Scripture in Context Part I: Reconsidering Our Biblical Roots Interpretation, the Apostle Paul and Mission Today by Larry W. Caldwell

Introduction

he interpretation of Scripture runs silent and deep across the fron- tiers of mission. As evangelicals we value the role of in the mission of the church, and we expect the Bible to be read and interpretedT properly as the gains new ground. It’s no surprise that our differences over belief and practice in mission settings force us back to our hermeneutical assumptions, for we know that one’s interpretive compass will direct what one believes to be correct practice in church and mission.

While this evangelical priority may seem obvious we might fail to see the particular assumptions that inform our largely Western interpretative enter- prise. These assumptions are especially crucial when our mission interacts with churches and movements emerging in new cultural settings. When we confront difficult questions of contextualization in these settings, are we aware of the cultural influences that shape our hermeneutical orientations? In this article I want to explore these underlying cultural influences on herme- Larry W. Caldwell (PhD, Fuller Theological Seminary) was Professor neutics through a study of the apostle Paul. If we can see the unique cultural of Missions and Hermeneutics at influences on Paul’s hermeneutical perspective, influences that were quite Asian Theological Seminary for 20 years, five of those years serving as distinct from our Western heritage, might we then acknowledge the place Academic Dean, and directed the of cultural preferences in all hermeneutical activity across cross-cultural and Doctor of program at the Asia Graduate School of - multi-cultural mission settings? Philippines. He was editor of the Journal of Asian Mission for many The Western “Two Step” years, and has written and presented numerous papers in journals and Over the past few decades both the Western and non-Western (Global South forums across Asia and the Western or Majority World) church has been bombarded with a plethora of herme- world. He recently returned to the USA to become Director of neutical methodologies or approaches: philosophical hermeneutics, minjung Missionary Training and Strategy hermeneutics, structuralism, feminist hermeneutics, , for Converge Worldwide, and serves , the hermeneutics of liberation, semiotics, and even as Visiting Professor of Intercultural Studies at Sioux Falls Seminary. queer hermeneutics, to name but a few. For most evangelicals worldwide the

International Journal of Frontier Missiology 29:2 Summer 2012•91 92 Part I: Reconsidering Our Biblical Roots: Bible Interpretation, the Apostle Paul and Mission Today hermeneutical methodology that has be presumed to be appropriate Higgins, following the work of Dan dominated the discussion is one that for use in the multiplicity of Sperber and Deirdre Wilson, describes has two simple steps. hermeneutical milieus of the cognitive environment as “merely a set non-Western world? of assumptions which the individual is Step One involves the Bible and is con- • Would it not be better for those capable of mentally representing and cerned with the question: How is a par- from other cultural contexts to accepting as true.”3 Higgins continues: ticular Bible passage to be best interpreted? search for indigenous herme- “Thus cognitive environment includes Through an analysis of the original neutical methods by which the a person’s current and potential context of the Scripture passage—often biblical message can best be matrix of ideas, memories, experiences using the tools of the grammatical-his- understood in their own unique and perceptions.”4 torical (or historical-critical) process— cultural settings? the interpreter attempts to ascertain, • And, finally, is the Two Step I was particularly intrigued by what the Bible passage first meant to its approach, as good as it is, the Higgins’ desire to understand “how original hearers, to understand what the best approach for the whole people process the meaning of the passage meant then. church in the 21st century, es- Biblical text from within their own pecially for the majority of the cognitive environment” . . . “how Step Two follows on the heels of this whole church—both Western cognitive environment shapes mean- first step. Here the interpreter at- and non-Western—that is ing and frames questions that are tempts to answer the question: How is predominately made up of pas- brought to the text.”5 Building on that Bible passage to be best interpreted tors, lay leaders and lay people Higgins, I would like to argue that for today? In Step Two the interpreter who will not have the luxury any hermeneutical method, includ- applies the results of the first step of learning the Two Step ap- ing the Two Step approach, is highly to the particular audience that the proach in evangelical training shaped by the cognitive environment interpreter is ministering with now, institutions worldwide? of the reader/hearer/interpreter. As usually being careful to make sure that such, any hermeneutical method the second step closely approximates Kevin Higgins has hinted at the must pay close attention to both the the results of the first step. These two crucial role that indigenous herme- interpreter’s own cognitive environ- major steps make up what is known neutics might play in his recent IJFM ment and its influence on the inter- as the “Two Step” approach to Bible article on translation and relevance pretation of a biblical text, as well as interpretation.1 theory.2 Here Higgins highlights to the reader/hearer and his/her in- relevance theory and its understanding terpretation of that same text. This is The methodology of the Two Step of cognitive environment, especially not to imply that the reader’s/hear- approach to its implications for communication. er’s interpretation of the text takes has dominated Western evangelical Figure 1. Presupposition: Western Hermeneutical Methods Work for All Cultures hermeneutics over the past fifty years and continues to prevail even today. And, because of the success of West- The Bible: ern evangelical missionary efforts, this God’s Supracultural Truth approach also dominants much of the non-Western evangelical world. It is as if the current Western approach is to Western be universally applied in all cultures, as Hermeneutical illustrated in Figure 1. Methods But should the Two Step approach have gained such international domi- nance and acceptance among evan- Culture C gelicals worldwide? Several related Culture A Culture B questions follow: • Should the Two Step approach be so universally used? • Should a hermeneutical method that arose out of the cultural milieu of the Western world

International Journal of Frontier Missiology Larry W. Caldwell 93 precedence over what the biblical text itself is saying (always the dan- he apostle Paul’s own hermeneutical methods— ger of reader-response criticism); the which he used when he interpreted the Old Bible always takes precedence over any reader/hearer and that person’s T Testament—defy this Western assumption. cognitive environment. Despite this disclaimer, we do well to examine by Paul should give both Westerners Part One of this article, comprising carefully the cognitive environment and non-Westerners greater freedom Sections 1 and 2, will continue below. of ourselves as interpreters, as well as in attempting to use interpretation Part Two of this article, comprising the cognitive environment—includ- methods that reflect their own cul- Sections 3 and 4, will continue in ing their indigenous hermeneutical tural contexts and cognitive environ- the next issue of IJFM (29:3, July- methods—of the audiences with ments, and a greater confidence to September 2012).7 which we do mission. interpret the Bible with more rel- Section 1: One First evancy for their own specific cross- Century AD Hermeneutical Higgins speaks of cognitive environ- cultural and multi-cultural situations. ment especially in terms of Bible There will be a new recognition that Method— translation. I would like to take his such culturally specific interpretation There were several hermeneutical discussion down to the foundational methods may, in the final analysis, be methods used immediately prior to level of Bible interpretation and more authentically biblical than using and during the time of the writing of the hermeneutical assumptions that the Two Step approach. the . Consequently, affect that interpretation, for, in my the New Testament writers had, view, all Bible translation is founded So why should Bible interpreters try as it were, a vast hermeneutical upon pre-existing hermeneutical to use culturally appropriate Bible in- smorgasbord of methods from which assumptions.6 As a result, I believe terpretation methods that reflect their to choose: literal historical, allegorical, that we can gain great insight into own cognitive environment—like midrash, typological, , and “proper” Bible interpretation to- those of the apostle Paul that reflect theological, to mention some of the day—whether done by Western or his cognitive environment—rather most significant. In this article I have non-Western Bible interpreters—by than relying exclusively, or primarily, chosen to investigate in more detail first examining closely the cognitive on the Two Step approach? I will at- the hermeneutical method of midrash environment of the New Testament, tempt to answer this question in four because I believe that it offers perhaps in this case the hermeneutical milieu sections across two articles. Section the most parallels and insights for and methods of the apostle Paul. 1 will first give a brief background biblical interpretation today, for Such an examination will help guard of the hermeneutical milieu out of both Western and non-Western against the previously described which Paul’s hermeneutical methods multi-cultural and cross-cultural tendency of Western missionar- arose, especially looking at the meth- interpreters of the Bible. ies to assume that Western Bible od known as midrash. Section 2 will interpretation methods are universal examine several examples of Paul’s Midrash: Towards a Definition methods that will, by default, work in first century hermeneutical methods Midrash (#$rad;mi) is simply the Hebrew any cultural context. This article will found in his speeches in Acts. Section word used to describe exegetical prin- show that the apostle Paul’s own her- 3 will continue in this vein, focus- ciples developed by the Jewish rabbis meneutical methods—which he used ing on examples from Paul’s letters. over the centuries prior to the writing when he interpreted the Old Testa- Section 4 will give examples of non- of the New Testament. The overarch- ment—defy this Western assumption. Western approaches to the biblical ing purpose of midrash is to better in- text that, like Paul’s, have arisen out terpret the text. What By examining Paul’s hermeneutical of their own hermeneutical contexts are some of the essential principles of methods from an anthropological and cognitive environments and thus midrash? Richard Longenecker suc- standpoint, this article will show work well in their own cultures. The cinctly describes them: that Paul’s interpretation methods in article will conclude with practical Midrashic interpretation . . . takes its regards to the Old Testament were suggestions to help evangelical Bible departure from the biblical text itself methods arising directly out of the interpreters better use hermeneuti- . . . and seeks to explicate the hidden cultural milieu of the first century cal methods—in both Western and meanings contained therein by means AD, i.e., his cognitive environment. non-Western contexts—that are more of agreed upon hermeneutical rules in As a result, the use of such culturally- culturally appropriate and, in the order to contemporize the revelation specific Bible interpretation methods final analysis, possibly more biblical. of God for the people of God. It may

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be briefly characterized by the maxim: might be understood and its obscurities It always involves a living Word ad- “That has relevance to This”; i.e., What made clear. This concern of the rabbis dressed personally to the people of is written in Scripture has relevance to meant that they often began their God and to each of its members, a our present situation.8 inquiry by asking the question: why? Word which makes clear the divine . . . The principal method by which the wishes and demands and calls for a Longenecker’s reference to the present rabbis clarify the sacred text and probe response, never theoretical, and a contextual situation of the audience as its depths is by recourse to parallel pas- commitment: the fidelity of a people the primary motivational component sages. The Bible forms a unit; it comes and each of its members to the de- underlying the midrashic technique from God in all of its parts and it there- mands which the Word makes mani- was first developed by Renée Bloch.9 fore offers a broad context to which fest. Revealed at a specific point in She viewed the genre of midrash as one should always return.13 history, this Word is nevertheless “the most characteristic and yet the addressed to men of all times. Thus least understood of the Bible.”10 Bloch’s fourth point is particularly it ought to remain open indefinitely crucial to this study; the primary goal to all new understandings of the Bloch cites five “essential and fun- of midrash is to be practical, to be message, all legitimate adaptations damental characteristics” of midrash. adapted to the present. and all new situations. These things First, its point of departure is Scrip- If midrashic consists primar- are the foundation and the raison ture. This is what contributes to its ex- ily in attentive study of the texts, d’être of midrash. So long as there clusive use within the overall confines it does not stop there. Its aim is not is a people of God who regard the of Judaism: Bible as the living Word of God, This is its fundamental characteristic, there will be midrash; only the name which already excludes any possibil- might change.15 ity of finding parallels to this literary genre outside of Israel. Midrash is How is all of this worked out in the New therefore a genre which is peculiar Midrash begins with Testament? Bloch maintains that the to Israel, like prophecy, but perhaps Scripture and ends with genre of midrash was “already completely even more unique. Midrash cannot formed at the time of the birth of Chris- occur outside of Israel because it pre- specific applications to the tianity.”16 As a result she concludes: supposes faith in the revelation which Nothing is more characteristic in this is recorded in the holy books. It is a present realities facing regard than the use of the Old Testa- reflection, a meditation on the sacred ment in the New Testament: it always texts, a “searching” of Scripture.11 the people of God. involves midrashic actualization. The newness resides in the actualization Second, midrash is homiletical; its itself, in the present situation to purpose is to make the results of the which the ancient texts are applied “searching” of Scripture by the rabbis purely theoretical. Its goal is primar- and adapted.17 accessible to the people. In her words ily practical: to define the lesson for . . . those who “search” the Scriptures faith and for the religious way of life Bloch’s fifth point concerns the practi- are not “ivory tower” theologians. contained in the biblical text . . . . This cal working out of midrash into the Midrash is not a genre of the acad- practical concern led midrash to re- specific literary genres of halakah and emy; it is rather a popular genre, and interpret Scripture, to “actualize” it. haggadah. Halakah refers to a discus- above all it is homiletical. Its origin is This characteristic . . . along with the sion and/or commentary on the legal certainly to be sought for the most close relation and constant refer- material of the Old Testament while part in the liturgical reading of the ence to Scripture, is the essence of haggadah refers to a discussion and/or for Sabbaths and Feasts.12 midrash. These two characteristics, commentary on the non-legal material: which are constant, are the very soul history, prophecy, psalms, and the like. Third, midrash is a method which is of the midrashic method.14 attentive to the text in context: In summary, midrash is a hermeneuti- This is a natural corollary. Since the sa- This “actualization” of the Old Tes- cal method that begins with Scripture cred text was read in the synagogue tament occurs, in Bloch’s opinion, and ends with specific applications to and had to be commented upon in a because it “corresponds to the way in the present realities facing the people homily relating to it, attempts were which Israel—and later the Church— of God. But how did the midrashic made to understand it better. Because has always understood Scripture as the interpreters arrive at their specific of this it was studied diligently, that it word of God.” She continues: applications? In other words, what did

International Journal of Frontier Missiology Larry W. Caldwell 95 they do with the biblical text in order to arrive at their actualized interpreta- his was the worst crisis that the Jewish faith tions? The answer to these questions had yet faced. How would these now scattered cannot be fully understood apart from briefly reviewing the historical and T and captive peoples hold on to their Jewishness? cultural climate out of which mi- drashic interpretation initially arose. Temple—especially the latter—which there. They read from the Book of To that topic we turn next. stood in ascendancy, though even this the Law of God, making it clear and cultic center was occasionally ne- giving the meaning so that the people The Historical and Cultural Climate glected. Indeed, King Josiah even had could understand what was being from which Midrash Developed to rediscover the “Book of the Law” read.” (Neh. 8:7-8; cf. 8:1-18) (commonly thought of as the book People of the Book of Deuteronomy) during the course By making the Scripture clear and giv- From the time period during and es- of the repairing of the Temple (621 ing it meaning, Ezra and the Levites pecially after the Captivity in Babylon BC), some 30 years before the ulti- were, in Bloch’s words, actualizing the (587 to 538 BC) the ways in which mate destruction at the hands of the Law for the new immediate situation Jews understood their sacred Scripture Babylonians (2 Kgs. 22:8-10; 2 Chron. of these returned Jews.20 changed dramatically. Once Jerusalem 34:8-18). Obviously their Scripture, and the Temple were destroyed the even the Torah, was not always impor- Halakah and Haggadah Jewish people were no longer a people tant to the Jews. What Ezra and the Levites did in with a centralized religious worship Jerusalem merely reflected what was center or a people with a centralized The Captivity changed all of that. Now being done to Scripture in other worship cultus. All that had once the only threads of commonality and locations where Diaspora Jews represented the Jewish people and corporateness in the lives of the Jewish lived: Scripture was being read and their religion now lay in ruins. What, people were the words of Scripture. As interpreted so that hearers could better then, was to replace it? This was the a result, a whole new way of handling understand what was being read in worst crisis that the Jewish faith had Scripture began at this time, that is, the context of the realities of their yet faced. How would these now scat- writing down the various oral tradi- new living situations; this became a tered and captive peoples hold on to tions that were not yet written down, widespread practice. Eventually the their Jewishness? Their response was collecting the various traditions, be- oral handling of Scripture in this deceptively simple: they became the ginning the complicated canonization way led to the development of two people of the Book.18 process, and so on.19 Going hand-in- different written collections of these hand with all of this was the placing oral interpretations: halakah and Of course Scripture (Torah) had of more emphasis upon the “correct” haggadah. Again, halakah refers to a always played an important role in the interpretation of the Scripture they al- discussion and/or commentary on the Jewish people’s religious identity prior ready had, now for a new generation of Old Testament legal material while to the destruction of Jerusalem and the exiled Jews with little understanding haggadah refers to a discussion and/or Temple. The importance of the twice of the religious cultus prior to the Ex- commentary on the non-legal material. daily recitation of the Shema (Deut. ile. Moreover, the role of the religious 6:4-9) is evidence enough of this. But professional—one who could best offer Over the course of the centuries fol- Scripture was not always at the apex the “correct” interpretation—subse- lowing the Captivity, collections of of the Jewish religious life prior to the quently took on increasing importance. various halakah and haggadah sayings Captivity. While the importance of the One individual who represented this were made, collated, and eventually Torah was clearly recognized early on, new religious role was Ezra. incorporated and expanded into the the fact that much of the rest of Jewish midrashic commentaries known as the Scripture was still at various stages of Ezra was “a teacher [sofer] well versed Mishnah. Thus, by the first century composition, collection and canoniza- in the Law of ” (Ezra 7:6; cf. AD, the interpretation of the Old Tes- tion—not to mention that some of it 7:11) who “had devoted himself to the tament had become a crucial element had not even been spoken or written study and observance of the Law of of Jewish intellectual life, as Donald yet—helped account for the relatively the , and to teaching its decrees Juel notes: secondary position which Scripture, and laws in Israel” (Ezra 7:10). Once Scholarly interpreters of the written in fact, occupied. In contrast, it was back in Jerusalem he and his Levite tradition had largely replaced the the geographical center of Jerusa- associates “instructed the people in the priests as guardians of the heritage lem and the physical structure of the Law while the people were standing and experts on legal matters. They

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had developed an elaborate herme- dria in the first century BC.23 Some structing a leading rule from neutical mechanism with which to maintain that the middoth arose from two passages”). make sense of sacred texts, to fit the practical need of the Pharisees for 5. An inference drawn from a them into a harmonious whole, and authority. Since they lacked automatic general principle in the text to apply them to the realities of life religious status because of no proper to a specific example and vice in the Greco-Roman world. Specific heredity or professional training, versa (Kelal u-ferat = “gen- interpretive traditions had grown the Pharisees had to develop their eral and particular” and perat up, some with roots far back into the authority from some other means, in u-khelal). [In other words, this postbiblical era and beyond. Exegesis this case through elaborate interpre- is an attempt either to expand had become a primary mode of intel- tation rules.24 or to limit the inference.] lectual discourse.21 6. An inference drawn from an Whatever their origin, Hillel’s seven mid- analogous passage elsewhere Why is the above discussion of halakah doth had wide influence in Judaism in the (Kayotse bo mi-makom aher = and haggadah relevant to the midrashic first century AD and beyond.25 These “something similar in another interpretation of the Old Testament seven exegetical rules were as follows:26 passage”). [In other words, by the writers of the New Testament? 1. An inference drawn from a an attempt to solve more Precisely because some of the her- minor premise to a major and difficult problems by compar- meneutical rules eventually underly- vice versa (Kal wa-homer = ing them with another pas- ing halakah and haggadah were also “light and heavy”). [In other sage in Scripture.] reflected in the hermeneutical meth- 7. An interpretation of a word or odology of midrash. That is why Bloch, passage from its context (Davar in her fifth essential characteristic of halamed me-inyano = “explana- midrash, mentioned earlier, speaks of tion from the context”).27 midrash halakah and midrash haggadah. There was oftentimes overlap between There is also much The implications of these middoth midrash and halakah and/or haggadah. debate concerning how for the apostle Paul’s hermeneuti- cal methods, as well as New Testa- While the final forms of the written much these seven rules ment examples of their use, will be collections of halakah and haggadah discussed in Sections 2 and 3. The were actually collected and collated were derived from purpose of including them here is during the first five centuries of the Hellenistic rhetoric. again to attempt to identify a bit common era, the actual rules guid- more clearly the overall historical ing the formulations of the halakah and cultural climate out of which and haggadah existed and were being midrash developed. Having done this revised during the years just prior to I want to briefly investigate the use of and/or during the writing and com- words, what has been previously midrash in the speeches and letters of piling of the New Testament corpus. applied to a less important Paul. The apostle Paul’s use of the Old Therefore, the rules that were formu- matter will certainly be appli- Testament is especially important to lated to guide halakah and haggadah cable to a more serious matter.] analyze since he interpreted Scripture were also known by the New Testa- 2. An inference drawn from for both Jewish and audi- ment writers. analogy of expressions, that is ences in the early Christian churches. from similar words and phrases We turn first to some examples of the The Middoth elsewhere (Gezera Shawa = “an use of midrash in the speeches of Paul What were these interpretation rules? equivalent regulation”). found in the book of Acts. These exegetical rules, or middoth 3. A general principle estab- Section 2: The Use of Midrash (middot), were instituted by the rabbi lished on the basis of a teach- Hillel (60 BC to 20 AD?) around ing contained in one verse in the Speeches of Paul in Acts the year 30 BC We do not know (Binyan Av mi-katuv ‘ehad = Since the publication of H. St. J. whether Hillel established these “constructing a leading rule Thackeray’s The Relation of St. Paul to rules or merely transmitted them from one passage”). Contemporary Jewish Thought in 1900, from someone else.22 There is also 4. A general principle established biblical scholars over the last one much debate concerning how much on the basis of a teaching con- hundred years or so have observed these seven rules were derived from tained in two verses (Binyan that Paul’s hermeneutical methodol- Hellenistic rhetoric found in Alexan- Av mi-shenei = “con- ogy was highly influenced by the

International Journal of Frontier Missiology Larry W. Caldwell 97 rabbinical interpretative techniques of his time.28 By now this observa- aul was intimately acquainted with several of tion should not be surprising. These the various facets of midrashic interpretative biblical scholars discovered what this article is trying to demonstrate: the P techniques used during the first century AD. apostle Paul was a product of the overall hermeneutical milieu of his acquainted with several of the vari- In this Old Testament quotation Paul day and age. As E. Earle Ellis notes ous facets of midrashic interpreta- combines Psalm 89:20—“I have found concerning Paul and his Jewish her- tive techniques used during the first David my servant; with my sacred oil meneutical background: century AD. What follows is a brief I have anointed him”—with a phrase Without a doubt the apostle’s un- analysis of five examples of Paul’s use from the words spoken by the prophet derstanding of the Old Testament of the Old Testament. In this first part, Samuel to King Saul found in 1 Sam- was completely revolutionized after three examples are taken from Luke’s uel 13:14: “But now your kingdom will his conversion; nevertheless his Jew- record of Paul’s first missionary speech not endure; has sought out a ish heritage remained of fundamen- recorded in Acts, and in the following man after his own heart and appointed tal importance for his understanding article, two are taken from the writings him a leader of his people, because you and use of the Bible. His reverence of Paul himself.30 have not kept the Lord’s command.” for and study of the Scriptures long preceded his knowledge of Christ. Midrash in Paul’s First Missionary The original Scriptural contexts of both Reading habits, methodology, and Speech: Acts 13:16-41 of these passages to which Paul refers hermeneutic norms were firmly In the thirteenth chapter of Acts, would have doubtless been familiar to implanted by his parents, his syna- Luke recounts the beginnings of what those present in the congregation that gogue and most of all, his teacher of is known today as Paul’s first mis- day. The context of the Psalm quote, rabbinics—Gamaliel.29 sionary journey. Here in 13:16-41 is observes F. F. Bruce, would have gotten found the first recorded missionary their special attention: Paul is an excellent example of these sermon delivered by Paul at the syna- These words of Ps. 89, recording the Jewish hermeneutical influences for gogue in Pisidian Antioch. After “the promises made by God to David, were several reasons. First, the number of reading from the Law and the Proph- written in a day when disaster had extant letters and writings of Paul that ets” had occurred the leaders of the overtaken David’s house, and the are found today in the New Testament synagogue invited Paul and Barnabas psalmist was bewildered by the con- contain a vast amount of material to to give “a message of encouragement trast between the divine promises and examine. Second, Paul’s writings were for the people” (13:15). Paul responds the sorry sight that met his eyes—the penned before the and Acts to the invitation with a message to crown of David profaned and cast to were written and, as a result, give good these gathered “men of Israel and . . . the ground. . . . In later days, however, evidence of the hermeneutical meth- who worship God” (13:16). when the sovereignty of the house of odology at use in the early Christian In his response he includes several David seemed to have passed away church. Third, Luke records several allusions to specific Old Testament for ever, so far as human agency was of Paul’s speeches in Luke-Acts, still events as well as several direct quotes. concerned, it came to be recognized earlier evidence of Paul’s use of the that the promises made to David Old Testament. For these reasons the Acts 13:22 would be completely fulfilled in a ruler apostle Paul’s use of the Old Testa- After a lengthy summary of the of David’s line whom God would Him- ment in the New is critical to this mighty acts of God in the history of self raise up . . . . As the post-exilic cen- study. His speeches and writings are Israel from the time of the Exodus to turies passed, and especially after the especially good evidence for the use of the establishment of David as King brief space of national independence midrash in the New Testament. (13:15-22), Paul ties it all together under the Hasmoneans was followed with words concerning . In Acts by the Roman conquest, the longing At the outset of this discussion of 13:22 he emphasizes the truth of his for this messianic deliverer became Paul’s use of the Old Testament it message with his first quote from the more intense than ever.31 must be stressed, once again, that Paul Old Testament: used many hermeneutical techniques After removing Saul, he made David Thus, Paul here is quoting from these in his speeches and writings. Midrash their king. He testified concerning familiar contexts to build up to his pre- was not his sole choice. From the evi- him: ‘I have found David son of Jesse liminary conclusion in this first part of dence to be presented shortly, however, a man after my own heart; he will do his speech.32 This conclusion immedi- it will be seen that Paul was intimately everything I want him to do.’ ately follows in 13:23: “From this man’s

29:2 Summer 2012 98 Part I: Reconsidering Our Biblical Roots: Bible Interpretation, the Apostle Paul and Mission Today descendants God has brought to Israel Testament quotes are being used ac- indeed true (as Paul has already clearly the Savior Jesus, as he promised.” cording to the seven middoth of Hillel given evidence) that God raised Jesus examined in Section 1. Since Hillel from the dead, and this raised one What kind of midrashic exegesis is Paul was either the father or grandfather of without doubt has been given the holy employing here? He is applying the Gamaliel, Paul’s rabbinical teacher,33 and sure blessings previously promised familiar “that” of these biblical texts— it is not surprising that Paul’s writing, to David, then it naturally follows that especially Psalm 89—to the “this” situ- even after his conversion experience, this Holy One will never see decay ation of the coming of Jesus. Here Paul reflects his rabbinic training. As J. W. since this promise has also been clearly actualizes the biblical texts he quotes Doeve (1954, 175) comments: stated in God’s Word. to clearly show that they are fulfilled in . . . in the argument of Acts 13 the the person of Jesus, the Messiah. work of a schooled rabbi is quite The other Old Testament text quoted perceptible. If one is familiar with earlier here in this section, Psalm 2:7, Acts 13:32-36 the working methods of a rabbinic also gives evidence for the use of the The remainder of Paul’s speech to the expositor and able to assess the value middoth exegetical rules, but in this synagogue at Pisidian Antioch centers of this exegesis, then one can hardly instance as Gezera Shawa (an inference on this person Jesus. After giving some deny that Acts 13 offers a sound and drawn from analogy). This exegetical historical background about Jesus, well-built argument, arresting by its rule makes the connections between Old especially concerning his death and exegetical ingenuity.34 Testament texts less obvious than the resurrection, Paul again quotes from more explicit examples just examined. the Old Testament, this time with In this particular case Paul is most likely explicit introductory statements. The joining, by means of analogy, this Psalm text of Acts 13:32-36 reads 2:7 text with that found in 2 Samuel We tell you the good news: What 7:14a: “I will be his father, and he will be God promised our fathers he has my son.” As Longenecker explains it: fulfilled for us, their children, by rais- . . . 2 Samuel 7:6-16 undoubtedly ing up Jesus. As it is written in the Paul’s writing, even formed the biblical basis for Paul’s second Psalm: historical résumé in Acts 13:17-22. ‘You are my Son, today I have be- after his conversion And in Acts 13:33, the first explicit come your Father.’ experience, reflects his citation following that recitation of The fact that God raised him from God’s dealings with his people, the the dead, never to decay, is stated in rabbinic training. apostle quotes from Psalm 2:7 . . . . these words: Probably their union was originally ‘I will give you the holy and sure based on the fact that they both blessings promised to David.’ portray God as speaking of “my So it is stated elsewhere: son,” and on that basis (gezerah sha- ‘You will not let your Holy One The exegetical rule of Kal wa-homer wah) it was considered appropriate see decay.’ (light and heavy) is being used by Paul to treat them together (1975, 98).36 For when David had served God’s here in this section of his sermon. He purpose in his own generation, he fell does this by combining the Isaiah 55:3 Though this exegetical rule of analogy asleep; he was buried with his fathers phrase with the Psalms 16:10 passage is not nearly as obvious as one might and his body decayed. But the one by means of their common adjective like it to be, there seems to be sufficient whom God raised from the dead did o@sioj. In its substantival form this evidence for its use by Paul here relative not see decay. word “can mean either “divine decrees” to this quote from the second Psalm.37 (ta/ o3sia) as in Isaiah 55:3 or “holy This string of successive Old Testament one” (ton o3sion) as in Psalm 16:10.”35 Acts 13:38-41 quotes is taken from Psalm 2:7, Isaiah Thus, the first reference from Isaiah The last quotation used by Paul in his 55:3, and Psalm 16:10, respectively. The 55:3 is the “light” aspect of the Kal wa- Pisidian Antioch synagogue speech is two quotes from the Psalms are exact homer exegetical rule and the reference found in Acts 13:38-41: translations of the , while from Psalm 16 is the “heavy” because Therefore, my brothers, I want you that from Isaiah is in a form similar to of this common adjective. What has to know that through Jesus the for- that found in the . previously applied to a less important giveness of sins is proclaimed to you. matter (Isaiah 55:3) will certainly be Through him everyone who believes What are the midrashic elements in applicable to a more serious matter is justified from everything you could this series of verses? These three Old (Psalm 16:10). In other words, if it is not be justified from by the law of

International Journal of Frontier Missiology Larry W. Caldwell 99

Moses. Take care that what the proph- ets have said does not happen to you: he “two step” method we are so familiar with in our ‘Look, you scoffers,wonder and per- ish, for I am going to do something modern milieu was not the primary lens through in your days that you would never be- which Paul interpreted Scripture when he preached. lieve, even if someone told you.’ T surprising, then, that Paul used the applicable in all non-western contexts. This Here Paul’s reference to “the prophets” methods from his own hermeneuti- approach has grammatical-historical roots is actually a quotation of Habakkuk cal milieu in his speeches in Acts. The with a possible anti-God and anti-Bible bias. This approach is costly to imple- 1:5, taken from the Septuagint.38 The “two step” method we are so familiar ment and maintain (requiring books and original context of the Habakkuk with in our modern milieu was not the libraries and/or access to them) and thus quote concerns the imminent rise to primary lens through which Paul in- is oftentimes limited to more wealthy world power of Nebuchadnezzar and terpreted Scripture when he preached. cultures. Furthermore, this approach is the Chaldeans as God’s answer to the It’s clear from Acts 13 alone that very complicated to learn; it assumes a tyranny of the world by the Assyrians. Paul’s interpretive lenses were drawn high educational level and takes years of The Chaldeans will deliver the world from his hermeneutical milieu, in this advanced training to effectively handle the from Assyrian tyranny and all the na- case from midrash and the seven rules approach. For a more thorough analysis of the weaknesses of the Two Step approach, tions of the world will be amazed. that guided Hillel, Gamaliel and the especially in non-western cross-cultural Pharisaic tradition. I hope this initial situations, see my “Towards the New Dis- The hermeneutical method underlying look at Paul’s milieu will cause us to cipline of Ethnohermeneutics: Question- Paul’s use of this quotation from Ha- reconsider our assumptions about bib- ing the Relevancy of Western Hermeneuti- bakkuk is the “this is that” understand- lical interpretation as we use Scripture cal Methods in the Asian Context.” Journal of Asian Mission 1:1, (1999), 21-43. ing inherent to the midrashic pesher cross-culturally across our world today. 2 style.39 Paul pays scant attention to the Kevin Higgins, “Diverse Voices: Hearing Scripture Speak in a Multicultural details of the original Habakkuk con- In Part Two I will continue this explo- Movement.” International Journal of Frontier text except for the theme of deliverance ration of Paul’s hermeneutical milieu Missiology, 27:4, (Winter 2010), 189-196. inherent in it. Paul, however, does not by looking at some passages from 3 Cited in Dan Sperber and Deirdre totally divorce the Habakkuk quota- his letter to the Romans. I will also Wilson, Relevance: Communication and tion from its original context. For the introduce a few modern-day examples Cognition. Second edition (Oxford, UK: Blackwell, 1995), 46. “this” is found in the overall deliverance of non-Western indigenous Bible in- 4 context of Habakkuk 1:5, but now it is terpretational approaches that likewise Higgins, “Diverse Voices,” 190. 5 Higgins, “Diverse Voices,” 191. more completely revealed in light of the arise directly from their own cognitive 6 Higgins essentially agrees when he “that” context of the deliverance offered environments. I will then conclude says that the reality is “that translation is through Jesus Christ. According to with some practical applications for all itself an iterative, interpretive process,” 191. IJFM 7 Bruce, Paul applies Habakkuk 1:5 “to Bible interpretes today. Note that what follows in Sections the new situation in which God is of- 1 through 4 is simply an attempt to paint fering deliverance through the greatest Endnotes in very broad strokes both the hermeneuti- of all His mighty works. Great as was 1 The strengths of this Two Step ap- cal milieu of the first century AD as well as the apostle Paul’s use of midrash. It does the disaster that overtook those who proach are several. This approach takes the not presume in any way to be exhaustive. ignored the warnings of the prophets, Bible seriously and allows the biblical text to always take precedence over the world See the bibliographical references for more an even greater disaster will fall upon thorough discussions. 40 of the interpreter and his/her culture. The 8 those who refuse the gospel.” It is approach deals honestly with the context Richard N. Longenecker, Biblical Ex- imperative, then, for Paul’s audience to of the original text and attempts to un- egesis in the Apostolic Period (Grand Rapids, realize that the deliverance now offered MI: Eerdmans, 1975), 37. derstand as much as possible the original 9 through Jesus Christ be given the hear- author’s intended meaning. This approach See Renée Bloch, “Midrash,” trans. ing it justly deserves. looks at the strengths and weaknesses of by Mary Callaway. In Approaches to Ancient the interpretation of the Bible throughout Judaism, ed. W. S. Green (Missoula, MT: Scholars, 1978). This major article by Bloch Preliminary Summary church history and learns from it. This ap- appeared posthumously in French in 1957. proach takes the best of evangelical schol- These first two sections have at- Bloch was one of the first proponents for arship and uses it for better understandings tempted to show, however briefly, that studying midrash as a hermeneutical method. of the biblical text and its context. The 10 the hermeneutical milieu of the first weaknesses of this Two Step approach are Ibid., 50. 11 century AD was one that significantly also several. This approach assumes the Ibid., 31. 12 influenced the apostle Paul and his universal nature of western hermeneuti- Ibid., 31. own cognitive environment. It is not cal methods that may not necessarily be 13 Ibid., 32.

29:2 Summer 2012 100 Part I: Reconsidering Our Biblical Roots: Bible Interpretation, the Apostle Paul and Mission Today

14 Ibid., 32-33. explanations are my own. For more details Henry M. Shires, Finding the Old Testament 15 Ibid., 33. as well as numerous examples see Doeve, in the New (Philadelphia, PA: Westminster, 16 Ibid., 29. Jewish Hermeneutics, 66-75. 1974), 55-56. 27 34 17 Interestingly enough, this seventh Doeve, Jewish Hermeneutics, 175. Ibid., 33. 35 18 middoth is a hermeneutical method that Concerning this linking of these two Again, what is described here has parallels to some extent some modern passages, Longenecker, Biblical Exegesis, 97, been greatly simplified. In actuality the historical-critical hermeneutical techniques. n. 63, observes that “Paul’s sermon in the answer of the Jewish people was simple Note, however, that though this middoth synagogue to Diaspora Jews was probably but the process underlying the answer was was readily available to the New Testament delivered in Greek, so that such a play on incredibly complex. o3sioj 19 writers they seldom chose to use it. the word would be midrashically Cf. Ibid., 34-36. 28 understandable and fitting,” 20 For a historical chronicling of various Allowance, though, must be made scholars’ understandings (since 1900) of this 36 Longenecker, Biblical Exegesis, 98, for the possibility that this “making it clear relationship between Paul and the rabbinical following Doeve, Jewish Hermeneutics, 172. and giving the meaning” may not have 37 hermeneutical methods of his time see Dan Note that this same text from Psalm involved midrashic interpretation at all, Cohn-Sherbok, “Paul and Rabbinic Exege- 2:7 is used differently in the Synoptics, but rather translation from Aramaic to the sis.” Scottish Journal of Theology 35 (1981). where it refers to the experience of the Holy local dialect; cf. Geza Vermes, “Bible and 29 Earl E. Ellis, Paul’s Use of the Old Spirit descending upon Jesus at the Jordan Midrash: Early Jewish Exegesis,” in The Testament (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, river (Matt. 3:17; Mark 1:11; and Luke Cambridge History of the Bible. From the Be- 1957), 38. 3:22; cf. also Heb. 1:5, 5:5). This example ginnings to Jerome. Vol. 1, eds. P. R. Ackroyd 30 With regard to the examples from underscores the fact that each New Testa- and C. F. Evans (London, UK: Cambridge Acts, while the probability of Luke’s redac- ment interpreter’s own contextual situation University Press, 1970), 201. The entire tion of these Pauline speeches to reflect determined his use of specific Old Testa- context of this passage, however, along with Luke’s own overall theological agenda must ment texts. the several times it appears the interpreta- 38 be acknowledged, nevertheless the overall The Septuagint differs from the tion was given—“making it clear,” “giving tenor of Paul’s hermeneutical methodology Masoretic text when it substitutes “you the meaning,” “so that the people could un- in these speeches is easily discerned. scoffers” for “the nations” and adds “perish” derstand”—seems to imply more than mere a0fani/sqhte 31 ( ). However, the fact that Paul translation. For a thorough analysis of the F. F. Bruce, The New International Bible Commentary on the New Testament: The omits the phrase, which the Septuagint influence of Aramaic on Jesus and the New includes, may mean that Paul is using a Testament church see Joseph A. Fitzmyer, Book of Acts (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1981), 273-274. text closer to the Masoretic text than is The Semitic Background of the New Testament. commonly thought (cf. Gleason L. Archer 32 Paul’s additional phrases, “son of Combined edition (Grand Rapids, MI: and G. C. Chirichigno, Old Testament Quo- Jesse” and “he will do everything I want him Eerdmans, 1997). tations in the New Testament: A Complete 21 to do,” are inconsequential. They may merely Donald Juel, Messianic Exegesis. Survey (Chicago, IL: Moody, 1983), 159. be targumic comments upon the Old Testa- Christological Interpretations of the Old Testa- But note that the Qumran text of 1QpHab ment texts or they could reflect the pos- ment in Early (Philadelphia, 2:1-10 presupposes the above substitu- sibility that Paul (or the Pisidian Antioch PA: Fortress, 1988), 32. tion, thus offering further support for the congregation) had a text that included these 22 Cf. J. W. Doeve, Jewish Hermeneutics Septuagint translation. phrases. Note that the longer phrase occurs in the Synoptics and Acts (Assen, NL: Van 39 Though not strictly following the in the of Jonathan; cf. F. F. Bruce, Gorcum, 1954), 61. ordinary pesher structure—in other words, “Paul’s Use of the Old Testament in Acts,” 23 the technical moniker, pesher, is not used 23. Cf. Daniel Patte, Early Jewish in Tradition and Interpretation in the New by Paul—the context surrounding the use Hermeneutic in Palestine (Missoula, MT: Testament, eds. Gerald F. Hawthorne with of this Habakkuk text clearly places the Scholars, 1975), 112-115. Otto Betz (Grand Rapids, MI/Tubingen, 24 text in the realm of the theological purpose Cf. Vermes, “Bible and Midrash,” WG: Eerdmans/Mohr, 1987), 72. 221. Possibly the middoth were the result of 33 of midrashic pesher: a text which can now See Longenecker, Biblical Exegesis, only be fully understood in relation to the attempts to put some kind of limits upon 33-34, n. 50, concerning sources for further the freer midrashic hermeneutical forms in present context. debate over this issue. It is interesting to 40 Bruce, The Book of Acts, 279. vogue around this time period. note that Paul’s teacher, Gamaliel—ac- 25 Hillel’s seven middoth were later cording to H. E. Dana and R. E. Glaze, Jr., expanded by others to total a standardized 32 Interpreting the New Testament (Nashville, middoth by 160 AD. TN: Broadman, 1961), 19—“was broad- 26 Quoted from Earl E. Ellis, “Bibli- minded and considerate in his interpretation cal Interpretation in the New Testament,” of the Law, having been characterized very in Mikra, Text, Translation, Reading much by the spirit of his grandfather. The and Interpretation of the in remarkable liberality of his attitude may be Ancient Judaism and Early Christianity. seen in the fact that he studied and taught Compendia Rerum Iudaicarum ad Novum Greek literature and contended for the inher- Testamentum, ed. Martin Jan Mulder ent rights and privileges of the Gentiles. He (Assen, NL/Philadelphia, PA: Van was, nevertheless, held in high regard by the Gorkum/Fortress, 1988), 699; bracketed Jews of his own and later generations . . . ”; cf.

International Journal of Frontier Missiology Scripture in Context Part 2: Reconsidering Our Biblical Roots: Bible Interpretation, the Apostle Paul and Mission Today by Larry W. Caldwell

The first part of my article on the need for us to reconsider our biblical roots as we interpret the Bible in the context of mission today appeared in the previous issue of IJFM (29:2, Sum- mer 2012). As we launch into this second part, let us recall the argument of the two parts. A Review of Part One

n Part 1 we looked at the hermeneutical methodology that dominates Bible interpretation for evangelicals worldwide—what I call “the Western Two-Step.” The first step responds to the question:How is a particular IBible passage to be best interpreted? In this initial step the interpreter attempts to ascertain what the Bible passage first meant to its original hearers, to understand what the passage meant then. Step Two follows as the interpreter attempts to answer the question: How is that Bible passage best interpreted for today? In this second step the interpreter applies the results of the first step to the particular audience with whom the interpreter is ministering now, being careful to make sure that the second step closely approximates the results of the first step. Larry W. Caldwell (PhD, Fuller Theological Seminary) was Professor I called into question the appropriateness of the international dominance of of Missions and Hermeneutics at Asian Theological Seminary for 20 this “Two Step” approach to Bible interpretation among evangelicals world- years, five of those years serving as wide. I considered the possibility that it might be more appropriate to exam- Academic Dean, and directed the Doctor of Missiology program at the ine indigenous hermeneutics as the starting point for multi-generational, Asia Graduate School of Theology- multi-cultural and cross-cultural mission work today. Building on Kevin Philippines. He was editor of the Journal of Asian Mission for many Higgins’ work with relevance theory, I examined the role that cognitive envi- years, and has written and presented ronment plays on an individual’s “current and potential matrix of ideas, mem- numerous papers in journals and 41 forums across Asia and the Western ories, experiences and perceptions.” I maintained that any hermeneutical world. He recently returned to method, including the Two Step approach, is highly shaped by the cognitive the USA to become Director of Missionary Training and Strategy environment of the reader/hearer/interpreter. Furthermore, I argued that we for Converge Worldwide, and serves must examine carefully the cognitive environment of ourselves as interpreters, as Visiting Professor of Intercultural Studies at Sioux Falls Seminary. as well as the cognitive environment of the audiences with whom we do

International Journal of Frontier Missiology 29:3 Fall 2012•61 62 Part 2: Reconsidering Our Biblical Roots: Bible Interpretation, the Apostle Paul and Mission Today mission, which would include the various from the Old Testament 93 times.42 Paul clearly uses this proem midrash tech- indigenous hermeneutical methods. Old Testament quotes are found in all nique in verses 9:6-29 as seen below:45 43 of his letters except for Philemon. 6 It is not as though God’s word had Since one’s cognitive environment Since the bulk of these quotations failed. For not all who are descended shapes one’s hermeneutical methodolo- are found in Romans, I will offer two from Israel are Israel. 7 Nor because gy, I argued that it’s appropriate for both examples from that letter. Though only they are his descendants are they all Westerners and non-Westerners alike to representative, these two examples Abraham’s children. On the contrary, use interpretation methods that reflect “It is through Isaac that your off- amply reflect Paul’s use of hermeneuti- their own cultural contexts and cogni- spring will be reckoned.” 8 In other cal method across all his letters. tive environments. I then examined this words, it is not the natural children cultural preference for hermeneutical Romans 9:6-29 who are God’s children, but it is the methods in the New Testament, since children of the promise who are re- One obvious example of Paul’s con- garded as Abraham’s offspring. 9 For the biblical authors model their herme- tinued use of midrash methodology neutical preference in their interpetation this was how the promise was stated: in referencing the Old Testament is “At the appointed time I will return, of the Old Testament. Not surprisingly, found in chapter 9 of his letter to the and Sarah will have a son.” their hermeneutical methods reflect their Romans, particularly in verses 9-26. own cognitive environments, a tendency 10 Not only that, but Rebekah’s chil- Here several Old Testament quota- dren had one and the same father, especially apparent in the speeches tions are strung together by Paul in and writings of the apostle Paul. So in our father Isaac. 11 Yet, before the a very structured way, an example of twins were born or had done anything Section 1 of Part 1 we examined the good or bad—in order that God’s pur- hermeneutical mileau and cognitive pose in election might stand: 12 not by environment of the first centuryad out works but by him who calls—she was of which Paul’s hermeneutical methods told, “The older will serve the young- arose. I gave special attention to the er.” 13 Just as it is written: “Jacob I method known as midrash. In Section 2 loved, but Esau I hated.” I described Paul’s use of midrash in his 14 What then shall we say? Is God speeches in Acts. Paul quotes from the Old unjust? Not at all! 15 For he says to Now, here in Part 2, we will continue Testament 93 times. Moses, “I will have mercy on whom our investigation of Paul’s hermeneuti- I have mercy, and I will have compas- sion on whom I have compassion.” cal methods in the third section. I want to illuminate Paul’s use of midrash from 16 It does not, therefore, depend on his letter to the Romans. Section 4 will man’s desire or effort, but on God’s then give three examples of non-West- mercy. 17 For the Scripture says to ern approaches to the biblical text that, Pharaoh: “I raised you up for this very purpose, that I might display my pow- like Paul’s, have arisen out of their own er in you and that my name might be hermeneutical contexts. I’ll conclude what is commonly referred to as the proem midrash technique. proclaimed in all the earth.” 18 There- with some practical suggestions for fore God has mercy on whom he both Western and non-Western evan- This proem form had the following wants to have mercy, and he hardens gelical Bible interpreters on how to use elements: whom he wants to harden. hermeneutical methods that are more 19 One of you will say to me: “Then culturally appropriate. 1. The (Pentateuchal) text for the day. why does God still blame us? For who resists his will?” 20 But who are Section 3: The Use of Midrash 2. A second text, the proem: the you, O man, to talk back to God? in the Letters of Paul introduction or “opening” for “Shall what is formed say to him who The use of midrashic interpretative the discourse. formed it, ‘Why did you make me like techniques by the apostle Paul in his 3. Exposition containing addi- this?’” 21 Does the potter have the sermons in the book of Acts, as dem- tional Old Testament cita- right to make out of the same lump onstrated in Part 1, continued through- tions, parables or other com- of clay some pottery for noble pur- poses and some for common use? out his ministry in both oral and mentary and linked to the written form. His writings available for initial texts by catch words. 22 What if God, choosing to show his our study today are all of an epistle- 4. A final text, usually repeat- wrath and make his power known, tory genre, both the letters written to ing or alluding to the text bore with great patience the objects churches and individuals. Paul quotes for the day.44 of his wrath—prepared for destruc-

International Journal of Frontier Missiology Larry W. Caldwell 63

tion? 23 What if he did this to make the riches of his glory known to the nlike many scholars today, Jewish-Christian objects of his mercy, whom he pre- pared in advance for glory—24 even readers at Rome would not have been us, whom he also called, not only from troubled by Paul’s hermeneutical methods. the Jews but also from the Gentiles? U 25 As he says in Hosea: “I will call them he deals. Paul is actualizing these Old What Paul is doing here in Deuteronomy ‘my people’ who are not my people; Testament texts to the current needs of can be better understood by examining and I will call her ‘my loved one’ who his audience in the proem midrash style the original context. In Deuteronomy is not my loved one,” 26 and, “It will to which the majority were undoubt- 30:11-14, Moses is trying to impress happen that in the very place where edly accustomed. Being familiar with upon his audience that the law is not too it was said to them, ‘You are not my difficult to obey: people,’ they will be called ‘sons of the this style, the Jewish-Christian readers at living God.’” Rome would have understood Paul’s use Now what I am commanding you to- of the Old Testament quotes relative to day is not too difficult for you or be- 27 Isaiah cries out concerning Israel: the question posed in verses 1-5. Unlike yond your reach. It is not up in heav- “Though the number of the Israel- the quandry of many scholars today, they en, so that you have to ask, “Who ites be like the sand by the sea, only would not have been troubled by Paul’s will ascend into heaven to get it and the remnant will be saved. 28 For the hermeneutical methods, for it was in proclaim it to us so we may obey it?” Lord will carry out his sentence on Nor is it beyond the sea, so that you earth with speed and finality.” keeping with the rabbinic style of that 47 have to ask, “Who will cross the sea day. Paul (like Jesus before him) was to get it and proclaim it to us so we 29 It is just as Isaiah said previously: a master teacher intimately acquainted “Unless the Lord Almighty had left may obey it?” No, the word is very with the proem midrash technique. us descendants, we would have be- near you; it is in your mouth and in come like Sodom, we would have Romans 10:6-8 your heart so you may obey it. been like Gomorrah.” Another example of Paul’s midrashic Paul, in Romans 10:6-8, takes these This Romans passage fits the previously hermeneutical techniques can be seen same words of Moses and applies them mentioned four sections of the proem in his use of Deuteronomy 30:12-14 in directly to the righteousness which pattern as follows:46 Romans 10:6-8. Paul writes: is by faith in Christ. In so doing his But the righteousness that is by faith hermeneutical methodology exhibits 1. Verses 6-8: theme and initial says: “Do not say in your heart, ‘Who characteristics of midrash: he actual- text from Gen. 21:12 (v. 7). will ascend into heaven?’” (that is, izes the Deuteronomy passage and 2. Verse 9: a second, supplemen- to bring Christ down) “or ‘Who will reinterprets it in light of the present descend into the deep?’” (that is, to tal text from Gen. 18:10 (also context of the historical fact of Christ’s bring Christ up from the dead). But 18:14). death (“that is, to bring Christ down”) what does it say? “The word is near 3. Verses 10-28: exposition con- you; it is in your mouth and in your and resurrection (“that is, to bring taining additional citations: heart,” that is, the word of faith we Christ up from the dead”). Paul simply Gen. 25:23 (v. 12); Mal. 1:2, 3 are proclaiming . . . interprets the “that” of Deuteronomy­ (v. 13); Ex. 33:19 (v. 15); Ex. in light of the “this” of Jesus Christ. 9:16 (v. 17); Isa. 29:16, 45:9 Since at least the time of John Calvin The quotation of the Deuteronomy (v. 20); Hos. 2:23 (v. 25); Hos. exegetes have noticed that Paul’s treat- passage, in other words, is actualized 1:10 (v. 26); and Isa. 10:22, 23 ment of Deuteronomy 30:12-14 is not and reinterpreted in light of the new (v. 28)—all linked to the initial in keeping with the general context of context and present situation of those kalei~n texts by the catchwords that passage. As Calvin expressed it, to whom Paul is writing this epistle. and ui#ov (“calls,” “called” and This passage may for two reasons The new context compels Paul to adapt . “son,” vs. 12, 24-26, 27) cause considerable difficulty to the this Old Testament quote for purposes 4. Verse 29: a final text from Isa. reader. Paul seems to have not only of New Testament faith. 1:9 alluding to the initial text distorted the proper sense of the pas- with the catchword spe/rma sage, but also to have changed the Section 4: Three Examples (“descendants”). words to a different meaning.48 of Indigenous Non-Western Paul’s argument, moving from one proof- Hermeneutical Approaches to But is Paul really distorting and chang- text to another, is interrupted twice in the Biblical Text ing? Could it not be that he is simply order to deal with false inferences (and following a familiar hermeneutical Having examined briefly the hermeneuti- possibly an objector in v. 19) that may technique which is unfamiliar to Calvin cal milieu and cognitive environment out have arisen from the texts with which and many modern exegetes? of which Paul’s hermeneutical methods

29:3 Fall 2012 64 Part 2: Reconsidering Our Biblical Roots: Bible Interpretation, the Apostle Paul and Mission Today arose, and having focused on several When the missionary heard these hermeneutical method of peligad— examples of Paul’s hermeneutical ap- words she did not know what to think. something shared in light of a similar proaches, we now can rightfully proceed She became even more puzzled when cognitive environment—made the to the next question: “How does all of this the man joyously answered the leader: conversation understandable to both relate to interpreting the Bible in multi- I am privileged and honored to be speaker and hearer, but not to the mis- generational, multi-cultural and cross- chosen among the many fields. Yes, sionary outsider who knew little about cultural situations today?” The answer to tell the poor man to do as he pleases this interpretive method. The fact that this question is found in contemporary and that I will gladly receive his gift. both Manobos knew the hermeneuti- indigenous approaches that, like Paul’s, Expect us when the moon first -ap cal rules brought the conversation to a pears in the eastern sky. have arisen out of their own hermeneuti- successful conclusion. cal contexts. We will look briefly at three The missionary later discovered that examples of hermeneutics being done in What literary genre from the Bible the conversation was actually about a three different non-Western contexts. lends itself to the peligad hermeneu- wedding arrangement. The poor man tical method? The parables of Jesus Hermeneutics Among the Cotobato was the father. The “rice seed” was should come to mind. While West- Manobo of the Philippines the young man for whom the father ern interpreters often struggle for The first example comes from the -Co wanted to find a wife and the “fertile the main point of comparison (ter- tobato Manobo people of Mindanao field” was the young maiden who was tium comparationis) in many of these in the Philippines.49 The Cotobato the daughter of the man to whom the parables, the peligad of the Cotobato Manobo have four major hermeneuti- leader was talking. The “twenty-feet- Manobo helps the interpreter to ar- cal methods by which they interpret rive at essentially the same exegetical their own vast oral literature: peligad conclusion. For example, in Mark (figurative speech that is interpreted 4:30-32 (cf. Matt. 13:31-32), Jesus according to what it symbolizes); speaks of the kingdom of God and a tegudon (the re-telling of historical mustard seed. The comparison of the doctrine from their legends that teach When the missionary two drives the hearer to look for the Cotobato Manobo what they should heard these words main point of comparison: the growth believe today); telaki (simple stories from insignificant to significant. The that end with an application designed she did not know what peligad, when applied to this same par- to teach younger Cotobato Manobos able, interprets the figurative language the Manobo ideals and values in life); to think. in light of what it symbolizes: Jesus and duyuy (the expression of emotion uses the figurative language of mustard through stylized singing). Let’s look at seed to fully-grown tree to symbolize a concise example of the first,peligad, the kingdom and its growth. Either and how it may be used by the Coto- the method of tertium comparationis that-walk” were five horses (the bridal bato Manobo to interpret the Bible. or the peligad allow the interpreter to price). The receiving of the gift and arrive at the same basic conclusion. In This example involves a newly arrived the promised visit meant that the man this case, the peligad is perhaps a more missionary to the Cotobato Manobo accepted the proposal and would later appropriate hermeneutical method for who heard the tribal leader speak the bring the bride to the groom’s village 50 following words while in dialogue with for the wedding. the Cotobato Manobo culture. another man: Hermeneutics among This cross-cultural illustration from My friend, a poor man from a far vil- the Builsa of Ghana the Cotobato Manobo illustrates how lage, about eight mountains away, the hermeneutical method of peligad The second example comes from the together with his family, has hiked 51 the long mountain trail bringing is used. Throughout this conversa- Builsa people of Ghana, West Africa. with them a precious rice seedling. tion figurative speech was interpreted Many proverbs are useful for express- They are hoping to find a fertile according to what it symbolized (a ing Christian truth and these Builsa field. Now, outside are the twenty- wedding proposal). All of the wed- people have a tremendous number feet-that-walk waiting to be given as ding arrangements were made without of indigenous proverbs. These old a gift if he is allowed to plant his pre- mentioning the actual details, but the proverbs often express values that have cious rice seed in somebody’s field. conversation was understood by the been adopted as part of their Builsa And if it is well with you and your speaker and hearer because they both Christian worldview, their cogni- family he wants to plant it in your knew what was being referred to by tive environment. These indigenous fertile field. the figurative speech. Awareness of the proverbs have become effective carriers

International Journal of Frontier Missiology Larry W. Caldwell 65 of biblical truth, as evidenced in the following story. It concerns a group re you sure that’s in the Bible? Let me read of Builsa pastors and the missionary that.” The missionary was learning new things working among them: from Scripture that he had overlooked before. Twelve Builsa pastors attended the A meeting and Pastor Kofi—one of Kofi continued, “Now that I ama heart and desire for us Builsa people,” the Builsa pastors—opened with the Kristobiik (Christian), I feel that Yezu continued Immanuel. “Yezu says, proverb that has helped his own faith is the chicken that I hide under. When ‘How often I have longed to gather in Yezu (Jesus), “Nurubiik a labri ka problems come, I can run to Yezu your children together, as a hen gath- kpiak kawpta po” (A human being in and ask him to cover my ers her chicks under her wings.’ That hides in the feathers of a fowl). Joe, shame and protect me. He will bear is Yezu’s desire for us: to protect us, who is a missionary to the Builsa peo- the full impact of the problem that cover our shame, receive the brunt of ple, was totally puzzled, while the has come upon me, and I can safely our difficulties. That is a closer friend Builsa seemed to enjoy reflecting on rest in His feathers.” than I have ever known!” this proverb. Upon Joe’s request, the Immanuael added, “When we rest in Kofi’s eyes lit up, “Are you sure that church leaders explained the back- the feathers of Yezu, then we no lon- is in Naawen Wani? Let me see that.” ground of the proverb. ger need to have a jiuk, bagi, or any He read slowly in Buli how Yezu wanted to “pawbi ni meena a tara In the life of the Builsa people, fowls other black medicine to protect us. ase kpiak ale pawbi ka bias dii la.” are used to hide shame or problems. The feathers of Yezu will cover us—our This literally means to “wrap you all If someone comes upon a problem relationship with Him assures us that up like a fowl wraps up her children requiring money, they can always sell He will cover us with His wings. Naaw- (under her wings).” Since fowls are a some of the fowls at market and then en Wani (the Bible) says that Naawen daily part of the life-experience of the use the money to solve the problem. (God) will ‘cover you with his feathers Builsa, the picture of a hen wrapping In this way, they hide behind the chick- and under his wings you will find ref- up her chicks under her wings in or- en’s feathers so that the shame of the uge; his faithfulness will be your shield der to protect them from hawks and problem does not reach the person. and rampart’ (Ps 91:4).” other dangers was a very vivid and The fowl is also commonly used in situ- Joe was stunned. He remembered concrete picture in Kofi’s mind. Kofi ations requiring sacrifice to the ances- reading this verse in seminary while sat back and smiled as he reflected tors or earth shrines for problems such studying in the West. The imagery on this picture of Yezu and what it as sickness, infertility, drought, fam- of “hiding under the wings of God” meant to him. ine, etc. The fowl is sacrificed to the was strange to his ears and it was dif- ancestors or earth shrine to solve the ficult for him to gain the meaning of David then added an application from problem and cover our shame. In this the metaphor back then. Now, the the book of Ruth, “Do you remember way, a Builsa will feel safe or protected meaning was starting to dawn on how Ruth was a widow? Like our wid- as long as there are fowls around the him. The perspective of the Builsa cul- ows here in Buluk, she had little hope house; hence, they feel they can “hide ture brought out a richer meaning of for the future. When she placed her- inside the feathers of the fowl.” this Scripture passage. This dealt with self under Naawen’s feathers, Naaw- en covered her shame and brought Joe was catching on slowly, “So the protection from harm, shame, and difficulties. It also implied a close- re about a wonderful blessing. Listen chicken is an essential part of the to the praise she received from Boaz Builsa culture. It is used to solve prob- lationship with God, who was willing to receive the brunt of our difficulties in Ruth 2:12, ‘May you be richly re- lems so that the chicken receives the warded by the Lord, the God of Israel, as we hid under his protection. “What brunt of the problem and it will not under whose wings you have come to a wonderful metaphor,” Joe thought reach us. If we have chickens around take refuge’” (emphasis added). our homes, then we feel safe from to himself, “and it took another cul- dangers that may come. Is that right?” tural perspective for me to gain this It was Joe’s turn to be surprised, “Are insight.” Little did Joe know that the you sure that is in the Bible? Let me “Yes, Joe, chickens help us to feel safe best was yet to come. read that.” Joe had read the book and protected. They are sacrificed or of Ruth several times before but he Immanuel added, “This proverb has sold for us. They take our problems never noticed the imagery of “Hiding touched me deeply and it helps me to upon them and we hide safely in their under the wings of God.” He could understand the heart of Yezu.” The feathers. They also help us initiate now feel Ruth’s desperation of wid- earnestness in his voice revealed that friendships,” responded Kofi. “If I want owhood, and he also understood the this was a deep matter of discipleship to start a friendship with someone, imagery of taking refuge under God’s for him. Joe was eager to hear more. then I offer them a chicken for us to wings. Joe was learning new things share a meal together, or I offer them a “When I hear this proverb and read from Scripture that he had over- chicken to take home with them.” Matthew 23:37, I can feel Yezu’s looked before.

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For the next month, they chewed on Elizabeth: “After this his wife Elizabeth Suggestion number two was vigorously these thoughts. This proverb raised oth- debated and in the end rejected with became pregnant and for five months er connections to Scripture. Could this great fervor, drawing on the argument proverb give additional understanding remained in seclusion” (Lk. 1:24). Hig- that Elizabeth could not possibly be as to the significance of the cherubims’ gins recounts the group discussion: afraid for the welfare of the child. The wings covering the ark of the Why did Elizabeth stay in her home reasoning proceeded like this: in the (Ex 25:17-22) and for five months?As (one) respondent Jibril (Gabriel) had already told Eliza- God’s words, “There, above the cover went on to say, “No woman would do beth what Allah was going to do in between the two cherubim that are that. It seems very strange.” this child‘s future, so that meant that over the ark of the testimony, I will Of all the questions that I might have this future would happen. There was meet with you” (Ex 25:22)? This imag- no risk. ery was repeated in ’s temple foreseen or guessed would arise (so- (I Kgs 8:6-11) where “The cherubim called theological questions, etc.), it Answers 2 and 3 are wonderful exam- spread their wings over the places of was this last question about why Eliza- ples of how our cognitive environment the ark” (I Kgs 8:7). Again, Joe won- beth remained in her house for five shapes even the things we think are dered if it may explain some of the months that prompted the most pas- conceivable answers, let alone what we imagery behind God carrying Israel on sionate, heated, intense, and lengthy settle on. his wings when bringing them out of discussion. Clearly this was something In the end they left this as an open Egypt (Ex 19:4), as well as shed some important, though I have never found question. If we had voted I think #3 light on the hard to understand pas- any other group in my studies in the would have beat out #1 as the favored sages in Ezekiel 10, etc. USA who thought so! answer. It might have been a close vote, Joe was realizing that Builsa culture of- but #3 would have won the debate. fered another perspective from which Again, in a culture where men elect to to see biblical truth that he normally go on various lengths of tableeq trips overlooked. The proverb was the win- in order to fulfill vows or compensate dow to open this understanding for for a sin, or gain favor, or draw near to him; he was eager to learn more. Allah, and where Sufis travel from one An indigenous proverb place to another as a part of various In the above example, an indigenous engaged the Bible and rituals and initiations, the idea of some- proverb engaged the Bible and hand- one deciding to remain five months at crafted a uniquely Builsa “chicken handcrafted a unique home for a religious reason would be theology,” a theology that works for a natural contender for understanding Builsa “chicken theology.” Elizabeth’s actions. the Builsa because it fits so well with their cognitive environment. This As Higgins observed, suggestion num- proverb—as we see it discussed within ber 2 was the most obvious explanation the Builsa hermeneutical communi- according to his own cognitive environ- ty—shapes their Christianity in terms As the groups went round and round ment. However, as this hermeneutical and concepts that are uniquely Builsa. three possible answers emerged as the community of Jesus followers mi- Notice how the Builsa are essentially main contenders: drashed the Lucan text their suggested using midrash (“that is this”) to explain 1. Perhaps this was their culture? This answers (especially suggestion number biblical truth in light of their own took a long time to come to, until 3) reflected their own hermeneutical Builsa proverb. one man related how he had become milieu and cognitive environment. They Hermeneutics among a Multi- aware that women in peoples within actualized the text in light of their own Lingual Community of Muslim his country other than his own cultural cultural experience and in so doing gave Followers of Isa group did have different customs after a new and significant interpretation to a passage mostly dismissed by Western The third example comes from Kevin the birth of a child. interpreters like Higgins. Higgins and an extended Bible study 2. I suggested that perhaps since Eliza- he participated in with Muslim fol- beth was elderly, she was worried that These three examples show the promise lowers of Jesus from several different too much exertion would endanger the of hermeneutics when different peoples people groups.52 They had gathered to- baby (it seemed so natural a possibility use indigenous hermeneutical resources gether to study Luke’s Gospel, and now to me, given my cognitive environment). arising directly from their own unique they were studying the birth account of 3. She remained five months as an of- cognitive environments. There should Jesus. What follows is Higgins’ analysis fering of special thanks and praise to be little doubt that the hermeneuti- of the discussion that ensued following Allah for this special child. cal methods of the Cotobato Manobo the reading of the passage concerning Christians, the Builsa Christians, and

International Journal of Frontier Missiology Larry W. Caldwell 67 the Muslim followers of Isa—as well as other non-Western cultures like his sensitivity to interpretive method is theirs—may one day play important modeled for us in the Bible itself. That’s where roles in the overall hermeneutical task the very roots of ethnohermeneutics are found. of the worldwide church. The Christian T world’s understanding of the Bible will All of this gives evidence to the fact cesses inherent in the various cultures be infinitely richer as a result. that what the New Testament writers within each historical period to make Conclusion wrote is inspired, but not their specific his Word clear and understandable. He hermeneutical methods. This fact is used the hermeneutical milieu of the What I have been arguing for in this significant for all Bible interpreters first centuryad to impart his inspired article is that God not only works today. Why? Because it means that no message through New Testament writ- through culture—hence the need to one hermeneutical method is inspired; ers like the apostle Paul and his use of communicate the truths of Scripture each and every method simply emerges midrash. He did the same during the in culturally relevant forms—but, from its own unique hermeneutical thousand years of the Middle Ages correspondingly, that God also works milieu and cognitive environment. The through the interpretive use of alle- through the hermeneutical processes and dominance of one particular method gory. 55 For twenty-first century North cognitive environments inherent in each does not necessarily indicate God’s favor Americans, the Bible is made relevant culture. This is what the discipline or that there is a single, Spirit-filled, through the hermeneutical methods of ethnohermeneutics is all about. universal method. Rather, other factors inherent in our Western world, which Ethnohermeneutics is simply Bible give rise to a method’s predominance, would include and interpretation done in multi-genera- like colonization/westernization in the the Two Step approach. In like manner, tional, multi-cultural and cross-cul- case of the Two Step approach.54 tural contexts that, as far as possible, God desires to use Filipino hermeneuti- uses dynamic hermeneutical methods During the past two millennia God, in cal methods to reach Filipino audiences, which already reside in the culture. his infinite wisdom and creativity, chose Builsa methods to reach Builsa people, Its primary goal is to interpret and to work through the hermeneutical pro- and so on, as illustrated in Figure 2. communicate the truths of the Bible Figure 2. Different Hermeneutical Methods for Different Cultures in ways that will be best understood by the receptor culture.53 As we have seen, this sensitivity to interpretive method, indeed, is modeled The Bible: for us in the Bible itself. That’s where God’s Supracultural Truth the very roots of ethnohermeneutics are found. New Testament writers like the apostle Paul—through the guidance Builsa North American Cotobato of the —used their own Indigenous Indigenous Manobo Hermeneutical culturally relevant hermeneutical meth- Hermeneutical Indigenous Methods ods in communicating Old Testament Methods Hermeneutical truths in light of the cognitive environ- Methods ment of their particular New Testament audience. The discipline of ethnoher- meneutics helps us discover both the hermeneutical milieu as well as the particular hermeneutical method used by the New Testament writers. Such North Builsa Cotobato Culture discoveries reveal a direct correlation American Manobo between milieu ( Jewish first century Culture Culture ad) and method (midrash). In the case of the apostle Paul, the hermeneutical milieu and cognitive environment of the first centuryad directly influenced his method of interpreting the Old Testament text for his audience.

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If God wishes to use the hermeneuti- 3. Understand the worldviews and Two Step approach with more cal methods that are appropriate for thought processes of those among culturally appropriate approaches. each culture, then both Western and whom you are working, especially if It should include instruction on non-Western interpeters must seriously you are working multi-generation- how to understand one’s own her- consider using hermeneutical methods ally, multi-culturally or cross-cul- meneutical milieu and cognitive appropriate for both their own as well turally (and, these days, who isn’t?). environment, as well as how to as for their target culture. We must re- Here are some questions to ask: discover the hermeneutical milieus consider our own biblical hermeneutical How do they process the meaning and cognitive environments of roots, and we must return to the Bible of the biblical text from within their people from a different culture. as our guide for interpreting Scripture own hermeneutical milieu and cog- 5. Remember the Holy Spirit wants in the multi-generational, multi-cultural nitive environment? How do they the Bible understood by others and cross-cultural contexts in which we interpret reality and how can that just as much as you do. Rely on do mission today. The apostle Paul was same hermeneutical thinking pro- the Holy Spirit to guide you, and careful to interpret the Bible in light of cess be used to help them interpret instruct your hermeneutical com- his own culture’s hermeneutical cogni- the Bible for themselves? How can munities to do the same. you both model and encourage them tive environment. Clearly we who are In conclusion, I reach back one to use their own indigenous herme- Bible interpreters today can do no less. hundred years to a quotation from neutical methods, rather than the the eminent missiologist Roland Al- With that end in mind, here are five rudimentary Western hermeneutical 59 practical suggestions for those who wish len. Allen described the imposition to reconsider their biblical-hermeneuti- of foreign governmental systems on cal roots in order to facilitate better Bible native peoples in his day with striking candor; however, I believe his words interpretation in mission today: speak just as powerfully to the imposi- 1. Study the hermeneutical methods We may want to tion of hermeneutical methods by one that Jesus and the New Testament group of people upon another: writers used when they interpreted reconsider hermeneutical Moreover, the systems which we im- the Old Testament.56 If the Bible port are systems which we acknowl- is indeed the final authority for methods that are more edge to be full of imperfections, everything that we evangelicals “biblical” than the ones the sources of many difficulties and believe and do, it behooves us, does dangers at home. . . . [W]e bind it it not, to at least be familiar with we now use. upon a people who have not inher- ited it. To us the burden is in a sense the hermeneutical methods of natural. . . . We know its history. It has our Lord and Savior, as well as his grown upon us. It belongs to us. It is servant, the apostle Paul? We may our own. But it is not the converts’ in want to reconsider hermeneutical methods based upon historical criti- other lands. They do not know its his- methods that are more “biblical” cism and the Two Step approach? tory, nor is it fitted to their shoulders. than the ones we now use. I believe that some of our current They will doubtless make their own 2. Know your own culture’s herme- dialogues concerning “insider move- mistakes. They will create their own neutical methods. This is a given ments” and the translation of famil- burdens; but they need not be laden with ours.60 May we evangelicals of for those involved in cross-cultural ial biblical terms57 would benefit the 21st century, who have applied Al- mission, but it is also important for from this understanding. len’s warnings across so many aspects those ministering in the increas- 4. Train Christian leaders—both of mission today, also hear a voice ingly multi-cultural Western Western and non-Western—in calling us to greater awareness of our world. The maxim “know yourself ” how to best interpret the Bible hermeneutical methods. IJFM is incredibly important for all for their own contexts. This may Bible interpreters. For until you involve extensive curriculum Endnotes know how your own hermeneuti- review and change in theologi- 41 cal method arose from your own cal training institutions in order Kevin Higgins, “Diverse Voices: Hearing Scripture Speak in a Multicultural culture’s hermeneutical milieu you to really help all Christians use Movement.” International Journal of Frontier will not be able to see how those culturally appropriate hermeneuti- Missiology, 27:4, (Winter 2010), 190. methods may influence how you cal methods when they interpret 42 For the number of times Paul quotes 58 interpret and teach those who are the Bible. At the very least it the Old Testament cf. Ellis, Paul’s Use of of a different culture from yourself. should involve supplementing the the Old Testament, 11 and Henry Barclay

International Journal of Frontier Missiology Larry W. Caldwell 69

Swete, An Introduction to the Old Testament Gultiano Cagape, entitled, “The Indig- They offer the directions for interpretation in Greek, originally published in 1902 (New enous Hermeneutical Methodology of the and provide the insights for the formula- York, NY: KTAV, 1968), 392. About one- Cotobato Manobo: How Does It Apply to tion of methods.” His second objective is third of all the Old Testament quotes in the Bible Interpretation?” Cagape worked as a “to chart a methodology for the analysis of New Testament are made by Paul. missionary among the Cotobato Manobo biblical texts based on the proposed (Tongan) 43 For a more detailed examination of for many years. theoretical framework. This involves develop- 50 Paul’s quotations from the Old Testament This example from the Cotobato ing new methods and tools of analysis, rather see Ellis, Paul’s Use of the Old Testament, Manobo reminds those of us steeped in the than borrowing and employing existing 10-37. study of written material that oral cultures methods of interpretation,” 2 (his empha- 44 (including non-reading peoples in written Earl E. Ellis, Prophecy and Herme- sis). Vaka’uta then tests this all out with an cultures) use different hermeneutical meth- neutic in Early Christianity (Grand Rapids, examination of Ezra chapters 9 and 10 from a ods in regards to how they interpret their MI: Eerdmans, 1978), 155. Ellis assumes Tongan ethnohermeneutical perspective. that the proem structure was in fact in use oral traditions and literature. As a result, 54 For a study of Western colonization by the first century , and thus a struc- since a large portion of the New Testament ad in relationship to Asian theological educa- ture readily available to the writers of the text was first communicated orally, includ- tion see my “How Asian is Asian Theo- New Testament including Paul. To assume ing the words of Jesus and a large percent- age of the writings now known as the logical Education?” in Tending the Seedbeds. an early first century date for the proem Gospels, serious study of oral hermeneutical structure makes sense since this structure is Educational Perspectives on Theological Educa- methodologies is warranted. tion in Asia, ed. Allan Harkness (Quezon found in many places in the New Testament 51 (see, for example, Jesus’ use of the proem This example is taken adapted from City, RP: Asia Theological Association, form in Luke 10:25-37). W. Jay Moon’s African Proverbs Reveal 2010), 23-45. Here I argue that past coloni- 45 Christianity in Culture. A Narrative Portrayal Cf. Ellis, Paul’s Use of the Old Testa- zation efforts in Asia by the West—which of Builsa Proverbs Contextualizing Christian- ment, 46, and his Prophecy and Hermeneutic, includes Western missionary efforts—has ity in Ghana. American Society of Mis- 154 and 219; see also William Richard had profound effects on the way theology is siology Monograph Series 5 (Eugene, OR: Stegner, “Romans 9:6-29—A Midrash.” taught in Asia, including the dominance of Pickwick Publications, 2009), 111-113. Journal for the Study of the New Testament 22 52 Western hermeneutical methods. (1984), 37-52. Higgins, “Diverse Voices,” 193. 55 53 Rather than ridiculing the use of 46 Adapted from the example given For further reading on ethnoher- allegory, as do many scholars today, we meneutics see my articles: “Cross-Cultural by Earl E. Ellis, “How the New Testament would rather do well to understand how it Bible Interpretation: A View from the Uses the Old,” in New Testament Interpreta- functioned within its hermeneutical milieu Field.” Phronesis. A Journal of Asian Theologi- tion. Essays on Principals and Methods, ed. and cognitive environment of the Middle cal Seminary 3/1 (1996), 13-35; “Towards I. Howard Marshall (Grand Rapids, MI: Ages and how it helped to bring gospel Eerdmans, 1977), 155. Jesus also used a the New Discipline of Ethnohermeneutics: Questioning the Relevancy of Western Her- truths to largely non-reading cultures; modified proem midrash technique in the indeed, allegory may again prove to be an parable of the Good Samaritan as found in meneutical Methods in the Asian Context.” appropriate method for the non-reading Luke 10:25-37; cf. Ellis, 158. Journal of Asian Mission 1/1 (1999), 21-43; “A Response to the Responses ofTappeiner and masses of today. 47 For example, scholars oftentimes Whelchel to Ethnohermeneutics.” Journal 56 For an analysis and examples of how are at a loss as to how to interpret the of Asian Mission 2/1 (2000), 135-145; and predestinarian texts in this Romans pas- Jesus interpreted the Old Testament see my “Towards an Ethnohermeneutical Model for sage—specifically the Hosea quotes in Rom. Receptor-Oriented Hermeneutics: Reclaim- a Lowland Filipino Context.” Journal of Asian 9:25-26—and link them to a particular ing the Hermeneutical Methodologies of the Mission 7/2 (2005), 169-193. For an excellent New Testament for Bible Interpreters in the eschatological schemata. However, when recent application of ethnohermeneutical Twenty-First Century. Ph.D. dissertation, these same texts are viewed in relationship methodology to Bible interpretation from Fuller Theological Seminary School of to their purpose in Paul’s overall proem a Tongan cognitive environment see Nāsili midrash here in the context of 9:6-29, the World Mission, Pasadena, CA (1990). Vaka’uta, Reading Ezra 9-10 Tu’a-Wise. 57 need to minutely discern what Paul is doing Rethinking Biblical Interpretation in Oceania IJFM articles on the subjects of with these two verses from Hosea loses its (Atlanta, GA: Society of Biblical Literature, insider movements and familial terms. urgency. These verses simply are supplemen- 2011). Though Vaka’uta prefers the phrase 58 For the appropriateness of teaching tal texts used to bolster Paul’s overarching “contextual hermeneutics” to my term “eth- Western methods in non-Western theo- argument. Therefore, they should not be nohermeneutics” (3, n. 8) his first objective is logical institutions see my “How Asian is viewed as key texts on eschatological doc- “to develop a theoretical framework or a way Asian Theological Education?”; cf. also my trine in and of themselves. of reading that is informed by Tongan cultural “Interpreting the Bible With the Poor,” in 48 John Calvin, The Epistles of Paul to the perspectives and knowledge in general, and The Church and Poverty in Asia, ed. Lee Wa- Romans and Thessalonians, trans. R. Mack- the experiences of Tongan tu’a (a Tongan nak (Manila, RP: OMF Literature, 2008), enzie, eds. David W. Torrance and Thomas common person) in particular. Tongan ways F. Torrance. Originally published in 1540 171-180. of being (i.e. the ways they act, relate, and be- 59 (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1979), 224. have) and ways of knowing (i.e. the way they Roland Allan, Missionary Methods. St 49 This example has been adapted from think, understand, and construct knowledge) Paul’s or Ours? Originally published in 1912 a paper submitted by one of my former . . . provide the ontological and epistemologi- (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1962). Asian Theological Seminary students, Mila cal foundations of this Tongan way of reading. 60 Allen, Missionary Methods, 145.

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