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Hidden Words and Sounds: Tracing Iranian Legacies and Traumas in the Music of the Bahá’ís of North America by Daniel Akira Stadnicki A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Department of Music University of Alberta © Daniel Akira Stadnicki, 2019 Abstract This dissertation examines music in North American Bahá’í communities and artistic contexts by focusing on the Faith’s legacy of Persian culture, aesthetics, and history of religious persecution. As such, it provides a reinvigorated look into the development of Bahá’í devotional life from its emergence in mid-nineteenth century Persia to early twentieth-century expansions in the West, as well as more recent developments following the 1979 Iranian Revolution. Through incorporating a mix of ethnographic, historical, and analytical approaches to key Holy Texts, Bahá’í scholarly literature, and select musical case studies (including pop, rock, hip-hop, and classical compositions, as well as the development of a music program at the Bahá’í Institute for Higher Education), I explore how Bahá’ís navigate the Faith’s world-unifying message and administrative processes amid greater diversification of membership, patterns of devotional localization, and ongoing struggles in the Islamic Republic of Iran. It traces a history of religious oppression and considers how narratives of persecution and martyrdom throughout the Faith’s succession prophetic revelation (the Báb, Bahá’u’lláh) and leadership (‘Abdu’l-Bahá, Shoghi Effendi, and the Universal House of Justice) has shaped global Bahá’í identity formation, as well as inspired forms of aesthetic worship. At the same time, it will contribute new perspectives on research in the Iranian diaspora, transnational music-making, and musical cosmopolitanism through a ‘Bahá’í inspired’ theological approach, which emphasizes Bahá’í literatures, utterances, worldviews, and scholarly conventions. ! !ii Preface This thesis is an original work by Daniel Akira Stadnicki. The research project, of which this thesis is a part, received research ethics approval from the University of Alberta Research Ethics Board, Project Name “Hidden Words and Sounds,” No. Pro00039589, May 10, 2016.! !iii Dedication For Michelle, Oscar, Arlo, and Jane: you are my heart, my joy, my home. For my parents, ‘Papa G,’ and Kirk Ellard (1970-2009): my earliest supporters and champions of my work. This dissertation is dedicated to the Bahá’ís of Iran and to the Edmonton Bahá’í community, with whom our little family grew, loved, and celebrated together.! !iv Acknowledgements I would like to acknowledge and thank my doctoral examination committee members: Dr. Michael Frishkopf, Dr. Regula Burckhardt-Qureshi, Dr. David Gramit, Dr. Mary Ingraham, and Dr. Farzaneh Hemmasi. Special thanks goes to Dr. Federico Spinetti, whose comments and suggestions during the dissertation proposal phase radically changed the direction of this research. I would also like to acknowledge Michelle Stadnicki for her heroic support, stimulating debates, and critical insights throughout the course of this project (we did it!). Generous funding was provided by a SSHRC Vanier Canada Graduate Scholarship, the University of Alberta’s Faculty of Graduate Studies and Research, and the Department of Music. ! !v Table of Contents Introduction: I. Setting the Stage for ‘Bahá’í Music,’ Iranian Legacies, and Traumas….………….………1 A. An Introduction to the Bahá’í Faith and the Narrative of Religious Persecution……………………………………….………………………..2-10 B. On Bahá’í Scholarship.……………………………………….….…………….……10-21 C. The Bahá’í Faith in North America.……………………………………….……..…21-25 D. Personal Relationships with the Faith: A Methodological Preamble……………….25-28 E. Research Methodologies..…………………….……..…….…..…..….……….…….28-32 Chapter 1: I. An Overview of Writings and Interpretations of Music in the Bahá’í Faith…………..…33 A. From East to West: Translating a Devotional Culture…..………..…….…………..37-40 B. The Question of Prohibition: Music in Houses of Worship…………….…………..40-45 C. Bahá’u’lláh: Eastern Foundations, Universal Message……………….……………45-50 D. ‘Abdu’l-Bahá: Western Conversations and Translations….….….…….…….……..50-61 E. Shoghi Effendi: Navigating ‘Set Forms’ and Becoming a New Culture….….……..62-71 F. The Universal House of Justice (UHJ): The Music of a Global Faith..……………..71-75 Chapter 2: I. From ‘Persian’ to ‘Global:’ Navigating Persianness in the Bahá’í Faith…….…..….……76 A. Contextualizing Bahá’í Understandings of Culture, Difference, and Iranian Believers……………….….….………………………….…………..……89-105 B. ‘There is No Iranian Bahá’í Diaspora:’ Theorizing Identity at Home and Abroad………………………..……………………………….……105-109 C. Transnational instead of Diasporic? Musicological Considerations…..…….……109-113 D. Global Bahá’í Identity: Navigating Difference, Practice, and Persian Lineages 113-121 E. Iranian Persecution as a Factor in Bahá’í Identity Formation……………………121-126 F. Transnational Bahá’ism: A Bridge Between East and West………………………126-135 Chapter 3: I. Signifying and Staging Bahá’í ‘Unity in Diversity’……………………………………….136 A. Navigating Difference, Celebrating Culture……………………………………..137-144 B. Bahá’í Best Practices: Musicians’ Suggestions…………………………………..144-148 C. Sacralizing World Music: Issues and Prospects………………………………….148-156 D. Towards a Bahá’í-Engendered Approach for the Cultural Study of Music.….….156-161 II. A Study of Diversity: Musical Case Studies and Topics……….……….……….……….162 A. The Bahá’í World on Display: Staging Diversity at the 1992 World Congress… 162-177 B. Buffy Sainte-Marie: Indigeneity and the Faith…….….….………………………177-182 C. Seals and Crofts: Eclectic and Worldly Bahá’í Sounds…………………………..182-190 D. Musical Exoticism in the Bahá’í Faith?……………….…….…….…….……….190-195 E. Music and Mormonism: A Comparative Perspective…………………………….196-203 Chapter 4: I. Performing Trauma, Signifying Iran: Musical Narratives of Iranian Bahá’í Religious Persecution…………….….….….………..….……..….….….……….….….204 !vi A. Translating Persecution into Music….………………….…….…….……………206-207 B. Music and Martyrdom……………………………………………………………207-210 II. Bahá’í Martyrdom and Persecution: Resources for Creative Expression…..….…..….211 A. Historical Sources, Contemporary Accounts: Personalized Narratives of Persecution………………..……………………………….….………………….211-219 B. Letters from the UHJ, the BIC, and Bahá’í Scholarly Reports: Resources for Reflection and Consultation……………………………………..…….……..219-226 III. Recordings and Case Studies: Sounding Iranian Bahá’í Persecution…………..….…226 A. The Dawn-Breakers: Early Bábi and Bahá’í Figures of Martyrdom……….……229-238 B. Mona: A Sign of Global Bahá’í Mourning……………………………………….238-259 C. The Yaran and Bahá’í Education: Official Campaigns and Responses……..……259-272 D. Online Memorialization………….………………………………………………272-279 E. Conclusions………………………………………………………………………279-281 Chapter 5: I. Music as Social Action at the Bahá’í Institute for Higher Education (BIHE) in Iran…………………………………………………….…….…….…………….……282 A. Musical Prelude..……….………………………………………………….……..282-286 B. Background: Education in the Faith and the Issue of University Access in Iran 287-293 C. The Bahá’í Institute for Higher Education…………………….…………………293-298 II. An Oral History of the BIHE Music Program…………….……..……………..…..……298 A. Teaching Perspectives……………………………………………………………298-304 B. Student Perspectives: Learning Music at BIHE and Privately……….…….……304-311 C. International Attention and the Question of Political Subversion..…….…..……311-317 Conclusions: I. Gaps and Prospects……………………………………………………………………318-324 Bibliography.…………………………………..………….…….….……….……………325-352! !vii List of Figures Figure 1: Image from the official Bahai.org site (“What Bahá’ís Believe…” n.d.) Copyright © Bahá'í International Community………………………………………..………….……71 Figure 2: YouTube screen shot from a Maori performance at The Bahá’í World Congress in New York City (1992) (Bahá’í Vision 2014a)..……….…………………………………71 Figure 3: The invocation of The Greatest Name (above left); the Bahá’í Ring Symbol (above middle), designed by ‘Abdu’l-Bahá; and the sacred Nine-Pointed Star (right). (“Principles and History” n.d)..…………………………………..……..…….…………77 Figure 4: YouTube screen-shots (from 7:00-25:30 timecode) of smaller musical ensembles from the third day of the Second Bahá’í World Congress video, arranged according to culture, ethnicity, and/or musical tradition (Bahá’í Vision 2014a)…..………………165 Figure 5: Transcription of the soprano melody for “Dastam Begir”………………….….…….169 Figure 6: Lyrics for “Dastam Begir” (based on a poem by Habíb Mu’ayyid)…..…….………..170 Figure 7: Transliteration of Arabic, as found on www.Bahaiglory.com (Bahá’í Glory 2010)…………………………….……….…….………………………..172 Figure 8: Transcription of soprano melody in “God Is Sufficient Unto Me” (“Qol Allah’u Yakfi)”……………………………………………………….…………….……..……..173 Figure 9: Transcription of soprano melody for “Ya Bahá’u’l-Abha Ya Ali’u’l-Ala”..…………174 Figure 10: Transcription excerpt of Buffy Sainte-Marie’s performance for “My Heart Soars” (1995), focusing on the chorus…………………………………………..…..….180 Figure 11: Excerpts of a teaching document from the Bahá’í Song Project website for “O God My God.” Note the emphasis on the first ‘clap’ (beat one) (“O God My God” n.d.)……………………………………………………………………..……180 Figure 12: Lyrics for “My Heart Soars” (1995) by Buffy Sainte-Marie and Jack Lenz….….…182 Figure 13: Selection of lyrics from Seals and Crofts’ “Year of Sunday” (1972), which incorporates a section of Bahá’u’lláh’s Tablet of Ahmad (Bahá’í Prayers, n.d.).………185 Figure 14:
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    Farzaneh hemmasi TEHRANGELES DREAMING IRANIAN POP MUSIC IN SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA’S INTIMACY AND IMAGINATION TEHRANGELES DREAMING Farzaneh hemmasi TEHRANGELES DREAMING INTIMACY AND IMAGINATION IN SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA’S IRANIAN POP MUSIC Duke University Press · Durham and London · 2020 © 2020 Duke University Press All rights reserved Printed in the United States of America on acid- free paper ∞ Designed by Matthew Tauch Typeset in Portrait Text Regular and Helvetica Neue Extended by Copperline Book Services Library of Congress Cataloging- in- Publication Data Names: Hemmasi, Farzaneh, [date] author. Title: Tehrangeles dreaming : intimacy and imagination in Southern California’s Iranian pop music / Farzaneh Hemmasi. Description: Durham : Duke University Press, 2020. | Includes bibliographical references and index. Identifiers:lccn 2019041096 (print) lccn 2019041097 (ebook) isbn 9781478007906 (hardcover) isbn 9781478008361 (paperback) isbn 9781478012009 (ebook) Subjects: lcsh: Iranians—California—Los Angeles—Music. | Popular music—California—Los Angeles—History and criticism. | Iranians—California—Los Angeles—Ethnic identity. | Iranian diaspora. | Popular music—Iran— History and criticism. | Music—Political aspects—Iran— History—20th century. Classification:lcc ml3477.8.l67 h46 2020 (print) | lcc ml3477.8.l67 (ebook) | ddc 781.63089/915507949—dc23 lc record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2019041096 lc ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2019041097 Cover art: Downtown skyline, Los Angeles, California, c. 1990. gala Images Archive/Alamy Stock Photo. To my mother and father vi chapter One CONTENTS ix Acknowledgments 1 Introduction 38 1. The Capital of 6/8 67 2. Iranian Popular Music and History: Views from Tehrangeles 98 3. Expatriate Erotics, Homeland Moralities 122 4. Iran as a Singing Woman 153 5. A Nation in Recovery 186 Conclusion: Forty Years 201 Notes 223 References 235 Index ACKNOWLEDGMENTS There is no way to fully acknowledge the contributions of research interlocutors, mentors, colleagues, friends, and family members to this book, but I will try.