19. Philosophy of Artificial Intelligence
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Artificial General Intelligence and Classical Neural Network
Artificial General Intelligence and Classical Neural Network Pei Wang Department of Computer and Information Sciences, Temple University Room 1000X, Wachman Hall, 1805 N. Broad Street, Philadelphia, PA 19122 Web: http://www.cis.temple.edu/∼pwang/ Email: [email protected] Abstract— The research goal of Artificial General Intelligence • Capability. Since we often judge the level of intelligence (AGI) and the notion of Classical Neural Network (CNN) are of other people by evaluating their problem-solving capa- specified. With respect to the requirements of AGI, the strength bility, some people believe that the best way to achieve AI and weakness of CNN are discussed, in the aspects of knowledge representation, learning process, and overall objective of the is to build systems that can solve hard practical problems. system. To resolve the issues in CNN in a general and efficient Examples: various expert systems. way remains a challenge to future neural network research. • Function. Since the human mind has various cognitive functions, such as perceiving, learning, reasoning, acting, I. ARTIFICIAL GENERAL INTELLIGENCE and so on, some people believe that the best way to It is widely recognized that the general research goal of achieve AI is to study each of these functions one by Artificial Intelligence (AI) is twofold: one, as certain input-output mapping. Example: various intelligent tools. • As a science, it attempts to provide an explanation of • Principle. Since the human mind seems to follow certain the mechanism in the human mind-brain complex that is principles of information processing, some people believe usually called “intelligence” (or “cognition”, “thinking”, that the best way to achieve AI is to let computer systems etc.). -
Artificial Intelligence: Distinguishing Between Types & Definitions
19 NEV. L.J. 1015, MARTINEZ 5/28/2019 10:48 AM ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE: DISTINGUISHING BETWEEN TYPES & DEFINITIONS Rex Martinez* “We should make every effort to understand the new technology. We should take into account the possibility that developing technology may have im- portant societal implications that will become apparent only with time. We should not jump to the conclusion that new technology is fundamentally the same as some older thing with which we are familiar. And we should not hasti- ly dismiss the judgment of legislators, who may be in a better position than we are to assess the implications of new technology.”–Supreme Court Justice Samuel Alito1 TABLE OF CONTENTS INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................. 1016 I. WHY THIS MATTERS ......................................................................... 1018 II. WHAT IS ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE? ............................................... 1023 A. The Development of Artificial Intelligence ............................... 1023 B. Computer Science Approaches to Artificial Intelligence .......... 1025 C. Autonomy .................................................................................. 1026 D. Strong AI & Weak AI ................................................................ 1027 III. CURRENT STATE OF AI DEFINITIONS ................................................ 1029 A. Black’s Law Dictionary ............................................................ 1029 B. Nevada ..................................................................................... -
KNOWLEDGE ACCORDING to IDEALISM Idealism As a Philosophy
KNOWLEDGE ACCORDING TO IDEALISM Idealism as a philosophy had its greatest impact during the nineteenth century. It is a philosophical approach that has as its central tenet that ideas are the only true reality, the only thing worth knowing. In a search for truth, beauty, and justice that is enduring and everlasting; the focus is on conscious reasoning in the mind. The main tenant of idealism is that ideas and knowledge are the truest reality. Many things in the world change, but ideas and knowledge are enduring. Idealism was often referred to as “idea-ism”. Idealists believe that ideas can change lives. The most important part of a person is the mind. It is to be nourished and developed. Etymologically Its origin is: from Greek idea “form, shape” from weid- also the origin of the “his” in his-tor “wise, learned” underlying English “history.” In Latin this root became videre “to see” and related words. It is the same root in Sanskrit veda “knowledge as in the Rig-Veda. The stem entered Germanic as witan “know,” seen in Modern German wissen “to know” and in English “wisdom” and “twit,” a shortened form of Middle English atwite derived from æt “at” +witen “reproach.” In short Idealism is a philosophical position which adheres to the view that nothing exists except as it is an idea in the mind of man or the mind of God. The idealist believes that the universe has intelligence and a will; that all material things are explainable in terms of a mind standing behind them. PHILOSOPHICAL RATIONALE OF IDEALISM a) The Universe (Ontology or Metaphysics) To the idealist, the nature of the universe is mind; it is an idea. -
Is AI Intelligent, Really? Bruce D
Seattle aP cific nivU ersity Digital Commons @ SPU SPU Works Summer August 23rd, 2019 Is AI intelligent, really? Bruce D. Baker Seattle Pacific nU iversity Follow this and additional works at: https://digitalcommons.spu.edu/works Part of the Artificial Intelligence and Robotics Commons, Comparative Methodologies and Theories Commons, Epistemology Commons, Philosophy of Science Commons, and the Practical Theology Commons Recommended Citation Baker, Bruce D., "Is AI intelligent, really?" (2019). SPU Works. 140. https://digitalcommons.spu.edu/works/140 This Article is brought to you for free and open access by Digital Commons @ SPU. It has been accepted for inclusion in SPU Works by an authorized administrator of Digital Commons @ SPU. Bruce Baker August 23, 2019 Is AI intelligent, really? Good question. On the surface, it seems simple enough. Assign any standard you like as a demonstration of intelligence, and then ask whether you could (theoretically) set up an AI to perform it. Sure, it seems common sense that given sufficiently advanced technology you could set up a computer or a robot to do just about anything that you could define as being doable. But what does this prove? Have you proven the AI is really intelligent? Or have you merely shown that there exists a solution to your pre- determined puzzle? Hmmm. This is why AI futurist Max Tegmark emphasizes the difference between narrow (machine-like) and broad (human-like) intelligence.1 And so the question remains: Can the AI be intelligent, really, in the same broad way its creator is? Why is this question so intractable? Because intelligence is not a monolithic property. -
Artificial Intelligence/Artificial Wisdom
Artificial Intelligence/Artificial Wisdom - A Drive for Improving Behavioral and Mental Health Care (06 September to 10 September 2021) Department of Computer Science & Information Technology Central University of Jammu, J&K-181143 Preamble An Artificial Intelligence is the capability of a machine to imitate intelligent human behaviour. Machine learning is based on the idea that machines should be able to learn and adapt through experience. Machine learning is a subset of AI. That is, all machine learning counts as AI, but not all AI counts as machine learning. Artificial intelligence (AI) technology holds both great promises to transform mental healthcare and potential pitfalls. Artificial intelligence (AI) is increasingly employed in healthcare fields such as oncology, radiology, and dermatology. However, the use of AI in mental healthcare and neurobiological research has been modest. Given the high morbidity and mortality in people with psychiatric disorders, coupled with a worsening shortage of mental healthcare providers, there is an urgent need for AI to help identify high-risk individuals and provide interventions to prevent and treat mental illnesses. According to the publication Spectrum News, a form of AI called "deep learning" is sometimes better able than human beings to spot relevant patterns. This five days course provides an overview of AI approaches and current applications in mental healthcare, a review of recent original research on AI specific to mental health, and a discussion of how AI can supplement clinical practice while considering its current limitations, areas needing additional research, and ethical implications regarding AI technology. The proposed workshop is envisaged to provide opportunity to our learners to seek and share knowledge and teaching skills in cutting edge areas from the experienced and reputed faculty. -
Ai: Early History 1 and Applications
AI: EARLY HISTORY 1 AND APPLICATIONS All men by nature desire to know... —ARISTOTLE, Opening sentence of the Metaphysics Hear the rest, and you will marvel even more at the crafts and resources I have contrived. Greatest was this: in the former times if a man fell sick he had no defense against the sickness, neither healing food nor drink, nor unguent; but through the lack of drugs men wasted away, until I showed them the blending of mild simples wherewith they drive out all manner of diseases. It was I who made visible to men’s eyes the flaming signs of the sky that were before dim. So much for these. Beneath the earth, man’s hidden blessing, copper, iron, silver, and gold—will anyone claim to have discovered these before I did? No one, I am very sure, who wants to speak truly and to the purpose. One brief word will tell the whole story: all arts that mortals have come from Prometheus. —AESCHYLUS, Prometheus Bound 1.1 From Eden to ENIAC: Attitudes toward Intelligence, Knowledge, and Human Artifice Prometheus speaks of the fruits of his transgression against the gods of Olympus: his purpose was not merely to steal fire for the human race but also to enlighten humanity through the gift of intelligence or nous: the rational mind. This intelligence forms the foundation for all of human technology and ultimately all human civilization. The work of Aeschylus, the classical Greek dramatist, illustrates a deep and ancient awareness of the extraordinary power of knowledge. Artificial intelligence, in its very direct concern for Prometheus’s gift, has been applied to all the areas of his legacy—medicine, psychology, biology, astronomy, geology—and many areas of scientific endeavor that Aeschylus could not have imagined. -
Machine Guessing – I
Machine Guessing { I David Miller Department of Philosophy University of Warwick COVENTRY CV4 7AL UK e-mail: [email protected] ⃝c copyright D. W. Miller 2011{2018 Abstract According to Karl Popper, the evolution of science, logically, methodologically, and even psy- chologically, is an involved interplay of acute conjectures and blunt refutations. Like biological evolution, it is an endless round of blind variation and selective retention. But unlike biological evolution, it incorporates, at the stage of selection, the use of reason. Part I of this two-part paper begins by repudiating the common beliefs that Hume's problem of induction, which com- pellingly confutes the thesis that science is rational in the way that most people think that it is rational, can be solved by assuming that science is rational, or by assuming that Hume was irrational (that is, by ignoring his argument). The problem of induction can be solved only by a non-authoritarian theory of rationality. It is shown also that because hypotheses cannot be distilled directly from experience, all knowledge is eventually dependent on blind conjecture, and therefore itself conjectural. In particular, the use of rules of inference, or of good or bad rules for generating conjectures, is conjectural. Part II of the paper expounds a form of Popper's critical rationalism that locates the rationality of science entirely in the deductive processes by which conjectures are criticized and improved. But extreme forms of deductivism are rejected. The paper concludes with a sharp dismissal of the view that work in artificial intelligence, including the JSM method cultivated extensively by Victor Finn, does anything to upset critical rationalism. -
How Empiricism Distorts Ai and Robotics
HOW EMPIRICISM DISTORTS AI AND ROBOTICS Dr Antoni Diller School of Computer Science University of Birmingham Birmingham, B15 2TT, UK email: [email protected] Abstract rently, Cog has no legs, but it does have robotic arms and a head with video cameras for eyes. It is one of the most im- The main goal of AI and Robotics is that of creating a hu- pressive robots around as it can recognise various physical manoid robot that can interact with human beings. Such an objects, distinguish living from non-living things and im- android would have to have the ability to acquire knowl- itate what it sees people doing. Cynthia Breazeal worked edge about the world it inhabits. Currently, the gaining of with Cog when she was one of Brooks’s graduate students. beliefs through testimony is hardly investigated in AI be- She said that after she became accustomed to Cog’s strange cause researchers have uncritically accepted empiricism. appearance interacting with it felt just like playing with a Great emphasis is placed on perception as a source of baby and it was easy to imagine that Cog was alive. knowledge. It is important to understand perception, but There are several major research projects in Japan. A even more important is an understanding of testimony. A common rationale given by scientists engaged in these is sketch of a theory of testimony is presented and an appeal the need to provide for Japan’s ageing population. They say for more research is made. their robots will eventually act as carers for those unable to look after themselves. -
Artificial Intelligence and National Security
Artificial Intelligence and National Security Artificial intelligence will have immense implications for national and international security, and AI’s potential applications for defense and intelligence have been identified by the federal government as a major priority. There are, however, significant bureaucratic and technical challenges to the adoption and scaling of AI across U.S. defense and intelligence organizations. Moreover, other nations—particularly China and Russia—are also investing in military AI applications. As the strategic competition intensifies, the pressure to deploy untested and poorly understood systems to gain competitive advantage could lead to accidents, failures, and unintended escalation. The Bipartisan Policy Center and Georgetown University’s Center for Security and Emerging Technology (CSET), in consultation with Reps. Robin Kelly (D-IL) and Will Hurd (R-TX), have worked with government officials, industry representatives, civil society advocates, and academics to better understand the major AI-related national and economic security issues the country faces. This paper hopes to shed more clarity on these challenges and provide actionable policy recommendations, to help guide a U.S. national strategy for AI. BPC’s effort is primarily designed to complement the work done by the Obama and Trump administrations, including President Barack Obama’s 2016 The National Artificial Intelligence Research and Development Strategic Plan,i President Donald Trump’s Executive Order 13859, announcing the American AI Initiative,ii and the Office of Management and Budget’s subsequentGuidance for Regulation of Artificial Intelligence Applications.iii The effort is also designed to further June 2020 advance work done by Kelly and Hurd in their 2018 Committee on Oversight 1 and Government Reform (Information Technology Subcommittee) white paper Rise of the Machines: Artificial Intelligence and its Growing Impact on U.S. -
Theory of Mind As Inverse Reinforcement Learning. Current
Available online at www.sciencedirect.com ScienceDirect Theory of mind as inverse reinforcement learning 1,2 Julian Jara-Ettinger We review the idea that Theory of Mind—our ability to reason think or want based on how they behave. Research in about other people’s mental states—can be formalized as cognitive science suggests that we infer mental states by inverse reinforcement learning. Under this framework, thinking of other people as utility maximizers: constantly expectations about how mental states produce behavior are acting to maximize the rewards they obtain while mini- captured in a reinforcement learning (RL) model. Predicting mizing the costs that they incur [3–5]. Using this assump- other people’s actions is achieved by simulating a RL model tion, even children can infer other people’s preferences with the hypothesized beliefs and desires, while mental-state [6,7], knowledge [8,9], and moral standing [10–12]. inference is achieved by inverting this model. Although many advances in inverse reinforcement learning (IRL) did not have Theory of mind as inverse reinforcement human Theory of Mind in mind, here we focus on what they learning reveal when conceptualized as cognitive theories. We discuss Computationally, our intuitions about how other minds landmark successes of IRL, and key challenges in building work can be formalized using frameworks developed in a human-like Theory of Mind. classical area of AI: model-based reinforcement learning 1 Addresses (hereafter reinforcement learning or RL) . RL problems 1 Department of Psychology, Yale University, New Haven, CT, United focus on how to combine a world model with a reward States function to produce a sequence of actions, called a policy, 2 Department of Computer Science, Yale University, New Haven, CT, that maximizes agents’ rewards while minimizing their United States costs. -
Connectionism and the Chinese-Room About Twenty Years
Connectionism and the Chinese-Room About twenty years ago, John Searle began a huge body of discourse with his rejection of a computational theory of mind. Searle is arguing against "strong AI”, his term for computational theory of mind . Strong AI would claim that an appropriately programmed computer can posses cognitive states, that it really is or has a mind. Searle is arguing generally against a computational approach to mind. To this end, he utilizes a now infamous thought experiment, known as the Chinese-Room. At the core of Searle‟s thought experiment there is a human simulating a computer. The human in the room is given meaningless symbols in Chinese script and instructions in English for manipulating them according to their shapes. By following the instructions and correlating the symbols he appears to those outside the room to understand the Chinese language. In reality he understands nothing; he is just manipulating the symbols according to their syntactic properties. Since he is doing in essence what a computer does and he doesn‟t understand Chinese, then no computer can ever come to genuinely understand Chinese, or anything for that matter. At least, not the way humans do. To understand the effects of Searle‟s argument, we must first understand what exactly he is arguing against. Searle directs his efforts at what he calls Strong AI. At the time, this term encompassed all computational theories of mind. To fully analyse the effects of Searle‟s experiment, it is helpful to distinguish two separate types of computational theory. This will be done by examining the use and dismissal of standard symbolic atoms. -
ABSTRACT the Zombie Argument and Its Implications for Naturalism
ABSTRACT The Zombie Argument and Its Implications for Naturalism Autumn S. Averitt Director: Todd Buras, Ph.D. In the discipline of philosophy today, the nature of consciousness is an extremely popular topic. Additionally, there is a general consensus on the truth of naturalism. This thesis investigates whether a naturalist conception of consciousness is tenable. The zombie argument against the naturalist program is very striking, as it clearly delineates the apparent differences between the phenomenal and psychological concepts of the mind. This thesis explores the naturalist program and the nature of consciousness. It then outlines the zombie argument and evaluates naturalist responses to the argument. It concludes that the strongest naturalist response still falls short of defeating the zombie argument. Naturalism therefore fails to adequately account for consciousness. APPROVED BY DIRECTOR OF HONORS THESIS: ________________________________________________ Dr. Todd Buras, Department of Philosophy APPROVED BY THE HONORS PROGRAM: ________________________________________________ Dr. Andrew Wisely, Director DATE: ________________________ THE ZOMBIE ARGUMENT AND ITS IMPLICATIONS FOR NATURALISM A Thesis Submitted to the Faculty of Baylor University In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Honors Program By Autumn S. Averitt Waco, TX May 2014 TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter One: Naturalism and Its Constraints . 1 Chapter Two: The Phenomenon of Consciousness . 19 Chapter Three: The Zombie Argument . 28 Chapter Four: Naturalist Responses to the Zombie Argument . 45 Bibliography . 60 ii CHAPTER ONE Naturalism and its Constraints Introduction Within philosophy, discussion of the mind is dynamic and growing. Neuroscience is advancing rapidly, and discovering many new neural pathways, neurotransmitters, etc. These physical components of the brain seem readily investigable.