nearly 90% Jains are urbanite followed by Christians (71.6%) and Muslims (61.7%). The urban orientation of these religious communities is also related to their educational levels. The Jains and Christians are highly educated communities so they prefer to live in urban economic and cultural setup. The Muslims are traditionally non-agricultural community and also have less agricultural land in majority dominated religious group areas so they migrate to urban areas for better economic opportunities. Sikhs are equally distributed in rural and urban areas. In urban areas, they are 53.7% and in rural areas, they are 46.3%. The main reason for this is that

69 they are equally excelled in agricultural activities and trade and business activities. Those who have higher land ownership have domination in agriculture activities. The rural-urban orientation of the communities influences the amenities and resources' accessibility and utilization level and thus governs the food and nutritional security of the population. Table 3.5 Religious Composition of Population in Aligarh District, 2001

RELIGION Census Years Rural-Urban Composition of Religious COMMUNITY Community 1991 2001 Population ( in Numbers) Population (in %) % Share in Total Total Rural Urban Urban Rural Population HINDU 84.9 81.49 166.39 1913929 524567 21.5 78.5 MUSLIM 14.63 17.78 32.41 203710 328246 61.7 38.3 CHRISTIAN 0.09 0.14 0.23 1189 2998 71.6 28.4 SIKH 0.16 0.27 0.43 3774 4371 53.7 46.3 BUDDHIST 0.1 0.17 0.27 3945 1148 22.5 77.5 JAIN 0.12 0.11 0.23 277 3080 91.7 8.3

Figure 3.14 Rural-Urban Composition of Religious Community of Aligarh District (%)

100.0

80.0

60.0

40.0

20.0

0.0 Hindu Muslim Christian Sikh Buddhist Jain

Population (in %) urban Population (in %) rural

Source: Sankhiyiki Patrika (2012-13) h) SC/ST Population ratio to total population is an important indicator of the socio- economic profile of the study area. The Aligarh district has a significant number of

SC/ST population. The 1991census data indicate that SC/ST population share was 23% of total population and in 2001 it decreased to 21.2%. In 2011, the SC/ST share again went up 23%. The block level variations are also significant which varies from 18.8% to 27.5%. Map of SC/ST population distribution displays that eastern part of the district has low concentration while middle part has the high concentration and western part of the district has the medium concentration of this population. Blocks recording low percentage of SC/ST are Atrauli (18.8%), Gangiri (19.4%), Bijauli (18.8%) and Akrabad (19.3%); while Chandaus, Khair and Gonda blocks lies in medium category ranging from 19.3 to 23.5%. The high percentage of SC/ST population is found in the Tappal (25.0%), Jawan Sikanderpur (25.1%), Dhanipur (27.5%), Lodha (26.0%) and Iglas (26.8%) blocks. The high SC/ST population concentrated areas needs special attention to secure the food and nutrition security because these social groups are highly vulnerable to socio-economic marginalization and resources allocation disparities.

Figure 3.15 Percentages of SC/ ST Population in Different Blocks of Aligarh (2011)

Source: Sankhiyiki Patrika (2012-13)

71 i) Below Poverty Line (BPL) Families: BPL families concentration is another important indicator to know the economic profile of the study area. The high concentration of BPL families points out the vulnerability to resource inaccessibility in the region. During 2002, there were total 64.76 thousand BPL families in Aligarh District out of which 57.85 thousand families lived in rural areas while only 6.91 thousand families in urban areas. Better economic opportunities in urban areas reduce the share of BPL families there. The block having the highest percentage of BPL families is Tappal (38.26%) followed by Gonda (24.29%), and Dhanipur (19.53%). Chandaus, Khair, Lodha, Iglas, Atrauli, Bijauli, Gnagiri, and Akrabad blocks have 12 to 18 percent of BPL families. Jawan block is the only block in the district which has less than 10 percent BPL population. It has lowest (6.08) percentage of BPL family.

Figure 3.16

Percentage of BPL Families to Total Families in Different Blocks of Aligarh (2002)

50 38.26 40 30 24.29 19.43 18.15 16.05 16.42 17.72 20 12.81 14.85 14.91 12.34 10 6.08 0

% of BPL families

Source: Sankhiyiki Patrika (2003-04)

3.4.2 Infrastructural Facilities

Growth and development of infrastructural facilities in the district are fast under the rapid influence of the urbanization and the shadow effect of the National Capital Region (NCR) are road connectivity, healthcare, educational and other services infrastructure have markedly increased and contributed in the socio- economic development of the district. The level of infrastructure (especially the health, educational and sanitation infrastructure) directly influences the food and nutrition security. The effect of these infrastructures on food and nutrition is clearly

72 displayed in the rural and urban differences; where the rural areas have the poor nutritional well- being than urban centers.

Figure 3.17 Rural Health Infrastructural Facilities

Source: Sankhiyiki Patrika (2012-13) a) Rural Health Infrastructure : The distribution of rural health infrastructure facility in the Aligarh district is highly uneven. The range of variation is from 0.5 to 2.8 Public Health Centres (PHC) availability per lakh of population. Jawan, Atrauli and Bijauli blocks have higher health infrastructural facilities in the district. In Tappal, Gangirii and Iglas lowest health facilities are recorded in terms of PHC center availability. Khair, Chandaus, Lodha, Gonda and Dhanipur blocks are in the medium category. The availability of PHCs depends on government attitude toward health system. Poor health infrastructure influences health and nutritional well-being of the population. Poor road connectivity to these health centers and lack of proper medical inputs and doctors force the rural population to go for Quacks (untrained medicine practitioners). Government new health policy “Modicare" may lead to improvement in health scenario of rural areas. The presence of Health Beema Policies and better

73 health infrastructure will positively influence the nutritional and health status of the inhabitants. Figure 3.18 Educational Infrastructural Facilities

Source: Sankhiyiki Patrika (2012-13) b) Educational Infrstructure : Education is an important determinant of the food and nutritional status of people influences almost all dimensions of food and nutrition. It is positively correlated with better food and nutritional security. Especially the high-level female education and literacy increase the children's nutritional status. In terms of the number of primary schools per lakh of population Jawan, Bijauli, Dhanipur and Gonda blocks have a better position where the number of primary schools per lakh population ranges (89.2 to 119.1). Tappal and Atrauli lie in the medium category of primary schools availability. Chauandus, Khair, Iglas, Lodha, and Gangiri have low primary educational infrastructure facilities in the district where only 76.2 to 79.2 schools are available per lakh of population. The secondary educational infrastructure is more poor and uneven in the district. Blocks which have better primary educational facilities also lag behind in this category and the only Bijauli block has high educational facilities. Khair, Atrauli, and Gangiri blocks come

74 under the medium category. Tappal, Chandaus, Lodha, Dhanipur, Gonda, and Igals blocks have lower number of secondary schools per lakh of population.

Figure 3.19 Road Infrastructure Facilities

Source: Sankhiyiki Patrika (2012-13)

c) Road Infrastructure : Road connectivity plays a vital role in increasing the accessibility of services even in remote areas and thus influences the socio-economic conditions of the region. The food and nutritional security especially the availability of food is also influenced by this infrastructural facility because in times of natural emergency the better road connectivity largely reduces the hunger and food shortages by maintaining supply. Block level data of road connectivity explain that Akrabd and Atrauli blocks have high road connectivity. In these two blocks, the length of pakka road to per lakh of population ranges from 118 to 152 kms. Tappal, Lodha, Bijauli, and Gangiri blocks have least road connectivity. The rest of the blocks Chandaus, Khair, Gonda, Iglas, Dhanipur have medium availability of pakka road to per lakh of population.

3.4.3 Economic and Land Use Characteristics Aligarh district is an agriculturally developed area because more than 86 percent of its geographical area is cultivable. In the urban area, the concentration of traditional lock industries, meat industries, and other services are the backbone of the economy and rapidly expanding and diversifying the economic base of the district. The economic characteristics of the region directly influence the food and nutrition security by means of the (purchasing power) for accessing of food. The highly diversified economy of the region increases the entitlement opportunities to the people and strengthens the food and nutrition security. The strong economy of the region also provides the employment opportunities to the women and thus increases their bargaining and purchasing power for the food resources. In this context land use patterns and cropping patterns have been taken into account. a). Land use patterns in Aligarh: The land use patterns of the district show that its land is mainly divided into the cultivable area, land under non- agricultural uses, cultivable waste, barren and uncultivable land, forest area, permanent pasture, current fallows etc. But land use pattern is prominently dominated by the cultivated area which shares 86.53perceent of the total geographical area of the district (371.3 thousand hectares). It is followed by land under non-agricultural use (10 percent), cultivable wasteland (2 percent). The forest cover in the district is 2.6 (thousands hectare) and continuously diminishing. An important source of the animal food, the permanent pastures are also rapidly shrinking in the district and now they only cover 1.7(thousands hectare) area of the district. All types of fallow land in the district is 15.4 (thousands hectare) which indicates that the potential of agricultural development for food production can be improved by tapping this fellow land area. Overall, land use pattern in the district is rapidly changing and land for non- agricultural purposes is expanding under the influence of urbanization and metropolitan effect of the National Capital Region (NCR).

Figure 3.20

Land Use Pattern in Aligarh District

2% 1% 1% 0% 1% 11% 1% 0%

83%

Cultivable area Forest area Land under non-agricultural use Permanent pastures Cultivable wasteland Land under Misc.tree crops and groves Barren and uncultivable land Current fallows Other fallows

Source: Agriculture Contingency Plan for Aligarh District, U.P., 2012 b). Cropping Pattern of the study area: The district has rich agricultural resources and due to which its crop productivity is also high. All major food crops rice, wheat, pulses, and oilseeds are grown in the district with the utilization of assured means of irrigation. Location of the district in fertile Ganga-Yamuna plain helps to produce more food crops which ultimately increase the food security level in the region. Blockwise total grain production is highest in Gangiri, followed by Chandaus, Tappal, and Akrabad. Total grain production is lowest in Iglas. Bijauli and Lodha also have lower grain production. Blockwise pulse production is also highly varied. Gonda has lowest pulse production; while it is highest in Chandaus block followed by Dhanipur. Dhanipur, Gonda, and Bijauli blocks have lower performance in oilseed production while Chandaus has recorded the highest production of oilseeds. The analysis of the production of different crops is important for food security because production is directly related to the food availability. The higher agriculture production in the block is an important indicator for better food and nutrition conditions in that area.

Table 3.6 Block Wise Production of Major Crops in Aligarh District (in tonnes)

Block Name Agricultural Production of Major Crops Rice Wheat Maize Barley Total Total Total Pulses grains oilseeds Tappal 5118 26292 14 504 1575 39362 2197 Chandaus 7881 20992 4 632 2249 40587 2280 Khair 5560 20421 17 606 1494 34312 2106 Jawa 8590 18526 22 575 1868 36668 1350 Lodha 2708 14724 12 629 1713 29610 1714 Dhanipur 9305 17044 17 377 2170 35186 112 Gonda 6636 17638 50 474 734 34594 874 Iglas 2986 10841 54 252 1182 23061 604 Atrauli 4328 17496 41 758 1398 36133 1593 Bijauli 733 14750 7 722 953 29159 924 Gangiri 832 21545 9 1548 1524 45072 1336 Akrabad 9602 18703 13 395 1494 36811 1179

Block level data in the district explain that most of the district has medium level intensity of net sown area. The high intensity of net sown area is found in Tappal, Atrauli, and Akrabad blocks. Chandaus, Khair, Iglas, Gonda, Bijauli blocks lie in the medium category. Dhanipur block is the only block which has low net sown area in the district. Availability of cultivable land. agricultural inputs, and agricultural work forces are the main reasons for this varied distribution of net sown area intensity in the district. Tappal has high net sown area because it has maximum areal coverage in the district and also has highest number of cultivators.

Figure 3.21 Block Wise Net Sown Area (Aligarh District)

The overall analysis of the physical, social, economic characteristics of study area points out that these characteristics have a profound effect on the food and nutrition security in an area. It is evidenced that better socio-economic conditions lead to better food and nutrition status of the residents. As these facilities not only improve the availability, accessibility, and utilization of food resources but also reduce the threats to the food stability posing by natural and human-induced factors. The gender level variation in the food and nutrition security is attributed mainly to the gender disparity in education level, economic and occupational structure, and sex ratio.

References

1. Census of India, 1971, 1981, 1991, 2001 and 2011. Aligarh District Census Handbooks: Village and Town Directory. 2. District Statistical Diary, Aligarh 2001 and 2011, Economics and Statistical Division, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh. 3. Master Plan Reports of Aligarh 1991-01 and 2001-21, Aligarh Development Authority (ADA), Aligarh. 4. Siddique, M., 1975. ‘Town Planning of Aligarh’ The Geographer, pp. 55-65. 5. Singh, B. (ed), 1987. Uttar Pradesh District Gazetteers, Government of Uttar Pradesh, Lucknow. 6. State Planning Institute, 2010. Statistical Abstract, Uttar Pradesh, Economics and Statistics Division, Government of Uttar Pradesh, Lucknow. 7. Edwin T. Atkinson (8 June 2007). Descriptive and Historical Account of the Aligarh District (http://books.google.com/books p. 484)

Chapter 4

Socio-Economic Profile of Sampled Villages

SOCIO ECONOMIC PROFILE OF SAMPLED VILLAGES

Gender disparity is a socio-cultural construct and its prevalence in the society is an outcome of differential treatment against female. The socio-economic conditions and the cultural environment of the area differentially determine the well-being of the two genders. The better socio-economic and cultural conditions provide the equal opportunities for both male and female and sustain the gender-neutral environment; while the gender disparity is accentuated in the poor socio-economic societies because in these resource crunch societies distribution of resources are in favour of male due to patriarchy which does not consider women as par equal to male. In the poor societies females are more vulnerable to marginalisation, first on the gender front (inferior gender) and second on the socio-economic front (low social status).

The analysis of the socio-economic conditions of an area helps to point out not only the level of well-being of the population but also the gender relations. Socio- economic environment’s analysis also displays its impact on the variations in individual environment. The education level, economic condition, health and nutritional status of individual are strongly governed by the socio-cultural institutions and environment. The present chapter attempt to analyse the different aspects of the social and economic environment in terms of many indicators and later part of the chapter also discuss the impact and relation of socio-economic condition on the level of gender disparity.

4.1 Average Size of Households

Size of household is an important aspect to assess the socio-economic condition of the individual, household and society. The large household size is generally a prominent feature of Indian rural community. The large household sizes may be attributed to strong social bonds and labour intensive nature of agricultural work. The large family has both positive and negative impact on the socio-economic environment. The large household has high competition for the resources and their distribution among the household members which is mostly biased to the female, but the care aspect for children and old age groups is significantly high. The small household provides better opportunities to all family members to access resources more equitably because of less competition and abundance of resources.

Table 4.1 Average Household Size in Sampled Villages S.No. Villages Total Sampled Population Average Household Size 1. Tappal 204 6.8 2. Bhojka 189 6.3 3. Mahgaura 191 6.4 4. Andala 182 6.1 5. Chandaus 180 6.0 6. Nagala Sarua 169 5.6 7. Salempur 183 6.1 8. Barauli Khas 188 6.3 9. Samaspur 198 6.6 10. Dado 202 6.7 11. Mudhail 180 6.0 12. Shaduipur Khumharao 179 6.0 13. Kharai 168 5.6 14. Adhon 203 6.8 15. Barula 171 5.7 16. Sahrimadan Garhi 168 5.6 17. Shekhupur 175 5.8 18. Chakathal 186 6.2 19. Akarabad 187 6.2 20. Mandanpur 175 5.8 21. Tochigarh 167 5.6 22. Ramnagar 207 6.9 23. Lakhtoi 185 6.2 24. Jhulu 181 6.0 Total 4418 6.1 Source: Field Survey (2015-16)

Figure 4.1 Average Household (HH) Size in Sampled Villages

8.0 7.0 6.0 5.0 4.0 3.0 2.0 1.0

0.0

Total

Jhulu

Dado

Kharai Adhon

Tappal

Andala

Bhojka

Baraula

Mudhail

Akrabad

Lakhatoi

Shadipur…

Salempur

Chandaus Samaspur

Mahgaura

Chakathal

Tochigarh Ramnagar

Shekhupur

Mandanpur

BarauliKhas

Nagala Sarua Sahrimadan Garhi

Average Household Size

Source: Field Survey (2015-16)

The average household size in the country is 4.8 which are different for rural and urban areas as 5 and 4.5 respectively (59th NSSO Survey). Average household size more than the national average is recorded in most of the northern states of Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, Bihar and including the Uttar Pradesh; while the southern states have low household size. The primary survey result in Table (4.1) display that average household size in Aligarh district is 6.1 which also varies villages-wise; depending on their indigenous demographic and cultural and social environment. It is revealed in the table that largest household size is recorded in Ramnagar (6.9), Tappal (6.8) and Adhon (6.8) villages while small size households are found in Nagala Sarua, Kaharai and Tochigarh; which record the 5.6 as their average household size. Andala and Slaempur village have the average household size equal to the district average household size i.e. 6.1. The one of the major reason responsible for large household size in Ramnagar is illiteracy (38.2%); which is lowest in the district; similarly Tappal (48.5%) and Adhon (40.9%) also have the higher illiteracy rates. Samaspur village, a Muslim dominated area also has large household size because of both high illiteracy and more children to per couple. The culture of the joint family system is also one of the important reasons to develop the large household in the villages. Tappal is one of the important examples which is characterized by large household size because of having the maximum number of family members.

4.2 Household Headship

The headship of household is an important factor to determine the socio- economic condition of the household and its impact on the health- nutritional condition of the children. The male-headed household is generally a traditional and dominant feature of the of the Indian families setup as patriarchy system is based on the principle that male is the sole bread earner of the family so they should be empowered as head of the family. But, the changing socio-economic condition slightly raised the number of female-headed households in the country. The male migration also results in female household headship. Kerala is such an important example of this feature. Many research studies in India and world proved that the male and female-headed households a differential impact on the upbringing of the children. According to 2011 census, 11 percent households in the country have female as their head. The Lakshadweep has the highest percent with more than 43.7

83 percent and state-wise it is the Kerala which has more than 23% female-headed household to the total households. Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Odisha and Gujarat, also has the more than 20 percent female-headed households.

Table 4.2 Household Headship in Sampled Villages (%)

S.No. Villages Male Headed Female-Headed Household Household in % in % 1. Tappal 83.3 16.7 2. Bhojka 86.7 13.3 3. Mahgaura 80.0 20.0 4. Andala 86.7 13.3 5. Chandaus 80.0 20.0 6. Nagala Sarua 86.7 13.3 7. Salempur 90.0 10.0 8. Barauli Khas 83.3 16.7 9. Samaspur 76.7 23.3 10. Dado 86.7 13.3 11. Mudhail 86.7 13.3 12. Shaduipur Khumharao 90.0 10.0 13. Kharai 83.3 16.7 14. Adhon 86.7 13.3 15. Barula 80.0 20.0 16. Sahrimadan Garhi 90.0 10.0 17. Shekhupur 86.7 13.3 18. Chakathal 83.3 16.7 19. Akarabad 86.7 13.3 20. Mandanpur 90.0 10.0 21. Tochigarh 86.7 13.3 22. Ramnagar 83.3 16.7 23. Lakhtoi 86.7 13.3 24. Jhulu 93.3 6.7 Total 85.6 14.4 Source: Field Survey (2015-16)

Figure 4.2 Male and Female Headed Household Headship in Sampled Villages

100.0 90.0 80.0 70.0 60.0 50.0 40.0 30.0 20.0 10.0

0.0

Total

Dado Jhulu

Barula

Kharai Adhon

Tappal

Bhojka Andala

Lakhtoi

Mudhail

Salempur

Akarabad

Chandaus Samaspur

Mahgaura

Chakathal

Tochigarh Ramnagar

Shekhupur

Mandanpur

BarauliKhas

Nagala Sarua Sahrimadan Garhi

Male Headed Household in % ShaduipurKhumharao Female Headed Household in %

Source: Field Survey (2015-16)

Primary survey of the district displays the interesting pattern of the male and female-headed household in the district. In the district overall, 86% household are male-headed while only 14% households are female-headed. The female-headed household in the district include the widowed, divorced females and females of male migrated households. The males are generally migrated to Delhi, Bombay, or commuting to industrial areas of Aligarh. A village wise pattern of male and female- headed household indicated that interior rural areas still have strong patriarchy in a family setup where 80 to 90% households have male as their head. Chakthal village has the highest male-headed household (MHH) among all villages where more than 93% male is as their head; followed by Mandanpur Shaduipur Khumharao Salempur etc. which have 90 percent male-headed household. The dominance of agriculture as main activity and male favoured social environment in these villages have led to high percentages of MHH. High male migration in Samaspur village resulted in high percentage of the female-headed household in the village. Mahagura, Chandaus, Baraula Jafarabd have more than 20% female-headed households. Chandaus, a dominated SC village has the higher percentage of female-headed households because their male member also leaves village due to a shortage of agricultural land and engage in some lower class works outside the village. There is rising trend of female-

85 headed households in the villages because of their migration, better economic conditions, and the high burden of work. 4.3 Nature of Family The family is a basic functional and structural unit of the society and its nature directly influence the health and nutritional condition of the children and the pattern of the gender biasness in the society. Traditionally, joint families in rural India are the dominant type of family; because agricultural is its basic economic resource base. But the traditional joint families with many couples are now rapidly losing their existence and significance even in rural areas due to urban influence, the spread of education, feeling of intolerance among family members and their self -interest. Diana coffee in her research also points out that in joint families of rural India; the children of the youngest female member are vulnerable to low nutritional profile because they are on the lower strata of the family with less decision making and bargaining power. Thus, economic status of the family and social status of the female within the family determine the nature of health and nutritional well-being of the children. Table 4.3 Nuclear and Joint Families in Sampled Villages (%) S.No. Villages Nuclear Families Joint Families 1. Tappal 53.3 46.7 2. Bhojka 40.0 60.0 3. Mahgaura 46.7 53.3 4. Andala 50.0 50.0 5. Chandaus 56.7 43.3 6. Nagala Sarua 36.7 63.3 7. Salempur 33.3 66.7 8. Barauli Khas 40.0 60.0 9. Samaspur 36.7 63.3 10. Dado 43.3 56.7 11. Mudhail 33.3 66.7 12. Shaduipur Khumharao 40.0 60.0 13. Kharai 36.7 63.3 14. Adhon 30.0 70.0 15. Barula 46.7 53.3 16. Sahrimadan Garhi 43.3 56.7 17. Shekhupur 23.3 76.7 18. Chakathal 50.0 50.0 19. Akarabad 43.3 56.7 20. Mandanpur 36.7 63.3 21. Tochigarh 46.7 53.3 22. Ramnagar 30.0 70.0 23. Lakhtoi 40.0 60.0 24. Jhulu 43.3 56.7 Total 40.8 59.2 Source: Field Survey (2015-16)

Figure 4.3 Nuclear and Joint Families in Sampled Villages

90.0 80.0 70.0 60.0 50.0 40.0 30.0 20.0 10.0

0.0

Jhulu

Dado

Total

Kharai

Barula

Adhon

Tappal

Bhojka

Andala

Lakhtoi

Mudhail

Salempur

Akarabad

Chandaus

Samaspur

Tochigarh

Chakathal

Ramnagar

Shaduipur…

Mahgaura

Shekhupur

Mandanpur

BarauliKhas

Nagala Sarua SahrimadanGarhi

Nuclear Families Joint Families

Source: Field Survey (2015-16)

An examination of Table (4.3) reveals that there are nearly 59% joint families, and only 41% nuclear families in the district. Though the joint family system is gradually becoming weak, still it occupies a dominant position in rural areas due to an agricultural economic base. Village level analysis displays that Shekhupur has lower percentage (23.3%) nuclear families, followed by Adhon (30%) while the highest percentage of nuclear families is recorded in Chanadaus (56.7%), followed by Tappal (53.3%). The high percentage of the nuclear families in Chandaus and Tappal villages are due to the higher influence of the urbanization; which favours the nuclear families. While Shekhupura and Adhon have agricultural set up which disfavours the nuclear families.

4.4 Electronic Gadgets and Vehicles

Electronic gadgets and vehicles such as T.V., Radio, Fridge, Mobile Phones, Car and Motorbikes are important indicators of quality of life. Personal belongings of these items by people reflect their better quality of life. The availability of fridge and radio/TV in the household has a positive role in improving the health and nutrition of their members. The availability of refrigerator household helps in the preservation of foodstuffs; while the radio and TV availability is a source of mass communication to spread the awareness among people about the health and nutrition-related issues. The

87 availability of vehicles in the household improves the mobility of the persons in normal and emergency health conditions.

Table (4.4) gives a detailed account of the spatial distribution of these items of well-being at the village level in the district. Their availability is positively related to the economic conditions of the people in the district. The more prosperous villages have the higher availability and accessibility of these gadgets and vehicles. Villages namely, Tappal, Chanadaus, Andala, Dado, Akrabad have the highest access to these items mainly because of better economic conditions of people. Samaspur, which is a Muslim dominated village, has the lowest percentage of the TV/Radio because of their poor conditions and their traditional culture.

Table 4.4 Electronic Gadgets and Vehicles Availability in Sampled Villages (%)

S.No. Villages Fridge Bike Car/Jeep Mobile TV/Radio 1. Tappal 30.0 40.0 2.9 90.0 56.67 2. Bhojka 23.3 33.3 8.8 83.3 53.33 3. Mahgaura 10.0 26.7 1.8 83.3 40.00 4. Andala 20.0 30.0 3.0 80.0 53.33 5. Chandaus 23.3 23.3 3.1 76.7 56.67 6. Nagala Sarua 10.0 33.3 4.5 80.0 46.67 7. Salempur 13.3 20.0 0.0 80.0 43.33 8. Barauli Khas 16.7 23.3 1.9 83.3 40.00 9. Samaspur 3.3 13.3 1.8 70.0 26.67 10. Dado 16.7 20.0 2.4 80.0 46.67 11. Mudhail 6.7 16.7 2.1 80.0 33.33 12. Shaduipur Khumharao 6.7 13.3 1.7 76.7 23.33 13. Kharai 13.3 33.3 0.0 76.7 43.33 14. Adhon 3.3 26.7 1.9 73.3 26.67 15. Barula 10.0 20.0 1.8 73.3 46.67 16. Sahrimadan Garhi 3.3 30.0 4.3 76.7 36.67 17. Shekhupur 6.7 23.3 0.0 73.3 40.00 18. Chakathal 13.3 20.0 0.5 76.7 36.67 19. Akarabad 16.7 23.3 3.3 83.3 50.00 20. Mandanpur 6.7 26.7 0.6 86.7 33.33 21. Tochigarh 13.3 23.3 1.4 80.0 46.67 22. Ramnagar 6.7 33.3 0.0 83.3 43.33 23. Lakhtoi 6.7 30.0 2.4 80.0 36.67 24. Jhulu 3.3 20.0 1.3 73.3 30.00 Total 11.8 25.1 2.1 79.2 41.3 Source: Field Survey (2015-16)

Figure: 4.4 Electronic Gadgets and Vehicles Availability in Sampled Villages

100.0 90.0 80.0 70.0 60.0 50.0 40.0 30.0 20.0 10.0 0.0

Fridge Bike Car/Jeep Mobile TV/Radio

Source: Field Survey (2015-16)

Figure 4.5 Electronics Gadgets and Vehicles Availability in The District

79.2

41.3

25.1

11.8 2.1

Fridge Bike Car/Jeep Mobile TV/Radio

Source: Field Survey (2015-16)

At the district level, the possession of mobile (79.2%) by people is maximum followed by the TV/ Radio (41.3%) and bike (25.1%) and four wheeler is the lowest owned asset by the villagers and only 2 percent household owned the jeep/ car.

4.5 Housing Condition As the household environment is a major determinant that controls the utilization of the food. Having adequate accommodation is at the top of the hierarchy of human material needs. Housing is a major component of any household’s expenditure and is central to people's ability to meet basic needs. Poor housing conditions can adversely affect people's health status (both mental and physical) and family functioning between household family members and children. The population living in Kutcha houses are more vulnerable to infectious diseases because of the environment of such households are less hygienic. Owing to improvement in the socio-economic condition of people in rural areas 60% houses are semi-pucca structure and 21% houses are pucca structure and only 18.2% structure of the households are kutcha in the district. Now, most of the kutcha houses are being replaced by semi-pucca and pucca houses. Table 4.5 Housing Nature in Sampled Villages (%) S.No. Villages Kutcha Semi-Pucca Pucca 1. Tappal 6.7 46.7 46.7 2. Bhojka 10.0 50.0 40.0 3. Mahgaura 16.7 63.3 20.0 4. Andala 6.7 56.7 36.7 5. Chandaus 6.7 46.7 46.7 6. Nagala Sarua 20.0 63.3 16.7 7. Salempur 16.7 53.3 30.0 8. Barauli Khas 13.3 66.7 20.0 9. Samaspur 33.3 60.0 6.7 10. Dado 23.3 46.7 30.0 11. Mudhail 16.7 66.7 16.7 12. Shaduipur Khumharao 20.0 70.0 10.0 13. Kharai 26.7 60.0 13.3 14. Adhon 30.0 56.7 13.3 15. Barula 16.7 63.3 20.0 16. Sahrimadan Garhi 20.0 63.3 16.7 17. Shekhupur 23.3 70.0 6.7 18. Chakathal 26.7 53.3 20.0 19. Akarabad 13.3 63.3 23.3 20. Mandanpur 20.0 66.7 13.3 21. Tochigarh 16.7 60.0 23.3 22. Ramnagar 13.3 76.7 10.0 23. Lakhtoi 16.7 70.0 13.3 24. Jhulu 23.3 66.7 10.0 Total 18.2 60.8 21.0 Source: Field Survey (2015-16)

Figure: 4.6 Housing Nature in Aligarh District

21% 18%

61%

KUTTCHA SEMI-PUCCA PUCCA

Source: Field Survey (2015-16)

Figure: 4.7 Type of Housing in Sampled Villages

90.0 80.0 70.0 60.0 50.0 40.0 30.0 20.0 10.0

0.0

Jhulu

Dado

Kharai

Barula

Adhon

Tappal

Bhojka

Andala

Lakhtoi

Mudhail

Salempur

Akarabad

Chandaus

Samaspur

Tochigarh

Chakathal

Ramnagar

Mahgaura

Shekhupur

Mandanpur

BarauliKhas

Nagala Sarua

SahrimadanGarhi Shaduipur Khumharao KUTTCHA SEMI-PUCCA PUCCA

Source: Field Survey (2015-16)

At the village level, the lowest percentage of the Kutcha houses is found in the villages such as Tappal, Chandauas, and Andala. Poor Muslim village Samaspaur has the highest percentages of Kutcha houses where nearly 33% live in kutcha houses followed by Kharai, Chakatahal and Sekhupur villages. The highest percentages of the Pucca household are found in the Chandauas and Tappal where one- fourth

91 households are pucca. The semi-pucca structure of houses is dominant in the rural landscape. 4.6 Dwelling Rooms Availability Table (4.6) shows that in Aligarh District 42.4% households have one bedroom, 35.7% households have 2 bedrooms and 14.6% have 3 bedrooms and remaining 7.5 % households have more than 3 bedrooms. It is also clear from the table that those villages where semi-pucca or kutcha houses are more also have a concentration of three or more have 3 or more than 3 bedrooms in the household. At village level majority of the households have one and two rooms for the dwelling purposes. The higher availability of the dwelling room mainly depends on the better economic condition of people and low value of land. Table 4.6 Dwelling Room Availability in Sampled Villages (%) Village Number of Dwelling Rooms S.No. 1 Room 2 Rooms 3 Rooms < 3 Rooms 1. Tappal 40.0 33.3 20.0 6.7 2. Bhojaka 26.7 43.3 26.7 3.3 3. Mahgaura 33.3 50.0 13.3 3.3 4. Andala 23.3 43.3 26.7 6.7 5. Chandaus 46.7 40.0 10.0 3.3 6. Nagala Sarua 50.0 26.7 20.0 3.3 7. Salemapur 36.7 43.3 16.7 3.3 8. Barauli Khas 46.7 30.0 10.0 16.7 9. Shamaspur 50.0 43.3 3.3 3.3 10. Dado 40.0 40.0 10.0 10.0 11. Mudhail 46.7 36.7 6.7 10.0 12. Shadipur Kamrua 50.0 30.0 13.3 6.7 13. Kharai 43.3 40.0 10.0 6.7 14. Adaun 53.3 33.3 6.7 6.7 15. Baraula Jafrabad 60.0 23.3 13.3 3.3 16. Shaharimadan Gari 33.3 33.3 20.0 13.3 17. Shekhupur 43.3 36.7 13.3 6.7 18. Chakathal 30.0 40.0 16.7 13.3 19. Akarabad 56.7 30.0 10.0 3.3 20. Mandanpur 40.0 30.0 20.0 10.0 21. Tochhigarh 46.7 33.3 13.3 6.7 22. Ramnagar 30.0 36.7 20.0 13.3 23. Lakhtoi 46.7 26.7 16.7 10.0 24. Nagla Chandram 43.3 33.3 13.3 10.0 Total 42.4 35.7 14.6 7.5 Source: Field Survey (2015-16)

Figure 4.8 Availability of Dwelling Rooms in Households of Sampled Villages 70.0 60.0 50.0 40.0 30.0 20.0 10.0

0.0

Dado

Adaun

Kharai

Tappal

Andala

Lakhtoi

Bhojaka

Mudhail

Akarabad

Chandaus

Mahgaura Chakathal

Ramnagar

Salemapur

Shekhupur

Shamaspur

Mandanpur Tochhigarh

BarauliKhas

Nagala Sarua

Baraula Jafrabad

Nagla Chandram

ShadipurKamrua Shaharimadan Gari

1 Room 2 Rooms 3 Rooms < 3 Rooms

Source: Field Survey (2015-16)

The highest percentage of houses with one bedroom was found in the Baruala Jafarabad. Akarabad, Chandaus It is mainly because of the lack of land due to urban impact. More than one-third households having two dwelling rooms were found in Mhagauara and Kharai. Villages like Barauali, Dado, Sekhupur villages have the high percentage of three rooms households.

Figure 4.9 Percentages of Dwelling Rooms in the Household of Aligarh District

7% 15% 42%

36%

1 Room 2 Rooms 3 Rooms < 3 Rooms

Source: Field Survey (2015-16)

Figure 4.10 Sanitation Facility in Sampled Villages

100.0 80.0 60.0 40.0 20.0

0.0

Dado

Adaun

Kharai

Tappal

Andala

Lakhtoi

Bhojaka

Mudhail

SAHARI…

Akarabad

Chandaus

Mahgaura

Chakathal

Ramnagar

Shekhupur

Shamaspur

Mandanpur Tochhigarh

BarauliKhas

SALEMPUR

Nagala Sarua

Baraula Jafrabad

Nagla Chandram Shadipur Kamrua

Households having latrine facility WITHIN the premises Households having latrine facility OUTSIDE the premises

Source: Field Survey (2015-16)

Table 4.7 Sanitation Facility in Sampled Villages (%) S. Village Households having toilet Households having toilet No. facility WITHIN the facility OUTSIDE the premises premises 1. Tappal 56.7 43.3 2. Bhojaka 60.0 40.0 3. Mahgaura 26.7 73.3 4. Andala 56.7 43.3 5. Chandaus 63.3 36.7 6. Nagala Sarua 33.3 66.7 7. SALEMPUR 26.7 73.3 8. Barauli Khas 46.7 53.3 9. Shamaspur 36.7 63.3 10. Dado 30.0 70.0 11. Mudhail 13.3 86.7 12. Shadipur Kamrua 20.0 80.0 13. Kharai 36.7 63.3 14. Adaun 30.0 70.0 15. Baraula Jafrabad 43.3 56.7 16. Sahri Madan Garhi 16.7 83.3 17. Shekhupur 20.0 80.0 18. Chakathal 26.7 73.3 19. Akarabad 53.3 46.7 20. Mandanpur 20.0 80.0 21. Tochhigarh 36.7 63.3 22. Ramnagar 33.3 66.7 23. Lakhtoi 26.7 73.3 24. Nagla Chandram 16.7 83.3 Total 34.6 65.4 Source: Field Survey (2015-16)

Figure 4.11 Locational Nature of Sanitation Facility in Aligarh District

35%

65%

Households having latrine facility WITHIN the premises Households having latrine facility OUTSIDE the premises

Source: Field Survey (2015-16)

Sanitation is one of the important factors of utilization of the food and nutrition. Toilet within the premises of house has been chosen as an indicator of sanitation facility. The rural population has no sanitation facility in the household and they use the open defecation. District wise data indicate that nearly 65 percent households have no sanitation facilities within the household. Only 35 percent households have sanitation facilities in the household premises.

The village level data indicate that Tappal, Bhoka, Chandauas and Akarabad has the higher percentage of the sanitation facility within the household, while Salempur, Shekhupur, Shadipur Kumharao village have the higher percentages of household devoid of the sanitation facility. The villages with urban impact and high economic status have sanitation within the household. The government though has built latrines in some of the villages; still in those villages, the use of the toilet is low.

4.7 Cooking Fuel

Nature of cooking fuel is another determinant that indirectly governs the nutritional status of the population of the area. The cooking fuel determines the indoor environmental status. In rural areas, the majority of the households depend mainly on the conventional sources of the fuel like cow dung cake, coal, wood, and agricultural residuals. The main reason for this is that these fuels have easy accessibility in the rural areas. Clean fuel (LPG) still is not in the access of the rural population because

95 of its higher prices and not suitable for the large families. The attitude of rural females of not using the LPG is negative as they mentioned that the cooked food, especially Roti is not equally tasty as cooked on the conventional fuel

In the rural areas of the district, the 80% population used the conventional fuels as main cooking fuel; while only 20% use the LPG. At the village level Shaduipur Khumharao, Adhon, Dado, Mandanpur have more than 90 percent dependency on conventional fuel. While the Tappal, Chandaus, Akrabad villages have only 50% dependency on these conventional fuels because these areas have the high urban impact and they have easy availability and accessibility of the LPG and electricity.

Table 4.8 Type of Cooking Fuel (%) S.No. Villages Conventional Fuel LPG 1. Tappal 53.3 46.7 2. Bhojka 63.3 36.7 3. Mahgaura 86.7 13.3 4. Andala 66.7 33.3 5. Chandaus 56.7 43.3 6. Nagala Sarua 90.0 10.0 7. Salempur 80.0 20.0 8. Barauli Khas 76.7 23.3 9. Samaspur 93.3 6.7 10. Dado 90.0 10.0 11. Mudhail 86.7 13.3 12. Shaduipur Khumharao 96.7 3.3 13. Kharai 83.3 16.7 14. Adhon 96.7 3.3 15. Barula 70.0 30.0 16. Sahrimadan Garhi 80.0 20.0 17. Shekhupur 83.3 16.7 18. Chakathal 86.7 13.3 19. Akarabad 53.3 46.7 20. Mandanpur 93.3 6.7 21. Tochigarh 76.7 23.3 22. Ramnagar 90.0 10.0 23. Lakhtoi 80.0 20.0 24. Jhulu 93.3 6.7 Total 80.0 20.0 Source: Field Survey (2015-16)

Figure 4.12 Cooking Fuel Used in Aligarh District

20%

80%

Conventional Fuel LPG

Source: Field Survey (2015-16)

Figure 4.13 Nature of Cooking Fuel Used inThe Sampled Villages

120.0 100.0 80.0 60.0 40.0 20.0

0.0

Dado

Jhulu

Barula

Kharai Adhon

Tappal

Andala

Bhojka

Lakhtoi

Mudhail

Salempur

Akarabad

Chandaus Samaspur

Mahgaura

Chakathal

Tochigarh Ramnagar

Shekhupur

Mandanpur

BarauliKhas

Nagala Sarua

Sahrimadan Garhi ShaduipurKhumharao

Conventional Fuel LPG

Source: Field Survey (2015-16)

4.8 Drinking Water Facility

Source of drinking water is another important factor that determines the utilization of food and nutrition. The drinking water sources should be safe and secure, so the water-borne diseases may not spread and causes of poor health and nutritional status of the population. Handpumpis still the main drinking water source

(72%) in the villages, followed by tap water (20%) and tubewell (5%). Dado and Akarabad have tap water as their main drinking water source and this untreated water is the main cause of higher underweight population in these villages.

Table 4.9 Sources of Drinking Water Facility (%)

S.No. Villages Tap Water Handpump Tubewell/ Other Borehole 1. Tappal 13.3 76.7 0.0 10.0 2. Bhojaka 6.7 90.0 0.0 3.3 3. Mahgaura 26.7 66.7 3.3 3.3 4. Andala 6.7 86.7 0.0 6.7 5. Chandaus 36.7 56.7 6.7 0.0 6. Nagala Sarua 0.0 96.7 3.3 0.0 7. Salemapur 0.0 93.3 0.0 6.7 8. Barauli Khas 10.0 60.0 23.3 6.7 9. Shamaspur 20.0 80.0 0.0 0.0 10. Dado 60.0 40.0 0.0 0.0 11. Mudhail 0.0 70.0 26.7 3.3 12. Shadipur Kamrua 16.7 76.7 3.3 3.3 13. Kharai 40.0 50.0 3.3 6.7 14. Adaun 53.3 43.3 3.3 0.0 15. Baraula Jafrabad 46.7 53.3 0.0 0.0 16. Shaharimadan Gari 10.0 83.3 6.7 0.0 17. Shekhupur 6.7 93.3 0.0 0.0 18. Chakathal 10.0 86.7 3.3 0.0 19. Akarabad 70.0 20.0 6.7 3.3 20. Mandanpur 16.7 66.7 13.3 3.3 21. Tochhigarh 13.3 73.3 6.7 6.7 22. Ramnagar 6.7 90.0 3.3 0.0 23. Lakhtoi 0.0 96.7 3.3 0.0 24. NaglaChandram 10.0 80.0 10.0 0.0 (Jhulu) Total 20.0 72.1 5.3 2.6 Source: Field Survey (2015-16)

Figure: 4.14

Sources of Drinking Water in the Sampled Villages

100% 90% 80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10%

Dado

Kharai

Adaun

Tappal

Andala

Lakhtoi

Bhojaka

Mudhail

Akarabad

Chandaus

Chakathal

Ramnagar

Mahgaura

Salemapur

Shekhupur

Shamaspur

Tochhigarh

Mandanpur

BarauliKhas

Nagala Sarua

NaglaChandram

Baraula Jafrabad

ShadipurKamrua ShaharimadanGari

Tapwater Handpump Tubewell/Borehole Other

Source: Field Survey (2015-16)

Figure: 4.15 Sources of Drinking Water Facilities in Aligarh District

5% 20%

72%

Tapwater Handpump Tubewell/Borehole Other

Source: Field Survey (2015-16)

As regards the status and nature of drinking water district level data indicates that 61 percent population has the drinking water facility within their household

99 premises while only 39% households have no water sources in their household. The drinking water facility has higher availability within the household in comparison to the sanitation facilities.

4.9 Location of Drinking Water Facility

Figure 4.16 Location of Drinking Water Sources

39%

61%

Drinking water source WITHIN PREMISES

Figure 4.17

Nature of Drinking Water Source in the Households of Surveyed Villages

90.0 80.0 70.0 60.0 50.0 40.0 30.0 20.0 10.0

0.0

Dado

Kharai

Adaun

Tappal

Andala

Lakhtoi

Bhojaka

Mudhail

Akarabad

Chandaus

Chakathal

Ramnagar

Mahgaura

Shekhupur

SALEMPUR

Shamaspur

Tochhigarh

Mandanpur

BarauliKhas

Nagala Sarua

SAHARI MADAN

NaglaChandram

Baraula Jafrabad ShadipurKamrua

drinking water source WITHIN PREMISES

100

At the village level, Andala, Barauli Khas, Akarabad and Bhojaka and Tappal have the higher percentage of the household having drinking water within the premises. More than 70% households have these facilities; while Samaspur, Ramnagar, Dado have the higher number of households without the drinking water facilities. And Samaspur, Ramnagar villages depend on the public hand pump while Dado villages have major supply from the taps.

4.10 Location of Sampled Villages

24 villages are selected for the survey in the study area.

Figure 4.18

101

Chapter 5

Food and Nutritional Status of Sampled Villages

FOOD AND NUTRITIONAL STATUS OF SAMPLED VILLAGES

Food security is a topic of keen interest to policy makers, practitioners, and academics around the world because the consequences of food insecurity affect almost every facets of society. Food security also matters for maximizing economic capacity because the undernourished population is a less economically productive one and for this reason, former U.S. President Obama called food security as “an economic imperative” at the 2012 G8 Summit. Finally, food security is a matter of great concern from a moral perspective, it has been broadly agreed upon as a basic human right since 1948, under Article 25 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights: “Everyone has the right to a standard of living adequate for the health and well-being of him and of his family, including food, clothing, housing and medical care.”

Because of its fundamental importance and partially due to the multi- disciplinary and multi-sectoral nature, food security as a concept has numerous and varied explanations. FAO (1996) defines Food Security as “it exists when all people, at all times, have physical, social and economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food which meets their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life”.

The appropriate measurement of food security is critical for targeting food and economic aid, supporting early famine warning and global monitoring systems, evaluating nutrition, health, and developmental programmes, and informing government policy across many sectors (Jones, 2013). Food security matrix focuses on food availability, accessibility, utilization and the stability of food over time.These matrices may draw from data at national, regional, and household, or individual level. But, the all four major aspects of food security are not recorded at all levels because of unavailability of reliable methodology and data. As, the food security measurement developed for use at the country level which mainly emphasises on food availability with the help of tools such as: food balance sheets, which are traditionally drawn from nationally aggregated data on food supply. Food access is a household or individual level analysis in which measurements like food consumption as a proportion of total household expenditure, proportion of population living under BPL, food prices, diet

102 quality and dietary availability of micronutrients are measured.Food Consumption Score (FCS) is an important indicator developed by World Food Programme (WFP) which describes the linkage between dietary diversity and household food access. The FCS combines data on dietary diversity and food frequency using seven-day recall data (WFP, 2007). Food utilization, the third dimension of food security, encompasses the allocation of food within households (the amounts and kinds of foods consumed by individual household members), the nutritional quality of that food, and the bio- availability of nutrients in those foods. Measuring food utilization is essential to understand the distribution of food within households because even in the households with adequate food supplies, allocation of those supplies to individual member may be unequal and results in nutritional deﬁciencies (Haddad, 1997). FAO points out that the food utilization is totally individual level analysis and it describes the food security status of the individual in a more holistic way.

The present chapter gives a detailed description of the food and nutritional security status in the rural and urban areas of Aligarh district.

5.1 Food Availability

Food availability refers to the sufficient quantities of food available on a consistent basis. The food availability condition in the district is measured on the basis of collection of primary data based on 3 indicators:

i. Sources of food, ii. Frequency of meals eaten per day, iii. Household Diet diversity Score (HDDS).

5.1.1 Sources of Food

The nature of food availability is significant to analyse because it guides the food supply and its stability. The supplies of food from agricultural fields are more stable and continuous than from the supply of food from markets and Public Distribution System (PDS). Market-based food supply is highly vulnerable to food price volatility which impacts harshly to poor and landless people in terms of food availability. The agricultural field based supply is more advantageous both in terms of asset and price volatility.

103

Table 5.1 Village Wise Sources of Food in Aligarh District (%) Villages Own Agriculture Market PDS/Govt. Other Field Policies Tappal 63.3 23.3 13.3 0.0 Bhojaka 66.7 16.7 13.3 3.3 Mahgaura 70.0 10.0 16.7 3.3 Andala 60.0 23.3 16.7 0.0 Chandaus 50.0 20.0 30.0 0.0 Nagala Sarua 63.3 20.0 13.3 3.3 Salemapur 66.7 23.3 10.0 0.0 Barauli Khas 73.3 16.7 10.0 0.0 Shamaspur 53.3 20.0 20.0 6.7 Dado 50.0 30.0 16.7 3.3 Mudhail 66.7 20.0 13.3 0.0 ShadipurKumharua 63.3 26.7 10.0 0.0 Kharai 60.0 10.0 30.0 0.0 Adaun 66.7 13.3 20.0 0.0 BaraulaJafrabad 46.7 23.3 16.7 13.3 ShahariMadangarhi 70.0 16.7 10.0 3.3 Shekhupur 73.3 20.0 6.7 0.0 Chakathal 73.3 13.3 13.3 0.0 Akarabad 43.3 30.0 26.7 0.0 Mandanpur 70.0 16.7 13.3 0.0 Tochhigarh 60.0 13.3 26.7 0.0 Ramnagar 63.3 20.0 10.0 6.7 Lakhtoi 66.7 16.7 6.7 10.0 NaglaChandram 63.3 13.3 10.0 13.3 Total 62.6 19.0 15.6 2.8 Source: Field Survey, 2015-16 Figure 5.1 Village Wise Sources of Food in Aligarh District

80.0 70.0 60.0 50.0 40.0 30.0 20.0 10.0

0.0

Dado

Kharai

Adaun

Tappal

Andala

Lakhtoi

Bhojaka

Mudhail

Akarabad

Chandaus

Chakathal

Ramnagar

Mahgaura

Salemapur

Shekhupur

Shamaspur

Tochhigarh

Mandanpur

BarauliKhas

Nagala Sarua

NaglaChandram

BaraulaJafrabad

ShadipurKamrua ShaharimadanGari OWN AGRICULTURE FIELD MARKET PDS/GOVT POLICIES OTHER

104

Table 5.1 shows that villages in Aligarh district have 3 major sources of food availability, from production of their own agriculture field, market, Public Distribution System (PDS) and others. The major part of the foods supply in the household is from their own agriculture field. But due to the fragmentation of land, the sizes of land holdings are declining. Most of the farmers are small or marginal, whose own production is not enough to meet the food requirement of the family for the whole year. Though, they have either depend on market or fair price shops for their food items.

Chandaus, Dado, Baraula and Akarabad villages have the lower share of food availability from the household agricultural field because these villages have higher influence of growing urbanization. Akarabad has only 43.3% source of food availability from the subsistence agriculture, followed by Baraula (46.7%) and Chandaus (50%). In these villages the urbanization spread rapidly because these villages serve as the block headquarters. The interior villages have higher percentage of getting food from agriculture. Chakathal, Mandanpur, Barauali, Saharimadan Garhi, and Shekhupur have interior location and they account for nearly 60% food availability from agriculture field. Muslim village, Samaspur is not dependent on agriculture for food availability because most of the people in the village are landless.

Villages like Chandaus, Dado, Baraula, Akrabad and Tappal have nearly one third market based supply of food grains availability. Distant villages, such as Kaharai, Lakhatoi, Adhon, and Jhulu have only 10-15% supply of food grains from the market, because these villages are away from the agricultural mandis. Governmental programmes like, PDS/ Antyodaya/ Work for Food Programme/ Old Age Pension Schemes are functioning in the villages to insure the food supply in district. Chandaus shares the maximum (30%) benefit from the govt. plans of food security because this village is categorised as “Ambedkar village” and good number of marginalised people avail the government food security programmes. Similarly, Adhon, Kaharai, Akrabad, Tochigarh, and Samaspur have government food programmes in good share because these villages have the higher percentage of marginalised population. Samaspur, Baraula, and Nagala Chandram villages have some population who avail their food supply from the other sources like charity, begging etc.

105

5.1.2 Frequency of Meals per Day Frequency of meals per day is one of the important indicators to measure the household food availability. The general trend of rural India shows that pattern of consumption of meal is two times meals per day, whereas in urban areas it is three times meal per day. The higher frequency of meals per day indicates the good and balanced supply of food items. But in the poor households it is hard to earn the money to raise one meal per day which results in undernourishment and low caloric consumption. Table 5.2 Village Wise Frequency of Meals Per Day in Aligarh District (%)

Villages Frequency Of Meal Eaten Per Day 1 Time 2 Time 3 Time Tappal 10.0 80.0 10.0 Bhojaka 6.7 93.3 0.0

Mahgaura 13.3 86.7 0.0 Andala 10.0 86.7 3.3 Chandaus 10.0 80.0 6.7 Nagala Sarua 13.3 86.7 0.0 Salemapur 10.0 90.0 0.0 Barauli Khas 3.3 93.3 3.3 Shamaspur 20.0 80.0 0.0 Dado 10.0 86.7 3.3 Mudhail 10.0 90.0 0.0

Shadipur Kamrua 13.3 86.7 0.0 Kharai 16.7 83.3 0.0

Adaun 13.3 86.7 0.0 Baraula 16.7 83.3 0.0 Shaharimadan Gari 6.7 93.3 0.0 Shekhupur 10.0 90.0 0.0 Chakathal 10.0 90.0 0.0 Akarabad 13.3 83.3 3.3 Mandanpur 10.0 90.0 0.0

Tochhigarh 16.7 80.0 3.3 Ramnagar 13.3 86.7 0.0 Lakhtoi 10.0 90.0 0.0 Nagla Chandram 10.0 90.0 0.0 TOTAL 11.5 86.9 1.4

Source: Field Survey, 2015-16

106

The above table 5.2 indicates that 87% household in surveyed villages follows the general trend of two meals per day. One time meal per day consumed by 11.5% of people and the remaining 1.4% of people have three times meals per day and this trend is concentrated only in semi-urban villages like: Tappal, Chandaus, Akrabad, Dado, and Thochigarh.

Village wise pattern of one time meal consumption is highest in the Muslim village Samaspur which has 20% population fall in this category because most of the people are landless and poor to afford the volatile market based food prices. Nearly 10% population of Kharai, Barauala, Tochigarh, and Shadipur villages have one time meal per day. Baurali Khas has the lowest share of population which consume one time meal per day because of high agricultural land availability and good socio- economic condition. 80 to 93% population in most of the villages have two times meal consumption, which ranged to three times in semi-urban villages.

The impact of and good source of income also influencesthe frequency of meal consumption in the households. Villages, like Tappal, Chandaus, Akrabad, Dado, and Thochigarh have 3 to 10% population in this category, because of their improved socio-economic conditions. But, this pattern is only concentrated in semi urban pockets of the village.

5.1.3 Household Diet Diversity Score (HDDS)

Household Diet Diversity Score (HDDS) is an important measure to access the food accessibility. Household dietary diversity refers to the number of different food groups consumed over a given reference period. Hoddinott, John and Yisehac Yohannes (2002) point out the importance of Household Dietary Diversity score as a measure of household food access:

 A more diversified diet is an important outcome in and of itself.

 A more diversified diet is associated with a number of improved outcomes in areas such as birth weight, child anthropometric status, and improved haemoglobin concentrations.

 A more diversified diet is highly correlated with caloric and protein adequacy, percentage of protein from animal sources (high quality protein), and household income. Even in very poor households, increased food expenditure resulting

107

from additional income is associated with increased quantity and quality of the diet.

 Questions on dietary diversity can be asked at the household or individual level, making it possible to examine food security at the household and intrahousehold levels. Table 5.3 Village Wise Household Diet Diversity Score in Aligarh District (%) Village Household Diet Diversity Score Very High High Medium Low Very Low Household Dietary HDDS HDDS HDDS HDDS Diversity Score Tappal 10.0 20.0 46.7 13.3 10.0 Bhojaka 0.0 0.0 70.0 20.0 10.0 Mahgaura 3.3 0.0 63.3 16.7 16.7 Andala 3.3 16.7 66.7 6.7 6.7 Chandaus 10.0 10.0 70.0 3.3 6.7 Nagala Sarua 0.0 0.0 63.3 20.0 16.7 Salemapur 0.0 3.3 56.7 26.7 13.3 Barauli Khas 3.3 13.3 60.0 13.3 10.0 Shamaspur 0.0 0.0 46.7 30.0 23.3 Dado 6.7 13.3 50.0 20.0 10.0 Mudhail 0.0 0.0 60.0 23.3 16.7 Shadipur Kamrua 0.0 0.0 66.7 13.3 20.0 Kharai 0.0 0.0 46.7 30.0 23.3 Adaun 0.0 0.0 43.3 26.7 30.0 Baraula 0.0 0.0 50.0 30.0 20.0 Shaharimadan Gari 0.0 3.3 76.7 13.3 6.7 Shekhupur 0.0 3.3 70.0 16.7 10.0 Chakathal 0.0 0.0 70.0 20.0 10.0 Akarabad 10.0 3.3 50.0 23.3 13.3 Mandanpur 0.0 0.0 73.3 16.7 10.0 Tochhigarh 3.3 3.3 53.3 23.3 16.7 Ramnagar 0.0 3.3 70.0 13.3 13.3 Lakhtoi 0.0 0.0 50.0 26.7 23.3 Nagla Chandram 0.0 0.0 50.0 23.3 26.7 Total 2.1 3.9 59.3 19.6 15.1 Source: Field Survey, 2015-16

108

Figure 5.2 Village Wise Household Diet Diversity Score in Aligarh District

100% 90% 80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10%

Dado

Kharai

Adaun

TOTAL

Tappal

Andala

Lakhtoi

Bhojaka

Mudhail

Akarabad

Chandaus

Chakathal

Ramnagar

Mahgaura

Salemapur

Shekhupur

Shamaspur

Tochhigarh

Mandanpur

BarauliKhas

Nagala Sarua

NaglaChandram

Baraula Jafrabad

ShadipurKamrua ShaharimadanGari

VERY HIGH HHDS HIGH HDDS MEDIUM HDDS LOW HDDS VERY LOW HDDS

The primary data has been collected to access the level of food diversity in rural household of the surveyed villages. The data has been classified in following categories on basis of given measures:

Table 5.4 Household Diet Diversity Score Classification Wheat Milk Fruits Pulses Vegetable Egg /Meat Fat/Oil/ Total Category 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 7 Very High 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 6 High 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 4 Medium 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 2 Low 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 Very Low

On basis of above classification, the primary data indicates that rural households in Aligarh have very less diversified food basket. The main reason behind this low food resource availability and accessibility is mainly because of high poverty. Only 2.1% households have high food diversity score and these households are able to consume wheat, milk, fruits, pulses, vegetable, egg /meat, fat/oil on daily basis. These households, having good source of income are concentrated in the semi- urban areas of the villages. Tappal, Andala, Chandaus, Akarabad, and Dado have 3 to 10%

109 households in this category. The high category of food diversity is found in Bauralikhas, Tappal, and Dado. The food diversity is also dependent on the community living in the area. The community like Jat, Thakurs, SCs, and Muslims have the consumption of meat/egg which raises their food diversity in comparison to the other communities who do not prefer the consumption this because of their social taboos and religious customs. Most of the district population lies in the medium food diversity score category which matches with their income group. Nearly 65% of the population have accessibility to wheat, milk, vegetables, and fat on the daily basis. But, this trend reflects that the large number of rural population still devoid of the rich vitamin sources (fruits and pulses) and thus reflects in the low nutritional consumption pattern. Wheat, milk and vegetables are mostly home based supply or community based in rural areas and thus rural population have easy access to these food groups. But, the income elastic foods like: meat, pulses, fruits are not included in their food basket, which point out that government must surely widen the food security mission and include the Red Revolution (for meat), Silver Revolution (for egg) and Yellow Revolution (for Pulses). So the, population can be nutritionally secure through the supply of essential vitamins and nutrients. Primary survey also points out that the nearly one third population of the district lies in the low and very low diversity score category and constitute the undernourished population. The consumption of only cereals and some vegetables (especially potato) provide only calories but no other nutrients and which negatively impact on their nutritional status. The very low diversity household dietary diversity score category population include the lowest strata of the population which either have no social or economic security. Samaspur, Baurala, Kharai, and Thochigarh have the higher percentage of population in this category because these villages have higher percentages of the SC population and poor Muslim population and have no economic security, which results in the low food basket.

5.2 Food Accessibility

Food accessibility is a factor of assets /entitlements to secure the food items. This second most important factor is crucial in food security metrics because inspite of having maximum production of food grains the large number of population is food insecure only because of the lack of entitlements/ assets to avail the food resources. Food accessibility in this chapter is measured on basis of the following variables:

110

i. Consumption of Income Elastic Food in the Households ii. Livestock availability in the Households iii. Consumption of Different Food Items( Pulses, Milk, Vegetables, Cereals)

5.2.1 Consumption of Income Elastic Food in The Households

Consumption of income elastic food is an important indicator to measure the accessibility of food resources which are value addition to the food basket. Table 5.5 Village wise Consumption of Income Elastic Food in Aligarh District (%)

Town/Villages High Protein and Fat Outside/ Junk Income Elastic None Rich ( Red Meat/ Egg) Food Food Tappal 33.3 16.7 20.0 30.0 Bhojaka 16.7 6.7 13.3 63.3 Mahgaura 13.3 13.3 16.7 56.7 Andala 3.3 16.7 16.7 63.3 Chandaus 13.3 23.3 13.3 50.0 Nagala Sarua 13.3 6.7 13.3 66.7 Salemapur 10.0 13.3 10.0 66.7 Barauli Khas 26.7 16.7 16.7 40.0 Shamaspur 73.3 6.7 6.7 13.3 Dado 13.3 16.7 10.0 60.0 Mudhail 10.0 13.3 6.7 70.0 Shadipur Kamrua 13.3 10.0 10.0 66.7 Kharai 16.7 10.0 13.3 60.0 Adaun 6.7 10.0 3.3 80.0 Baraula Jafrabad 23.3 16.7 3.3 56.7 Shaharimadangari 10.0 3.3 6.7 80.0 Shekhupur 6.7 13.3 10.0 70.0 Chakathal 6.7 6.7 10.0 76.7 Akarabad 23.3 20.0 6.7 50.0 Mandanpur 6.7 10.0 13.3 70.0 Tochhigarh 13.3 16.7 10.0 60.0 Ramnagar 3.3 10.0 6.7 80.0 Lakhtoi 10.0 6.7 3.3 80.0 Nagla Chandram 6.7 3.3 3.3 86.7 Total 18.1 11.9 10.1 59.9 Source: Field Survey, 2015-16

111

Figure 5.3 Village Wise Consumption of Income Elastic Food in Aligarh District

120.0

100.0

80.0

60.0

40.0

20.0

0.0

Dado

Kharai

Adaun

Tappal

Andala

Lakhtoi

Bhojaka

Mudhail

Akarabad

Chandaus

Chakathal

Ramnagar

Mahgaura

Salemapur

Shekhupur

Shamaspur

Tochhigarh

Mandanpur

BarauliKhas

Nagala Sarua

NaglaChandram

Baraula Jafrabad ShadipurKamrua

NONE ShaharimadanGari INCOME ELASTIC FOOD OUTSIDE/ JUNK FOOD HIGH PROTIEN AND FAT RICH( RED MEAT/ EGG)

Table (5.5) shows that 59.9% population have no access to extra diversity (high protein, rich fat, outside junk food, and income elastic food) to the food basket. Only the 10% district population has access to the income elastic food; which comprises the high income group or having higher assets availability. The 16% district population, including the Muslims, Jats, SC, and Thukars have the extra protein rich source form the non-veg sources. The low percentage of the non-veg consumption is mainly attributed to the higher percentages of the Hindu population in the areas. Though, the restriction of this religious taboo (non-consumption of meat) in Hindu population is breaking down. The junk food, a product of the urbanization and globalization is rapidly spread in the villages which have higher urban influence and 12% rural population of the district consume this extra diverse food resource; which also result in the obesity and overweight in population.

Village wise pattern of this phenomenon reveals that Tappal, Baraula, Akrabad, and Barauli villages have the high consumption of the meat or non-veg

112 protein because of their food habits. Muslim village Samaspur and Adhaun topped the category list and have the meat-resources in their home (poultry). In junk food consumption Chandaus, Akrabad, Tappal, Dado, Sekhupur villages have higher percentages share because these villages have the nearness to main city headquarter or have urban influence. Interior villages like: Nagala Saraua, Saharaimadan Garhi, Nagala Chandaram have very low percentage ranges from 3 to 6%. Income elastic food consumption is dominated in the villages which have the higher income groups’ population and thus reflect the trend that income is the major responsible factor to diversify the food basket of population and their nutritional status. Villages with good resources and higher income supply have easy and higher access to the income elastic food like Tappal, Andala, Chakatahal, Mahagaura and Barauli. The worst picture of the food and nutritional security is revealed by the primary survey that most of the villages’ population still have no access to the extra food diversity and food resources because of poverty and lack of resources and assets to acquire and utilize the food access. More than 60 % population of the most of villages have no access to the food diversity. Samaspur villages have higher meat consumption so it have low percentage share in this category. It may be noted that it is not because of its higher economic condition but mainly because of their food habits and house source based meat availability.

5.2.2 Livestock Availability

Livestock availability data is another important indicator to measure the food and nutritional security of the population. The livestock availability is attributed as the both economic assets and food resources in the rural areas. They also act as insular to food and nutritional insecurity because their availability in household is a resource pool to food security. Beside agriculture, the livestock is second most important base of the rural culture, economy and food security. Their percentage of availability in rural Aligarh also strongly verifies the importance of livestock assets in the rural culture.

113

Table 5.6 Village wise Livestock Availability in Aligarh District (%) Village Name Livestock Availability Livestock More Livestock 2 Only 1 No Than 3 To 3 Livestock Livestock Tappal 20.0 26.7 30.0 23.3 Bhojka 23.3 20.0 40.0 16.7 Mahgaura 16.7 23.3 46.7 13.3 Andala 16.7 26.7 36.7 20.0 Chandaus 10.0 20.0 40.0 30.0 Nagala Sarua 20.0 26.7 36.7 16.7 Salempur 16.7 23.3 50.0 10.0 Barauli Khas 23.3 26.7 36.7 13.3 Samaspur 10.0 13.3 30.0 46.7 Dado 13.3 26.7 30.0 30.0 Mudhail 16.7 30.0 43.3 10.0 Shaduipur Khumharao 20.0 23.3 43.3 13.3 Kharai 13.3 30.0 40.0 16.7 Adhon 16.7 26.7 46.7 10.0 Barula 3.3 13.3 23.3 60.0 Sahrimadan Garhi 26.7 26.7 33.3 13.3 Shekhupur 23.3 30.0 36.7 10.0 Chakathal 20.0 26.7 36.7 16.7 Akarabad 3.3 13.3 26.7 56.7 Mandanpur 20.0 23.3 40.0 16.7 Tochigarh 6.7 16.7 23.3 53.3 Ramnagar 16.7 23.3 36.7 23.3 Lakhtoi 20.0 20.0 43.3 16.7 Jhulu 16.7 23.3 43.3 16.7 Total 16.4 23.3 37.2 23.1 Source: Field Survey, 2015-16

Figure 5.4

Village Wise Livestock Availability in Aligarh District

100% 90% 80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10%

DADO

JHULU

KHARAI

TAPPAL

ADHON

BHOJKA

BARULA

ANDALA

LAKHTOI

MUDHAIL

SALEMPUR

AKARABAD

SAMASPUR

CHANDAUS

SHADUIPUR…

TOCHIGARH

CHAKATHAL

RAMNAGAR

MAHGAURA

SHEKHUPUR

MANDANPUR

SAHRIMADAN…

BARAULIKHAS NAGALA SARUA

Livestock More Than 3 Livestock 2 to 3 Only 1 Livestock No Livestock

114

Table 5.6 reveals that only 23% rural population in the villages have no livestock while remaining 76% population have livestock availability. The data is collected in four categories: livestock more than 3, livestock 2 to 3, only 1 livestock and no livestock. Under these categories 16.4 per cent population have more than 3 livestock, 23.3% population have 2 to 3 livestock and 37. 2% population have only one livestock. The livestock availability and rearing is rapidly threatening because of the reduction in the public pastures and lack of scientific husbandry. This is the main reason that in spite of having good number of livestock the rural population has no continuous supply of milk and milk products in their food baskets and transform their availability to improve the better nutritional status of household population.

In more than three livestock category those villages have more shares which have higher agricultural setup. Sahrimadan Garhi, Bhojka, Shekhupur, Tappal, Lakhatoi, Shadipur Khumaharao villages have more than 20% share in this category. Higher dependency on the livestock rearing in these villages indicated that population in these villages have higher access to milk and milk products and have more insularity framework against food insecurity. Barauala, Akarabad, Dado, Chandaus, Tochigarh have lower per cent in this category. The villages which have two to three livestock indicated that these villages have low capacity to harness the livestock resources against food insecurity and have low dependency on livestock because of other diversified economic resources availability. The urbanization impact also reduces the livestock dependency as an economic asset and food resources. The population which have only one livestock is dominated by those households which have low resource capacity to sustain the rearing of livestock. Salempur, Chandaus, Lakhtoi, Jhulu, Mandanpur, Shekhupur and Adhon have higher percentage of livestock ownership ranging from 35 to 50%. While, in the villages of higher urban influence and better diversified economic resources the dependency on livestock as an asset reduced sharply; Tochigarh, Baraula, Akrabad villages lies in this category. These areas get supply the milk for their consumption from within or nearby areas.

5.2.3 Consumption of Pulses

Pulses are leguminous crops that constitute an essential part of Indian diet because nearly 43% of all Indians are vegetarian (urban-48% rural-41%) and pulses are important protein source. ASSOCHAM report points out that in India the pulse consumption is in decreasing trend because the production is also on the declining

115 trend. In 2012-13 the consumption was only 22.34%, which decrease to 20.9% in 2014-15. In these reference years the productions also decrease from 18.34 metric tonne to 17.2 metric tonne.

Figure 5.5 Villages Wise Pulses Consumption in Aligarh District

116

Table 5.7 Villages Wise Pulses Consumption in Aligarh District (%)

Village Consuming 40 Less Than Village Consumin Less Than 40 gm/Person/ 40 g 40 gm/ gm/Person/ Day gm/Person/ Person/ Day (%) (%) Day (%) Day (%) Tappal 49.0 51.0 Kharai 41.1 58.9 Bhojka 40.7 59.3 Adhon 37.4 62.6 Mahgaura 41.9 58.1 Barula 40.4 59.6 Andala 44.5 55.5 Sahrimadan 41.7 58.3 Garhi Chandaus 46.1 53.9 Shekhupur 43.4 56.6 Nagala Sarua 38.5 61.5 Chakathal 41.4 58.6 Salempur 37.2 62.8 Akarabad 46.5 53.5 Barauli Khas 41.5 58.5 Mandanpur 41.7 58.3 Samaspur 36.9 63.1 Tochigarh 46.1 53.9 Dado 40.6 59.4 Ramnagar 42.5 57.5 Mudhail 38.9 61.1 Lakhtoi 43.2 56.8 Shaduipur 36.3 63.7 Jhulu 40.3 59.7 Khumharao Total ( Consuming 40 Gm/Person/Day) =41.57% Total ( Consuming Less Than 40 Gm/Person/Day) =58.42% Source: Field Survey, 2015-16

Table (5.7) displays the pulse consumption in the villages and point out that 58% population not consume the referenced diet of pulses while only 42% population have consumption of pulses equal to the reference standard (40 gm/person/day). This trend of pulse consumption is the major reason that the rural people are undernourished. The main reason of this poor consumption of pulses is low availability of pulse in the area, because the pulses are not majorly produced in the villages. Another major reason of the low pulse consumption in rural areas is because of the high price of the pulses in the market. The hoarding practices also raise the prices of the pulses which hinder the inclusion of the pulses in the food basket of the rural people. The high price rise and low purchasing power of the villagers lead to the exclusion of pulse in the diet of rural people.

Village wise pattern of the pulse points out that Tappal, Chandaus, Dado, Shekhupur, and Akrabad have the pulse consumption more than 40%. Tappal has the highest consumption and the main reason of this is production and high purchasing power. Adhon, Samaspur, Shadipur Kumharao and Salempur have the lower

117 consumption of pulses. The Samspur village have the lowest consumption where only one third populations have referenced level of pulse consumption. The poverty and another source of protein (meat) is the major reason of low pulse consumption in sampled villages. The low pulse consumption also resulted in the overall low nutritional level because the pulses are the only source of vitamins for vegetarian rural people. The government should include the pulses in the National Food Mission so the nutritional level of the poor rural people can be improved.

5.2.4 Vegetable (Green Leafy) Consumption

Prevalence of micronutrient malnutrition continues to be a major public health problem in rural India where majority of rural population subsists on inadequate diets, and have mean intakes of pulses and vegetables below the recommended dietary intakes (N. Arlappa, A. Laxmaiah et al., 2010). NNMB surveys point out that rural people not only have the mean intake of protective foods such as pulses and legumes and non-leafy vegetables below the recommended dietary intakes (ICMR, 1981), but also have low consumption of green leafy vegetables (GLV), which are the rich source of vitamins and mineral.

Table 5.8 Villages Wise Vegetables Consumption in Aligarh District (%)

Village Consuming Less Than Village Consuming Less Than 125 Gm/ 125 Gm/ 125 Gm/ 125 Gm/ Person/Day Person/Day Person/ Person/Day (%) (%) Day (%) (%) Tappal 69.6 30.4 Kharai 60.1 39.9 Bhojka 63.5 36.5 Adhon 58.6 41.4 Mahgaura 58.1 41.9 Barula 56.1 43.9 Andala 68.1 31.9 Sahrimadan 60.7 39.3 Garhi Chandaus 66.7 33.3 Shekhupur 62.9 37.1 Nagala Sarua 59.2 40.8 Chakathal 64.5 35.5 Salempur 61.2 38.8 Akarabad 65.2 34.8 Barauli Khas 66.0 34.0 Mandanpur 58.3 41.7 Samaspur 56.6 43.4 Tochigarh 62.9 37.1 Dado 66.8 33.2 Ramnagar 59.9 40.1 Mudhail 56.7 43.3 Lakhtoi 58.4 41.6 Shaduipur 61.5 38.5 Jhulu 60.8 39.2 Khumharao Total ( Consuming 40 Gm/Person/Day) =61.76% Total ( Consuming Less Than 40 Gm/Person/Day) =38.23% Source: Field Survey, 2015-16

118

It is clear that the high prevalence of under nutrition and micronutrient deficiencies is due to the poor dietary intakes of micronutrient rich foods, high levels of poverty and poor purchasing capacity, illiteracy and ignorance about the health benefits of vegetables and pulses among the rural population. The need is to sensitize towards the health benefits of consumption of variety leafy and non-leafy vegetables and pulses through health and nutrition education. Agricultural production of non- staples such as leafy and non-leafy vegetables, the rich sources of micro-nutrients (Underwood, 2000; Bouis, 2000; Ruel, 2001; Hagenimana and Low, 2000) to be increased, because the green revolution benefited most the staples at the expense of other foods (Welch RM, Graham, 2000).

Figure 5.6 Villages Wise Vegetables Consumption in Aligarh District

Table 5.8 reveals that access the vegetable consumption in rural Aligarh depicts a diverse pattern. The vegetable consumption in rural Aligarh is good because of the improved production of vegetables. Overall the 62% population consume the referenced diet of vegetables while only 38% people have no consumption of vegetables up to the reference level. The population which can’t consume the

119 reference vegetable diet as they have no piece of land devoted to kitchen garden and have no better purchasing power.

Tappal, Bhojka, Chandaus, Andala, Chakatahal, Akrabad have nearly 60% population which consume the referenced level of vegetable. The higher vegetable consumption in these villages is mainly because of their high purchasing power and they are near to city. The higher consumption of vegetables in these villages resulted in better nutrition security. Villages which have lower purchasing power and less awareness to importance of vegetables consumption has lower share of vegetables in their dietary habits.

Fruit and vegetables though do not make a significant contribution to macronutrient intake, but they make an important contribution to dietary fibre. The legumes, especially the seed legumes, are of major nutritional importance, particularly in the developing world where in many countries they constitute a staple food along with cereals. While production of fruits and vegetables has been increasing over recent years, in India but the inadequate consumption remains a problem. To increase consumption levels and address micronutrient deficiencies, apart from production increases by the horticultural sector, there needs to be a focus on adapting aspects of the market supply chain. This will help to make fruits and vegetables more accessible and affordable for poor households as well as ensuring access to markets by smaller producers (John Kearney, 2010).

5.2.5 Milk Consumption

Milk and milk products have been one of the most significant components of the food basket in India as theyare major source of proteins particularly for the majority of the vegetarian population. The contribution of milk and milk products to calorie and protein intake has been increasing over time and was the second highest after cereals in 2009–10 and between 1983 and 2009–10 their share in the monthly per capita food expenditure increased from 11.5 to 14.9% in rural areas and from 15.7 to 18.4 % in urban areas. The increasing consumption of dairy products has several implications for food and nutrition security (GOI, 2010, Kumar, A., Joshi, P.K., Kumar, P. et al. 2014). There has been a considerable rise in the consumption of milk and milk products in India with increases in the share of high-value commodities in the food budget of households. The share of milk and milk products accounted for

120 about 14 % of household food expenditure in 2009–10, up from 8 % in 1983. This increase is reflected in the rising per capita consumption of dairy products in India. The per capita consumption of milk has increased from 44.7 in 1983 to 57.1 kg in 2009–10 (Kumar, A., Joshi, P.K., Kumar, P. et al. 2014).

Milk is an important constitutes of food basket. Milk consumption in the villages is higher because of the livestock availability. The mulching livestock is not only the important livelihood source but also act as an asset and source of milk to the household. Most of the villages have fair share in livestock husbandry so they also have better availability of milk.

Table 5.9 Villages Wise Milk Consumption in Aligarh District (%)

Consuming Less Than Consumin Less Than 150 gm/ 150 gm/ g 150 gm/ 150 gm/ Village Person/Day Person/Day Village Person/ Person/ Day (%) (%) Day (%) (%) Tappal 74.5 25.5 Kharai 67.3 32.7 Bhojka 69.3 30.7 Adhon 59.6 40.4 Mahgaura 67.5 32.5 Barula 61.4 38.6 Andala 73.6 26.4 Sahrimadan 60.7 39.3 Garhi Chandaus 65.6 34.4 Shekhupur 66.3 33.7 Nagala Sarua 69.2 30.8 Chakathal 68.3 31.7 Salempur 64.5 35.5 Akarabad 69.5 30.5 Barauli Khas 70.7 29.3 Mandanpur 67.4 32.6 Samaspur 58.1 41.9 Tochigarh 61.7 38.3 Dado 66.8 33.2 Ramnagar 62.8 37.2 Mudhail 69.4 30.6 Lakhtoi 58.9 41.1 Shaduipur 64.2 35.8 Jhulu 60.2 39.8 Khumharao Total ( Consuming 40 Gm/Person/Day) =65.73% Total ( Consuming Less Than 40 Gm/Person/Day) =34.26% Source: Field Survey, 2015-16

At the district level only 34 per cent population not consume the milk up to the referenced level and the main reason for this low milk consumption is low purchasing power, lack of livestock with higher milk production capability, and large size of

121

Figure: 5.7 Village Wise Milk Consumption in Aligarh District

families. The distribution of milk in the household also has the gender preferences in the families which have low availability of the milk because it is an income elastic food. The male counterpart and the earning head have higher preference in these households. The remaining more than 60% district population has standard level of milk consumption because Aligarh has continuously raise the economic growth under the urban and industrial expansion influence of Delhi and itself. Village level data point out that milk consumption is directly related to the availability of mulching animals. The villages which have higher share of mulching animals both in quantity and quality have good consumption of milk and milk products. In rural areas it is integral nutrient resource. Nearly 60% population of Tappal, Barauli, Andala, Mudhail and Akrabad have milk consumption as referenced in RDA. These villages have both socio-economic advanced and have husbandry as one of important source of earning and asset. The villages which have semi urban setup like Chandaus, Akrabad, Tappal, Akrabad have milk consumption not directly from their own husbandry but they have higher purchasing power so they bring milk from nearby villages. The most of the population of these villages is vegetarian so they heavily relied on milk consumption as a source of micronutrient, while in the village Samaspur a Muslim majority population have lower consumption of milk from

122 cow and buffalo because they relied on meat for source of micronutrient or the rearing the goat as mulching animal. Lakhatoi, Sharimadan Garhi, Jhulu, and Adhon also have lower consumption of milk because these villages have lower purchasing power resulted in shrink food basket. Adhon which also have higher Muslim population also have lower consumption of milk where only 59% population consume milk. 5.2.6 Cereals Consumption Ccereals are provided unlimited health benefits to mankind as astaple food in our diet. Cereals are rich in complex carbohydrates that provide you with ample energy, and also enrich overallhealth with abundant proteins, fats, lipids, minerals, vitamins, and enzymes. Cereals are enriched with niacin, iron, riboflavin and thiamine. Most cereals have abundant fibercontents, especially barley, oat, and wheat. Cereal consumption also means an intake of high amounts of protein and also forinfants, iron-fortified cereals are said to be the premium solid foods.Cereals are the sole source of energy for humans and providing almost 30% of total calories in a regular diet. Table 5.10 Village-wise Cereals Consumption in Aligarh District (%)

Village Consuming Less Than Village Consuming Less Than 42 420 gm/ 420 gm/ 420 gm/ gm/Person/ Day Person/ Person/ Day Person/Day (%) Day (%) (%) (%) Tappal 69.6 30.4 Kharai 61.9 38.1 Bhojka 66.1 33.9 Adhon 54.2 45.8 Mahgaura 62.8 37.2 Barula 61.4 38.6 Andala 69.2 30.8 Sahrimadan 61.3 38.7 Garhi Chandaus 68.9 31.1 Shekhupur 62.3 37.7 Nagala Sarua 62.1 37.9 Chakathal 64.5 35.5 Salempur 63.4 36.6 Akarabad 58.8 41.2 Barauli Khas 66.5 33.5 Mandanpur 69.7 30.3 Samaspur 52.5 47.5 Tochigarh 67.1 32.9 Dado 59.4 40.6 Ramnagar 68.6 31.4 Mudhail 63.9 36.1 Lakhtoi 65.4 34.6 Shaduipur 62.0 38.0 Jhulu 63.5 36.5 Khumharao Total ( Consuming 40 Gm/Person/Day) =63.5% Total ( Consuming Less Than 40 Gm/Person/Day) =36.4% Source: Field Survey, 2015-16

123

Figure 5.8 Villages Wise Cereals Consumption in Aligarh District

It is clear from the table (5.10) that more than 63% population of the district has cereals consumption up to the referenced RDA level (420 gm/person/day). The district enjoys the good agricultural conditions because it lies in the Ganga-Yamuna doab and this result in the higher availability of food grains for the consumption. The economic growth of the district also leads to the better purchasing power of the people which increase the food availability for the consumption. Beside it the food fortification programmes of the government, National food mission and well organised PDS and Antyodya, MANREGA etc. secure the referenced level of cereals consumption for the population. The remaining 36% of the district population have no referenced level of cereals consumption mainly because of poverty, lack of employment and no coverage to the government social welfare programme. Tappal, Andala, Chandaus, Mandanpur have higher consumption of cereals because these villages have rich agriculture base and higher purchasing power. In Chandaus the higher cereal consumption is mainly attributed to the well-functioning of Government running PDS and other welfare programmes. This village is nominated as an Ambedakar gram so the beneficiaries’ households have regular supply of government induced policies and programmes to secure the cereals

124 consumption. Beside it these villages have urban influence so they have diversified food basket. Akrabad Dado, Baraula, and Jhulu villages are in medium category. While the villages like Samaspur and Adhon, have lower consumption of cereals less than 420 gm/person/day and the poverty, unemployment and large size of families are the main reasons for this low consumption trend. Consumption reports also points out the same trend and attributed that the poor per capita availability of cereals is largely a reflection of high poverty, which makes it difficult for a large fraction of the population to access nutritious food. “India is a hugely demand-constrained economy. People don’t have enough money because of which per capita food supply is low despite high production. If people had enough resources, per capita food availability would have been higher and India would not have the huge buffer stocks it currently has” (Biswajit Dhar, 2015). Though, government programmes are contributing more but need is to increase the accessibility and utilization aspect of food resources to sustain the food security.

Table 5.11 Z Score of Less than RDA Consumption of Different Items in Sampled Villages of Aligarh District Village Z SCORE Village Z SCORE Tappal -1.90 Kharai 0.15 Bhojka -0.38 Adhon 1.39 Mahgaura 0.16 Barula 0.82 Andala -1.39 Sahrimadan Garhi 0.46 Chandaus -0.96 Shekhupur -0.18 Nagala Sarua 0.29 Chakathal -0.36 Salempur 0.45 Akarabad -0.54 Barauli Khas -0.71 Mandanpur -0.22 Samaspur 1.73 Tochigarh -0.40 Dado -0.08 Ramnagar -0.07 Mudhail 0.31 Lakhtoi 0.37 Shaduipur Khumharao 0.59 Jhulu 0.47 Source: Field Survey, 2015-16

125

Figure 5.9 Village Wise Less than RDA Consumption of Different items

5.3 Food Security Level

Food security level in the area is a result and cause of the overall socio- economic and human development as the higher socio-economic secure regions have more food and nutritional security and resultant better human development. And the region with higher food security enables their people in better human resources. Food security analysis is thus significant indicator to access the area inclusively. The primary data collected on the food andnutritional security status in the districtreveals that the region lies in more food secure region because of its geography and economic structure. The Aligarh district geographically lies in the main Ganaga-Yumana Doab and economically it is an integral part of the shadow urbanization of NCR. Thus, the food availability and accessibility in the region has more secure but the utilization dimension is not so improved causing the food insecurity.

126

Table 5.12 Z score of Food security in Aligarh district

Villages Z Villages Z Villages Z Villages Z SCORE SCORE SCORE SCORE Tappal 1.06 Salemapur 0.09 Kharai -1.20 Akarabad 1.38 Bhojaka Barauli Adaun Mandanpur 0.09 1.06 -1.84 -0.23 Khas Mahgaura Shamaspur Baraula Tochhigarh -0.23 -1.52 -0.87 0.74 Jafrabad Andala Dado Shaharima Ramnagar 1.71 0.09 -0.55 0.09 dan Gari Chandaus 2.03 Mudhail 0.42 Shekhupur 0.42 Lakhtoi -0.87 Nagala Shadipur Chakathal Nagla -0.23 0.09 -0.55 -1.20 Sarua Kamrua Chandram Source: Field Survey, 2015-16

At district level 34per cent population is food insecure while remaining 65% population has the food security. At village level the data indicates that in Tappal, Andala, Chandauas, and Barauli, have higher food security nearly 75% while in Smaspur, Kharai, Adhaun, and Baraula, villages have only 50-60% population as food secure. The food security pattern in these two categories villages follow the pattern of overall factors which influence the food and nutrition security (education, women empowerment, socio-economic structure of society and the government policies effective implementation to curb the food and nutrition security). Bhojaka, Mahagaura, Nagala Sarua, Dado villages lies in medium category where the food security can be further improved with help of strengthening government policy of food coverage, employment generation and women empowerment.

127

Figure 5.10

Status of Food security in Aligarh district

5.4 Food Insecurity Intensity

Data has been collected to analyse the intensity of food insecurity faced by the food insecure people. The data reveals that food insecurity in the household is experienced on monthly, weekly and daily basis. The households having higher share in daily category represent the more vulnerable category of food insecure people while the household in weekly and monthly category have moderate influence of food insecurity.

128

Table 5.13 Village Wise Food Insecurity Intensity (Z Score) in Aligarh District

Villages Monthly Weekly Daily Villages Monthly Weekly Daily Food Food Food Food Food Food Insecurity Insecurity Insecurity Insecurity Insecurity Insecurity Intensity Intensity Intensity Intensity Intensity Intensity Z Score Z Score Z Score Z Score Z Score Z Score Tappal 1.54 -0.21 -1.50 Kharai -0.60 0.50 0.25 Bhojaka -0.18 -0.07 0.25 Adaun -0.27 -0.56 0.76 Mahgaura Baraula -0.31 1.46 -0.87 Jafrabad -1.10 1.53 -0.07 Andala Shaharima 2.82 -1.06 -2.20 dan Gari -0.43 0.26 0.25 Chandaus 0.20 1.91 -1.80 Shekhupur -0.01 -0.84 0.70 Nagala Chakathal Sarua -0.31 -0.34 0.62 0.20 0.26 -0.43 Salemapur 0.57 -1.06 0.25 Akarabad -0.43 -1.39 1.61 Barauli Mandanpur Khas 2.61 -1.62 -1.50 -0.31 0.56 -0.12 Shamaspur -0.68 0.26 0.52 Tochhigarh -0.74 -0.56 1.27 Dado -0.93 -0.07 1.07 Ramnagar -0.93 1.91 -0.57 Mudhail -0.01 -0.84 0.70 Lakhtoi 0.05 -0.75 0.56 Shadipur Nagla Kamrua -0.18 0.92 -0.57 Chandram -0.60 -0.21 0.83 Source: Field Survey, 2015-16

At district level the food insecure people intensity lies maximum in the daily food insecurity category (47%) which indicates that the food insecure people in the district have more vulnerability. 31% people have food insecurity weekly while remaining 22% have monthly food insecurity. The categories description follows the agricultural and economic conditions of the area. The more economic secure villages have higher percentages in monthly food insecurity category while weekly food insecure category represent the moderate economic prosper region while the poor villages have higher share in daily food insecure category. Villages like Tappal, Anadala, Slaempur, and Barauli have more shares in monthly category, which refers that, the food insecure people in these villages faces food crisis not regularly. This also indicates that these villages have better backup or improved food stability so they not face the food shocks rapidly. While, Mahagaura, Chandaus, Baraula, Ramnagar, villages are in weekly food insecurity intensity category. Daily food insecurity intensity category is represented by Samaspur, Adaun, Dado, Lakhatoi, Jhulu villages.

129

These villages have poor food insecurity indicators and also have the higher per cent of representation of vulnerable population as Samaspur and Adaun are poor Muslim dominated villages.

130

References

1. Arlappa, N., Laxmaiah, A., Balakrishna, N. and Brahmam, (2010). Consumption pattern of pulses, vegetables and nutrients among rural population in India. African J. Food Sci., 4(10) : 668-675. 2. Bouis, H.E. (2000). Improving human nutrition through agriculture: The role of international agricultural research. Conference summary and recommendations. Food Nutr Bull., 21: 550-67. 3. FAO, (1996). The State of Food and Agriculture, World Food Summit, Rome. 4. Haddad, L., Hoddinott, J., Alderman, Harold. (1997). Intrahousehold resource allocation in developing countries: models, methods and policies, International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI) 5. Hagenimana, V., Low, J. (2000). Potential of orange –fleshed sweet potatoes for raising vitamin A intake in Africa. Food Nutr. Bull., 21: 414-8. 6. Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR) Expert group (1981). Recommended Dietary Intakes for Indians. Indian Council of Medical Research, New Delhi. 7. Jones, E. (2013). RDA and serials cataloguing. London: Facet Publishing. 8. Joshi, P., & Kumar, A. (2014). Agricultural Growth in India: Performance and Prospects. Yojana, June 2014: 50-56.Yojana. 9. Keaerney, J. (2010). Food Consumption Trends And Drivers, Philosophical Transaction of Royal Society, 365, 2793–2807. 10. Underwood, B.A. (2000). Overcoming micronutrient deficiencies in developing countries: Is there a role for agriculture, Food Nutr. Bull., 21: 356-360. 11. Welch, R.M., Graham, R.D. (2000). A new paradigm for world agriculture: Productive, sustainable, nutritious, healthful food systems. Food Nutr. Bull., 21: 361-366 12. WFP, (2007), Annual Report, “World Food Programme: Be the part of solutions”, Rome.

131

Chapter 6

Women Empowerment and its impact on Food and Nutrition Security

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT AND ITS IMPACT ON FOOD AND NUTRITION SECURITY

Women are the most important link between production and consumption in a food chain. They constitute a significant proportion (43%) in the agricultural labour force in developing nations. They not only have the local knowledge about the diversity of food resources but also have the specific roles in food production. Thus, they contribute to ensure the food and nutrition security. But, still they are often disproportionately affected by poverty and hunger. This can be even more extreme for women from the most marginalised and socially excluded communities such as Dalit in South Asia which face discrimination in their access to basic services and entitlements. Social norms can impose even more restrictions on women‘s mobility, decision-making power and control over family income, limiting their ability to develop small businesses. These kinds of gender inequalities have powerful social and economic impacts. Food security interventions focus only on improving food production and food security at the community level or household level but frequently overlook intra-household gender dynamics. Thus, improving the status of women within the household and at the community level would deliver significant improvements to agricultural production, food security, child nutrition, health and education.

To achieve women empowerment, underlying gender inequalities must be challenged and for this the women should not only be a passive recipients of aid or extension programmes, rather need to drive their own development agenda (Action Aid International, 2010). Evidences show that interventions that address the underlying causes of gender inequality can bring about positive impact in curbing malnutrition. In short, integrated and holistic approaches to agricultural development and food security should be rights-based. Women have human rights and need to be supported in their productive and social reproductive roles. Women employed in agriculture continue to face many specific barriers preventing them from fulfilling their potential as farmers and entrepreneurs and undermining their food security, nutrition, health and incomes as well as that of their families and communities (Food Security and Gender Round Table, 2012). The inability to fulfil their potential also hinders the achievement of national food security goals and the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). FAO points out that tackling the gender gap can lead to

132 improved food security /nutritional outcomes and women empowerment in itself. The pairing of the two concepts of women‗s empowerment and gender equality into one MDG implicitly recognizes that gender equality and women‗s empowerment are two sides of the same coin: progress toward gender equality requires women‗s empowerment and women‗s empowerment requires increases in gender equality (NFHS 3 REPORT, 2005). Empowering women is thus key to achieving food security and can be only achieved by strengthening their asset base—natural and physical capital, human capital, social and financial capital—and by providing the legal and institutional framework to guarantee their command over these resources (Quisumbing and Meinzen-Dick, 2001).

6.1 Women Empowerment in Different Fields and its Impact on Food Security

Unequal gender relations also dominate the agriculture sector which means that women and men acquire and use resources in different ways in different contexts in agriculture sector; which in turn influence the overall food security system. FAO (2011) points out that in agriculture, women generally have smaller landholdings and less security of tenure than men, and are also more heavily dependent on common property resources for animal fodder, fuel, food and other essentials (World Bank, 2009). According to the FAO, if women had equal access to land and other productive resources as men, they could increase their farm yields by 20-30%. Gender inequalities are prevalent in both traditional and modern agricultural value chains. Cultural stereotypes about men and women‘s work govern the role women can play in cultivating commercial crops and marketing produce (Oxfam, 2005).

Primary data about the land ownership by female in the rural Aligarh indicate that there is higher gender gap in asset ownership and its hereditary transfer. Females share a meagre percentage in land ownership in comparison to male in all villages irrespective of their socio-economic conditions. At the district level only 7.74% women are land owner in comparison to the male. This pattern indicated that the females have no share in economic value chain of the agriculture. Deprivation of women from the land ownership also hampers their status as a decision maker in agriculture value chain.

133

Table 6.1 Land Ownership by Female in Aligarh District (%) S. No. Village Yes No S. Village Yes No No 1. Tappal 11.94 88.06 13. Kharai 7.02 92.98 2. Bhojaka 7.46 92.54 14. Adhon 4.41 95.59 3. Mahgaura 6.25 93.75 15. Barola 5.08 94.92 4. Andala 14.29 85.71 16. Shahri Madangarhi 6.56 93.44 5. Chandaus 13.24 86.76 17. Shekhupur 8.47 91.53 6. Nagala Sarua 8.06 91.94 18. Chakathal 5.13 94.87 7. Salempur 6.06 93.94 19. Akarabad 10.00 90.00 8. Barauli Khas 9.38 90.63 20. Mandanpur 7.14 92.86 9. Samaspur 3.57 96.43 21. Tochigarh 10.91 89.09 10. Dado 7.94 92.06 22. Ramnagar 7.46 92.54 11. Mudhail 5.63 94.37 23. Lakhtoi 6.35 93.65 12. Shaduipur Kumrua 8.47 91.53 24. Jhulu 5.00 95.00 Total Female Having Land Ownership 7.74% Total Female Having Land Ownership 92.26% Source: Field Survey (2015-16)

Figure 6.1 Land Ownership by Female in Aligarh District

100.00 80.00 60.00 40.00 20.00

0.00

Total

Dado Jhulu

Barula

Kharai Adhon

Tappal

Bhojka Andala

Lakhtoi

Mudhail

Salempur

Akarabad

Samaspur Chandaus

Mahgaura Chakathal

Tochigarh Ramnagar

Shekhupur

Mandanpur

Barauli Khas Barauli

Nagala Sarua Sahrimadan Garhi YES NO ShaduipurKhumharao Source: Field Survey (2015-16)

Village wise pattern of the land ownership by female indicates that in all villages more than 90% female have no right to land ownership. The negative effect of this gender disparity reflected in the high prevalence of under nutrition and malnourished population, because in these areas female neither maximise their potential as a producer nor transform themselves as an agent against hunger through land utilization. Kharai, Andala, Nagala Sarua, Tappal, and Manadanpur and

134

Chandaus villages have some representation of female as land owner. Andala village has the highest percent (14.29%) female land ownership because of its social structure and females‘ educational status. This village is mainly dominated by upper caste Brahmins, who have respect to their women as compare to the other social and caste groups. Higher land ownership by female is either attributed to the more gender equality in the society or because of land ownership transfer after death of male member.

Barola, Jhulu, Samaspur, Lakhatoi, Adhon have low female share in land ownership either because of rigid patriarchal set up of society or because of the unavailability of land. Samaspur and Barauala have most landless people so neither male nor female have land ownership. While in villages of Lakhatoi, Adhon male are the supreme care taker of the land ownership. Female land ownership pattern explains the causal relation between female empowerment in agricultural sector and food security and emphasis that the land ownership to female positively increases the food and nutritional security status of the population because women invest in the owned land according to the food and nutritional security demand of the household. This approach also enables them to become an integral part of the whole food system from production to consumption level and also to increase their participation in society and empowers them economically and socially which subsequently improve their own nutritional status as well as of their children.

6.2 Women Empowerment in Economic Sector and its Impact on Food Accessibility

ILO/UNDP report on social protection concluded that the economic opportunities created by the act favoured the empowerment of women by allowing them to contribute to household income and decision-making, notably on food, consumer goods, children's education, and healthcare and debt management. Research indicates that women are more likely to channel the income that they control into the nutrition, health and education of their children. Employment, particularly for cash and in the formal sector, can empower women by providing financial independence, alternative sources of social identity, and exposure to power structures independent of kin networks. Women‘s economic empowerment must be accompanied by measures to address broader gender issues including power imbalances, gender stereotypes and

135 discrimination against women. Among and between both men and women, activities that promote discussion and mutual understanding of issues such as gender roles, unequal workload, rights and responsibilities are important for raising awareness, informing programmes and policies and ultimately addressing gender inequality (Roundtable on ―Food Security and Gender, 2012).

Table 6.2 Female Participation in Economic Activities in Aligarh District (%) S.No. Village Primary Secondary Tertiary None 1. Tappal 10.45 4.48 10.45 74.63 2. Bhojaka 7.46 2.99 7.46 82.09 3. Mahgaura 9.38 4.69 4.69 81.25 4. Andala 6.35 3.17 15.87 74.60 5. Chandaus 8.82 13.24 17.65 60.29 6. Nagala Sarua 3.23 1.61 6.45 88.71 7. Salempur 13.64 10.61 3.03 72.73 8. Barauli Khas 7.81 7.81 6.25 78.13 9. Samaspur 35.71 14.29 0.00 50.00 10. Dado 6.35 7.94 12.70 73.02 11. Mudhail 25.35 9.86 2.82 61.97 12. Shadipur Kumrua 33.90 8.47 6.78 50.85 13. Kharai 8.77 5.26 3.51 82.46 14. Adhon 8.82 5.88 1.47 83.82 15. Barula 3.39 13.56 5.08 77.97 16. Shahri Madangarhi 29.51 9.84 3.28 57.38 17. Shekhupur 22.03 5.08 6.78 66.10 18. Chakathal 14.10 5.13 2.56 78.21 19. Akarabad 5.00 8.33 16.67 70.00 20. Mandanpur 26.79 10.71 5.36 57.14 21. Tochigarh 10.91 7.27 9.09 72.73 22. Ramnagar 20.90 11.94 4.48 62.69 23. Lakhtoi 25.40 4.76 3.17 66.67 24. Jhulu 30.00 3.33 3.33 63.33 Total 15.59 7.51 6.62 70.28 Source: Field Survey (2015-16)

136

Figure 6.2 Participation of Females in Economic Activities in Aligarh District

100% 90% 80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% None 20% Tertiry 10% 0%

Secondary

Dado Jhulu

Barula

Kharai

Adhon

Tappal Andala

Primary Bhojka

Lakhtoi

Mudhail

Salempur

Akarabad

Chandaus Samaspur

Mahgaura Chakathal

Tochigarh Ramnagar

Shekhupur

Mandanpur

BarauliKhas

NagalaSarua Sahrimadan Garhi

ShaduipurKhumharao Source: Field Survey (2015-16)

Female‘s economic role is very significant to analyse both from the food and nutritional perspective and their empowerment status. The female participation share in different economic activities also reveals the quality aspect of women‘s role in economic structure of country. The general trend of the Indian scenario patterned out that the female have large percentage share in the primary sector followed by secondary sector and tertiary sector. Females have large concentration in the primary sector because they have no other skills to adjust in other economic sectors. Illiteracy and poverty are other major reasons because of which women have large concentration in primary sectors. The mobile female population has concentration in secondary sectors. But, the third economic sector has low representation of female because they have no skill to adjust in this knowledge based economic sector. The overall skilled workforce in India is only 2% (Labour Bureau Report, 2014) which indicated that females share a very low percentage in the skilled work force of the country. The female‘s participation in economy of the country can raise the GDP many fold (IMF, 2016). The female‘s minimum share in the better earning sector like tertiary sector reduces their role as an earner. They are just primary producers which demand high labour intensive work, with minimum or no wages. This unequal

137 sharing of women in different economic sectors need reforms to bring more inclusion of females in higher income sectors, so they can become active agent of earning in the household. The female‘s rising share in the tertiary sector will improve the socio- economic empowerment of women and subsequently have positive impact on the food and nutritional security of the household and children. The primary data on this aspect also reflect the general trend that women have 16% share in Primary sector, 7% share in secondary sector and only 6% share in tertiary sector, while remaining 70% women are housewives. Village wise data indicates that Samaspur, Shadipur Kumrua, Shahri Madangarhi, Mandanpur, Lakahtoi, Jhulu and Shekhupur have higher percentage of women engaged in primary sector while, in secondary sector Chandaus, Akarabad Baraula, and dado have good percentage and in tertiary sector Tappal, Anadala, Chandaus, Dado and Tochigarh have the higher percentage of women participation.

Table 6.3 Female’s Sharing in Income Earning in Aligarh District (%) . S. No. Village Yes No S. Village Yes No No 1. Tappal 31.3 68.7 13. Kharai 26.3 73.7 2. Bhojka 25.4 74.6 14. Adhon 29.4 70.6 3. Mahgaura 21.9 78.1 15. Barula 33.9 66.1 4. Andala 44.4 55.6 16. Sahrimadan Garhi 39.3 60.7 5. Chandaus 48.5 51.5 17. Shekhupur 37.3 62.7 6. Nagala Sarua 27.4 72.6 18. Chakathal 24.4 75.6 7. Salempur 30.3 69.7 19. Akarabad 41.7 58.3 8. Barauli Khas 28.1 71.9 20. Mandanpur 35.7 64.3 9. Samaspur 46.4 53.6 21. Tochigarh 45.5 54.5 10. Dado 34.9 65.1 22. Ramnagar 38.8 61.2 11. Mudhail 39.4 60.6 23. Lakhtoi 34.9 65.1 12. Shaduipur 42.4 57.6 24. Jhulu 33.3 66.7 Khumharao Total Having Share in Income Earning 35.0% Total Not Having Share in Income Earning 65.0% Source: Field Survey (2015-16)

138

Figure 6.3 Female's Share in Income Earning in Aligarh District

120.0 100.0 80.0 60.0 40.0 20.0

0.0

Dado Jhulu

Barula

Kharai

Adhon

Tappal

Andala Bhojka

Lakhtoi

Mudhail

Salempur

Akarabad

Chandaus Samaspur

Mahgaura Chakathal

Tochigarh Ramnagar

Shekhupur

Mandanpur

BarauliKhas

Nagala Sarua Sahrimadan Garhi

No Yes ShaduipurKhumharao

Source: Field Survey (2015-16)

Females are generally considered as dependent in the household and in economic terms they are non-active. Their non-participation in economy reduces the resource pool of the household and as a result reduces the overall impact on the food and nutrition security condition. The women‘s failure in the economic participation is mainly because of their illiteracy and unskilled nature. Female share in income earning is very limited as only 35% in this resource pool. Tochigarh, Jhulu, Chandaus have good percentage in this aspect while in other villages the women are not actively participating in generation of household income.

Women’s Literacy Level

Women‘s literacy is an important indicator of their empowerment. It not only influences their income, productive capacity, health and nutrition but overall well- being of their family. The women illiteracy is the main reason because of which women cannot share the fruits of empowerment.

139

Table 6.4 Female Literacy in Aligarh District (%) Village Literate Illiterate Village Literate Illiterate Tappal 56.7 43.3 Kharai 42.1 57.9 Bhojka 50.7 49.3 Adhon 38.2 61.8 Mahgaura 48.4 51.6 Barula 47.5 52.5 Andala 58.7 41.3 Sahrimadan Garhi 44.3 55.7 Chandaus 61.8 38.2 Shekhupur 49.2 50.8 Nagala Sarua 50.0 50.0 Chakathal 47.4 52.6 Salempur 43.9 56.1 Akarabad 55.0 45.0 Barauli Khas 53.1 46.9 Mandanpur 51.8 48.2 Samaspur 39.3 60.7 Tochigarh 54.5 45.5 Dado 54.0 46.0 Ramnagar 47.8 52.2 Mudhail 45.1 54.9 Lakhtoi 42.9 57.1 Shaduipur Khumharao 50.8 49.2 Jhulu 41.7 58.3 Literate Female 49% Illiterate Female 51% Source: Field Survey (2015-16)

Figure 6.4 Adult Female Literacy Level In Aligarh District

70.0 60.0 50.0 40.0 30.0 20.0 10.0

0.0

DADO

JHULU

KHARAI

TAPPAL

ADHON

BHOJKA

BARULA

ANDALA

LAKHTOI

MUDHAIL

SALEMPUR

AKARABAD

SAMASPUR

CHANDAUS

SHADUIPUR…

TOCHIGARH

CHAKATHAL

RAMNAGAR

MAHGAURA

SHEKHUPUR

MANDANPUR

SAHRIMADAN…

BARAULIKHAS NAGALA SARUA LITERATE ILETRATE

Source: Field Survey (2015-16)

Table 6.4 indicates that women literacy is highest in Chandaus, Tappal, Anadala, Akarabad and Tochigarh, where nearly 50% women are literate. The women‘s illiteracy is higher in Jhulu, Ramnagar, Salempur, Samaspur, Adhon where nearly 55% of women are illiterate. Women in Samaspur and Adhon which have higher illiteracy is due to their poor socio-economic conditions.

140

6.4 Share in Decision Making

Women have the least share in decision making in all spheres of life and this is represented by primary data collected from the study area.

Table 6.5 Share of Women in Decision Making (%) Village Yes No Village Yes No Tappal 32.84 67.16 Kharai 17.54 82.46 Bhojaka 22.39 77.61 Adhon 14.71 85.29 Mahgaura 20.31 79.69 Barula 20.34 79.66 Andala 39.68 60.32 Shri Madangarhi 18.03 81.97 Chandaus 41.18 58.82 Shekhupur 23.73 76.27 Nagala Sarua 22.58 77.42 Chakathal 20.51 79.49 Salempur 16.67 83.33 Akarabad 33.33 66.67 Barauli Khas 28.13 71.88 Mandanpur 21.43 78.57 Samaspur 14.29 85.71 Tochigarh 29.09 70.91 Dado 31.75 68.25 Ramnagar 17.91 82.09 Mudhail 15.49 84.51 Lakhtoi 15.87 84.13 Shadipur Kumarua 22.03 77.97 Jhulu 15.00 85.00 Source: Field Survey (2015-16)

Figure 6.5 Female’s Participation in Decision Making

100% 90% 80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10%

DADO

JHULU

KHARAI

TAPPAL

ADHON

BHOJKA

BARULA

ANDALA

LAKHTOI

MUDHAIL

SALEMPUR

AKARABAD

SAMASPUR

CHANDAUS

SHADUIPUR…

TOCHIGARH

CHAKATHAL

RAMNAGAR

MAHGAURA

SHEKHUPUR

MANDANPUR

BARAULIKHAS

NAGALA SARUA SAHRIMADANGARHI

YES NO

Source: Field Survey (2015-16)

141

The data indicate that role of women in important household decision making is only 32.12% in very effective manner because of the rigid patriarchal setup. The low literacy and socio-economic status of female reduced their active participation in decision making. Villages like Tappal, Andala, Chandaus, Barauala and Tochigarh have fairly good share in household decision making while in rest of the villages this percentage is very low only 15 to 20%. Women‘s participation positively impacts the food and nutritional security of the household.

6.5 Political and Social Participation

Women‘s illiteracy, rigid patriarchal setup and restriction on mobility are the main reasons of their least inclusion in social and political spheres in India. However, their inclusion in political participation is gradually increasing on account of reservations of seats for females in Panchayati Raj as well as their increasing awareness of social and economic participation.

Table 6.6 Political and Social Representation of Female in Villages (%) Village Yes No Village Yes No Tappal 11.9 88.1 Kharai 3.5 96.5 Bhojka 7.5 92.5 Adhon 2.9 97.1 Mahgaura 6.3 93.8 Barula 5.1 94.9 Andala Shahri 15.9 84.1 Madangarhi 3.3 96.7 Chandaus 16.2 83.8 Shekhupur 6.8 93.2 Nagala Sarua 6.5 93.5 Chakathal 6.4 93.6 Salempur 3.0 97.0 Akarabad 10.0 90.0 Barauli Khas 9.4 90.6 Mandanpur 8.9 91.1 Samaspur 1.8 98.2 Tochigarh 10.9 89.1 Dado 7.9 92.1 Ramnagar 7.5 92.5 Mudhail 4.2 95.8 Lakhtoi 4.8 95.2 Shadipur Kumrua 6.8 93.2 Jhulu 3.3 96.7 Representation In Political 7.1% And Social Aspect No Representation In Political 92.9% And Social Aspect Source: Field Survey (2015-16)

142

Figure 6.6 Political and Social Participation of Women in Aligarh District

100% 80% 60% 40% 20%

DADO

JHULU

KHARAI

TAPPAL

ADHON

BHOJKA

BARULA

ANDALA

NAGALA…

LAKHTOI

MUDHAIL

SALEMPUR

AKARABAD

SAMASPUR

CHANDAUS

SHADUIPUR…

TOCHIGARH

CHAKATHAL

RAMNAGAR

MAHGAURA

SHEKHUPUR

SAHRIMADA…

MANDANPUR BARAULIKHAS

YES NO

Primary data on the women‘s political and social participation reveal that women have very less representation in these spheres despite positive measures taken by government. The women in Dado, Tappal, Akarabad, Tochigarh and Andala have a slightly better participation either due to the reservation of the seats in the local self- government bodies or their higher educational status. But their representation is limited up to maximum 16%. At District level 92.9% women have no social and political participation. The women‘s participation with reference to social aspect is though improving by their association with Anganawadi and other food security programmes.

6.7 Women’s Voluntary Mobility

Women‘s voluntary mobility is an important indicator to know the empowerment status of the female in the society. The women are generally considered to be a home entity and their mobility is highly restricted. In some extreme cases this mobility restriction is also imposed on the mobility for higher education, job, socio-political participation and other empowerment activities, which hamper women‘s ability as an agent of change in the society and they remain as a dependent on the male members in the household. Women‘s mobility is at par with the human resource mobilization for the betterment of women in particular and society in general. Women‘s mobility is restricted either due to safety reasons and other social taboos. Women‘s mobility helps to disperse the knowledge and potential of women as important resources and in turn enables them to learn from the society which empower them multifold and subsequently enhance the food and nutritional security.

143

Table 6.7 Mobility of Women in Aligarh District (%) Village Yes No Village Yes No Tappal 34.3 65.7 Kharai 24.6 75.4 Bhojaka 22.4 77.6 Adhon 20.6 79.4 Mahgaura 18.8 81.3 Barula 37.3 62.7 Andala 41.3 58.7 Shahri Madangarhi 29.5 70.5 Chandaus 47.1 52.9 Shekhupur 33.9 66.1 Nagala Sarua 24.2 75.8 Chakathal 24.4 75.6 Salempur 30.3 69.7 Akarabad 43.3 56.7 Barauli Khas 35.9 64.1 Mandanpur 39.3 60.7 Samaspur 17.9 82.1 Tochigarh 45.5 54.5 Dado 46.0 54.0 Ramnagar 34.3 65.7 Mudhail 33.8 66.2 Lakhtoi 31.7 68.3 Shadipur Kumrua 37.3 62.7 Jhulu 30.0 70.0 Having Voluntary Mobility 32.6% Not Having Voluntary Mobility 67.4% Source: Field Survey (2015-16)

Figure 6.7 Women’s Voluntary Mobility in Aligarh District

90.0 80.0 70.0 60.0 50.0 40.0 30.0 20.0 10.0

0.0

DADO

JHULU

KHARAI

TAPPAL

ADHON

BHOJKA

BARULA

ANDALA

LAKHTOI

MUDHAIL

SALEMPUR

AKARABAD

SAMASPUR

CHANDAUS

SHADUIPUR…

TOCHIGARH

CHAKATHAL

RAMNAGAR

MAHGAURA

SHEKHUPUR

MANDANPUR

BARAULIKHAS

NAGALA SARUA SAHRIMADANGARHI

YES NO

Source: Field Survey (2015-16)

The above table (6.7) indicates that the rural women have very limited freedom of mobility as compared to male. They have high restriction on individual

144 mobility and can move outside the house only in company of the male members of the household. The table reveals that at district level only 32.6% women have freedom to enjoy the voluntary mobility while larger percentage of women (67.4%) need a male companion of their family. This scenario reveals two worst conditions faced by women: (i) they live in highly insecure social environment. (ii) their basic rights are also not easily and freely availed by them because of restriction on mobility. At village level those areas which have some urban influence and higher social and educational awareness have higher percentage of women‘s mobility for various purposes. Nearly one third (33%) women in Chandaus, Mudhail, Akarabad, Ramnagar, Barola, and Dado have freedom to move while in Bhojaka, Chakatahl and Samaspur villages have less than 25 percent women‘s mobility. However, it may be noted that those women who move for working in lower economic sector have negative impact on the food and nutrition security.

6.8 Nutritional Knowledge among Women

The state of food and nutrition security at individual and household level depends not only on availability, accessibility of food resources, but also on utilization of food. The utilization or absorption of food is determined by health condition of people which in turns depend on factors such as safe drinking water, sanitation and hygiene and nutritional knowledge especially of women. Though every individual should have adequate knowledge of different food items and their nutritive values yet it is more significant to women who play an important role in preparation and serving of food in the household.

145

Table 6.8 Nutritional Knowledge among Rural Women in Aligarh (%)

Village Yes No Village Yes No Tappal 47.8 52.2 Kharai 33.3 66.7 Bhojka 40.3 59.7 Adhon 30.9 69.1 Mahgaura 37.5 62.5 Barula 35.6 64.4 Andala 50.8 49.2 Sahrimadan Garhi 36.1 63.9 Chandaus 52.9 47.1 Shekhupur 40.7 59.3 Nagala Sarua 43.5 56.5 Chakathal 35.9 64.1 Salempur 33.3 66.7 Akarabad 48.3 51.7 Barauli Khas 40.6 59.4 Mandanpur 42.9 57.1 Samaspur 28.6 71.4 Tochigarh 45.5 54.5 Dado 46.0 54.0 Ramnagar 37.3 62.7 Mudhail 36.6 63.4 Lakhtoi 31.7 68.3 Shaduipur Khumharao 40.7 59.3 Jhulu 30.0 70.0 Having Nutritional Knowledge 39.5% Not Having Nutritional Knowledge 60.5% Source: Field Survey (2015-16)

Figure 6.8 Nutritional Knowledge Level Rural Women In Aligarh

120.0 100.0 80.0 60.0 40.0 20.0

0.0

DADO

JHULU

KHARAI

TAPPAL

ADHON

BHOJKA

BARULA

ANDALA

LAKHTOI

MUDHAIL

SALEMPUR

AKARABAD

SAMASPUR

CHANDAUS

SHADUIPUR…

TOCHIGARH

CHAKATHAL

RAMNAGAR

MAHGAURA

SHEKHUPUR

MANDANPUR

SAHRIMADAN…

BARAULIKHAS NAGALA SARUA NO YES

Source: Field Survey (2015-16)

Table 6.8 indicates 39.5% women have nutritional knowledge, while remaining 60.5% women don‘t have such knowledge. The main reason for the lack of nutritional knowledge among women is their illiteracy and lack of awareness to

146 nutrition‘s role and importance in food system. Anadala, Chandaus, Akrabad, and Barauli Khas have higher percentage of women having nutritional knowledge. Chandaus has 52.9% women with such nutritional knowledge which is highest among all villages. On the other hand Samaspur, Lakahtoi, Jhulu have lower percentage of women having nutritional knowledge.

6.9 Leisure Time Availability

Leisure time is not only a human right for women but also has an important bearing on women empowerment. Its availability to the rural women is very little because of their engagement in various household work, agricultural work and caring of children which results in less availability of personal or ―me time‖ to women. Due to lack of leisure time women can‘t pay attention to their own health and other social activities. This also reduces the women‘s interaction to the public sphere which empowers them in more innovative ways. On the contrary, women with more leisure time availability have more inclusion in other creative social, political and economic activities which not only benefit them but also other members of their households.

Table 6.9 Village wise Leisure Time Availability for Women in Aligarh District (%) Village Yes No Village Yes No Tappal 70.1 29.9 Kharai 50.9 49.1 Bhojka 56.7 43.3 Adhon 42.6 57.4 Mahgaura 53.1 46.9 Barula 61.0 39.0 Andala 66.7 33.3 Sahrimadan Garhi 49.2 50.8 Chandaus 73.5 26.5 Shekhupur 57.6 42.4 Nagala Sarua 51.6 48.4 Chakathal 44.9 55.1 Salempur 48.5 51.5 Akarabad 68.3 31.7 Barauli Khas 59.4 40.6 Mandanpur 48.2 51.8 Samaspur 44.6 55.4 Tochigarh 67.3 32.7 Dado 63.5 36.5 Ramnagar 49.3 50.7 Mudhail 50.7 49.3 Lakhtoi 47.6 52.4 Shaduipur Khumharao 55.9 44.1 Jhulu 46.7 53.3 Having Leisure Time 55.3% Not Having Leisure 44.7% Time Source: Field Survey (2015-16)

147

Figure 6.9 Leisure Time Availability for Women in Aligarh District

80.0 70.0 60.0 50.0 40.0 30.0 20.0 10.0

0.0

DADO

TOTAL

JHULU

KHARAI

TAPPAL

ADHON

BHOJKA

BARULA

ANDALA

LAKHTOI

MUDHAIL

SALEMPUR

AKARABAD

SAMASPUR

CHANDAUS

SHADUIPUR…

TOCHIGARH

CHAKATHAL

RAMNAGAR

MAHGAURA

SHEKHUPUR

MANDANPUR

SAHRIMADAN…

BARAULIKHAS NAGALA SARUA

YES NO

Table (6.9) reveals that women in the study area have very little time for themselves. Only 55.3% women responded that they had extra time to themselves, whereas rest of women population had no leisure time to enjoy and relax. The heavy pressure of work load to women hampers not only adversely affects their health but also influence other potential. Leisure time availability also depends on the socio- economic and demographic condition of the household. In large household women have less leisure time especially for the younger age group, because of younger age group women share the responsibility of work load maximum. Women in Tappal, Andala, Chandaus, and Barauli have higher time availability because these villages have more diversified economy, small household size and higher women educational status. The better economic condition in these villages results in less pressure on women especially in intensive agricultural labourer activities. On the contrary, women where agriculture is a dominant activity with less diversification have also less leisure time to them. Bhojaka, Samaspur, Baraula, Adhon and Mudhail come in this category, where only one fourth women have the availability of leisure time. Lack of leisure to time women who are engaged in private or government jobs is also profound.

6.10 Representation of Women in Panchayats

The extent of empowerment of women in the national hierarchy is determined largely by the three factors – her economic, social and political identity (Working group report for XI Plan, Indian Government). In spite of many conventions and time

148 bound measurable goals statistics speak of deplorable state of women and they are marginalized from enjoying the fruits and benefits of equality and independent status. Rural women are not getting their due share in development process. Social and political backwardness prevented them from taking part in decision making. Women in both socio- economic and political levels have been inferior to men in the context of Indian society (Dayanidhi Parida, 2010). Women need to be ‗empowered‘ in the realm of political decision making so as to facilitate their ‗real‘ empowerment. About one million women entered Panchayats after 73rd constitutional Amendment Act. The presence of such a large number of women in Panchayats has indeed had a deep impact on gender equity (Nupur Tiwari, 2012).

Figure 6.10 Representation in Panchyat Male Female Ratio

100 80 60 40 20 0

REPRESENTATION IN PANCHYAT MALE FEMALE RATIO

Village level survey points out that in most of the village gram panchayats male dominated the representation. In some villages if the female has got representation as a village head, she mostly works under the influence of the male member of her family because of her illiteracy and less decision making power. Out of 24 villages only 10 villages have female as village head and in rest of 14 villages there is the male representation. The overall ratio of female and male in Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRI) in Aligarh is 0.714 which indicate the gender inequality in political decision making in rural areas. Bhojaka, Akarabad, Ramagar, Lakhatoi, Jhulu, Chakatahal, Shekhupur, and Barauala, Shahri Madangarhi have the female representation.

149

Table 6.10 Composite Z Score of Women Empowerment in Villages of Aligarh District Fiure: 6.11

Village Land Education Income Decision Panchyati Mobility Nutritional Leisure Primary Secondary Tertiary Composite Z Score Ownership Making Representation Knowledge Time Tappal 1.53 1.27 -0.49 1.24 1.26 0.19 1.23 1.65 -0.50 -0.84 0.79 0.67 Bhojka -0.10 0.29 -1.29 -0.09 0.09 -1.18 0.13 0.15 -0.78 -1.25 0.17 -0.35 Mahgaura -0.54 -0.08 -1.75 -0.36 -0.23 -1.60 -0.29 -0.25 -0.60 -0.78 -0.40 -0.63 Andala 2.39 1.60 1.25 2.12 2.29 0.99 1.69 1.26 -0.89 -1.19 1.92 1.22 Chandaus 2.00 2.10 1.80 2.31 2.37 1.66 2.00 2.02 -0.65 1.58 2.28 1.77 Nagala Sarua 0.12 0.17 -1.02 -0.07 -0.17 -0.97 0.61 -0.41 -1.19 -1.62 -0.04 -0.42 Salempur -0.61 -0.82 -0.63 -0.82 -1.07 -0.27 -0.91 -0.76 -0.19 0.85 -0.74 -0.54 Barauli Khas 0.60 0.68 -0.92 0.64 0.59 0.38 0.17 0.45 -0.75 0.08 -0.08 0.17 Samaspur -1.52 -1.58 1.52 -1.13 -1.39 -1.70 -1.62 -1.19 1.94 1.87 -1.37 -0.56 Dado 0.07 0.82 -0.02 1.10 0.22 1.54 0.98 0.91 -0.89 0.12 1.26 0.55 Mudhail -0.77 -0.64 0.58 -0.97 -0.75 0.13 -0.42 -0.51 0.94 0.65 -0.79 -0.23 Shaduipur 0.27 0.31 0.98 -0.14 -0.09 0.53 0.18 0.07 1.77 0.27 0.03 0.38 Khumharao Kharai -0.26 -1.12 -1.16 -0.71 -0.94 -0.93 -0.91 -0.50 -0.66 -0.62 -0.64 -0.77 Adhon -1.22 -1.75 -0.75 -1.07 -1.09 -1.39 -1.27 -1.41 -0.65 -0.45 -1.07 -1.10 Barula -0.97 -0.24 -0.15 -0.35 -0.53 0.53 -0.57 0.63 -1.18 1.67 -0.32 -0.14 Sahrimadan -0.43 -0.77 0.57 -0.65 -1.00 -0.36 -0.50 -0.68 1.34 0.64 -0.69 -0.23 Garhi Shekhupur 0.27 0.03 0.30 0.08 -0.09 0.14 0.18 0.25 0.62 -0.67 0.03 0.11 Chakathal -0.95 -0.25 -1.42 -0.33 -0.18 -0.95 -0.53 -1.16 -0.14 -0.66 -0.84 -0.68 Akarabad 0.82 0.99 0.88 1.30 0.75 1.23 1.32 1.44 -1.02 0.23 2.08 0.91 Mandanpur -0.22 0.46 0.09 -0.22 0.47 0.76 0.51 -0.79 1.08 0.88 -0.26 0.25 Tochigarh 1.16 0.92 1.39 0.76 0.99 1.47 0.89 1.33 -0.45 -0.07 0.51 0.81 Ramnagar -0.10 -0.20 0.50 -0.67 0.09 0.19 -0.32 -0.68 0.51 1.22 -0.44 0.01 Lakhtoi -0.51 -1.00 -0.02 -0.93 -0.61 -0.10 -1.15 -0.86 0.95 -0.76 -0.71 -0.52 Jhulu -1.00 -1.19 -0.23 -1.04 -0.99 -0.30 -1.40 -0.96 1.39 -1.15 -0.68 -0.69

150

Figure 6.11

Village Wise Women Empowerment Status in Aligarh District

151

Table 6.10 depicts the composite Z score values of women empowerment at village level. To analyse village wise status of women empowerment various indicators has been used e.g., land ownership, literacy level, workforce participation, social and political participation, mobility, decision making, share in income earing etc. The Z score values of all indicators are averaged to get a value of overall empowerment of women in the villages. The Data show that Tappal, Andala, Chandaus, Tochigarh, Akrabad, Shadipur, and Dado villages have high rate of women empowerment. The main reason for this well empowered women‘s status is influence of urbanization, economic opportunities, literacy rates etc. Villages in medium category are Baraula, Barauli, Ramnagar, Shekhupur and Mandanpur. Villages having low women empowerment status are Bhojka, Lakhatoi, Nagala Chandram, Samaspur, Kaharai and Adaun. Majority of women in these villages belong to Schedule caste or Muslims. Their cultural and social setup does not provide them favourable environment for their upliftment. These villages also have interior location which reduces their potential to provide opportunities for their females.

152

Table 6.11 Correlation Matrix of Women Empowerment Indicators in Aligarh District

Land Education Income Decision Political & Mobility Nutritional Leisure Primary Secondary Tertiary Ownership Making Social Knowledge Time activities activities activities Representation Land Ownership 1.00 Education 0.897 1.000 Income 0.399 0.308 1.000

Decision Making 0.919 0.942 0.365 1.000 PS Representation 0.933 0.949 0.367 0.939 1.000 Mobility 0.668 0.724 0.602 0.702 0.681 1.000 Nutritional 0.905 0.970 0.345 0.941 0.923 0.713 1.000 Knowledge Leisure Time 0.856 0.883 0.385 0.912 0.832 0.731 0.868 1.000 Primary activities -0.400 -0.454 0.363 -0.524 -0.433 -0.163 -0.474 -0.518 1.000 Secondary activities -0.163 -0.039 0.530 -0.065 -0.073 0.283 -0.079 0.024 0.285 1.000 Tertiary activities 0.872 0.896 0.413 0.954 0.877 0.736 0.924 0.900 -0.500 -0.058 1.000

153

Correlation matrix of the different indicators of women empowerment indicates that they have positive relations with most of the indicators. Land ownership is highly positive to education (0.897), decision making (0.919) and political social representation (0.933). Land ownership has negative relation with primary activities (-.400) and secondary activities (-0.163) because the women having land do not prefer to engage in these activities. Landless women are compelled to go for primary activities in other‘s field or for secondary activities to distant places. Education has highest positive relation with decision making (0.942) and political and social representation (0.949). Education has also high positive relation with nutritional knowledge (0.970) because it broaden the mind-set and thinking of women to exercise their rights. Resource ownership by female improves the other factors of food security also. The negative relation of education with income (0.308) for women indicates that all educated women are not going to share the income earing activities in rural areas. Similarly, decision making power has high relation with tertiary sector activities also. Mobility has better relation with nutritional knowledge as the women move to new places, they come to know the new information related to food and nutrition security.

Table 6.12 Women Empowerment & Its Impact on Food and Nutrition Security in Aligarh District

Women Food Healthy Consumption Household Empowerment Security Score Directory Diversity Score Women empowerment 1 Food Security 0.874985 1 Healthy 0.725121 0.8747 1

Consumption Score 0.690446 0.820427 0.804779 1

Household Directory 0.693118 0.781258 0.836835 0.742335 1 Diversity Score

The correlation matrix indicates that women empowerment has positive relation with food and nutrition security. The improved women empowerment status results in better food security and healthy conditions. Women empowerment also raises the consumption score of different food items up to RDA level and household diet diversity score. Similarly food security has positive relation with healthy

154 population, consumption score and household diet diversity score which means that positive changes in all these factors improve the food and nutrition security. Thus, women empowerment mainly in terms of education, economic, political and other spheres of life can improve the food and nutrition security in general and reduce gender disparity in particular.

155

References

1. Action Aid International. (2010). International Right to Food Theme. Annual Report, Johannesburg, Africa. 2. Gender Roundtable, (2012). On Access Denied – Bridging The Gender Technology Gap 3. National Family Health Survey Report (2005). 4. Parida, D. (2010). Women and Panchyati Raj- A study, Department of Information and Public Relations, Bhubaneswar, India. 5. Tiwari, N. ( 2012). Centrality of Panchayti Raj in resettlement and rehabilitation , Indian Journal of public administration, Volume: 58 issue: 4, page(s): 733-739 6. Working Group of the Report XI plan, on ―Panchayati Raj Institutions and Rural Governance‖, (2014). India.

156

Chapter 7

Gender Disparity in Food and Nutrition Security

GENDER DISPARITY IN FOOD AND NUTRITION SECURITY

Gender has been identified as a strong predictor of nutrition and consumption frequency in most of the food items. Beside sex linked biological differences, gender roles, social norms and expectations cause gender differences in nutrition. In most of the nutritional science researches gender difference in food intake is mainly explained with the help of biomedical, psycho-social and economic factors while use of gender as a central predictor to be analyzed is currently missing. A comprehensive study on gender differences in nutritional intake using gender as a central predictor is thus currently lacking.

Various researches and reports provide explanations for gender disparity in food and nutrition intake. World Health Organization (WHO) reveals that socio- economic indicators specially education and income are positively related with nutrition and is unequally distributed between male and female. Gender-specific body ideals and dissatisfaction with body weight are proposed as potential factors explaining gender specific nutrition. Gender-specific dieting behavior is also expected to determine intake patterns of men and women. Unequally distributed nutritional knowledge (Baker and Wardle 2003; Parmenter et al. 2000) and differences in the subjective importance of a healthy nutrition (Johansson and Andersen 1998) might further elucidate gender differences in nutrition. Baker and Wardle (2003) found that gender differences in the knowledge on recommendations and health benefits of fruit and vegetable consumption explained the largest part of the variance in consumption frequency between genders, even after adjustment for dieting, food preferences and attitudes. The emergence of those knowledge gaps is mainly due to gender-specific tasks in everyday life and the higher sensitivity of women towards health-related topics and dieting (Lupton, 1996).

Gender-specific symbolic values of foods may also influence on gender differences in nutrition. Studies have shown that foods are stereotypically perceived as rather female or male (Christine Fekete et al., 2012). Energy dense, spicy and strong foods are perceived as masculine foods as those characteristics are widely congruent with male attributes (Bourdieu, 1979; Roos et al., 2001), while soft and sweet foods such as dairy products or fruits are rather perceived as female foods as

157 they represent female attributes (Lupton, 1996; Twigg, 1983). Researches have shown that both, females and males, agree upon the existence of gender-specific foods (Lupton, 1996), what might play a role in the gender-specific intake patterns and resultant gender bound differences in the nutritional health. Medical sociology and social epidemiology research literature also conventionally agreed that different biological risks, acquired risks and inequality in the use and accessibility of health care resources result in poor health of women than men.

7.1 Gender Difference in Food Intake on the Basis of Discrepancy Ratio

Food intake is a combined result of different socio-economic-cultural and behavioral factors, so the analysis of the food intake pattern must be explained with these variables. As these variables have direct or indirect impact on all the four dimensions of food security. Though, it is well evident that biologically female consume less than male, but under the influence of some cultural factors this biological disparity results in gender disparity in food intake.

Village level analysis of the gender disparity in food intake is conducted with the help of the discrepancy ratio method. In this method, the whole population of a village is divided into six categories on the basis of their gender and food intake pattern: (1) Male less than his share, (2) Female less than her share, (3) Male equal to his share, (4) Female equal to her share, (5) Male more than his share, (6) Female more than her share.

The results through discrepancy ratio method has been shown in the table 7.1. It represents that food intake disparity between two genders is highly unequal. In “equal to share category” at the district level there is 28.8% male and 24.8% female population. The lowest gender disparity is found in Sekhupur village where 28.6% male and 28.1% female have a food intake equal to their share and display the gender disparity of only 0.5 %. This is followed by Dado (1.4%), Barauli (1.4%), Andala (2.1%), Samaspur (3.1%) and Shaduipur Kumrua (4.9%). While the highest gender disparity in this category is recorded in Tochigarh (7.0%) followed by Shahari Madangarhi (6.3%) and Mahagaura (6.1%) village. The households in „equal to share category‟ mostly belong to those households which have average household size, high income, high level of education and female favoring environment. These populations have the consumption standard equal to their share and represent the healthy category.

158

Nearness to Atrauli and Aligarh city induced the both educational and employment opportunities and raising the standard of living and cultural acceptability of gender equality in the village. In Andala village, upper caste dominance cultural environment reduce gender disparity. The higher educational status of the female in this village is also a dominant factor to reduce the gender disparity. Tochigarh village has the highest gender disparity in this category due to high concentration of lower caste and Muslim population which are socially and economically backward. The cultural environment in the village is also not supportive of gender equality.

The table further reveals that 9.5% males and 15.8% females belong to “less than share category”. The highest share of male population in this category is found in Tochigarh (12.6%) followed by Saharimadangarhi (11.4%) and Nagala Saraua (11.2%). In these villages male consumed less than their share and thus represent poor food and nutritional condition. In Andala (5.4%), Tappal (6.4%) and Dado (7%) male population consume less than their share. The lowest gender disparity in food intake is found in the village of Salempur (0.8%). This trend is followed by Samaspur (1.5%), Andala (2.6%), Baraula (3%),Tochigarh (4.7%), Shaduipur Kumrua (5.2%) and Shekhupur (6.0%) village. The gender disparity in Samaspur village is because of the higher percentage of both male and female are consuming less than share and its main reason lies in the poor socio-economic condition of the village. This Muslim dominated village has mostly unorganized workers with low wages. Low educational status of female, highly oriented patrilineal cultural environment, low income and less diversified employment structure forced female voluntary and non-voluntary to intake less food. The gender disparity in food intake in the children category is though less and only display in rich foods while in young category the female food intake quantity is governed by food intake pattern. Food intake by a female in the last is one of the contributing factors to reduce the food intake quantity for female in most of the households which display the less food intake by a female. In poor households, female intake less food in favor of children and a male member of the family; the higher % of females in the “less than share” category reflect their increased %age in the underweight and unhealthy category.

In “more than share category” at district level 13.2% male and only 5.1% female represent the group. The village Mudhail (14.8) represents the highest gender difference followed by Shekhupur (11.3%) while village Tappal (4.2%) , Dado (3.4%)

159 recorded the lowest gender disparity. The high intake of food by male more than their share represent male favoring attitude in the households. In most of the households the earning male member and the single male child have highest share in food resources more than their share. Female in this category belongs to those households which have equal treatment to both children or are small in size with rich resource base.

Table 7.1 Male and Female Share to their Food on Basis of Discrepancy Ratio Method in Aligarh District (%)

Villages M< F< M= F= M> F> Share Share Share Share Share Share Tappal 6.4 10.6 36 30.8 10.2 6 Bhojka 8 16.3 33.5 28.3 9.6 4.3 Mahgaura 10.2 18.4 30.4 24.3 11.5 5.2 Andala 5.4 8 32.8 30.5 14 9.3 Chandaus 9.7 18.3 29.4 27.2 11.9 3.5 Nagala Sarua 11.2 17.8 28 24.7 14.6 3.7 Salempur 10.4 11.2 30.6 27.4 15.7 4.7 Barauli Khas 6.8 16.4 27.2 25.8 16.6 7.2 Samaspur 10.6 12.1 29.9 26.7 13.2 7.5 Dado 7 15 31.4 30 10 6.6 Mudhail 8.6 18.2 27.3 24.7 18 3.2 Shaduipur Kumrua 11 16.3 30.5 25.4 10.7 6.1 Kharai 9.8 14.2 31 28.1 12.8 4.1 Adhon 10.5 18 30.2 23.6 14.4 3.3 Barola 14 17 27.6 21.4 16 4 Shahari 11.4 15.6 32 25.7 12.2 3.1 Madangarhi Shekhupur 7.1 13.1 28.6 28.1 17.2 5.9 Chakathal 8.4 15.7 30 25.1 15 5.8 Akarabad 11.5 18.6 27.8 25 12 5.1 Mandanpur 9.2 16 32.4 24.4 13.2 4.8 Tochigarh 12.6 17.3 31.3 24.3 9.4 5.1 Ramnagar 9 15.8 30 28.3 13.5 3.4 Lakhtoi 8.8 18 28.8 24.8 15.2 4.4 Jhulu 9.2 20.2 29.2 25.6 10.5 5.3 Total 9.5 15.8 30.2 26.3 13.2 5.1 Source: Field Survey, 2015-16

The female having more than their share represent the better quality of life; while male having more than share display the picture of gender inequality because higher food intake by male is on the cost of female share in total household food. The

160 earning member, either male or female has the highest share in the household food resource allocation. Some female in this category is also representing better position than that of male members and the reason for this is that they are very first born child or are engaged in better employment.

Figure 7.1 Village wise Male and Female Share to Food on Basis of Discrepancy Ratio Method

TAPPAL TOTAL 40 BHOJKA JHULU MAHGAURA 35 LAKHTOI 30 ANDALA 25 RAMNAGAR CHANDAUS 20

15 NAGALA TOCHIGARH SARUA 10 5 MANDANPUR SALEMPUR 0

BARAULI AKARABAD KHAS

CHAKATHAL SAMASPUR

SHEKHUPUR DADO

SAHRIMADA MUDHAIL N GARHI SHADUIPUR BARULA KHUMHARAO ADHON KHARAI

M< SHARE M= SHARE M>SHARE F< SHARE F=SHARE F>SHARE

Source: Field Survey, 2015-16

161

Table 7.2 Nutritional Disease in Male and Female in Aligarh District (%) Villages Vitamin A Vitamin B Vitamin C Vitamin D Vitamin E Vitamin K Iron Deficiency Iodine Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female Tappal 7.7 7.5 0.0 4.5 4.6 7.5 0.0 4.5 4.6 6.0 1.5 0.0 27.7 49.3 0.0 0.0 Bhojaka 9.9 9.0 5.6 9.0 7.0 9.0 4.2 6.0 7.0 9.0 1.4 0.0 26.8 53.7 0.0 0.0 Mahgaura 8.6 7.8 2.9 7.8 4.3 7.8 2.9 7.8 2.9 4.7 0.0 1.6 28.6 59.4 1.4 0.0 Andala 4.3 6.3 4.3 3.2 2.9 4.8 1.4 4.8 0.0 3.2 0.0 0.0 24.6 47.6 0.0 1.6 Chandaus 8.0 7.4 6.7 8.8 6.7 5.9 5.3 5.9 5.3 7.4 2.7 0.0 25.3 51.5 2.7 2.9 Nagala Sarua 9.1 12.9 6.1 8.1 9.1 8.1 4.5 9.7 3.0 6.5 0.0 1.6 27.3 54.8 0.0 0.0 Salempur 10.1 7.6 7.2 6.1 5.8 12.1 2.9 6.1 4.3 7.6 0.0 3.0 29.0 57.6 0.0 0.0 Barauli Khas 5.7 6.3 1.4 4.7 2.9 6.3 0.0 3.1 0.0 9.4 0.0 1.6 25.7 50.0 0.0 1.6 Samaspur 13.8 18.2 9.2 12.5 12.7 8.9 7.7 8.9 6.2 14.3 4.6 7.1 24.6 62.5 4.8 3.6 Dado 8.3 9.5 6.9 9.5 6.9 12.7 5.6 6.3 6.9 11.1 2.8 1.6 26.4 57.1 1.4 3.2 Mudhail 7.1 9.9 4.3 11.3 5.7 8.5 2.9 8.5 4.3 8.5 0.0 2.8 27.1 52.1 0.0 1.4 Shaduipur 11.9 10.2 7.5 8.5 6.0 15.3 0.0 6.8 9.0 8.5 1.5 3.4 29.9 61.0 3.0 0.0 Kumrua Kharai 9.7 8.8 4.8 10.5 9.7 7.0 6.5 8.8 8.1 12.3 1.6 1.8 31.7 56.1 0.0 5.3 Adhon 13.3 13.2 8.0 10.3 8.0 10.3 11.1 10.3 9.3 11.8 2.7 4.4 26.7 60.3 4.0 0.0 Barola 10.4 10.2 9.5 8.5 10.4 15.3 4.5 6.8 11.1 10.2 6.0 5.1 31.3 61.0 4.5 7.3 Shahari 11.3 8.2 5.6 4.9 5.6 8.2 2.8 4.9 5.6 8.2 1.4 1.6 25.4 57.4 0.0 0.0 Madangarhi Shekhupur 10.1 10.2 4.3 5.1 4.3 6.8 0.0 8.5 4.3 6.8 0.0 1.7 29.0 54.2 1.4 0.0 Chakathal 7.1 9.0 2.9 2.6 5.7 3.8 7.1 6.4 1.4 3.8 0.0 0.0 28.6 56.4 0.0 0.0 Akarabad 10.6 13.3 7.6 10.0 9.1 11.7 4.5 10.0 6.1 10.0 1.5 0.0 25.8 53.3 1.5 3.3 Mandanpur 9.5 10.7 6.3 8.9 6.3 7.1 6.3 5.4 7.9 8.9 0.0 7.1 25.8 58.9 0.0 1.8 Tochigarh 14.3 16.1 7.5 14.5 10.8 16.4 8.0 8.3 7.5 16.4 4.8 0.0 30.2 63.6 3.1 6.8 Ramnagar 8.6 7.5 0.0 6.0 8.6 7.5 2.9 7.5 7.1 9.0 0.0 1.5 25.7 55.2 0.0 1.5 Lakhtoi 11.6 9.5 4.3 4.8 7.2 11.1 5.8 9.5 8.7 6.3 1.4 0.0 30.4 57.1 1.4 0.0 Jhulu 9.4 11.7 6.3 8.3 6.3 8.3 4.7 12.7 6.3 8.3 0.0 1.7 29.7 55.0 1.6 1.7 Total 9.6 10.0 5.4 7.8 6.9 9.2 4.2 7.4 5.7 8.7 1.4 2.0 27.6 56.1 1.3 1.7 Source: Field Survey, 2015-16

162

Gender differences in nutritional status and health outcomes are the result of both intra-household dynamics and biological factors. Different gender roles and associated physical activity differences accentuate the gender disparity in food and nutrition security (Ayal, 2004; Boiln, 2001). Sally (1996) pointed out that in modern sociological and epidemiological researches, analysis of gender differences in health and nutritional status follow the generalized and oversimplified patterns which result in the omission of the complexities in patterns of gender differences in health. In the background of this drawback of research literature, it is important to periodical review of the gender dimension of health. Verbrugee (1988) concluded that the “gender differences in health are rooted in social roles, against the backdrop of some biological disadvantages”. Vlassof (1994) and Okojie (1994) in their study pointed out that the females are at more risk of health deterioration because of susceptibility to infectious diseases, unregulated environment and repeated child bearing and they further argued that, “Gender differences in health vary between societies at different stages of economic and industrial development and with different religious or cultural attitudes towards appropriate gender roles”. Thus, it is necessary to take considerations of the socio-historical backgrounds, age and condition specific views of health when examining differences between male and female (Havio,1986; Wingard,1989 and Verbrugge, 1976).

7.2 Vitamin A Deficiency (VAD)

Vitamin A (VA) is an essential nutrient, which is required in small amounts for the normal functioning of the visual system, growth and development, maintenance of epithelial cellular integrity, immune function and reproduction (Kapil& Sachdev 2013). Its deficiency results in the symptoms like night blindness (poor vision in dim light), xerophthalmia (dry eyes), rough, dry and scaly skin, conjunctival dryness, rapid weight loss, loss of smell, taste or appetite, immune dysfunction, frequent respiratory infection and Bitot‟s spot. Vitamin A deficiency is still one of the major health issue. The Government of India, though operates National Vitamin A Prophylaxix Programme since 1970 (Arlappa, 2011) but its prevalence still threaten the human capital in India. It is well established through researches that Vitamin A Deficiency (VAD) is more dominant in lower socio-economic groups because these groups are not targeted by the government for their micronutrient requirements fulfillment. Lynch and Kaplan (2000) also pointed out that socio-

163 economic determinants strongly influenced the health and nutritional status. They argued that “the social and economic standing of individuals‟ in society shapes exposure to health-damaging agents, as well as determining individual resources to promote health.The level of educational qualification may be important in the creation and maintenance of social inequalities in health, through shaping cognitive skills and learning that are important for maintaining good health”.

Figure 7.2 Village Wise Vitamin A Deficiency in Aligarh District

20.00 18.00 16.00 14.00 12.00 10.00 8.00 6.00 4.00 2.00

0.00

DADO

TOTAL

JHULU

KHARAI

TAPPAL

ADHON

BHOJKA

BARULA

ANDALA

LAKHTOI

MUDHAIL

SALEMPUR

AKARABAD

SAMASPUR

CHANDAUS

SHADUIPUR…

TOCHIGARH

CHAKATHAL

RAMNAGAR

MAHGAURA

SHEKHUPUR

MANDANPUR

SAHRIMADAN…

BARAULIKHAS NAGALA SARUA

VITAMIN A MALE VITAMIN A FEMALE

Source: Field Survey, 2015-16

Table 7.2 shows village wise data of male and female suffering from Vitamin A deficiency. At district level, 9.6% male and 10% female are suffering from Vitamin A deficiency. The higher percentage of male suffered from VAD is found in Samaspur, ShadipurKumharao, Adhon, Shahari Madangarhi,Tochigarh, and Lakhtoi villages. These villages represent more than 10% of its male population under VAD. The lowest percentage of VAD among male population is found in Andala (4.3%). This is followed by Barauli Khas (5.7%), Mudhail and Chakatahl (7.1%). The highest %age of VAD among female population is found in Samaspur (18.2%) followed by Tochigarh (16.1%), Akrabad (13.3%) and Adhon (13.2%). The lowest %age of female suffering from VAD is in Andala and Barauli Khas (6.3%). This is followed by Chaundus (7.4%), Tappal and Ramnagar (7.5%). The gender difference at district level between male and female suffering from VAD is 0.4 %.

164

7.3 Vitamin B Deficiency

Vitamin B is a complex of Vitamin B1, B2, B3, B5, B6 and B12. Major symptoms occur due to these vitamin B group deficiencies include Fatigue, weakness, diarrhoea, weight loss, pale skin, sore red tongue or mouth; loss of appetite, dry, cracked and scaly skin pellagra (a condition characterized by dermatitis), feeling of lassitude or weariness; muscular weakness; loss of appetite; Indigestion or gastrointestinal disturbances; depression, irritability, anxiety or confusion Tongue fissuring etc.

Figure 7.3 Village wise Vitamin B deficiency in Aligarh District

16.00 14.00 12.00 10.00 8.00 6.00 4.00 2.00

0.00

DADO

TOTAL

JHULU

KHARAI

TAPPAL

ADHON

BHOJKA

BARULA

ANDALA

LAKHTOI

MUDHAIL

SALEMPUR

AKARABAD

SAMASPUR

CHANDAUS

SHADUIPUR…

TOCHIGARH

CHAKATHAL

RAMNAGAR

MAHGAURA

SHEKHUPUR

MANDANPUR

BARAULI KHASBARAULI

NAGALA SARUA SAHRIMADANGARHI VITAMIN B MALE VITAMIN B FEMALE Source: Field Survey, 2015-16

The vitamin B group deficiency in Aligarh district is also prominently found and both male and female suffered from deficiency of the different types of vitamin like B1, B2, B3, B5, B6 and B12 etc. Table 7.2 represent village wise data of male and female suffering from vitamin B group deficiency. Apporaximately 5.4% male and 7.8% female of the district has suffered from the vitamin B group deficiency. At village level, table reveals that no male is suffereing from Vitamin B deficiency in Tappal and Ramnagar. Barauli Khas reported 1.4% male suffered from vitamin B deficiency followed by Chakatahal (2.9%) and Mahgaura (2.9%). Baraula (9.52%) has the highest % of male suffered from Vitamin B deficiency. This is followed by Samaspur (9.2%), Adhon (8%), and Akrabad (7.6%) Shadipurkumharao and Barola

165

(7.5%). Highest percent of female suffering from Vitamin B deficiency is found in Tochigarh (14.5%), followed by Samspur (12.5%), Mudhial (11.3%) and Kharai (10.5%).

7.4 Vitamin C Deficiency

Vitamin C is also known as Ascorbic Acid. The major symptoms of vitamin C deficiency include easy bruising and small spots of bleeding under the skin (which appear as pink spots on the skin), swollen or painful joints or bones, slow-healing wounds and fractures, nosebleeds, spongy, swollen, bleeding gums and loose teeth; teeth decay easily, dry brittle hair; dry rough scaly skin, anemia; fatigue or lethargy or muscle weakness, loss of appetite, recurrent colds and infections,and enlarged veins under tongue etc.

Figure 7.4 Villagewise Vitamin C Deficiency in Aligarh District

18.00 16.00 14.00 12.00 10.00 8.00 6.00 4.00 2.00

0.00

DADO

TOTAL

JHULU

KHARAI

TAPPAL

ADHON

BHOJKA

BARULA

ANDALA

LAKHTOI

MUDHAIL

SALEMPUR

AKARABAD

SAMASPUR

CHANDAUS

SHADUIPUR…

TOCHIGARH

CHAKATHAL

RAMNAGAR

MAHGAURA

SHEKHUPUR

MANDANPUR

SAHRIMADAN…

BARAULIKHAS NAGALA SARUA

VITAMIN C MALE VITAMIN C FEMALE

Source: Field Survey, 2015-16

Table 7.2 shows that Vitamin C deficiency is also prevalent in district and affects 6.9% male population and 9.2% female. The highest percent of male population suffered from Vitamin C is recorded in Samspur (12.7%) followed by Tochigarh (10.8%), Bauarala (10.4%), and Nagala Saraua (9.1%). The lowest male population suffering from Vitamin C is recorded in Barauli Khas and Anadala (2.9%), followed by Shekhupur and Mhagauara (4.3%) and Tappal (4.6%). The highest female population suffering from Vitamin C is found in Tochigarh (16.4%) followed

166 by Shadipur Kumharao and Bauaral (15.3%), Dado (12.7%). The lowest female suffering from the Vitamin C is recored in Chaatahal (3.8%) and Anadala (4.8%) followed by Chanadaus (5.9%).

7.5 Vitamin D Deficiency

Vitamin D deficiency is very common in India, affects all the age groups and sexes. Since Vitamin D is a fat soluble vitamin, its effectiveness or supply also depends on the availability of fat in the body. Its function in the body depends on multiple factors like latitude, atmospheric pollution, clothing, skin pigmentation and duration and time of exposure to Sunlight. It is crucial for calcium metabolism and its homeostasis. Adequate calcium intake along with vitamin D is necessary to maintain the peak bone mass achieved by an individual. Vitamin D adequacy during adolescence helps to reduce the risk of osteoporosis later in life. Vitamin D deficiency and low calcium intake are important risk factors for osteoporosis. Vitamin D deficiency causes low bone mass, muscle weakness and therefore increased risk of fracture. Vitamin D deficiency and low calcium cause long standing secondary hyperparathyroidism leading to increased bone turnover causing osteoporotic fractures. Bone mineral density (BMD) is closely associated with Vitamin D level.

Figure: 7.5 Aligarh District: Village wise Vitamin D deficiency

14.00 12.00 10.00 8.00 6.00 4.00 2.00

0.00

DADO

TOTAL

JHULU

KHARAI

TAPPAL

ADHON

BHOJKA

BARULA

ANDALA

LAKHTOI

MUDHAIL

SALEMPUR

AKARABAD

SAMASPUR

CHANDAUS

SHADUIPUR…

TOCHIGARH

CHAKATHAL

RAMNAGAR

MAHGAURA

SHEKHUPUR

MANDANPUR

SAHRIMADAN…

BARAULIKHAS NAGALA SARUA

VITAMIN D MALE VITAMIN D FEMALE

Source: Field Survey, 2015-16

The Vitamin D deficiency is found in both male and female in Aligarh District. At district level, 4.2% male and 7.4% female suffered from vitamin D

167 deficiency. The highest percent of male suffered from Vitamain D is recorded in Adhon (11.1%), Tochigarh (8%), Samaspur (7.7%) and Chaaktahal (7.1%). While Tappal, Barauli Khas, Shekhupur, Shadipur Khumaharao recorded zero percent male population in this category. This is followed by Andala (1.4%) and Shahari Madangarhi (2.8%). The female in the highest category is also recorded in Jhulu (12.7%) followed by Akrabad (10%), Nagala Sarua (9.7%). While the lowest female suffered from vitamin D deficiency is found in Barauali Khas (3.1%), Tappal (4.5%) and Andala (4.8%). The vitamin D disease occurrences are highly localised factor that developed and intermixed with health care, nutrition, food intake and infections.

7.6 Vitamin E Deficiency

It is a well established fact that health and nutrition outcomes are affected by the tradition, religion, culture etc. Symptoms of Vitamin E deficiency include loss of appetite; nausea; digestive tract problems such as liver or gallbladder disorders that result in poor absorption of food; weak immune system; eye problems such as cataracts or degeneration of the retina; weakness in muscles and limbs, and sometimes muscle cramps, damage to nerves, characterized by numbness and tingling or burning sensations in the arms, legs, hands or feet;skin. miscarriages, lack of coordination of muscle movements characterized by jerkiness, clumsiness or instability; Figure 7.6 Village wise Vitamin E deficiency in Aligarh District

18.00 16.00 14.00 12.00 10.00 8.00 6.00 4.00 2.00

0.00

DADO

TOTAL

JHULU

KHARAI

TAPPAL

ADHON

BHOJKA

BARULA

ANDALA

LAKHTOI

MUDHAIL

SALEMPUR

AKARABAD

SAMASPUR

CHANDAUS

SHADUIPUR…

TOCHIGARH

CHAKATHAL

RAMNAGAR

MAHGAURA

SHEKHUPUR

MANDANPUR

SAHRIMADAN… BARAULIKHAS NAGALA SARUA VITAMIN E MALE VITAMIN E FEMALE

Source: Field Survey, 2015-16

Table 7.2 reveals that vitamin E deficiency at district level is also recorded differently for male (5.7%) and female (8.7%). The highest percent of male suffered

168 from vitamin E is found in Baraula (11.1%) followed by Adhon (9.3%), Shadipur Kumrua (8.9 %). While Andala and Barauli recorded no male suffering from vitamin E, followed by Chakathal (1.4%), Mahagaura (2.9%) and nagala Sarua (3%). Thochigarh (16.4%), Samaspur (14.3%), Kharai (12.3%), Adhon (11.8%) recorded highest vitamin E deficiency in the female category. On the other hand Andala (3.2%), Chakatahal (3.8%), Mahagauara (4.7%) recorded the lowest percentage of female population in Vitamin E deficiency. The higher percentage of females suffer because of unawareness and not fulfillment of their special needs.

7.7 Vitamin K Deficiency

Vitamin K deficiency is genetic induced which is also called as Hemophilia, in which the blood clotting is hampered in case of injury. Its major symptoms include easy bleeding, osteoporosis or low bone mineral density, bones fracture etc.

Figure 7.7 Aligarh District: Village Wise Vitamin K Deficiency

8.00 7.00 6.00 5.00 4.00 3.00 2.00 1.00

0.00

DADO

TOTAL

JHULU

KHARAI

TAPPAL

ADHON

BHOJKA

BARULA

ANDALA

LAKHTOI

MUDHAIL

SALEMPUR

AKARABAD

SAMASPUR

CHANDAUS

SHADUIPUR…

TOCHIGARH

CHAKATHAL

RAMNAGAR

MAHGAURA

SHEKHUPUR

MANDANPUR

SAHRIMADAN…

BARAULIKHAS NAGALA SARUA

VITAMIN K MALE VITAMIN K FEMALE

Source: Field Survey, 2015-16

At district level, 1.4% male and 2.0% female suffered from vitamin K deficiency. At village level the Barauala (6%), Tochigrah (4.8%), Samaspur (4.6%) recorded the highest %age of male population suffering from Vitamin K deficiency. While most of the villages recorded no vitamin K deficiency in Male category. The highest percentages of female suffering from Vitamin K are recorded in Smaspur (7.1%) and Tochigarh, followed by Barauala (5.1%), Adhon (4.4%). Tappal, Bhojaka,

169

Chanadaus, Chakatahal and Akarabd recorded no sign of female population suffering from vitamin K.

7.8 Iron Deficiency Anemia (IDA)

Iron deficiency is more fatal to human health as it causes the Anemia, particularly among females and more in rural areas, where people often move bare footed on their worm infested fields. Anemia has a negative effect on cognitive performance in adolescents. Female suffers more from Anemia, because of high menstrual blood loss and their biological role of reproduction. Major symptoms of Anemia include Koilonchiya (spoon nails), brittle or flaking nails, Pallor of mucous membrane (pale skin), Restless legs, Itchy Skin (pruritus) etc.

Figure 7.8 Aligarh District: Village wise Iron deficiency

70.00 60.00 50.00 40.00 30.00 20.00 10.00

0.00

DADO

TOTAL

JHULU

KHARAI

TAPPAL

ADHON

BHOJKA

BARULA

ANDALA

LAKHTOI

MUDHAIL

SALEMPUR

AKARABAD

SAMASPUR

CHANDAUS

SHADUIPUR…

TOCHIGARH

CHAKATHAL

RAMNAGAR

MAHGAURA

SHEKHUPUR

MANDANPUR

SAHRIMADAN…

BARAULIKHAS NAGALA SARUA

IRON DEFICENCY MALE IRON DEFICENCY FEMALE

Source: Field Survey, 2015-16

Iron deficiency is strongly predominant in Aligarh district as 27.6% male and 56.1% female suffered from this. The highest percentage of iron deficiency among male is found in Barauala (31.3%), followed by Lakhatoi (30.4%) and Tochigarh (30.2%). On the other hand, the lowest male population suffered from iron deficiency is in Andala, Samaspur (24.6%), Chandaus (25.3%) and Shahari Madangarhi (25.4%). The highest female percentage suffered from iron deficiency is recorded in Tochigarh (63.3%), followed by Samaspur (62.5%) and Barauala (61%). Andala (47.6%), Tappal (49.3 %) and Barauli Khas (50 %).

170

7.9 Iodine Deficiency Disorder (IDD)

Iodine is an important nutrient for healthy development. It is vital for mental development in children. Its prevalence is though declined because of awareness and introduction of iodized salt. Still it appears in many areas because of less nutritional knowledge about the importance of consumption of iodized salt and few areas are iodine deficient. Its main symptoms are enlargement of the thyroid gland, which is known as Goiter or “Ghengha” in local language.

Figure 7.9 Aligarh District: Village wise Iodine deficiency

8.00 7.00 6.00 5.00 4.00 3.00 2.00 1.00

0.00

DADO

TOTAL

JHULU

KHARAI

TAPPAL

ADHON

BHOJKA

BARULA

ANDALA

LAKHTOI

MUDHAIL

SALEMPUR

AKARABAD

SAMASPUR

CHANDAUS

SHADUIPUR…

TOCHIGARH

CHAKATHAL

RAMNAGAR

MAHGAURA

SHEKHUPUR

MANDANPUR

SAHRIMADAN…

BARAULIKHAS NAGALA SARUA

IODINE MALE IODINE FEMALE

From the table 7.2 it can be said that iodine deficiency is recorded 1.3% in male and 1.7% in female. At village level the highest male population suffered from iodine deficiency is recorded in Samaspur (4.8%) followed Baraula (4.5%) and Adhon (4%). Most of the village did not have report the occurrence of iodine deficiency symptoms. Baraula (7.3%), Tochigarh (6.8%) and Kharai (5.3%) recorded the highest female sufferers. On the other hand , most of the villages have not reported any cases of IDD.

171

Table 7.3 Aligarh District: Vitamins Deficiency Score (Male)

Vitamins Deficiency Score (Male) Vitamin Vitamin Vitamin Vitamin Vitamin Vitamin Iron Iodine Composite Z Score Village A B C D E K Deficency Z Score Z Score Z Score Z Score Z Score Z Score Z Score Z Score Tappal -0.80 -2.10 -0.94 -1.51 -0.38 0.07 0.03 -0.81 -0.81 Bhojka 0.10 0.09 0.04 0.00 0.47 0.00 -0.39 -0.81 -0.06 Mahgaura -0.43 -0.99 -1.08 -0.49 -1.00 -0.81 0.45 0.09 -0.53 Andala -2.18 -0.41 -1.64 -1.00 -2.00 -0.81 -1.42 -0.81 -1.28 Chandaus -0.67 0.49 -0.11 0.39 -0.13 0.72 -1.09 0.87 0.06 Nagala Sarua -0.22 0.26 0.87 0.11 -0.94 -0.81 -0.16 -0.81 -0.21 Salempur 0.22 0.72 -0.46 -0.48 -0.48 -0.81 0.64 -0.81 -0.18 Barauli Khas -1.62 -1.55 -1.65 -1.51 -2.00 -0.81 -0.91 -0.81 -1.36 Samaspur 1.76 1.49 2.33 1.23 0.16 1.84 -1.42 2.19 1.20 Dado -0.53 0.60 0.00 0.47 0.43 0.79 -0.58 0.07 0.16 Mudhail -1.02 -0.43 -0.50 -0.49 -0.50 -0.81 -0.25 -0.81 -0.60 Shaduipur 0.97 0.80 -0.39 -1.51 1.14 0.05 1.06 1.07 0.40 Kumrua Kharai 0.03 -0.22 1.11 0.79 0.83 0.12 -0.86 -0.81 0.12 Adhon 1.54 1.01 0.43 2.46 1.27 0.72 -0.44 1.71 1.09 Barola 0.35 1.60 1.42 0.09 1.90 2.62 1.71 2.01 1.46 Shahari 0.69 0.09 -0.53 -0.51 -0.03 0.00 -1.05 -0.81 -0.27 Madangarhi Shekhupur 0.22 -0.41 -1.05 -1.51 -0.48 -0.81 0.64 0.11 -0.41 Chakathal -1.02 -0.99 -0.50 1.04 -1.50 -0.81 0.45 -0.81 -0.52 Akarabad 0.41 0.85 0.87 0.11 0.12 0.06 -0.86 0.15 0.21 Mandanpur -0.04 0.37 -0.24 0.75 0.78 -0.81 1.90 -0.81 0.24 Tochigarh 1.94 0.80 1.55 1.34 0.62 1.93 1.20 1.13 1.31 Ramnagar -0.43 -2.10 0.66 -0.49 0.50 -0.81 -0.91 -0.81 -0.55 Lakhtoi 0.82 -0.41 0.12 0.56 1.05 0.02 1.29 0.11 0.44 Jhulu -0.10 0.33 -0.28 0.16 0.19 -0.81 0.96 0.18 0.08 Source: Field Survey (2015-16)

172

Table 7.4 Aligarh District: Vitamins Deficiency Score (Female)

Vitamins Deficiency Score (Female)

Vitamin Vitamin Vitamin Vitamin Vitamin Vitamin Iron Iodine Composite Z Score Village A B C D E K Deficency Z Score Z Score Z Score Z Score Z Score Z Score Z Score Z Score

Tappal -0.87 -1.13 -0.52 -1.31 -0.88 -0.93 -1.62 -0.82 -1.01

Bhojka -0.36 0.37 -0.07 -0.64 0.10 -0.93 -0.55 -0.82 -0.36

Mahgaura -0.75 -0.01 -0.41 0.19 -1.29 -0.20 0.80 -0.82 -0.31

Andala -1.24 -1.56 -1.34 -1.18 -1.79 -0.93 -2.02 -0.07 -1.27

Chandaus -0.90 0.33 -1.00 -0.68 -0.43 -0.93 -1.09 0.56 -0.52

Nagala Sarua 0.97 0.07 -0.34 1.03 -0.72 -0.17 -0.29 -0.82 -0.03

Salempur -0.83 -0.60 0.89 -0.60 -0.35 0.49 0.37 -0.82 -0.18

Barauli Khas -1.28 -1.06 -0.89 -1.92 0.23 -0.20 -1.45 -0.08 -0.83

Samaspur 2.75 1.56 -0.08 0.69 1.83 2.41 1.54 0.86 1.45

Dado -0.17 0.56 1.07 -0.47 0.80 -0.19 0.26 0.67 0.32

Mudhail -0.06 1.14 -0.22 0.48 -0.07 0.39 -0.94 -0.16 0.07

Shaduipur 0.05 0.21 1.84 -0.27 -0.06 0.66 1.19 -0.82 0.35 Kumrua

Kharai -0.42 0.90 -0.66 0.62 1.18 -0.11 0.02 1.65 0.40

Adhon 1.08 0.82 0.34 1.31 1.01 1.13 1.02 -0.82 0.74

Barola 0.05 0.21 1.84 -0.27 0.49 1.45 1.19 2.60 0.94

Shahari -0.62 -0.98 -0.30 -1.11 -0.15 -0.16 0.32 -0.82 -0.48 Madangarhi

Shekhupur 0.05 -0.92 -0.73 0.49 -0.61 -0.13 -0.43 -0.82 -0.39

Chakathal -0.36 -1.77 -1.62 -0.44 -1.57 -0.93 0.09 -0.82 -0.93

Akarabad 1.12 0.72 0.75 1.18 0.44 -0.93 -0.65 0.75 0.42

Mandanpur 0.23 0.36 -0.62 -0.92 0.09 2.41 0.69 0.02 0.28

Tochigarh 2.04 2.24 2.18 0.43 2.51 -0.93 1.82 2.36 1.58

Ramnagar -0.87 -0.63 -0.52 0.03 0.10 -0.23 -0.20 -0.12 -0.30

Lakhtoi -0.17 -1.03 0.59 0.96 -0.75 -0.93 0.26 -0.82 -0.24

Jhulu 0.55 0.16 -0.26 2.40 -0.11 -0.15 -0.25 -0.04 0.29 Source: Field Survey, 2015-16

173

Figure 7.10 Aligarh District: Vitamins Deficiency Score (Female)

Source: Field Survey, 2015-16

Figure 7.11 Aligarh District: Vitamins Deficiency Score (Male)

Source: Field Survey, 2015-16

174

Figure 7.10 and 7.11 indicate composite Z Score for different nutritional diseases for female and male in district respectively. Villages such as Tochigarh, Kharai, Barola, Akrabd and Samaspur have higher percentage of female suffered from different types of nutritional diseases. The higher occurance of nutritionall deficient women in these villages is mainly because of the poor scio-economic and health infrastructure. Mahagaura, Nagala Sarua, Salempur, Mudhail and Ramnagar villages represent the women population having nutrional deficiency at medium level. In the villages of Tappal, Chandaus, Barauli Khas, and Andala the women have very low nutritional difeciencies and this is mainly attributed to the awerness among women due to their high educational and economical level.

Male population suffering from different type of nutritional diseases also variedly distributed in different villages of district. Tochigarh, Kharai, Adhaun, Samaspur and Lakhatoi villages have the highest percentage of male population suffereing from various nutritional diseases. But, the proportion of nutritional diseased male is lower in Tappal, Andala, Shekhupur, Chakatahal, and Barauli Khas villages. This spatial pattern of nutritional difeciency thus reveals that villages with better health care, economic coditions, and empowered women with better nutritional knowledge have lower share of their population in occurance of nutritional diseases.

7.10 Gender Disparity in Nutrition Security in Aligarh District

Body mass index is a very good indictor of the status of health and nutrtion of people. It is an outcome indicator of long term consumption of food (Zaidy, N., 2014). Therefore in the present study the status of nutrition security has been assessed on the basis of BMI.

The BMI was computed using the standard formula.

BMI= Weight(Kg.)/ Height(m)2

Any one with BMI below 18.5 is categorised as Underweight (Chronic energy Deficient). BMI of 25.00 and above as overweight. People having BMI from 18.50 to 24.99 are classified as having normal weight (Healthy Population).

175

Table: 7.5 Aligarh District: Village Wise Underweight (CED) and Healthy Population (%) Village Underweight Healthy Overweight Tappal 30.39 63.71 5.90 Bhojka 34.39 61.91 3.70 Mahgaura 36.13 59.67 4.20 Andala 28.57 67.63 3.80 Chandaus 30.00 67.20 2.80 Nagala Sarua 34.32 60.38 5.30 Salempur 32.79 61.71 5.50 Barauli Khas 30.85 65.95 3.20 Samaspur 40.40 55.60 4.00 Dado 34.65 63.35 2.00 Mudhail 37.22 58.38 4.40 Shaduipur Kumrua 34.08 59.22 6.70 Kharai 42.26 55.94 1.80 Adhon 46.80 50.70 2.50 Barola 39.77 57.33 2.90 Shahari Madangarhi 35.71 58.89 5.40 Shekhupur 33.14 65.16 1.70 Chakathal 33.33 63.47 3.20 Akarabad 32.09 65.81 2.10 Mandanpur 34.29 60.01 5.70 Tochigarh 34.13 64.67 1.20 Ramnagar 34.78 61.32 3.90 Lakhtoi 36.76 60.04 3.20 Jhulu 38.12 59.08 2.80 Total 35.21 61.13 3.7 Source: Field Survey, 2015-16

176

Figure 7.12

Village Wise Underweight (CED) Healthy and Overweight Population in Aligarh District

70.00 60.00 50.00 40.00 30.00 20.00 10.00

0.00

Total

Jhulu

Kharai

Barola

Dadon

Adhon

Tappal

Andala

Lakhtoi

Bhojaka

Mudhail

Salempur

Akarabad

Chandaus

Samaspur

Tochigarh

Chakathal

Ramnagar

Shaduipur…

Mahgaura

Shekhupur

Mandanpur

BarauliKhas

Nagala Sarua ShahariMadangarhi

Underweight Healthy Overweight

Source: Field Survey, 2015-16

The status of nutrition is depicted in table (7.5) which reveals that in Aligarh Distrcit out of total population 61.13% is healthy population, while 35.21% population is underweight, 3.7% population is overweight. The proportion of overweight and Obsess population is lower because most of the people in the rural areas are mainly enganged in agricultural activities which require more physical workso they burn their extra calorie. The district has twin economic base effect on its food and nutritional profile, resulting in higher percentage of the healthy population. Firsly, the district has its location in Ganga- Yamuna doabfertile plain making it agriculturally more productive which secures the high availability of food to the population. Secondly, the district lies in the economic shadow of the Nation Capital Region, Delhi (NCR) which increases the accessibility dimension of the food and nutritional profile in favour of the population. But, the presence of more than one third population in underweight category deeply point their poverty and lack of purchasing power as well as their poor health condition. The poor performances in the utilization category is not only because of the lacking of sanitation and safe drinking water facility; but the lack of female empowerment and ignorance of her role and knowledge in creating nutritional sustainability throughout the generations is also an important factor. The explanations of the Asian Enigma are clearly applicable in the

177 surveyed villages also; where women‟s low economic-educational and social profile causes the higher percentages of underweight population specially in the case of women and children.

Village wise analysis of the nutritional profile data indicates that different villages have different proportions of the population in these nutritional status categories. In Underweight Category; Adhon (46.8%), Kharai (42.26%) and Samaspur (40.40%) villages have the higher percentage of underweight population. In these villages the proportion of underweight population is more than 40% ,which indicate that their one-fourth population is devoid of their full development of human capabilities. The Andala village has the lowest percentage of the underweight children and the main reason for this is that the village have higher literacy of both male and female and the other important factor is that the village is mostly dominated by the general Brahmin caste. The nearness to urban centres both Khair and main Aligarh is The reason to the lower percentage of the underweight population in the Andala village. Andala also has the highest percentage of the healthy population. The majority of the villages have more than 55% of their population as healthy. Tappal and Barauli Khas villages dominated in healthy population percentage as they have the higher physic population communities of Jats, Rajputs and Thakurs, with better economic conditions. Specially Tappal has the physical genetics of the Jat community dominance.

7.11 Gender Disparity in Nutritional Status in Aligarh District

The nutritional profile of male and female shows gender disparity. Village wise data indicate that at district level out of the total population more than 50% of male population is found in the healthy category, whereas it is 45% to that of female population. Thus showing a gender gap of 8.80% in nutritional status of men and women. Gender disparity in healthy category is highest in Samaspur, Dado, Adhon, Kharai, while it is lowest Chandaus, Andala, Salempur villages. The highest difference indicates that women have lower socio-economic condition in comparison to male. The villages with minimum gender disparity reflects the women‟s better socio-economic conditions.

The share of male and female in underweight category has no wide gap (3.67%). The spatial distribution of gender disparity in underweight population (CED)

178 is recordedcomperatively higher in villages namely, Chakatahal, Samaspur, Bhojaka, Ramnagara and Jhulu villages. While, it is low in Andala, Barauli and Lakahtoi villages.

Table 7.6 Gender Differences in Nutritional Categories (%)

Village Underweight Underweight Gender Healthy Healthy Gender Male In% Female In % Disparity Male In Female In Disparity % % Tappal 46.77 53.23 6.45 52.11 47.89 4.23 Bhojka 46.15 53.85 7.69 54.03 45.97 8.06 Mahgaura 47.83 52.17 4.35 54.92 45.08 9.84 Andala 50.00 50.00 0.00 53.85 46.15 7.69 Chandaus 51.85 48.15 -3.70 53.17 46.83 6.35 Nagala Sarua 48.28 51.72 3.45 54.95 45.05 9.91 Salempur 46.67 53.33 6.67 52.03 47.97 4.07 Barauli Khas 50.00 50.00 0.00 53.85 46.15 7.69 Samaspur 45.00 55.00 10.00 56.78 43.22 13.56 Dado 45.71 54.29 8.57 56.82 43.18 13.64 Mudhail 49.25 50.75 1.49 52.21 47.79 4.42 Shaduipur 50.82 49.18 -1.64 54.24 45.76 8.47 Kumrua Kharai 46.48 53.52 7.04 56.70 43.30 13.40 Adhon 46.32 53.68 7.37 57.41 42.59 14.81 Barola 48.53 51.47 2.94 56.31 43.69 12.62 Shahari 51.67 48.33 -3.33 56.48 43.52 12.96 Madangarhi Shekhupur 51.72 48.28 -3.45 54.70 45.30 9.40 Chakathal 43.55 56.45 12.90 47.58 52.42 -4.84 Akarabad 51.67 48.33 -3.33 52.76 47.24 5.51 Mandanpur 46.67 53.33 6.67 55.65 44.35 11.30 Tochigarh 47.37 52.63 5.26 56.36 43.64 12.73 Ramnagar 47.22 52.78 5.56 52.59 47.41 5.19 Lakhtoi 50.00 50.00 0.00 54.70 45.30 9.40 Jhulu 46.38 53.62 7.25 55.36 44.64 10.71 Total 48.16 51.84 3.67 54.40 45.60 8.80 Source: Field Survey, 2015-16

179

Figure 7.13 Village Wise Male and Female Population In Underweight Category in Aligarh District

60.00 50.00 40.00 30.00 20.00 10.00

0.00

DADO

TOTAL

JHULU

KHARAI

TAPPAL

ADHON

BHOJKA

BARULA

ANDALA

LAKHTOI

MUDHAIL

SALEMPUR

AKARABAD

SAMASPUR

CHANDAUS

SHADUIPUR…

TOCHIGARH

CHAKATHAL

RAMNAGAR

MAHGAURA

SHEKHUPUR

MANDANPUR

SAHRIMADAN…

BARAULIKHAS NAGALA SARUA

UNDERWEIGHTMALE UNDERWEIGHT FEMALE

Source: Field Survey, 2015-16

Figure 7.14 Village Wise Male and Female Population In Healthy Category in Aligarh District

70.00 60.00 50.00 40.00 30.00 20.00 10.00

0.00

DADO

TOTAL

JHULU

KHARAI

TAPPAL

ADHON

BHOJKA

BARULA

ANDALA

LAKHTOI

MUDHAIL

SALEMPUR

AKARABAD

SAMASPUR

CHANDAUS

SHADUIPUR…

TOCHIGARH

CHAKATHAL

RAMNAGAR

MAHGAURA

SHEKHUPUR

MANDANPUR

BARAULIKHAS

NAGALA SARUA SAHRIMADANGARHI

HEALTHY MALE HEALTHY FEMALE

Source: Field Survey, 2015-16

180

Figure 7.15 Aligarh District: Village Wise Gender Disparity In Underweight Category

14.00 12.00 10.00 8.00 6.00 4.00 2.00 0.00

-2.00

DADO TOTAL

-4.00 JHULU

KHARAI

TAPPAL

ADHON

BHOJKA

BARULA

ANDALA

LAKHTOI

MUDHAIL

SALEMPUR

AKARABAD

SAMASPUR

CHANDAUS

TOCHIGARH

CHAKATHAL

RAMNAGAR

MAHGAURA

SHEKHUPUR

MANDANPUR

BARAULIKHAS NAGALA SARUA

GENDER DISPARITY IN UNDERWEIGHT SAHRIMADANGARHI

SHADUIPURKHUMHARAO Source: Field Survey, 2015-16

Figure: 7.16

Village Wise Gender Disparity In Healthy Category in Aligarh District

18.00 16.00 14.00 12.00 10.00 8.00 6.00 4.00 2.00

0.00

DADO

TOTAL

JHULU

KHARAI

TAPPAL

ADHON

BHOJKA

BARULA

ANDALA

LAKHTOI

MUDHAIL

SALEMPUR

AKARABAD

SAMASPUR

CHANDAUS

SHADUIPUR…

TOCHIGARH

CHAKATHAL

RAMNAGAR

MAHGAURA

SHEKHUPUR

MANDANPUR

BARAULIKHAS

NAGALA SARUA SAHRIMADANGARHI

GENDER DISPARITY IN HEALTHY

Source: Field Survey, 2015-16

181

7.12 Food Allocation, Consumption, Buffering, and Influence of Social Taboos and Customs by Gender

Intra household dynamics of food resource allocation and their gender wise consumption pattern are not only remaining a field of nutrition scientists, but it became a multi-disciplinary arena. In this area of research anthropologists, health, and development experts are intensively investigating and contributing to unravel the nature and underlying causes of gender bound discrimination within households. Nutritional anthropologists initially in their research, explore the economic,medical, ecological, and sociocultural dimensions of intra household resources allocations dynamics and pointed out that the local ethnic and cultural household factors determinately govern the nutritional and health outcomes. The research literature of the nutritional Anthropologist laid the foundation of ‘demographic anthropology’ which analyses the cultural rules and attitudes which govern the survival patterns of male and female in particular resource contexts.

Ellen Messer (1997) brings out the fact that “the multiple cultural, economic, and biological factors contribute to gender or age based discrimination or neglect.” She also researched that the “individual energy intake, food consumption and health and nutritional status are the outcome of multiple household factors, including economic and social resources, hygienic environment, cultural notions of what constitute adequate food, nutritional needs, and vulnerability to illness for different ages and gender categories, and resource allocation rules.”

Allocation of food resources in households with gender perspectives is analyzed with different models of “contributions”, “investment”, “cooperative” etc. But most of the studies revealed that not “needs” but the “contributions” and “bargaining power” determine the food allocation in the households.

Further, deep analysis of the pro male pattern of food allocation in households are explained by the cultural anthropologist on the basis of “nutritional beliefs” of “good food” and “bad food” which are determined by local culture on basis of their unique and highly endemic specific beliefs and practices. Food buffering, priority serving of food for male, denial of specific food to particular members, which result in gender differences in food and nutritional security, are not intentional rather they are ingrained in daily routine of the females and their such behavioral attitude is

182 highly guided by local cultural beliefs Ellen Messer (1997). Das Gupta, M. (1995) in his research pointed out that female‟s food consumption pattern is also governed by their adoption of “self-deprivation method’, in which they follow “culturally guided food rules” for consumption, which may be nutritionally deficient scientifically; but in their understanding this consumption pattern is not harmful for their nutritional and health status. Thus, “the females perceive their nutritional need according to local understandings of nutrition, health, and development”. In this cultural perspective explanation of less consumption of the female is “purposely” not “deprivation intentionally”.

Gender disparity in food allocation and consumption can‟t only be explained in the background of cultural phenomena because they are highly “complex” on one hand and on the other hand biological factors also govern the gender based discrimination in food and nutritional security. Thus, the better understanding of gender based discrimination in food and nutritional security can only be possible through “biocultural assessment”.

7.13 Serving of Food to Male and Female

District level data of serving of food reveals that in most of the cases all the members of the household are not having the food at the same time. First the male memebrs are given preferences in food serving followed by female. Nearly 92% males have first serving of food in household while only 2.1% in case of females.

183

Table 7.7

Order of Food Serving to Male and Female in Aligarh District (%)

Village Male First Female First Together Tappal 83.3 0.0 16.7 Bhojka 90.0 3.3 6.7 Mahgaura 96.7 0.0 3.3 Andala 83.3 6.7 10.0 Chandaus 100.0 0.0 0.0 Nagala Sarua 100.0 0.0 0.0 Salempur 100.0 0.0 0.0 Barauli Khas 86.7 0.0 13.3 Samaspur 66.7 0.0 33.3 Dado 90.0 3.3 6.7 Mudhail 100.0 0.0 0.0 Shaduipur Khumharao 100.0 0.0 0.0 Kharai 93.3 6.7 0.0 Adhon 96.7 3.3 0.0 Barula 90.0 0.0 10.0 Sahrimadan Garhi 93.3 6.7 0.0 Shekhupur 76.7 10.0 13.3 Chakathal 100.0 0.0 0.0 Akarabad 100.0 0.0 0.0 Mandanpur 93.3 3.3 3.3 Tochigarh 90.0 0.0 10.0 Ramnagar 100.0 0.0 0.0 Lakhtoi 100.0 0.0 0.0 Jhulu 93.3 6.7 0.0 Total 92.6 2.1 5.3 Source : Field Survey, 2015-16

184

Figure 7.17 Food Serving by Gender in Aligarh District

100.0 80.0 60.0 40.0 20.0

0.0

TAPPAL

BHOJKA

DADO

ANDALA

NAGALA…

ADHON

KHARAI

CHANDAUS

MAHGAURA

SALEMPUR

MUDHAIL

BARULA

SAMASPUR

JHULU

SHADUIPUR…

TOTAL

LAKHTOI

BARAULI KHAS BARAULI

SAHRIMADA…

SHEKHUPUR

AKARABAD

CHAKATHAL

TOCHIGARH

RAMNAGAR MANDANPUR MALE FIRST FEMALE FIRST TOGETHER

Source: Field Survey, 2015-16

Most of the villages display trend of male favoring nature, where more than 90% male consumes first in the household. The female, which have first order in food allocation represent the elderly and single female headed households. Thus, this representation of a female does not mean the gender equality in food serving order. Food serving order also not capture the gender biasness between male and female because this first male serving attitude is not intentional discrimination against women rather it is behaviorally well accepted practices in Indian families. The female and male who consuming together is uniquely highly in Samaspur and it is mainly due to their cultural practices. Together consuming of food is also not a good indicator of better food and nutritional security because at this point the personal choices and gender based consumption pattern gives us the food and nutritional status.

7.14 Frequency of Meal by Gender

Gender disparity in frequency of meal consumption is not a direct measure to access the gender disparity between male and female, as the consumption pattern of an individual is a complex result of biological-social-cultural and economic phenomena. Meal consumption differential though assesses some degree of intrahousehold dynamics, but not unravel the underlying causes of these differences.

185

Table: 7.8 Aligarh District: Village Wise Consumption of Meal by Gender (%) Villages Male Female Difference Male 2 Female Difference Male 3 Female Difference 1 1 Time Time 2 Time Time 3 Time Time Tappal 6.2 7.5 -1.3 87.7 91.0 -3.4 6.2 1.5 4.7 Bhojka 4.2 10.4 -6.2 95.8 89.6 6.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 Mahgaura 8.6 12.5 -3.9 91.4 87.5 3.9 0.0 0.0 0.0 Andala 5.8 9.5 -3.7 89.9 84.1 5.7 4.3 6.3 -2.0 Chandaus 6.7 10.3 -3.6 88.0 88.2 -0.2 5.3 1.5 3.9 Nagala 12.1 16.1 -4.0 87.9 83.9 4.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Sarua Salempur 5.8 10.6 -4.8 94.2 89.4 4.8 0.0 0.0 0.0 Barauli 4.3 9.4 -5.1 92.9 90.6 2.2 2.9 0.0 2.9 Khas Samaspur 16.9 26.8 -9.9 83.1 73.2 9.9 0.0 0.0 0.0 Dado 6.9 12.7 -5.8 87.5 84.1 3.4 5.6 3.2 2.4 Mudhail 10.0 14.1 -4.1 90.0 85.9 4.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 Shaduipur 11.9 20.3 -8.4 88.1 79.7 8.4 0.0 0.0 0.0 Kumrua Kharai 9.7 15.8 -6.1 90.3 84.2 6.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 Adhon 12.0 17.6 -5.6 88.0 82.4 5.6 0.0 0.0 0.0 Barola 13.4 23.7 -10.3 86.6 76.3 10.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 Shahari 4.2 13.1 -8.9 95.8 86.9 8.9 0.0 0.0 0.0 Madangarhi Shekhupur 7.2 15.3 -8.0 92.8 84.7 8.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Chakathal 10.0 12.8 -2.8 90.0 87.2 2.8 0.0 0.0 0.0 Akarabad 12.1 18.3 -6.2 80.3 75.0 5.3 7.6 6.7 0.9 Mandanpur 7.9 14.3 -6.3 92.1 85.7 6.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 Tochigarh 12.7 18.2 -5.5 81.0 78.2 2.8 6.3 3.6 2.7 Ramnagar 4.3 7.5 -3.2 95.7 92.5 3.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 Lakhtoi 10.1 19.0 -8.9 89.9 81.0 8.9 0.0 0.0 0.0 Jhulu 9.4 15.0 -5.6 90.6 85.0 5.6 0.0 0.0 0.0 Total 8.9 14.6 -5.8 89.6 84.4 5.1 1.6 0.9 0.6 Source: Field Survey, 2015-16

District level data about meal consumption reveals that 8.9% males consume meal one time while to that of female it is 14.6 % which shows the disparity of 5.7% between male and female in this category. It was also observed during the survey that people who consume one time belongs to weaker society.

186

Figure 7.18 Gender Disparity in Meal Consumption Frequency

200.0

150.0

100.0

50.0

0.0

DADO

TOTAL

JHULU

KHARAI

TAPPAL

ADHON

BHOJKA

BARULA

ANDALA

LAKHTOI

MUDHAIL

SALEMPUR

AKARABAD

SAMASPUR

CHANDAUS

SHADUIPUR…

TOCHIGARH

CHAKATHAL

RAMNAGAR

MAHGAURA

SHEKHUPUR

MANDANPUR

SAHRIMADAN…

BARAULIKHAS NAGALA SARUA MALE 1 TIME MALE 2 TIME MALE 3 TIME

Source: Field Survey, 2015-16

At village level Baraula, Tochigarh, Samaspur, Nagala Sraua report the highest percentage of male and female who consume food only one time in a day. The representation of male and female from these villages is closely related to SES of these villages. 89.6% Male and 84.4% of female represent the category of population who consume meals two times. The gender disparity in this category is 5.2% at district level. At village level the gender difference is higher for Barauala (10.3%), Samaspur (9.9%), Shahari Madangarhi, and Lakhatoi ( (8.9%), while this difference is lowest for Tappal, Chandaus, Chakatahal villages. The male and female who consume 3 time male is less in percentage because in rural areas there is generally a pattern of two time consumption of food. At district level only 1.5% males and 0.9% females consume their meals three times in a day, reflecting the gender disparity of only 0.6%. The lower gender disparity in this category is mainly because of their higher socio- economic conditions and gender neutral environment.

187

7.15 Food Buffering Practices by Gender

The practice of food buffering is common in most of the food insecure households where there is a lack of food and where there is a lack of adequate food for every member. The female member of the household in some cases offer thier own food to the male counterpart. Skipping of the meal by femaleS some time may be voluntary or self deprivated and in sometime inforced. The intensity of food buffering reflects the degree of food shortage. In extreme cases it is due to chronic poverty and hunger but in moderate cases it is due to seasonal impact.

Table 7.9 Food Buffering in Favour of Male in Aligarh District (%) Village Yes No Always In Emergency Tappal 13.3 86.7 25.0 75.0 Bhojka 23.3 76.7 14.3 85.7 Mahgaura 16.7 83.3 0.0 100.0 Andala 10.0 90.0 33.3 66.7 Chandaus 13.3 86.7 0.0 100.0 Nagala Sarua 20.0 80.0 16.7 83.3 Salempur 16.7 83.3 0.0 100.0 Barauli Khas 10.0 90.0 0.0 100.0 Samaspur 23.3 76.7 57.1 42.9 Dado 13.3 86.7 0.0 100.0 Mudhail 20.0 80.0 33.3 66.7 Shaduipur Khumharao 26.7 73.3 12.5 87.5 Kharai 13.3 86.7 0.0 100.0 Adhon 20.0 80.0 33.3 66.7 Barula 23.3 76.7 28.6 71.4 Sahrimadan Garhi 26.7 73.3 0.0 100.0 Shekhupur 20.0 80.0 16.7 83.3 Chakathal 13.3 86.7 0.0 100.0 Akarabad 20.0 80.0 33.3 66.7 Mandanpur 16.7 83.3 40.0 60.0 Tochigarh 23.3 76.7 42.9 57.1 Ramnagar 13.3 86.7 0.0 100.0 Lakhtoi 20.0 80.0 16.7 83.3 Jhulu 16.7 83.3 20.0 80.0 Total 18.1 81.9 17.7 82.3 Source : Field Survey, 2015-16.

188

Figure 7.19 Village Wise Food buffering Practices between Genders in Aligarh District

100.0 90.0 80.0 70.0 60.0 50.0 40.0 30.0 20.0 10.0

0.0

DADO

TOTAL

JHULU

KHARAI

TAPPAL

ADHON

BHOJKA

BARULA

ANDALA

LAKHTOI

MUDHAIL

SALEMPUR

AKARABAD

SAMASPUR

CHANDAUS

SHADUIPUR…

TOCHIGARH

CHAKATHAL

RAMNAGAR

MAHGAURA

SHEKHUPUR

MANDANPUR

BARAULIKHAS NAGALA SARUA YES NO ALWAYS IN EMERGENCY SAHRIMADANGARHI Source : Field Survey, 2015-16 Table (7.9) shows that 18.1% females practice food buffering in favor of male, while 81.9% female don not have this type of practice. At village level the higher food buffering is recorded in Shadipur Kumrua, Bhojaka, Nagala Sarua, Samaspur, and Tochigarh villages. These villages also have poor socio-economic and cultural background which explains the higher occurrence of this phenomenon in these villages.

7.16 Influence of Social Taboos and Customs in Food Consumption by Gender

Social customs and taboos are important factors that determine the gender differences in food and nutritional resources, especially in rural areas. The categorization of food on basis of gender that which food items should be taken by male and female is to some extent is also controlled by prevailing taboos in less developed socities. Females are advised to avoid the so called hot foods like- eggs, meat etc. There are restrictions on these items on various days also. Pregnant and lactating women are most affected from these taboos in sampled villages. They have not been given more fatty and rich food items because it is considered that it increased the weight of newborn children in the womb that lead to a ceasearen. And more over ,after birth the new mothers are not allowed to take bath or the routine activity ,they are confined to a small damp room without much air and light in an unhyginec conditions. In many villages newborns have not been allowed to take mother‟s milk

189 for many days until is offered to the local village deity. Thus devoid the child from mother‟s first milk.

Figure 7.20 Food Consumption and Influence of Social Taboos and Customs in Aligarh District

90.0 80.0 70.0 60.0 50.0 40.0 30.0 20.0 10.0

0.0

DADO

TOTAL

JHULU

KHARAI

TAPPAL

ADHON

BHOJKA

BARULA

ANDALA

LAKHTOI

MUDHAIL

SALEMPUR

AKARABAD

SAMASPUR

CHANDAUS

SHADUIPUR…

TOCHIGARH

CHAKATHAL

RAMNAGAR

MAHGAURA

SHEKHUPUR

MANDANPUR

BARAULIKHAS NAGALA SARUA

YES NO SAHRIMADANGARHI

Source: Field Survey, 2015-16

It is shown by the data that at district level, 82.2 % female reported that their food consumption and allocation practices are guided by local culture and taboos. This phenomenon is ubiquitously prevalent in most of the sampled villages with variations. However, in recent days the influence of taboos and culture on allocation and distribution of food to some extent is being modified by the impact of changing socio-cultural environment of villages. Only 17.8% female reported that they did not follow the local unhealthy customs which increase the chances of gender disparity in intake of food. This type of impact is visible in villages such as Andala, Chandaus, Akrabad, Dado, and Barauli Khas where urban influences reduce the local customary practices.

7.17 Food Cooked in the House according to Gender Choice

The meanu of food being cooked in the household is largely depend on the like and dislike of both male and female members. However in some of the families where women are less empowered preparation of food is done on male‟s choice.

190

Table 7.10 Food Cooked According to the Gender Choice (%) Food Cooked in The House according to Gender Choice Villages Male Female Both Tappal 6.2 0.0 93.8 Bhojaka 2.8 3.0 94.2 Mahgaura 4.3 0.0 95.7 Andala 1.4 7.9 90.6 Chandaus 4.0 4.4 91.6 Nagala Sarua 7.6 0.0 92.4 Salempur 5.8 1.5 92.7 Barauli Khas 8.6 0.0 91.4 Samaspur 10.8 3.6 85.7 Dado 6.9 0.0 93.1 Mudhail 7.1 0.0 92.9 Shaduipur Kumrua 9.0 1.7 89.3 Kharai 6.5 0.0 93.5 Adhon 8.0 0.0 92.0 Barola 6.0 3.4 90.6 Shahari Madangarhi 9.9 0.0 90.1 Shekhupur 5.8 0.0 94.2 Chakathal 7.1 3.8 89.0 Akarabad 10.6 0.0 89.4 Mandanpur 7.9 0.0 92.1 Tochigarh 9.5 0.0 90.5 Ramnagar 4.3 1.5 94.2 Lakhtoi 5.8 0.0 94.2 Jhulu 4.7 1.7 93.6 Total 6.7 1.4 92.0 Source: Field Survey, 2015-16

191

Figure 7.21

Cooking of Food as Per Gender Choices in Aligarh District

105.0

100.0

95.0

90.0

85.0

80.0

75.0

DADO

TOTAL

JHULU

KHARAI

TAPPAL

ADHON

BHOJKA

BARULA

ANDALA

LAKHTOI

MUDHAIL

SALEMPUR

AKARABAD

SAMASPUR

CHANDAUS

SHADUIPUR…

TOCHIGARH

CHAKATHAL

RAMNAGAR

MAHGAURA

SHEKHUPUR

MANDANPUR

BARAULI KHASBARAULI NAGALA SARUA

BOTH MALE FEMALE SAHRIMADANGARHI

Source : Field Survey, 2015-16

The villages such as Andala, Baraula and Chakathal have an edge over of female‟s choice in preparation of food.

7.18 Favoritism for Male in Nutritional Intensive Food

There is a gender bias in allocation of food within household (Subramaniam, R.,1996) which leads to differential health and nutritional status between male and female. Mortality rates, stunting, wasting and underweight data of South Asia compiled by many scholrs. Behrman (1988) also suggest that the interahousehold distribution of food and health resources favours boys over girls, particularly in northern areas. In India the similar research studies are conducted by evidenced that, “there is a bias against girls in the intra-household allocation of resources”. The underlying reason of this biaseness in resources allocation is parental preferences for son over daughter. Jere R. Behrman (1988). Son preference in intrafamily food distribution, utilization of health services, parental care, and feeding practices, are those behavioral mechanisms through which sex-biased attitudes operates to affect health, nutrition status of male and female differently.Thus, parental behavior and

192 attitude is powerful instrument in the household which governs the range of health and nutritional differences between two gender. Biasness in resources allocation is also influenced by the seasonality and the emergency situations in which females suffer from unequal burden of scarcity of resources and gender disparity.

Table 7.11

Aligarh District: Village Wise Male Favoritism in Nutritional Resources Allocation (%)

Village Yes No Always Sometimes In Emergency Tappal 20.0 80.0 16.7 33.3 50.0 Bhojaka 13.3 86.7 0.0 25.0 75.0 Mahgaura 16.7 83.3 40.0 20.0 40.0 Andala 6.7 93.3 0.0 0.0 100.0 Chandaus 10.0 90.0 0.0 33.3 66.7 Nagala Sarua 23.3 76.7 28.6 28.6 42.9 Salempur 20.0 80.0 0.0 50.0 50.0 Barauli Khas 10.0 90.0 33.3 0.0 66.7 Samaspur 26.7 73.3 37.5 25.0 37.5 Dado 16.7 83.3 0.0 40.0 60.0 Mudhail 20.0 80.0 16.7 16.7 66.7 Shaduipur Kumrua 26.7 73.3 37.5 0.0 62.5 Kharai 13.3 86.7 25.0 25.0 50.0 Adhon 20.0 80.0 33.3 16.7 50.0 Barola 16.7 83.3 0.0 0.0 100.0 Shahari Madangarhi 23.3 76.7 28.6 14.3 57.1 Shekhupur 20.0 80.0 0.0 50.0 50.0 Chakathal 10.0 90.0 0.0 0.0 100.0 Akarabad 16.7 83.3 40.0 20.0 40.0 Mandanpur 23.3 76.7 42.9 0.0 57.1 Tochigarh 26.7 73.3 50.0 12.5 37.5 Ramnagar 13.3 86.7 0.0 0.0 100.0 Lakhtoi 16.7 83.3 0.0 40.0 60.0 Jhulu 13.3 86.7 25.0 25.0 50.0 Total 17.6 82.4 19.0 19.8 61.2 Source: Field Survey (2015-16)

Table 7.11 also indicates that there are evidences of male favoritism in allocation of food within the household. 17.6% of female respondents reported that they prefere to give better quality of food in larger quantiy to male members, while

193

82.4% respondents pointed out there was no preferential treatment for male over female in their households. There are interesting findings in survey that larger segments of female population now move toward the gender neutral attitude especially in food and nutritional resource allocation in the households. The main reasons for this attitudinal change are the new generation brides who are educated and enjoy the same gender neutral household environment in their parental households. Those households which have less educated females also try to follow the gender balance in the food and nutritional resources allocation and this become a model for attitudinal change in the society. The cumulative effects of the government policies for strengthening food and nutritional security, income and employment generation incentives for females ,community awareness through Self Help Groups (SHGs), Aganwadis, and ASHAS, NGOs has weakened the rigid mindset of women towards infant and adolescent girls. Figure 7.22 Male Favoritism in Nutritional Rich Food in Aligarh District 120.0

100.0

80.0

60.0

40.0

20.0

0.0

DADO

TOTAL

JHULU

KHARAI

TAPPAL

ADHON

BHOJKA

BARULA

ANDALA

LAKHTOI

MUDHAIL

SALEMPUR

AKARABAD

SAMASPUR

CHANDAUS

TOCHIGARH

CHAKATHAL

RAMNAGAR

MAHGAURA

SHEKHUPUR

MANDANPUR

BARAULIKHAS

NAGALA SARUA SAHRIMADANGARHI

YES NO ALWAYS SHADUIPURKHUMHARAO SOMETIMES IN EMERGENCY

Source: Field Survey, 2015-16

The rural women in survey mentioned that “food and nutrition is the basic necessity equally for all and if they have sufficient amount of food resources in the households they intentionally not get biased in food allocation”. It was further pointed out by female respondents in the study area that the case of male favouritism for

194 allocation of food in the family increases at the time of food crisis. Out of those who practices male favoritism, nearly 61.2% reported to such practice at the time of emergency, 19% always, and 20% sometimes.

Higher male favoritism is found in Samaspur, Tochigarh, Nagala Saraua, followed by Mudhail, Mandanpur, Tappal, Shekhupur. The male favoritism is attitudinal and behavioral phenomena and governs by the socio-cultural background. Its explanatory reasons are thus case specific and context specific. As, in Samaspur village the Muslim dominated cultural attitude is generally not pro male in food allocation, but it reports male favoritism because of resource crunch. The village has poor socio-economic condition which forces them to allocate more food to male who is earning member of the household. Thus, here investment model and resources utility model of resources allocation in favor of male explain the gender biasness in food and nutritional resources allocation. In Tochigarh higher schedule caste population and poor Muslim population causes the more male favoring attitude. While Nagala Sarua village, has inner location from main town and mainly agricultural bound village cause the pro male attitude over female. Andala, Chanadaus, Barauli Khas have lower male favoritism because of their higher socio-economic condition. Andala the upper caste dominated village and highway location have better influence of urbane environment and the pro female cultural attitude of upper caste Brahmins result in lower male favoritism. Chandaus and Barauli Khas both have influence of urban and local cultural attitude to minimal reporting of the male favoritism in food and nutritional resources allocation.

195

References

1. Baker, A.H., Wardle, J. (2003). Sex Differences In Fruit And Vegetable Intake in Older Adults. Appetite, 40: 269-275. 2. Bourdieu, P. (1979). La Distinction. Critique Sociale Du Jugement. Editions De Minuit, Paris, France 3. Fekete, C., Weyers, S., Moebus, S., Dragano, N., Jöckel, K.H., Erebel, R.,……Siegrist, J. (2012). Age-Specific Gender Differences In Nutrition: Results From A Population-Based Study. Health Behaviour And Public Health, 2(1): 10-20. 4. Johansson, L., Andersen, L.F. (1998). Who Eats 5 A Day?: Intake of Fruits and Vegetables Among Norwegians In Relation to Gender and Lifestyle. Journal if the American Dietetic Association, 98: 689-691 5. Lupton, D. (1996). Food, The Body And The Self. SAGE, London, UK. 6. Parmenter, K., Waller, J., Wardle, J. (2000). Demographic Variation In Nutrition Knowledge In England. Health Education Research 15: 163-174 7. Roos, G., Prattala, R., Koski, K. (2001). Men, Masculinity and Food: Interviews 8. Twigg, J. (1983). Vegetarism And The Meanings Of Meat. In The Sociology Of Food And Eating, Pp. 18-30. Gower, Cardiff, UK. 9. Messer, E. (1997). Intra-household allocation of food and health care: Current findings and understandings—Introduction, Elsevier, Social Science & Medicine, Vol. 44, Issue 11, pp. 1675-1684.

196

Conclusion and Suggestions

CONCLUSION

It may be concluded from the preceding analysis that there is visible disparity between male and female in food and nutrition security in Aligarh District. It is an outcome of differently localized socio-economic and cultural factors with a guiding rule of patriarchal setup. The rigid patriarchy is still prevailing in most of the rural socio-cultural setup with modification in some villages like Tappal, Andala, Chandaus, Akarabad, Tochigarh, and Dado. These villages either have influence of nearby urban centers or developed itself as semi urban villages. Thus, gender disparity in food security is not a result of instant appearing factors in the surveyed areas but have influence of hidden historical, biological and cultural factors. The comparative male -female consumption pattern and resultant food and nutrition security reveal that they are different in nature. Biological demand and cultural supply of various food and nutrient resources to the body is highly mismatched between two genders. This is a question of research from females‟ perspectives mainly because, females became marginalized in both demand and supply of food resources. Biological demand of their body is higher for food resources in comparison to supply by their cultural sources. The most disturbing point is that most of females are not aware about the special needs of their food and nutrition. Their biological roles always make them susceptible to nutritional deficiency.

Villages in Aligarh district have 3 major sources of food availability, from production of their own agriculture fields, market, Public Distribution System (PDS) and others. Chandaus, Dado, Baraula and Akarabad villages have the lower share of food availability from the household agricultural fields, because these villages have higher influence of growing urbanization. Distant villages, such as Kaharai, Lakhtoi, Adhon, and Jhulu have only 10-15% supply of food grains from the market, because these villages are away from the agricultural mandis. Governmental programmes like, PDS/ Antyodaya/ Work for Food Programme/ Old Age Pension Schemes are functioning in the villages to insure food supply. Chandaus shares the maximum (30%) benefit from the government schemes of food security because this village is categorized as “Ambedkar Village” and a large number of poor and marginalized people are availing these schemes.

197

As far as frequency of food consumption in rural areas is concerned households in surveyed villages follow the general trend of two meals per day. One time meal per day consumed by 11.5% of people and the remaining 1.4% of people have three times meals per day and this pattern is found only in semi-urban villages like, Tappal, Chandaus, Akarabad, Dado, and Thochigarh. The impact of higher income also influences the frequency of meal consumption in the households. Villages, like Tappal, Chandaus, Akrabad, Dado, and Thochigarh have 3 to 10% population in this category, because of their improved socio-economic conditions. But, this pattern is only concentrated in semi urban pockets of the village. The primary data indicates that rural households in Aligarh have very less diversified food basket. The main reason behind this low food resource availability and accessibility is mainly because of high poverty. Only 2.1% households have high food diversity score and these households are able to consume wheat, milk, fruits, pulses, vegetable, egg/meat, and fat/oil on daily basis mainly because of their high income and these villages are concentrated in the semi- urban areas.

Food accessibility has been measured on the basis of consumption of income elastic food in the household, livestock availability in the household, consumption of different food items (pulses, milk, vegetables, and cereals). It has been found that 59.9% of population has no access to extra diversity (high protein, rich fat, outside junk food, and income elastic food) to the food basket. Only the 10% population in the district has access to the income elastic food, which comprises the high income group or having higher assets availability. The remaining percentage of district population, including the Muslims, Jats, SCs, and Thukars has the extra protein rich source from their non-veg food items. The low percentage of the non-veg consumption is mainly attributed to the higher percentages of the Hindu population in the areas. Religious taboo about non-consumption of meat in Hindu population is breaking down. The junk food, a product of the urbanization and globalization is rapidly spread in the villages which have higher urban influence and 12% rural population of the district consume this extra diverse food resource; which also result in the obesity and overweight in population.

As far as the consumption of pulses is concerned nearly 58% population not able to consume the referenced diet of pulses while only 42% population have consumption of pulses equal to the reference standard (40grm/person/day). This trend

198 of pulse consumption is the major reason that the rural people are undernourished. The main reason of this poor consumption of pulses is low availability of pulse in the area, because the pulses are not majorly produced in the villages. Another major reason of the low pulse consumption in rural areas is because of the high price of the pulses in the market. The hoarding practices also raise the prices of the pulses which hinder the inclusion of the pulses in the food basket of the rural people. The high price rise and low purchasing power of the villagers lead to the exclusion of pulse in the diet of rural people.

The vegetable consumption in rural Aligarh is good because of the improved production of vegetables. Overall the 62% population consumes the referenced diet of vegetables while only 38% people have no consumption of vegetables up to the reference level. The population which can‟t consume the reference vegetable diet as they have no piece of land devoted to kitchen garden and have no better purchasing power.

At the district level only 34% population don‟t consume the milk up to the referenced level and the main reason for this low milk consumption is low purchasing power, lack of livestock with higher milk production capability, and large size of families. The distribution of milk in the household also has the gender preferences in the families which have low availability of the milk because it is an income elastic food. The male counterpart and the earning head have higher preference in these households. The remaining more than 60% district population has standard level of milk consumption because Aligarh has continuously gaining the economic growth under the urban and industrial expansion influence of Delhi and itself.

More than 60% population of the district has cereal consumption up to the referenced RDA level (420gm/person/day). The district enjoys the good agricultural conditions because it lies in the Ganga-Yamuna doab and this result in the sufficient availability of food grains for the consumption. The economic growth of the district also leads to the better purchasing power of the people, which increases the food availability for the consumption. Beside it, the food fortification programmes of the government, National food mission and well organized PDS and Antyodaya, MANREGA etc. secure the referenced level of cereal consumption for the population. 36% population of the district has no referenced level of cereal consumption. It is

199 mainly because of poverty, lack of employment and no coverage to the government social welfare programmes.

Nearly 65% population of district is food secure and remaining population is food insecure. Food insecurity intensity is also analysed at district level and maximum food insecure people face the daily food insecurity (47%), which indicates that the food insecure people in the district have more vulnerability. 31% people have weekly food insecurity while remaining 22% have monthly food insecurity.

Land ownership by females in the rural Aligarh indicates that there is higher gender gap in asset ownership and its inheritance. Females share a meager percentage in land ownership in comparison to male in all villages irrespective of their socio- economic conditions. At the district level only 7.74% women are land owner in comparison to the male. This pattern indicates that the females have no share in economic value chain of the agriculture. Deprivation of women from the land ownership also hampers their status as a decision maker in agriculture value chain. The negative effect of this gender disparity reflected in the high prevalence of under nutrition and malnourished population; because in these areas female neither maximize their potential as a producer nor transform themselves as an agent against hunger through land utilization.

Economic role of women is very significant to analyze from perspective of food and women empowerment. Female participation in different economic activities also reveals the quality aspect of women‟s role in economic structure of country. Primary data on economic role of women reflect the general trend that women have 16% share in primary sector, 7% share in secondary sector and only 6 percent share in tertiary sector and remaining 70% women are housewives in the district.

Women have least participation in decision making in all spheres of life and this is represented by primary data collected from the study area. Women in household‟s decision making have only 32.12% share in very effective manner

200 because of the rigid patriarchal setup. The low literacy and socio-economic status of female reduced their active participation in decision making. Women‟s illiteracy, rigid patriarchal setup and restriction on mobility are the main reasons of their least inclusion in social and political spheres in India. However their inclusion in political participation is gradually increasing on account of reservation of seats for females in Panchayat. Primary data on the women‟s political and social participation reveal that women have very less representation in these spheres despite positive measures taken by government.

Women‟s mobility is an important indicator to know the empowerment status of the female in the society. The women are generally considered to be a home entity and their mobility is highly restricted. In some extreme cases this mobility restriction is also imposed on the mobility for higher education, job, social-political participation and other empowerment activities; which hamper the women‟s ability as an agent of change in the society and they remain as a dependent on the male members in the household. Rural women have very limited freedom of mobility as compared to male. They have high restriction on individual mobility and can move outside the house only in company of the male members of the household. At district level only 32.6% women have the freedom to enjoy the voluntary mobility while larger percentage of women (67.4%) needs a male companion of its family. At village level those areas which have some urban influence and higher social and educational awareness have higher percentage of women‟s mobility for various purposes.

Though every individual should have adequate knowledge of different food items and their nutritive values yet it is more significant to women who play an important role in preparation and serving of food in the household. 39.5percent women have nutritional knowledge, while remaining 60.5 percent women don‟t have such knowledge. The main reason for the lack of nutritional knowledge among women is their illiteracy and lack of awareness to nutrition‟s role and importance in food system.

201 activities. Women in the study area have very little time for themselves. Only 55.3% women responded that they had extra time to themselves, whereas rest of women population had no leisure time to enjoy and relax. The heavy pressure of work load to women hampers not only adversely affects their health but also influence other potential. Leisure time availability also depends on the socio-economic and demographic condition of the household. In large household women have less leisure time especially for the younger age group, because of younger age group women share this responsibility of work load maximum.

Village level survey points out that in most of the villages the gram Panchayat have male dominated representation. In some villages if the female has got representation as a village head, she mostly works under the influence of the male member of her family because of her illiteracy and less decision making power. Out of 24 villages, only 10 villages have female as village head and in rest 14 villages here is male representation.

Correlation matrix of the different indicators of women empowerment indicates that that they have positive relations with most of the indicators. Land ownership is highly positive to education (0.897), decision making (0.919) and political social representation (0.933). Land ownership has negative relation with primary activities (-0.400) and secondary activities (-0.163), because the women having land do not prefer to engage in these activities. Landless women are compelled to go for primary activities in other‟s field or for secondary activities to distant places. Education has highest positive relation with decision making (0.942) and politico- social representation (0.949). Education has also high positive relation with Nutritional knowledge (0.970) because it broaden the mind-set and thinking of women to exercise their rights. Resource ownership by female improves the other factors of food security also. The lesser relation of education with income (0.308) for women indicates that all educated women are not going to share the income earing activities in rural areas. Similarly, decision making power has high relation with political and social representation and tertiary sector activities. Mobility has good relation with nutritional knowledge as the women moves to new places they know the new information related to food and nutrition security.

The correlation matrix of women empowerment and food security indicates that women empowerment has positive relation with food and nutrition security. The

202 improved women empowerment status results in better food security and healthy conditions. Women empowerment also raises the consumption score of different food items up to RDA level and household diet diversity score. Similarly food security has positive relation with healthy population, consumption score and household diet diversity score which means that positive changes in all these factors improve the food and nutrition security. Thus, women empowerment mainly in terms of education, economic, political and other spheres of life can improve the food and nutrition security in general and reduce gender disparity in particular.

The results through discrepancy ratio method represent that food intake disparity between two genders is highly unequal. In “equal to share category” at the district level there is 28.8% male and 24.8% female population. The households in „equal to share category‟ mostly belong to those households which have average household size, high income, high level of education and female favoring environment. These populations have the consumption standard equal to their share and represent the healthy category. Approximately, 9.5% males and 15.8% females belong to “less than share category”. In “more than share category” at district level 13.2% male and only 5.1% female represent the group.

As far as the different vitamins deficiency is concerned, Vitamin A deficiency at district level is recorded as 9.6% in male population and 10 % in female population. Approximately 5.4% male and 7.8% female of the district has suffered from the vitamin B group deficiency. While, vitamin C deficiency is also prevalent in district and affects 6.9 % male population and 9.2% female. The Vitamin D deficiency is also found in both male and female in Aligarh District and 4.2% male and 7.4% female suffered from this deficiency. Vitamin E deficiency at district level is also recorded differently for male (5.7%) and female (8.7%). Iron deficiency is strongly predominant in Aligarh district as 27.6 % male and 56.1 % female suffered from this. Iodine deficiency at district level is recorded 1.3% in male and 1.7% in female.

In Aligarh District out of total population 61.13% are healthy, 35.21% underweight, 3.7 % is overweight. The proportion of overweight and Obsess population is lower because most of the people in the rural areas are mainly engaged in agricultural activities which require more physical works they burn their extra calorie. The district has twin economic base effect on its food and nutritional profile, resulting in higher percentage of the healthy population.

203

It may also be concluded foregoing analysis that in most of the cases women consume their food at last and least. Majority of the villages display the trend of male favoring nature, where more than 90 % male consumes first in the household. The female, which have first order in food allocation represent the elderly and single female headed households. Thus, this representation of a female does not mean the gender equality in food serving order. Food serving order also not capture the gender biasness between male and female because this first male serving attitude is not intentional discrimination against women rather it is behaviorally well accepted practices in Indian families. The female and male who consuming together is uniquely highly in Samaspur and it is mainly due to their cultural practices.

District level data about meal consumption reveals that 8.9% males consume meal one time while to that of female it is 14.6%; which shows the disparity of 5.7% between male and female in this category. It was also observed during the survey that people who consume one time belongs to weaker society.

Approximately 18.1% females practice food buffering in favor of male, while 81.9% female don not have this type of practice. At village level the higher food buffering is recorded in Shadipur Kumrua, Bhojaka, Nagala Sarua, Samaspur, and Tochigarh villages. These villages also have poor socio-economic and cultural background which explains the higher occurrence of this phenomenon in these villages.

At district level, 82.2% female reported that their food consumption and allocation practices are guided by local culture and taboos. This phenomenon is

204 ubiquitously prevalent in most of the sampled villages with variations. However, in recent days the influence of taboos and culture on allocation and distribution of food to some extent is being modified by the impact of changing socio-cultural environment of villages. Only 17.8% female reported that they did not follow the local unhealthy customs which increase the chances of gender disparity in intake of food.

Male favoritism in allocation of food is recorded in 17.6% household, while 82.4% female respondents pointed out there was no preferential treatment for male over female in their households. There are interesting findings in survey that larger segments of female population now move toward the gender neutral attitude especially in food and nutritional resource allocation in the households. The main reasons for this attitudinal change are the new generation brides who are educated and enjoy the same gender neutral household environment in their parental households. Those households which have less educated females also try to follow the gender balance in the food and nutritional resources allocation and this becomes a model for attitudinal change in the society.

Suggestions

It is well evident from the above analysis and discussion that female discrimination in food and nutrition security is present in different forms and intensity in the study which can only be reduced by improving women‟s status. Some suggestions to improve women status are as follows:

1. An enabling environment should be created for women to exercise their rights, both within and outside home, as equal partners along with men.

2. An integrated approach towards empowering women should be adopted through effective convergence of existing services, resources, infrastructure and manpower in both women specific and women related sectors.

3. Ensuring easy and equal access to education for women and girls and to institute plans for free education for girls up to college level, including professional courses to eliminate gender bias in all educational programs are desirable.

205

4. Women should be equipped with necessary skills which could keep them gainfully engaged besides making them economically independent and self- reliant.

5. The practice of deciding gender roles by society as a social construct should be stopped. In this regard mass media can play an effective role.

6. Government should increase enforcement of existing laws against gender-based employment discrimination and against sexual harassment.

7. Government should make provisions for reservation to increase the percentage of women in economic participation and political representation at different levels.

8. Proper implementation regarding various schemes launched by government for women empowerment and welfare should be properly monitored.

9. Awareness camps for women should be organized where they can become familiar with the schemes and policies initiated by government for their benefits.

10. Three “R‟s can reduce the deep rooted gender disparity which stands for recognizing the gender disparity phenomena, reducing the gap, and redistributing the resources ”

206

Bibliography

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Action Aid International, (2010). International Right to Food Theme. Annual Report, Johannesburg, Africa.

Action Plan of the Global Strategy to Improve Agricultural and Rural Statistics for Food Security, Sustainable Agriculture and Rural Development Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.

ADB (2012), Annual Report.

Agarwal, B. (1997). Bargaining and Gender Relations: Within and Beyond the Household, FCND Discussion Paper.

Allendorf, K.(2007). Do Women‘s Land Rights Promote Empowerment and Child Health in Nepal? World Development Vol. 35, No. 11, pp. 1975–1988,

Appleton, S. (1996). Women-Headed Households and Household Welfare: An Empirical Deconstruction for Uganda,World Development. Vol. 24, No. 12, pp. 181 l-1827.

Arlappa, N., Laxmaiah, A., Balakrishna, N. and Brahmam, (2010). Consumption pattern of pulses, vegetables and nutrients among rural population in India. African J. Food Sci., 4(10) 668-675.

Arokiasamy, P., (2002). Regional Patterns of Sex Bias and Excess Female Child Mortality in India, Population (Vol. 59, No. 6), pp. 833-863, Institut National d'Études Démographique.

Arokiasamy, P. and Pradhan, J.(1998). Gender bias against female children in India: Regional differences and their implications for MDGs.

Bairagi, R. (June, 1986). Food Crisis, Nutrition, and Female Children in Rural Bangladesh. Population and Development Review, Vol. 12(2), pp. 307-315.

Baker, A.H., Wardle, J. (2003). Sex Differences in Fruit and Vegetable Intake in Older Adults. Appetite, 40: 269-275.

Basu, A. (1993). Women's Roles and Gender Gap in Health and Survival, Economic and Political Weekly, Vol. 28, No. 43, pp. 2356-2362.

207

Basu, A., & Basu, K. (1991). Women's economic roles and child survival: the case of India. Health Transition Review, Vol.1 (1) pp. 83-103.

Behrman, J. (1988). Intra household Allocation of Nutrients in Rural India: Are Boys Favoured? Do Parents Exhibit Inequality Aversion? Oxford Economic Papers, New Series, Vol. 40 (1), pp. 32-54.

Behrman, J., Deolalikar, A., & Barbara L. (1988). Nutrients: Impacts and Determinants. The World Bank Economic Review, Vol. 2(3) pp. 299-320.

Bhalani, K. D. et al. (2002).Nutritional status and gender differences in the children of less than 5 years of age attending ICDS Anganwadis in Vadodara city. Indian Journal of Community Medicine.

Blumberg, R. (1984), A General Theory of Gender Stratification Sociological Theory, vol. 2 pp. 23-101, Wiley Publication.

Bouis, H.E. (2000). Improving human nutrition through agriculture: The role of international agricultural research. Conference summary and recommendations. Food Nutr Bull., 21: 550-67.

Bourdieu, P. (1979). La Distinction. Critique Sociale Du Jugement. Editions De Minuit, Paris, France

Carrasco, B., and Mukhopadhyay, H., (2012). ADB South Asia Working Paper Series, Food Price Escalation in South Asia - Serious and Growing Concern, Volume No. 10 February

Census of India, 1971, 1981, 1991, 2001 and 2011. Aligarh District Census Handbooks: Village and Town Directory.

Chakrabarty, M. (1996). Gender difference in cereal intake: possible impacts of social group affiliation and season. Anthropologischer Anzeiger, Jahrg. 54, H. 4 pp. 355-360.

Chauhan, P. (1996). Lightning Shadows Status Of Women In India, Manak Publication, Jaipur.

Chen, L. C., Huq, E., and D'Souza, S. (1981). Sex Bias in the Family Allocation of Food and Health Care in Rural Bangladesh. Population and Development Review, Vol. 7(1), pp. 55-70.

208

Choudhary, N., and Parthasarathy, D. (2007). Gender, Work and Household Food Security. Economic and Political Weekly, Vol. 42(6) pp. 523-531.

Coffey, D., Deaton, A. Drèze, Jean Spears, D., & Tarozzi, A. (2013). Stunting among Children: Facts and Implications; vol xlviii no 68 34 Economic & Political Weekly.

Cohen, M., and Garrett, J. (2009). IIED (International Institute for Environment and Development), Human Settlements Working Paper Series, Urbanization and emerging population, issues – 2 ―The food price crisis and urban food insecurity‖

Cooke, L.J., and Wardle, J. (2005). Age and gender differences in children‘s food preferences. British Journal of Nutrition, Volume no. 93, 741–746.

Dasgupta, I. (2000). Women's Employment, Intra-Household Bargaining, and Distribution: A Two-Sector Analysis, Oxford Economic Papers, Vol. 52, No. 4 pp. 723-744.

De Schutter, Olivier (2011). Report submitted by the Special Rapporteur on the right to food,

Deborah, S., & Richard, E. (1993). Female-Headed Households and Family Welfare in Rural Ecuador. Journal of Population Economics, Vol. 6, No. pp. 317-336.

District Statistical Diary, Aligarh (2001 and 2011), Economics and Statistical Division, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh.

DLHS-3, (2007-08). District Level Household and Facility Survey factsheet, Ministry of Health and Family Welfare Government of India and International Institute for Population Sciences (Deemed University), Mumbai.

Edwards, R. (2010). Gender Inequality And Socioeconomic Development‘ An ECON7920 Economic Project submitted to the school of Economics, The University of Queensland.

Edwin T. Atkinson (2007). Descriptive and Historical Account of the Aligarh District (http://books.google.com/books p. 484)

209

Esterik, P. (1999). Right to food; right to feed; right to be fed. The intersection of women‘s rights and the right to food. Agriculture and Human Values, 16: 225– 232.

FAO Policy on Gender Equality: Attaining Food Security Goals in Agriculture and Rural Development http://typo3.fao.org/fileadmin/templates/gender/docs/FAO_FinalGender_Policy _2012.pdf

FAO, (1996). The State of Food and Agriculture, World Food Summit, Rome.

FAO, IFAD and WFP (2014). The State of Food Insecurity in the World 2014. Strengthening the enabling environment for food security and nutrition. Rome, FAO

Fekete, C., Weyers, S., Moebus, S., Dragano, N., Jöckel, K.H., Erebel, R.,……Siegrist, J. (2012). Age-Specific Gender Differences in Nutrition: Results From A Population-Based Study. Health Behaviour And Public Health, 2(1): 10-20.

Franke, R. and Chasin, B. (1996). Female-Supported Households: A Continuing Agenda for Kerala Model, Economic and Political Weekly, Vol. 31, No. 10 pp. 625-630, Economic and Political weekly

Gangadharan, L. and Maitra, P. (2000). Does Child Mortality Reflect Gender Bias Evidence from Pakistan. Indian Economic Review, New Series, Vol. 35, No. pp. 113-131.

Gender Roundtable, (2012). On Access Denied – Bridging The Gender Technology Gap.

Ghadially, R(1988). Women in India Society, Sage Publication, London.

Gopalan C., Rama, Sastri, B.V., Balasubrsmanian. (2007). Nutritive value of Indian foods. National Institute of Nutrition (Indian Council of Medical Research), Hyderabad, India

Govinda, R. (2012). Mapping ‗Gender Evaluation‘ in South Asia, Indian Journal of Gender Studies, Vol 19, Issue 2,

Govt. Home Science College Chandigarh. Department of Foods and Nutrition (1997).

210

Gupta, N., Pal, P., Bhargava, M., & Daga, M. (1992). Health of Women and Children in Rajasthan. Economic and Political Weekly, Vol. 27(42) pp. 2323-2330.

Haddad L. (1994). Women's income and boy-girl anthropometric status in the Côte d'Ivoire World Development, Vol. 22, Issue 4, pp. 543–553.

Haddad, L., Hoddinott, J., Alderman, Harold. (1997). Intrahousehold resource allocation in developing countries: models, methods and policies, International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI)

Hagenimana, V., Low, J.(2000). Potential of orange –fleshed sweet potatoes for raising vitamin A intake in Africa. Food Nutr. Bull., 21: 414-8.

Handa S. (1996). Expenditure behaviour and children‘s welfare: An analysis of female headed households. Jamaica Journal of Development Economics, Vol. (50), pp. 165-187.

Hendriks and Hendricks. (2002). Unfair Burden: Women's Risks and Vulnerability to Food Insecurity Agenda, No. 51, Food: Needs, Wants and Desires, pp. 51-57

Howarth E. and Joseph (1999). Linking food and nutrition security: past lessons and future opportunities. Asian Development Review, 17(1/2): 168-213.

Hyder, A. & Maman, S. (2005). The pervasive triad of food security, gender inequity and women's health: Exploratory research from sub-Saharan Africa; African Health Science; 5(4): 328–334.

Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR) Expert group (1981). Recommended Dietary Intakes for Indians. Indian Council of Medical Research, New Delhi.

International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI). (2008). Nutrition and Gender in Asia: From Research to Action.

International Food Policy Research Institute. (2006). Nutrition and Gender in Asia: From Research to Action. IIFPRI, Washington D.C

Johansson, L., Andersen, L.F. (1998). Who Eats 5 A Day?: Intake of Fruits and Vegetables Among Norwegians In Relation to Gender and Lifestyle. Journal if the American Dietetic Association, 98: 689-691

Jones, E. (2013). RDA and serials cataloguing. London: Facet Publishing.

211

Jose, S., and Navaneetham, K. (2010). Social Infrastructure and Women‘s Undernutrition. Economic and Political Weekly, vol. XLV (13).

Joshi, P., & Kumar, A. (2014). Agricultural Growth in India: Performance and Prospects. Yojana, June 2014: 50-56.

Keaerney, J. (2010). Food Consumption Trends And Drivers, Philosophical Transaction of Royal Society, 365, 2793–2807.

Kent,G. ( 2002), "Food Trade and Food Rights", United Nations Chronicle, Issue 1 (2002)

Krishnaraj, M. (2005). Food Security: How and for Whom? Economic and Political Weekly, Vol. 40 (25) pp. 2508-2512.

Kumar, S., Ramachandranm M., and Viswanathan, B. (2009). What Characterizes Women Vulnerable to Chronic Energy Deficiency? Social Indicators Research, Vol. 90(3) pp. 365-380.

Levin, C. and Ruel, M.et.al.,(1999). Working Women in an Urban Setting: Traders, Vendors and Food Security in Accra; World Development Vol. 27, No. 11, pp. 1977-1991,

Longwe, S., (2002). Spectacles for Seeing Gender in Project Evaluation

Luo,W., Zhai, F., & Jin S. (2001). Intra household food distribution: A case study of eight provinces in China. Asia Pacific Journal Clinical Nutrition 10(Suppl.): S19–S28.

Lupton, D. (1996). Food, The Body And The Self. SAGE, London, UK.

M. S. Swaminathan (2010). Research Foundation, Centre for Research on Sustainable Agriculture and Rural Development. Report on The State of Food Insecurity in Urban India.

Marcoux, A. (June, 2002). Sex Differentials in undernutrition: A Look at Survey Evidence. Population and Development Review, vol. 28(2) pp. 275-284.

Master Plan Reports of Aligarh 1991-01 and 2001-21, Aligarh Development Authority (ADA), Aligarh.

Mehrotra, S. (2006). Child Malnutrition and Gender Discrimination in South Asia. Economic and Political Weekly, Vol. 41(10), pp. 912-918.

212

Messer, E. (1997). Intra-household allocation of food and health care: Current findings and understandings—Introduction, Elsevier, Social Science & Medicine, Vol. 44, Issue 11, pp. 1675-1684.

Mishra,V., Roy, T. & Retherford, R.(2004). Sex Differentials in Childhood Feeding, Health Care, and Nutritional Status in India. Population and Development Review, Vol. 30(2), pp. 269-295.

Moestue, H. and Huttly S. (2008). Adult education and child nutrition: the role of family and community Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health Vol. 62, No. 2, pp. 153-159, Published by: BMJ Publishing Group.

National Family Health Survey Report (2005).

National Nutrition Monitoring Bureau (NNMB) (1999). Repeat Surveys Report No.18.National Institute of Nutrition (Indian Council of Medical Research), Hyderabad, India.

National Nutrition Monitoring Bureau (NNMB) (2002). Diet and nutritional status of rural population Report No.21.National Institute of Nutrition (Indian Council of Medical Research), Hyderabad, India.

National Nutrition Monitoring Bureau (NNMB) (2003). Prevalence of Micronutrient deficiencies, Report No.22.National Institute of Nutrition (Indian Council of Medical Research) Hyderabad, India.

NNMB Technical Report No.20 Report On Diet And Nutritional Status Of Adolescents National Nutrition Monitoring Bureau, Special Report National Institute Of Nutrition Indian Council Of Medical Research Hyderabad, 2000.Nutritional Status Of Adolescents ...Nutritional Status Of Elderly…..Food & Nutrient Intakes Of Individuals,

NNMB Technical Report No.21, National Nutrition Monitoring Bureau, Diet and Nutritional Status of Rural Population, National Institute of Nutrition, Indian Council of Medical Research, Hyderabad-2002

Nutrition and Health, FAO. Paper was originally presented at the meeting of the Commonwealth Section of the Society, Royal Society of Art, UK; in Chairmanship of Sir George Godber.

213

Parida, D. (2010). Women and Panchyati Raj- A study, Department of Information and Public Relations, Bhubaneswar, India.

Parmenter, K., Waller, J., Wardle, J. (2000). Demographic Variation In Nutrition Knowledge In England. Health Education Research 15: 163-174

Prasad, A.S. (1996). Zinc deficiency in women, infants and children. Journal of the American College of Nutrition 15: 113-120.

Quisumbing and John A. Maluccio (2000). Intrahousehold Allocation And Gender Relations: New Empirical Evidence From Four Developing Countries. Food Consumption and Nutrition Division International Food Policy Research Institute ,Washington, D.C. U.S.A.

Quisumbing, Agnes R. and John A. Maluccio. (2003). Resources at Marriage and Intrahousehold Allocation: Evidence from Bangladesh, Ethiopia, Indonesia, and South Africa Oxford Bulletin of Economics and Statistics 65 (3): 283-328.

Rahman, A.(2013). Does A Wife‘s Bargaining Power Provide More Micronutrients to Females: Evidence from Rural Bangladesh. The World Bank International Finance Corporation Investment Climate Department Business Regulation Unit Policy Research Working Paper WPS6363.

Rajeshwari (1996). Gender Bias in Utilisation of Health Care Facilities in Rural Haryana. Economic and Political Weekly, Vol. 31(8) pp. 489+491-494.

Raju, S. (Dec., 1991). Gender and Deprivation: A Theme Revisited with a Geographical Perspective. Economic and Political Weekly, Vol. 26, No. 49, pp. 2827-2829, 2831-2833,2835-2839. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/41625485. [2013/ December/ 17].

Ramalingaswami, V. (1995). New global perspectives on overcoming malnutrition. Am J Clin Nutr 61: 259-263.

Rao, N. (2005). Gender Equality, Land Rights and Household Food Security: Discussion of Rice Farming Systems. Economic and Political Weekly, Vol. 40(25), pp. 2513-2521.

Roos, G., Prattala, R., Koski, K. (2001). Men, Masculinity and Food: Interviews.

214

Senauer, B., Garcia, M. & Jacinto (1988). Determinants of the intrahousehold allocation of food in the rural Philippines, IFPRI

Sethuraman, K.,& Duvvury, N. (2007). The Nexus of Gender Discrimination with Malnutrition: An Introduction. Economic and Political Weekly, Vol. 42(44), pp. 49, 51-53.

Siddique, M., 1975. ‗Town Planning of Aligarh‘ The Geographer, pp. 55-65.

Singh, B. (ed), 1987. Uttar Pradesh District Gazetteers, Government of Uttar Pradesh, Lucknow.

Smart, J.K. (March, 1967). The Problems of Nutrition in Developing Countries. Journal of the Royal Society of Arts, Vol. 115, No. 5134, pp. 805-816. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/41371743 [ 2013/ December/ 28].

State Planning Institute, (2010). Statistical Abstract, Uttar Pradesh, Economics and Statistics Division, Government of Uttar Pradesh, Lucknow.

Syamala, T.S. (2002). Nutritional status of adolescent girls in urban slums and the impact of IEC on their nutritional knowledge and practices. Indian Journal of Community Medicine. Vol. XXVII, pp.151-156.

Tang, A. (2013). Gender Equality and Food Security; Women‘s Empowerment: as a Tool against Hunger. FAO and ADB.

Tarasuk V., & Beaton, G. (1999) Women‘s Dietary Intakes in the Context of Household Food Insecurity; The Journal of Nutrition 129: 672–679.

The Global Gender Gap Report (2014). World economic Forum, Geneva, Switzerland.

The State of Food and Agriculture Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations Rome, 2013 Food Systems for Better Nutrition

The World Bank the United Nations, Statistical Commission Rome, 2012.

Thomas, D. (1990). Intra-Household Resource Allocation: An Inferential Approach. The Journal of Human Resources, Vol. 25(4), pp. 635-664.

Tiwari, A.K. (2013). Gender Inequality in Terms of Health and Nutrition in India: Evidence from National Family Health Survey-3. Pacific Business Review International, Vol. 5(12), pp 24-34.

215

Tiwari, N. (2012). Centrality of Panchayti Raj in resettlement and rehabilitation , Indian Journal of public administration, Volume: 58 issue: 4, page(s): 733-739 Twigg, J. (1983). Vegetarism And The Meanings Of Meat. In The Sociology Of Food And Eating, Pp. 18-30. Gower, Cardiff, UK. Underwood, B.A. (2000). Overcoming micronutrient deficiencies in developing countries: Is there a role for agriculture, Food Nutr. Bull., 21: 356-360. Villarreal1, M. (2011). Gender and hunger in the context of the recent crises: underlying factors. In Du grain à moudre. Genre, development rural et alimentation. (Dir.) C. Verschuur. 101-132.Retrieved from Visweswara, Rao, K., Krishna, D., & Balakrishna, N. (2000). Gender differentials in malnutrition : a case study of preschool children. Man in India. 80(3):289-294 Welch, R.M., Graham, R.D. (2000). A new paradigm for world agriculture: Productive, sustainable, nutritious, healthful food systems. Food Nutr. Bull., 21: 361-366 WFP, (2007), Annual Report, “World Food Programme: Be the part of solutions”, Rome. Working Group of the Report XI plan, on ―Panchayati Raj Institutions and Rural Governance‖, (2014). India World Health Organization (1983). Measuring changes in Nutritional status. WHO Geneva. World Bank (1994). Enriching lives: Overcoming vitamin and mineral malnutrition in developing countries. Washington, DC : World Bank. World Health Organization. (1996). Trace elements in human nutrition and health, World Health Organization, Geneva. pp. 1-343. World Health Organization.(1995). Global Prevalence of Vitamin A Deficiency. WHO Micronutrient Deficiency Information System Working Paper No. 2, World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland. pp. 1-116. Yip, R. (1997). The challenge of improving iron nutrition: limitations and potentials of major intervention approaches. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 51: S16-S24 Zimmermann, L. (April 2011) Reconsidering Gender Bias in Intra-Household Allocation in India, Institute for the Study of Labour IZA Discussion Paper (DP) No. 5687 Bonn ,Switzerland.

216

Plates

Plate 1. A Family Living in Hut

Plate 2. A House with No Concrete Roof Plate 3. A Semi Pucca Household

Plate 4. Source of Drinking Water Plate 5. Agriculture Field as a Source of Food

Plate 6. Kitchen Garden as a Supply Source of Food

Plate 7. Supply of Food Items from Market Plate 8. Use of Non-iodized Raw Salt

Plate 8. Availability of Livestock A Source of Milk Plate 9. Consumption of Very Less Diversified Food

Plate 10. Food Consumption in Unhygienic Conditions Plate 11. Kneading of Dough by Female

Plate 12. Pasting the Layer of Soil and Cow Dung on Floor Plate 13 Cooking of Roti by Using Dung Cakes

Plate 14. Cleaning of Utensils by a Girl

Plate 15. Cleaning of Food Grains by Women Plate 16. Boy Suffering from Vitamin D Deficiency

Plate 17. A Handicapped and Mentally Disable Male Plate 18. A Small Girl Child with Enlarging Liver

Plate 19. Spoon Nails Due to Iron Deficiency Plate 20. Nutritionally Deficient Young Girl

Plate 21. Skin Disease in a Girl Plate 22. Underweight Elderly Male

Plate 23. Measurement of Weight and Height for BMI Calculation Plate 24. Overweight Female

Plate 25. Severely Thin Elderly Female