HumanitiesNATIONAL ENDOWMENT FOR THE HUMANITIES • VOLUME 11 • NUMBER 5 • SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 1990

THE EISENHOWER CENTENNIAL Editor's Note

The Eisenhower Centennial

General, college president, thirty-fourth President of the United States— Dwight David Eisenhower, whose hundredth birthday is being celebrated this October, carried many illustrious titles. But the moment that was to make him an American hero forever is described by his biographer, Stephen E. Ambrose: "His place in history was fixed as night fell on the Normandy beaches on June 6, 1944. Hundreds of thousands, indeed millions, of men and women Dwight D. Eisenhower on the campaign trail contributed to the success of Operation Overlord, and 200,000 soldiers, sail­ in 1952. October 14, 1990, is the centennial ors, and airmen participated directly on D-Day itself, but the operation will of his birth. (Dwight D. Eisenhower Library) forever be linked to one man, Dwight David Eisenhower. From inception to completion, it bore his personal stamp. He was the central figure in the Humanities preparation, the planning, the training, the deception, the organization, and A bimonthly review published by the the execution of the greatest invasion in history. At the decisive moment, he National Endowment for the Humanities was the commanding General who, standing alone, weighed all the factors, considered all the alternatives, listened to the views of his senior subordi­ Chairman: Lynne V. Cheney nates, and then made the decision to go." Publisher, Editorial Director: The choice of Eisenhower as supreme commander of Allied expeditionary Marguerite Hoxie Sullivan forces in Europe held a particular irony for General George C. Marshall, Editor: Mary Lou Beatty who was both Eisenhower's mentor and the leading choice himself to direct Assistant Editors: James S. Turner the invasion. In this issue marking the Eisenhower centennial, historian For­ Ellen Marsh rest C. Pogue describes that particular passage of history. Production Editor: Scott Sanborn We follow Eisenhower through the postwar years, as chief of staff, presi­ Production Assistant: Susan Q. Jaffe dent of Columbia University, commander of NATO, and then President of Editorial Assistant: Kristen Hall the United States. His place in history as President, continues Ambrose in Marketing Director: Joy Evans his Eisenhower Centennial Foundation essay, is inevitably less clearcut: "He Editorial Board: Marjorie Berlincourt, did not meet the challenges that George Washington did, nor Abraham Lin­ Harold Cannon, Richard Ekman, George coln, nor Franklin Roosevelt. How he would have responded to a civil war, Farr, Donald Gibson, Guinevere Griest, or to a depression, or to a world war, we cannot know." Since 1965, scholars James Herbert, Thomas Kingston, Jerry at Johns Hopkins University have been putting together original source ma­ Martin, Malcolm Richardson terial in The Papers of Dwight David Eisenhower, with the volumes 14 to 17 on Design: Hausmann Graphic Design, Inc. the early years of his presidency soon to be published. The role of hero as President is a curious one— the closest parallel may be The opinions and conclusions expressed in U. S. Grant, West Pointer, hero of the Civil War, and the youngest man to Humanities are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect Endowment policy. Material become President at the time of his election in 1868. His presidency was star- appearing in this publication, except for that crossed. "If he had served only one term," says John Y. Simon, editor of The already copyrighted, may be freely re­ Papers of U. S. Grant, "I think he would be remembered as one of the better produced. Please notify the editor in advance so that appropriate credit can be given. The Presidents of the United States." Eisenhower is expected to fare better with Chairman of the Endowment has determined the historians. When Eisenhower left office, historians ranked him near the that the publication of this periodical is neces­ bottom of the Presidents; in the early 1980s, a new poll ranked him ninth. sary in the transaction of the public business required by law of this agency. Use of funds "His reputation is almost certain to continue to rise," maintains Ambrose, for printing this periodical has been approved "to the point that he will soon be ranked with Wilson and the two Roose­ by the director of the Office of Management velts as one of the four truly great presidents of the twentieth century." and Budget through September 1992. Send re­ quests for subscriptions and other communi­ cations to the editor, Humanities, National En­ — Mary Lou Beatty dowment for the Humanities, 1100 Pennsylvania Avenue, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20506. Telephone 202/786-0435. Annual subscription rate: $11.

2 SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER Contents Education

A Conversation with . . . NEH Chairman Lynne V. Cheney 4 discusses education and literary criticism with Modern Language Association president Catharine R. Stimpson.

The Numbers Game by Jeffrey Thomas. 29 Where the Ph.D.s go. Opening Doors by James S. Turner. The first group of 31 NEH/Reader's Digest Teacher-Scholars, returning to the classroom this fall, describes their year away.

The Eisenhower Centennial

In Search of the Real Eisenhower by Louis Galambos, Daun 8 van Ee, and Elizabeth S. Hughes. Forthcoming volumes will provide insight into his presidency.

Ike: The Movie by Susanne Roschwalb. The gathering of 15 new source material for a three-part documentary. The Politics of Command by Forrest C. Pogue. The turn of 16 fate that put Eisenhower in command on D-Day.

Other Features

U. S. Grant: From West Point to the White House by James 19 S. Turner. The link between his literary skill and leadership ability.

Picture Essay: Uncle Sam vs. John Bull by Peter Mellini. 22 What the icons tell about national character.

25 Calendar

The Humanities Guide

Applying for an Editions Grant by Douglas M. Arnold, 35. Current NEH Fellowship Grants, 36. Deadlines, 46.

HUMANITIES 3 A Conversation with... Catharine R. Stimpson

Lynne V. Cheney: I opened your tions that literature explores that I new book and came across the idea call part of the human spirit. Maybe Lynne V. Cheney that there isn't anything called the what's troubling to me is not that human spirit or the human condi­ you and I would disagree, but that I tion. It might be helpful for those of keep again and again coming across us of a more traditional mind-set if this idea among people in literary you could explain what you mean. studies that the matter has been Catharine R. Stimpson: Did I say it solved and that I'm wrong and so bluntly, Lynne? you're right, so to speak. Cheney: You talk about "human na­ Stimpson: I think that to be a hu­ ture" and "immortal works," and manist is by definition to reject rigid­ then you say, "these words are about ity and fixity; that to be a humanist illusions." is to respect what a hard process it is to reach any understandings. My Stimpson: What I mean when I ask back goes up whenever anybody us to be suspicious of the term "hu­ says, "This is the truth and you are a man universal" or "immortal work" liar." X and Y may be fine for a is this. You and I have things in mathematical formula, but not for common other than the fact that we my understanding of the difficulty of were both born in the West. Obvi­ ethical and aesthetic judgments. ously, all people have had things in Once, Lynne, I tried to teach myself common. We were all born; we were logic. I had an introductory logic born of man and woman; we all die. book and I was going through it and In between, we eat and we speak, doing elementary truth tables, and we hope, we love, and we take care there was a sentence to the effect of children. that ambiguities are for poetry. At Cheney: But isn't that the human that point I threw the logic book condition? down and went back to poetry. Stimpson: There is a difference be­ Where you and I are in agreement tween saying there is a human con­ is in what are the things that people dition that refers to a specific set of do. Of course we dream, and of Catharine R. Stimpson needs and saying that there are val­ course we hope, and of course our ues that tie us all or there are tran­ hearts break, and of course we hope hen Endowment Chairman scendent truths that exist outside of that our hearts heal. But when I say Lynne V. Cheney talked by our construction of them. Are there those things I am conscious of being telephone recently with commonalities? Yes. But can we read within a structure of speech that has W from commonalities into the exis­ Catharine R. Stimpson, president of the given me my language. You and I to­ Modern Language Association, the con­ tence of metaphysical forms that we gether can look at an automobile and versation turned to approaches to liter­ ourselves have not constructed we'll both say, for example, "steering ature and criticism. Stimpson is dean of through our speech and our wheel," but our entire understand­ the graduate school at Rutgers Univer­ thought? There I am skeptical. ing of how that steering wheel sity/New Brunswick and former chair of Cheney: I suppose I'm not. Just in works within the car as a machine the New York State Humanities Council. that list of things you mentioned— and how that steering wheel works She is the author of Where the Mean­ the idea that we do seek love, we do metaphorically is given to us ings Are: Feminism and Cultural dream, we do hope, we are often through structures of language that Spaces. disappointed— those are the condi­ exist prior to my consciousness.

4 SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER Cheney: That's a whole different tion has to be placed in a context of in the last twenty years in which thing from the structure of the hu­ the debate about the humanities people do feel that not only their ar­ man heart. since 1965. It has become a contesta- guments but also their very presence Stimpson: The very phrase "struc- tory zone, as you know so well. is under attack. ture of the human heart" was given Often the attacks on the new ap­ Cheney: I suppose the feeling I do to me. I speak because the language proaches have not been done in a have frequently is that people who was given to me. pluralistic spirit, and often the at­ are disagreeing with me are building tacks on the new approaches have Cheney: Let's just say that we dis­ a whole field full of straw women seemed, at least to me, to be attacks agree on this, but— and running through it with a torch. on larger social changes. This is not Stimpson: It's a great metaphor. Stimpson: But it's not a personal dis­ you—you don't do this. But it has agreement. It's a difference from the often seemed to those who have Cheney: Somehow if I believe that history of philosophy. been on the receiving end of the at­ it's important to read Dante and Ho­ Cheney: Exactly. I suppose my main tacks that what came under an aw­ mer and Shakespeare and the Bron­ complaint is this notion that some­ fully belligerent scrutiny was not a tes and Walt Whitman— if I believe how my view is illegitimate. I don't new way of looking at literature, not that— then obviously I believe in a hear you saying it, but I do hear it a new way of looking at the humani­ fixed canon that is never, ever going often— that my view is simply not an ties. Rather it was an attack on new to change. That's my favorite straw accepted way of thinking and that is people doing it and new ways of woman, so to speak, because I run not a way that is admitted in literary looking at education as a whole. To into it so frequently. studies anymore. I think of myself as my regret, it has often become very There is an article in a recent a pluralist. I mean, why can't we difficult for people to sit down and Chronicle of Higher Education in which have this and that? Why can't we look at all the approaches there are an MLA spokesperson is quoted as have traditional approaches and cut­ and to think through them in a saying: "It is very hard for a person ting-edge approaches? Are we differ­ sense of genuine mutuality and doing traditional work to send in an ent there? dialogue. abstract [to MLA] and have it look Stimpson: I am a pluralist, and I say Cheney: I do find it really troubling attractive." Now, why is that? Why is that in quotation marks because, as that when I suggest reading The it that we can't be supportive of tra­ you know, there is a critique of plu­ Great Gatsby for what it tells us about ditional work, or why is it that the ralism that sees it as a kind of closet human obligation that someone Modern Language Association finds imperialism, that is, the pluralist leaps to suggest that I therefore it difficult? Is it what you were tell­ often permits various points of view don't have a proper appreciation of ing me before, that somehow tradi­ to coexist and the result is peaceful feminist studies or Asian studies or tional work is perceived as part of a coexistence rather than a deeper cri­ African studies. In my mind, an ab­ larger agenda that people don't like? tique of the structures of knowledge. solutely illogical chasm has been Stimpson: No. In that case, I think But would I provisionally call myself crossed. It's not rational dialogue. the quote was taken out of context. a pluralist? Yes, insofar as both you and I respect a multiplicity of per­ spectives and believe there's no sin­ gle royal road to truth. Cheney: So you think it is all right to think you can't do good teaching approach literature in a more tradi­ tional fashion, even though that's Iunless you can do good research. not the way that you happen to read and think about novels and poetry The problem... is how do you define and plays? good research? Stimpson: Well, I don't know if I'd call you a traditionalist. You could be Stimpson something else, Lynne. You could be a strict formalist. Cheney: Well, I could, but I don't think that what I do when I read a novel, a poem, or a play is the only Stimpson: I could see why you Of course we have to define what we interesting thing to do. I do find it would feel misunderstood. mean by traditional work. By tradi­ interesting when people read Shake­ Cheney: Oh, please, Kate, I'm not tional work, do we mean, philologi­ speare to try to understand the na­ trying to cast myself in the role of cal criticism? ture of imperialism, for example. I the poor misunderstood person Cheney: Sure. just object when I'm told that it's here. I'm a puzzled person. Let me Stimpson: Do we mean new criti­ only by reading Shakespeare in put it that way. cism in the reading of single texts? terms of hegemony of one kind or Stimpson: Again, let me go back. Cheney: Sure. We mean anything another that I can have any proper You and I are having this conversa­ besides postmodernist theory. understanding of it. tion in a context of often very fero­ Stimpson: Well, the word "tradi­ Stimpson: I think that our conversa­ cious quarrels about the humanities tion" is expanding and expanding.

HUMANITIES Cheney: While on the other hand often is that we don't want to read university, I had to change many of postmodernist theory is very pre­ with students things we've read be­ my teaching techniques. I remember cise! (Laughter) fore even though they haven't. Go­ driving down on the turnpike and Stimpson: That's right. But one thing ing into the classroom and talking saying to myself, "Now I have to we have to be careful of, no matter about Gatsby becomes boring be­ teach. At Barnard I was able to talk." what our particular critical school is, cause it's not part of our professional And I wished I'd had some help is not to say when our work is reject­ concerns. It sets professional con­ learning how to teach, for example, ed, this is because of our methodolo­ cerns against good teaching in a way. a working-class, Catholic young man gy. There is boring work in every Do you know what I'm saying? whose only experience of a woman method, and there is a certain kind Stimpson: When that happens it teacher was a sister in a parochial of semantic criticism which can be bothers me too. And here's some­ school and who disliked and feared boring. The question then becomes: thing we ought to be thinking about. female intellectual authority. Is work being turned down by a pro­ It's the question of faculty burnout. Cheney: But when you teach you do gram committee for the MLA or the We mystify research; we mystify just talk to the young man and you AHA [American Historical Associa­ teaching; and one of the errors we sort of understand how he thinks tion] because it represents the blas­ make when we mystify them is to and insofar as you think he's in error phemy of tradition? Or is it being assume that they are incompatible. I you nudge him a bit— always giving turned down because it's just not once wrote a letter to the Chronicle him the chance to nudge back. very good of its kind? where I said, "We're making a mis­ Stimpson: But here was the mistake Cheney: You don't think that there is take. We're calling research and I made. I made the mistake of think­ a bias in favor of innovation and the teaching the Montague and Capulet ing that my rational discourse was cutting edge? I see it in panels here of higher education." And I think going to be heard in the same way. all the time, frankly. you can't do good teaching unless What I really had to teach myself Stimpson: Let me put it this way. you can do good research. The prob­ was that in teaching you have to do The word "trendy" is also used as a lem, as you know and as you've spo­ not only content, but also the nature bad word on certain panels, and it is ken about so eloquently, is how do of the student. I thought content a part of our mutual suspicion that you define good research. would carry the day. the word "trendy" can be seen as a Cheney: That's right. It doesn't have Cheney: You know, one of the things put-down and the word "tradition" to be defined in terms of publication. I worry we do to ourselves as profes­ can be seen as a put-down simulta­ Stimpson: It can be a presentation in sional humanists by the way we neously. What do you look for when a public humanities forum. It can be publish for only specialized audienc­ you read a proposal, especially in a the construction of a new syllabus. es is rob ourselves of the ability to highly competitive situation like a The thing that publication gives, and reach different groups of people. I disciplinary program committee or one reason why I trust it, is that you think one of the most valuable an NEH panel? Surely one of the put your ideas out there into the things I ever did was spend years as things is a kind of textual tautness. world. You just don't keep them a journalist, because you absolutely Cheney: Well, I would call it rigor of close to you in the classroom where have to seek out audiences or the ar­ thought, maybe. you've got a bunch of eighteen- or ticle doesn't get published. You Stimpson: These are words for the nineteen-year-old kids whom you're don't get it published because this is same things. You're looking for a going to grade and over whom a new approach to something and sense of rigor; you're looking for a you've got some authority. If you're nobody has thought of it before. sense of excitement; you're looking in the classroom teaching Gatsby for There's a market system and either for a combination of solidity and the thirty-fifth time, no matter how you reach people or you lose. newness. committed you are, no matter how Stimpson: It's not only a market sys­ Cheney: Freshness. much you love teaching, no matter tem, but an active respect for the Stimpson: Freshness. You want to how much you love the kids, a cer­ student. read something you haven't read be­ tain ennui may set in. It's the dull­ As a graduate dean I set up a fore. Now, every approach has its ness of repetition of any task. teacher-assistant training project. vice. One of the vices of feminist Cheney: In which case you should Our TAs are often from various parts criticism has been overgeneralization be teaching Tender is the Night. of the world and our undergraduates about women. One of the vices of Stimpson: That's right. Or Tender represent the vast multicultural na­ the thematic approach can be going Buttons [by Gertrude Stein]. ture of the United States. One of the over old texts in old ways. Yes, we So you have to switch from subject things we work on with the TAs is should all understand that The Great to subject. I would like us to be the lesson I had to teach myself, Gatsby is a study of human obliga­ much more inventive than we are which is, "Understand your stu­ tion, but how many times do we about faculty-exchange programs so dents." One, it's in your self-inter­ need a paper for peers about that? that faculty goes into a new environ­ est, so they will hear you. And, two, Cheney: But you do make an inter­ ment. I would like us to be much teaching is an act of profound re­ esting distinction here and one that I more inventive than we are in help­ spect, which involves learning who worry about a lot, because though it ing faculties teach nontraditional stu­ they are in a nonstereotypical way. may be desirable for scholars to want dents. When I moved from Barnard, Cheney: Let's talk about Rutgers for to read something they haven't read a private Ivy League women's col­ a minute, since we're being specific. before, what I fear happens all too lege, to Rutgers, a public research I know that in the past you have ar­

6 SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER gued against core curricula, and one James or the revised edition as op­ course, been societies that were rac­ of your deans did it in rather posed to, say, Elizabeth Cady Stan­ ist and sexist, but insofar as they grumpy fashion in the May/June ton's Bible? have been, they have erred. Those 1990 issue of Change magazine. It Stimpson: It would be all of them. are transcendental values. It is al­ would seem to me that Rutgers is ex­ That would be part of showing the ways and ever wrong to be sexist. actly the kind of place that might tru­ historical complexity of the text. Stimpson: But not all cultures have ly need to provide students an orga­ Cheney: I see. such a term, such a concept. nized and rigorous plan for general Stimpson: In fact, when I do teach Cheney: Now, Kate, are you going to studies simply because you have stu­ the Bible, I have students bring in tell me there are times when it's dents who come from so many dif­ whatever text is in their home. Some okay to be sexist? ferent backgrounds and many, I of them don't have a text, which is Stimpson: I may be ironic, but I nev­ would guess, who have never been exposed to the humanities in a sys­ tematic way. Stimpson: Well, I argue against the core curriculum as a metaphor. I do not argue against the idea of a com­ here have, of course, been societies mon experience. This may seem like that were racist and sexist, but inso­ a distinction without a difference, T but I don't think it is. Do I believe far as they have been, they have erred. the undergraduates need a common experience? Yes. Do I believe that Those are transcendental values. they need to understand what has ■■■ 'S- « shaped their intellectual heritage in all its complexity? Yes. Am I fearful Cheney that there is a lack of basic literacy that will help them read these texts and write about them? Yes. Do I be­ lieve the universities and colleges not surprising if they haven't been er go that far. As you know, the have to work with the high schools raised in a Judaic or Christian home. word "transcendental" carries with it to have greater preparation for such We will look at the various transla­ a certain kind of philosophical a common experience? Yes. Do I be­ tions, and they then will begin to freight, an assumption that there is a lieve that given the departmental understand through seeing the vari­ value beyond our experience. structure of higher education it's dif­ ous translations of specific passages Cheney: Well, if we called them en­ ficult to put together a large general something about the act of transla­ during values, would we agree? education course and a major? Yes. tion and the instability of language. Stimpson: Enduring, as a synonym Cheney: I think the common experi­ Teaching the Bible is more than this, for cross-cultural? Yes, we would ence is important, but when I look at but it's a wonderful exercise in agree then. a catalogue— and I was looking at seeing how fertile language is. Cheney: This is so easy, Kate. I can't Rutgers' this morning just briefly— Cheney: But, Kate, would you never imagine what all the arguments are and I see that you can earn a bache­ find a transcendental value when about. lor's degree without ever taking a you were doing this? Stimpson: Some of the arguments history course, or you can earn a Stimpson: Well, Lynne, you're going bachelor's degree without ever tak­ are about language, and there are to have to treat me like an audience some philosophical arguments. ing a literature course, it does seem and give me a blunt definition of the Cheney: Well, you were going to talk to me that you haven't offered as co­ transcendental value. herent a plan as you might. to me about feminism. You said Cheney: Let me give you an exam­ something interesting a minute ago Stimpson: Lynne, we have four un­ ple. How about "do unto others as when you mentioned that one of the dergraduate liberal arts colleges on you would have others do unto past errors of feminism has been our New Brunswick campus alone. you." overgeneralization about women. This is Jim Reed's college, right? I Stimpson: I would say that that is a What do you mean by that? haven't seen his piece yet. But in useful moral law that has been given terms of the common experience, it's Stimpson: The assumption that to us through a specific ethical tradi­ important to me, and I think to you women in all times and all places tion, the efficacy of which has been too, that we teach not simply the text have more in common than they do shown again and again. but an understanding of how these have. And this was not only intellec­ Cheney: Can you think of a society texts became historical reports. tually untrue, it also obscured crucial which would not be the better for differences among women, such as Cheney: Sure. Okay. recognizing it? power differences. When my grand­ Stimpson: You've heard me say this, Let me approach this from another mother was twelve and went into and I will say it again, that if I were angle. Sometimes when I'm asked to domestic service in Iowa, I hope the to select one text, it would be the Bi­ specify transcendental truths, I sug­ ble, Old and New Testaments. gest these: Racism is wrong. Sexism Cheney: And would it be the King is wrong. Now, there have, of continued on page 26

HUMANITIES 7 In Search of THE REAL EISENHOWER

BY LOUIS GALAMBOS, DAUN VAN EE, AND ELIZABETH S. HUGHES f t e r d w ig h t d a v id e is e n h o w e r left office as thirty-fourth President of the United States, the initial assessments of journalists and historiansA were not kind. Critics noted that he had pre­ sided over an era of relative inactivity, a valley between Harry S Truman's ambitious Fair Deal and John F. Ken­ nedy's exciting New Frontier. A famous editorial car­ toon from the 1950s showed an elderly and ineffectual Ike asking his advisers, "Well, men, what'll we refrain from doing now?"; to the side was a wall chart record­ ing a steady degeneration in America's domestic situa­ tion. A survey indicated that many scholars felt that Ei­ senhower had been one of the worst Presidents in American history. The man himself was not overly concerned with eval­ uations such as these. A quietly confident person, Ei­ senhower felt that history would judge him fairly— and favorably— so long as reputable scholars could gain ac­ cess to the complete record of his ac­ tions. To this end he took what steps he could to open up the archives of World War II and, later, the volumi­ nous files of his presidency. When he saw that the sheer bulk of the rec­ ords— many of them highly classified — might delay this process, he ac­ ceded to scholarly requests that he make his papers readily avail­ able to the public by having them published in letterpress volumes. The publishing of The Papers of Dzvight David Eisenhower was or-^ ganized at Baltimore's Johns Hop­ kins University, where the Presi­ dent's brother, Milton S. Eisen­ hower, had been university presi­ dent since 1956. The Hopkins history department recruited an editorial team, led by professors Alfred D. Chandler, Stephen E. Ambrose, and Joseph P. Hobbs, and work began in the mid- 1960s. In 1970 the Johns Hopkins University Press published the first five volumes in the series, covering Eisenhower's World War II service. The reception given

Louis Galambos, professor of history at the Johns Hopkins University, is editor of The Papers of Dwight David Eisenhower. Daun van Ee is executive editor and Elizabeth S. Hughes is senior associate editor. Eisenhower (second from right) in the West Point color guard, 1915. Eisenhower and Mamie Doud Eisenhower, 1916.

the books indicated that Eisenhow­ truly workable Allied command. He ments also make clear that he was er's personal prediction of what held together his coalition by sup­ surprisingly successful in his efforts would happen to his historical repu­ pressing divisive tendencies within to build a working relationship with tation had been accurate. The reas­ his headquarters while successfully the Soviets, and in particular with sessment that began with The War projecting the openness of his per­ his Russian counterpart, Marshal Years continues. sonality. By the time of the German Georgi Zhukov. The first and greatest misconcep­ surrender in May 1945, he had won Indeed, the results of Eisenhower's tion to be abandoned as a result of both the respect and affection of the willingness to meet the Soviets half­ the work done at Johns Hopkins was British, the French, and the other way and to recognize legitimate So­ the idea that Eisenhower was more forces of the alliance. viet interests were so favorable that of a chairman of the board than a Although the end of the war in one is led to wonder whether the true wartime commander. Propo­ Europe brought a host of new chal­ cold war was inevitable after all. nents of this view, which owes at lenges that many military men were In November 1945, Eisenhower re­ least some of its popularity to British not prepared to meet, these years turned to the United States in order accounts of World War II, had point­ did not see Eisenhower's personal to succeed his wartime mentor, Gen­ ed to Eisenhower's lack of battlefield stature (or his sense of proportion) eral George C. Marshall, as chief of experience at the time he took com­ diminished. As commander of the staff of the army. He was not enthu­ mand of the Anglo-American force American occupation forces in Eu­ siastic about his new post, which that invaded North Africa in the fall rope (May-November 1945), he was heretofore had always been consid­ of 1942. He had, it was said, never responsible for disarming the con­ ered the pinnacle of an army career. heard a shot fired in anger. But the quered enemy and helping to rid His misgivings were in some re­ cables, memos, letters, and diary en­ Germany of national socialism. He spects well-founded, for it was his tries in The War Years show that Ei­ also had to allocate massive amounts unhappy task to preside over the de­ senhower was much more than a of relief aid for much of Europe and, mobilization of the great military or­ military administrator, a mere coor­ even more important, for those who ganization that he and his predeces­ dinator. The documentary record had suffered most from Nazi depre­ sor had helped build. Convinced demonstrates that he was a forceful dations. The effort required to ac­ that the United States should not for­ and energetic commander who complish these tasks was complicat­ get the lessons learned in World War could control such headstrong and ed by the necessity for redeploying II, Eisenhower also took on the diffi­ dynamic subordinates as George Pat­ most of his forces to the Pacific in or­ cult job of attempting to introduce ton and Bernard Law Montgomery. der to fight the Japanese and by fundamental changes in the nation's He formulated and executed the global shortages of food and ship­ military establishment. He was, first, strategy that the Allied armies em­ ping. Eisenhower and the troops un­ determined to effect a true unifica­ ployed to crush German resistance der his command came under severe tion of the nation's armed services in the West. In doing so Eisenhower criticism, which has continued in and to end divisive and inefficient firmly resisted British Prime Minister some instances to the present day, interservice rivalries. Second, he Winston Churchill's pleas to adopt but the documents presented in vol­ wanted to establish a program for British alternative proposals. Eisen­ ume 6 of the Eisenhower papers (Oc­ universal military training so that hower was able to exercise command cupation, 1945) indicate that Eisen­ America would never again enter a effectively without jeopardizing his hower was doing the best possible war unprepared. Finally, Eisenhower greatest achievement— the creation job amidst scenes of agonizing dev­ was faced with the not inconsidera­ and maintenance of a unified and astation and dislocation. The docu­ ble task of restructuring the U.S.

10 SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER army to meet the demands of the his drive to unify the services. His emerging cold war while dealing efforts contributed to the formation with the powerful and popular de­ of a single national military estab­ sire to demobilize. These themes are lishment under a secretary of de­ September 20,1944 documented in volumes 7 through 9, fense. While the navy's rearguard ac­ To Bernard Law Montgomery a set titled The Chief of Staff. tions forced him to compromise and Top secret Although Eisenhower himself to accept federation rather than a grew frustrated over the obstacles true unification, he helped lay the Dear Monty: Generally speaking I find that prevented him from accomplish­ groundwork for a more rational de­ myself so completely in agreement with ing these goals, his record in retro­ fense structure by the time he left of­ your letter of 18 September (M 526) that I cannot believe there is any great dif­ spect seems very positive. After an fice early in 1948. As chief of staff, ference in our concepts. initial period of soldier demonstra­ Eisenhower demonstrated that he Nei’er at any time have I implied that tions and popular protests (the could work effectively with Con­ I was considering an advance into Ger­ "Bring Back Daddy" movement), de­ gress, the bureaucracy, and the me­ many with all armies moving abreast. mobilization and redeployment pro­ dia without becoming embroiled in Specifically I agree with you in the following: My choice of routes for mak­ ceeded smoothly. Eisenhower ac­ partisan infighting. Nor did he lose ing the all-out offeyisive into Germany is complished this by convincing the affection of the public. from the Ruhr to Berlin. A prerequisite anxious soldiers and their relatives In February 1948, Eisenhower from the maintenance viewpoint is the that he cared about their welfare and temporarily retired his army hat for early capture of the approaches to Ant­ that he would impose no unnecessa­ an academic mortarboard. When he werp so that the flank may be adequately ry hardships on the men and wom­ became president of Columbia Uni­ supplied. Incidentally I do not yet have your en for whom he was responsible. versity, he said he was looking to do calculations on the tonnage that uni I be His deft public relations touch was "something useful" and also to be necessary to support the 21st Army less successful in convincing Con­ able to "relax a bit." He should have Group on this move. gress to enact a universal training known that in trying to restore fi­ There is one point, however, on which program, but he apparently man­ nancial and academic health at Co­ we do not agree, if I interpret your idea correctly. As I read your letter you aged to educate some segments of lumbia, there would be little time for imply that all the divisions that we have, the public about the virtues of hav­ relaxation. He had, in fact, just com­ except those of the 21st Army Group and ing a large pool of citizen-soldiers. pleted—in only seven weeks— his approximately nine of the 12th Army Eisenhower was more successful in highly praised wartime memoir, Cru- Group, can stop in place where they are and that we can strip all these additional divisions from their transport and everything else to support one single knife-like drive toward Berlin. This may not be exactly what you mean but it is certainly not possible. What I do believe is that we must marshal our strength up along the Western borders of Germany, to the Rhine if possible, insure adequate maintenance by getting Antwerp to working at full blast at the earliest possible moment and they [thenI carry out the drive you suggest. All of Bradley's Army Group, except his left Army, which makes his main effort, will move forward sufficiently so as always to be in supporting position for the main drive and to prevent concentra­ tion of German forces against its front and flanks. I have already directed the Chief of Staff to arrange for the earliest possible meeting with all Army Group com­ manders and with supply people. I am quite confident that we see this thing almost identically. 1 merely want to make sure that when you start leading your Army Group in its thrust onto Berlin and Bradley starts driving with his left to support you, our other forces are in position to assure the success of that drive. Otherwise the main thrust itself would have to drop off so much of its strength to protect its rear and its flanks that very soon the drive would peter out....

Ceremony welcoming General Douglas MacArthur (foreground) to the Philippines in 1935. His chief of staff, Eisenhower, wearing straw boater, stands behind him.

HUMANITIES 11 .. ry wgt . iehwr Library Eisenhower D. Dwight Army U.S. sade in Europe. Thus an energetic and very popular war hero came to head a great university without benefit of any experience in academic adminis­ tration. His critics would have us be­ lieve that the Columbia presidency was, for Eisenhower and for the uni­ versity, a great mistake. Yet the let­ ters he wrote from 1948 to 1950 re­ veal quite a different experience. By the time he left Columbia to don a military hat once again, Eisenhower had brought about significant changes at Columbia and in himself. In order to give himself more time to develop new programs for the school and to raise the funds neces­ sary for those programs, Eisenhower worked to decentralize the adminis­ tration and to develop tighter ac­ counting and budgetary systems. He was a tireless and appealing fund­ raiser among business and alumni groups nationwide. His administra­ tive and leadership skills are clearly seen in the creation of his favorite project, the American Assembly, a conference program designed to bring together academic, business, and government leaders to discuss national and international issues. He was instrumental in establishing the coordinated studies of human poten­ tial called the Conservation of Hu­ man Resources Project; the Institute for the Study of War and Peace; and the Citizen Education Project, which sought to enhance civic pride among high school students. During this time, Eisenhower be­ gan to establish important relation­ ships with the nation's political and financial leaders and to develop his own political ideology— a blend of Top: Field Marshal Bernard L. Montgomery, General Eisenhower, and Marshal Georgi moderate internationalism and such Zhukov toast victory, June 10, 1945. Below: basic American values as individual­ Eisenhower installed as president of Columbia ism and patriotism. No longer hold­ University, October 12, 1948. President ing to the professional soldier's apo­ Truman greets Eisenhower on his return from litical stance, he began to prepare a tour of NATO nations, 1951. himself to be a candidate for the presidency of the United States. There was a down side to the Co­ GETTYSBURG COMMEMORATION lumbia years. Eisenhower was un­ rom October 11-14, scholars, political leaders, and military leaders will easy with scholars, impatient with F gather at Gettysburg College in Pennsylvania to discuss "Eisenhower and paperwork, and stressed at the de­ the Future of the Presidency." mands on his time. After Secretary On October 14 itself, the centennial of his birth, there is to be a wreath-laying of Defense James V. Forrestal asked ceremony under the sponsorship of the National Park Service, the Dwight D. him to serve as his adviser and infor­ Eisenhower Society and Gettysburg College. The theme of the day will be mal chairman of the joint chiefs of "Eisenhower as Soldier, President, and Statesman," with D. David Eisenhower II staff, he had to commute between as guest speaker. Bob Hope, Gettysburg Centennial Chairman, has invited the New York City and Washington, four living ex-Presidents of the United States to participate. D.C., to face tense sessions at the The four-day event, which receives support from the Pennsylvania Humani­ ties Council, will be videotaped to circulate to educational institutions and Pentagon on issues of defense strate­ libraries. gy and interservice rivalry. From De-

12 SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER cember 1948 until July 1949, he kept goals in Europe. He was able to a pace that was exhausting and that build an effective command struc­ prevented him from making a full ture and a workable system of mobi­ Columbia University commitment to Columbia. lization, rearmament, and war plans. June 24,1949 Still, for Columbia University, Ei­ But his pleasure at seeing NATO Memo to Provost Albert C. Jacobs senhower's presence brought a sig­ members agree on German re­ nificant increase in funding, a new armament was dampened by con­ Wf must, in our organizational and style of administration, important tinuing national animosities and the procedural practices, emphasize decen­ tralization as the basic principle of new programs, stronger relations rejection of a European army. Even Columbia administration. Decentraliza­ with the world beyond academe, so, he managed to preserve the uni­ tion consists in clear delegation of re­ and national attention because of his ty of NATO. sponsibility with comparable authority. celebrity. For Eisenhower, these He did so while wrestling with his It is possible only when organization is years were an essential preparation own political monster— pressure clear-cut, and the functions of each res­ ponsible official stated in precise terms. for the presidency. from home to declare himself a can­ I realize that, due to a certain checker­ Eisenhower's career as university didate for the presidency. He had boarding resulting from maintenance of president ended in January 1951, maintained a good relationship with both schools and departments, the decen­ when he took leave to serve as su­ President Truman, and he made a tralization principle cannot always be preme Allied commander in Europe point of meeting with the seemingly applied with the same facility as in a simpler organization. Nevertheless, this for the North Atlantic Treaty Organi­ endless stream of visiting congress­ circumstance cannot be allowed to stand zation. He was the ideal man to or­ men. Finally, he faced up to the call in the way of the firmest possible adher­ ganize the Allied command in Eu­ of duty, pride, and ambition, and in ence to the general idea. A specific an­ rope— the returning hero, now more the end, it was not so much a matter nual budget, for example, should be, so sophisticated politically. He had nev­ of what he would do, but how he far as may be practicable, worked up by each of the various School and College er really lost touch with international would do it. In January 1952, Eisen­ heads. While central administrative issues. As his correspondence hower declared himself a Republi­ authority will have to prepare those pro­ shows, he was deeply involved in can, and throughout the spring his portions of the budget which apply to the the battle with those at home who every move was calculated to pro­ University as a whole, we must insist opposed U.S. participation in the de­ duce a triumphant return home— that in each School cost estimates be balanced against anticipated revenues, fense of Europe. At the same time the hero-candidate ready to do battle set forth in detail. In this way we will he worked to soften national ani­ again, this time in politics. inspire reneived interest on the part of mosities in Europe and to inspire All did not go so well at first. After Deans and other responsible officers in leadership and a sense of unity he returned from Europe in June the financial problems of the University, among the NATO member nations. 1952, his kickoff speech was a flop. including the problem of increasing revenues. Once again, he had to reach down There were other problems: his fail­ This same principle of decentralization deep, calling on his unusual ability ure in a speech to defend General must be applied in delineating the func­ to persuade people to work together Marshall from an attack by Senator tions and authorities of the several for a common cause. Joseph R. McCarthy, and the shock principal administrative officers and Eisenhower sharpened his own of the Nixon secret-fund expose. heads. For example, you are well aware of my purpose of relieving the Provost political philosophy during the But his natural charm and warmth of all possible details so that he can be, in NATO experience. He became even pulled him through two grueling effect, the internal administrator of the more of an internationalist in foreign campaigns. First he took the nomi­ University. relations, while remaining conserva­ nation from Taft in July. Then he de­ It is my understanding that we are tive about most domestic issues. His veloped an effective presidential following fairly closely the recommenda­ tions of the Booz, Allen & Hamilton was the middle ground. He cham­ campaign. He called for greater con­ report submitted to the Trustees more pioned foreign trade as a key to U.S. trols on federal spending; for lower than a year ago. I desire that wherever economic survival, and he fully artic­ taxes after, not before, a balanced any significant departure from those rec­ ulated his belief that U.S. commit­ budget; and for foreign aid to our al­ ommendations is made, except where ment to the defense of Europe was lies. Always, on domestic matters he such departures hai>e been accepted and directed by the Trustees, they be brought constrained by the health of the na­ stood for the "middle way." On for­ to my attention before promulgation as tion's domestic economy. Lacking ex­ eign matters, he was internationalist directives. perience in several areas of domestic of mind. His was a sweeping victory As quickly as the basic directive is policy, he sought advice from the ex­ over Adlai Stevenson in November, completed, it will be necessary that all perts at home. Some of his letters and with that victory Eisenhower interested persons are promptly informed so that the administration of this Univer­ are, in fact, position papers on the emerged more self-assured among sity may go forward smoothly, efficiently domestic and foreign issues of the the professional politicians who had and economically. Columbia has wasted early 1950s. He educated himself heaped advice on him. He was, as a very great deal of time in getting this through deliberate correspondence well, more committed to the tradi­ accomplished - in spite of the fact that all with people who were qualified to tional values that had captured principal subordinates, who have report­ ed to me, have expressed their earnest advise him and who were honored American hearts and votes. opinions that improvements are possible. to be asked. In December 1952, the President­ I can see no reason for any further post­ At the same time, Eisenhower was elect went to Korea to investigate ponement of such corrective measures as fully engaged in the delicate busi­ firsthand our position there— a cam­ my advisory staff may deem applicable. ness of selecting personnel and cre­ paign promise he was determined to ating an organization to achieve his keep. He then brought his adminis-

HUMANITIES 13 November 26,1952 To Alfred Maximilian Gruenther Personal and confidential Dear Al: By this time you have probably seen in the papers my list of appoint­ ments and you will know that I didn 't follow your advice in the case of the Secretary of Defense. This does not mean that I do not share your high opinion of the executive abilities of the two men you name. In many ways Dewey would make an ideal man for the spot. One thing you could not know, however, is that strong as he is in certain areas of the country, he likewise has the choicest bunch of bitter political enemies that any one man could possible accumulate. I am learning many new things these days- one of which is that in politics fitness for a job is only one of the factors to be con­ sidered in making assignments. Inci­ dentally, I learned most of the above from Mr. Dewey himself, who, as you know, is my good friend and one of my trusted adinsors. I should like to talk to you one of these days about the hopes I have for an organ­ ization of the Defense Department headed by an industrialist. We have tried Chief Justice Frederick M. Vinson administers the oath of office to President-elect Dwight D. two investment bankers, a lawyer and a Eisenhower on the steps of the United States Capitol, January 20, 1953. soldier - and we are not yet unified. I be­ lieve it takes a man who is used to knock­ trative skills back into play and be­ hower, contrary to popular belief, ing heads together and who is not easily gan to gather around him the people was firmly in control of his adminis­ fooled. who would become his advisers. tration. While encouraging free- With respect to military aides, I have The stage was set for Eisenhower to ranging discussion and tolerating decided to have none in the rank of flag or general officer. It seems to me it is embark on a new course of leader­ dissent, he employed persuasion high time we returned to a little bit of ship— no longer purely military, nor and discipline to make sure that the common sense in some of these things academic— but presidential. administration spoke with one voice and I simply cannot see the use of As the Eisenhower editorial proj­ and that once a policy had been de­ having three aides in the grade of general ect moves into the mid-1950s, a cided upon it would be carried out officer (each of whom I understand has three assistants) hanging around the number of impressions have begun wholeheartedly. Eisenhower was not White House. Maybe I am wrong but I to emerge from the work of selection afraid of having past or potential ri­ would very much appreciate an oppor­ and annotation of documents. One vals in the White House or in the tunity to make a slight return towards of the most striking is Eisenhower's cabinet. He welcomed the strength simplicity.. .. skill at writing. After reading The and energy such Republican leaders As for Douglas Mac Arthur, I share your enthusiasm about him and I have War Years volumes, political econo­ as Harold E. Stassen, Nelson A. already called him to the attention of mist John Kenneth Galbraith was Rockefeller, and Richard M. Nixon Foster Dulles. I agree also that he would surprised to find them "irresistible," could provide, and he was confident be lost in Indo-china. His fine experience in part because they were "firmly that he could control any destructive has not been gained in that region and it and unpretentiously literate." These or divisive impulses that might sur­ seems to me he would be wasted out there.. . . qualities are also present in Eisen­ face. He also was able to employ the My love to Grade and my warm hower's presidential correspon­ talents of John Foster Dulles as sec­ greeting to all my old friends. dence, as readers of volumes 14 retary of state. The documentary Cordially through 17 (The Presidency: The Mid­ record makes it very clear that Dul­ P.S.: You will have to send a check for dle Way) will discover. Eisenhower les served Eisenhower as point man $15 to Cliff. Someday I shall tell you of the disasters that overtook your old took great pride in his writing skills or lightning rod, absorbing the criti­ bridge partner. But I can tell you this and often edited and reedited his cism that would otherwise have been now-for once 1 have no bitter complaints drafts in order to achieve the virtues directed at the President. Eisenhow­ against myself. I stayed awake and of precision, simplicity, and clarity. er made the decisions; Dulles carried worked hard in your interests, but I am The correspondence of the presi­ them out. carrying in my memory (possibly for­ ever) a few of the hands and a few in­ dential years gives an excellent view Eisenhower's strong organizational stances of the kind of treatment I had of Eisenhower's leadership qualities. style came to the fore early in 1953. from some of my so called partners. The documentary record of the first In assembling his White House staff, These will cause you to wonder why years of his presidency— an abun­ he surrounded himself with trusted your check does not have to be for one dant resource of the magnificent Ei­ associates from business, govern­ hundred and fifty bucks. senhower library at Abilene, Kansas ment, and academe, including a — clearly demonstrates that Eisen­ number of wartime colleagues who

14 SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER understood his manner of thinking. He chose as his chief of staff tough, THE CHANGING per­ "a rigorous assessment laconic Sherman Adams, an assistant spective on Dwight by Americans is due." who was not popular but who effec­ David Eisenhower's A major debate of the tively guarded the President's inter­ leadership will be ex­ IKE: war was whether there ests. Eisenhower's long experience as plored in a three-hour THE MOVIE should be a single an army commander left him with a documentary series as thrust toward Berlin - part of programs and advocated by both predilection for order, structure, and events that mark the "He lacked greatness Britain's Field Marshall logic, reflected in his memos of in­ Eisenhower centennial as a soldier, but he Bernard Montgomery struction to his staff and advisers. this year. could not have been and America's General From the beginning, and under "Time is running out matched as Supreme George Patton - or a pressures from all sides, the newly on the effort to get a Commander. His broad-front strategy. elected President refused to take on complete portrait be­ behavior at moments Eisenhower's solution Senator McCarthy in public. He was cause so many of the of Anglo-American was to give command adamant in his conviction that he principals are disapear- tension, his extra­ over supplies to Mont­ should not permit McCarthy more ing from the scene," ordinary generosity gomery and opera­ public exposure than he already en­ says Peter S. McGhee of to his difficult subor­ tional control over air­ dinates proved his joyed. Simply put, presidents don't WGBH-TV in Boston, borne troops to Patton - which produced the greatness as Supreme neither had enough fight senators in public. McCarthy series. Among the key Commander." strength for a single was but one of the problems facing participants who have Max Hastings thrust. The question for him, and he quickly developed sev­ yet to tell their stories Author, Overlord historians is whether eral techniques for keeping abreast are Ann Whitman, Eisenhower's compro­ "I can remember of the national situation. Regular Eisenhower's secretary; mise was good general­ when we used to call meetings with legislative leaders and Andrew Goodpaster, ship, good politics, or him 'old bubble head’ private breakfast talks helped him to his defense liaison; and both. and we referred to keep in touch with the delicate bal­ Fred Morrow, special At the end of the the White House as projects administrator war, the great contro­ ance in the Congress between Re­ 'the tomb of the well- and the only black offi­ versy pitted Eisen­ publicans and Democrats. His fre­ known soldier.' Now cial in the Eisenhower hower against British quent stag dinners at the White I think he is the great­ White House. Prime Minister Winston House for prominent friends and ad­ est president 1 ever One of the advisers Churchill over the ministrative leaders kept him in­ covered." on the series, Eisen­ strategy of racing the formed on current views about con­ Frank Holeman hower biographer New York Daily News Russian armies to Ber­ troversial foreign and domestic Stephen Ambrose, des­ lin. Churchill believed issues, such as the nettlesome Brick- cribes Eisenhower as the Allies should nei­ er amendment and the question of "a general and politi­ BY SU SA N N E ther concede Berlin to return to the gold standard. cian of the first rank, a ROSCHWALB the Russians nor over­ One might say the jury is still out statesman who kept this look the city's psycho­ for the editors of the Eisenhower pa­ country out of war in the 1950s, logical importance to Europeans. pers, who have thousands more doc­ an administrator who almost Eisenhower, whose view ultimately uments to study. Research and an­ balanced the budget, kept down prevailed, took the position that the cost of the arms race, managed holding back on entering Berlin notation for selected papers of the crisis superbly, and gave his coun­ would result in fewer Allied casual­ first presidential term is just under try eight years of peace and pros­ ties and would free up the maxi­ way. The sense is that Dwight Eisen­ perity." Counterbalancing Ambrose mum number of U.S. troops for de­ hower will not disappoint. In the is historian Arthur Schlesinger, ployment to the Pacific war. 1950s, he emerged as a strong leader who views the 1950s as a decade of Later programs in the series will and administrator— disciplined, drift and Eisenhower as a President focus on Eisenhower's two presi­ moral, and much beloved by the who ignored or mishandled press­ dential terms. "The documentary American people. He and his accom­ ing issues such as McCarthyism, format," says McGhee, "will allow plishments as President have come civil rights, and relations with the us to see the real Ike behind the to be appreciated during the past Soviets. public pose. By studying the diar­ decade. In the years ahead, the pro­ The first of the programs to air ies of Eisenhower and his close will deal with the war years. While associates, scholars have uncovered cess of reappraisal will continue, and many World War II documentaries an Eisenhower far more complex one of the most important sources of have featured Eisenhower, says and calculating than his public, information on Eisenhower for schol­ McGhee, they have not focused on statesmanlike posture, as revealed ars, commentators, and the general him. More recent series, he con­ in newsreels and public addresses." public will be The Papers of Dwight tends, have treated controversies David Eisenhower. □ over Eisenhower's wartime per­ For the documentary on Eisenhower, formance from a British point of WYES-TV in New Orleans received view. "We feel," says McGhee, a planning grant of $19,331 in 1987 Since 1981, the Eisenhower Papers proj­ and WGHB-TV in Boston received a ect at Johns Hopkins University has re­ production grant of $300,424 in 1990 ceived $46,448 in outright funds and Susanne Roschwalb is assistant from the Humanities Projects in $631,658 in matching funds from the professor in the School of Communi­ Media program of the Division of Editions category of the Division of Re­ cations at American University. General Programs. search Programs.

HUMANITIES 15 The Politics of Command

BY FORREST C. POGUE OR MONTHS BEFORE the Eisenhower, chief of his operations way and a special staff (COSSAC— meeting of the Allied leaders at division, to head the U.S. theater Chief of Staff to the Supreme Allied F Cairo and Tehran late in 1943, command in Europe. Eisenhower, Commander) was set up in London U.S. Secretary of War Henry L. promoted to his first star in the sum­ to outline a plan for Overlord. While Stimson had pushed for General mer of 1941, had been brought by the landings in the south of Italy George C. Marshall to direct the Brit­ Marshall to the war department the were in progress, the British and ish-American forces in the assault week after Pearl Harbor as an expert Americans, meeting at Quebec, took against German-held Europe in the on the Philippines. Marshall made a serious look at a cross-channel at­ spring of 1944. Stimson insisted to him head of the plans division in tack for the spring of 1944. anyone who would listen that only February and promoted him to a At Quebec, Churchill recognized by placing Marshall at the head of second star. the increasing preponderance of such an effort would the cross­ The British welcomed the buildup U.S. strength in the fighting by an­ channel attack be launched. He re­ but resisted the idea of a direct at­ nouncing to Roosevelt that an Amer­ peatedly urged the general to press tack at a time when the chief burden ican should command Allied forces his request for the command. of the operation would fall on them. in Overlord. Roosevelt made clear Stimson, who had been secretary In July, Roosevelt sent Marshall and that he had Marshall in mind for that of war since 1940, knew how much Admiral Ernest J. King, chief of naval assignment, and Churchill registered the concept of the cross-channel at­ operations, to London to get agree­ his agreement. tack owed to Marshall, then U.S. ment, if possible, on what was to be No definite appointment was an­ chief of staff. It was Marshall who called Operation Overlord. He nounced at Quebec, but U.S. news­ had carried the plan to London in warned them that it was essential to papers were soon debating Roose­ the spring of 1942 and urged it on have Allied forces in action in that velt's proposed action. Some of the Prime Minister Winston Churchill part of the world before the end of antiadministration press charged and the British chiefs of staff. the year. Public opinion in Britain that by putting forward Marshall for Before the attack on the United and the United States was already the command in London, the Presi­ States at Pearl Harbor, which led to demanding results, and Russian dent was trying to get rid of the one America's entry into World War II, ability to hold out against the enemy military leader who would oppose Roosevelt and his chiefs of staff had seemed to depend on an invasion to his political schemes. It was alleged agreed that if the United States reduce pressure on the Eastern Eu­ that Marshall would be replaced by a should find itself at war against Ger­ ropean front. political general who would use his many and Japan, it would follow the When the British declared that a control of military contracts to en­ concept of "Europe First" in plan­ direct attack was impossible for 1942, sure Roosevelt's reelection in 1944. ning and operations. The President the Americans accepted the British General John J. Pershing, under and joint chiefs began carrying out proposal for an Allied invasion of whom Marshall had served in World that policy soon after war began in North Africa that November. Hoping War I and as personal aide for five the Pacific. Almost at once, the to reduce French resistance to an Al­ years after the war, was persuaded United States began the buildup in lied attack on Morocco and Algeria, to urge Roosevelt to keep Marshall the United Kingdom of supplies for the British suggested that an Ameri­ in Washington. Some newspapers a future invasion. Hard-pressed by can lead the Allied forces in the at­ even charged that the proposed months of war, the British were re­ tack. Marshall proposed Eisenhower change was a British plot to diminish luctant to hasten into a direct attack for the assignment. Marshall's authority. Roosevelt kept on the continent. Conscious of The peripheral approach was ac­ assuring protesters that he wanted American pressures for greater activ­ cepted as the best alternative, al­ Marshall to be the Pershing of World ity in the Far East, Marshall and the though it obviously meant that the War II. No one, he insisted, remem­ other chiefs stressed the importance logic of events would draw the Allies bered who had been chief of staff in of hastening the attack on Germany. more deeply into the Mediterranean. World War I or any other war. Marshall went to London in April After the Germans were driven from 1942, to sell his concept. In June, he North Africa, an attack on Sicily fol­ appointed Major General Dwight D. lowed and then other invasions into Forrest C. Pogue is the author of the the south of Italy. Throughout it all, authorized four-volume biography of Marshall continued, at Casablanca, General George C. Marshall, for which General George C. Marshall participates in Washington, and the first Quebec Pogue received the Francis Parkman the Quebec conference in August of 1943. Conference, to lead the fight for a medal in 1988. The book project received (Rear row, second from right.) Seated, Cana­ major invasion across the channel. A $232,622 in support from the Interpre­ dian Prime Minister Mackenzie King, U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt, and British combined bombing offensive was tive Research program of the Division Prime Minister Winston Churchill. launched in 1943 to help prepare the of Research Programs.

HUMANITIES 17 Secretary of War Stimson left no SAC planning staff, to Washington From Marshall's account of his talk doubt about Marshall's superior to familiarize him with American with Harry Hopkins, the presi­ claim to the post. Taking office on staff methods in case Marshall dential adviser whom Roosevelt sent the very day war had begun in Eu­ should pick him for a key post at to see Marshall on the return to rope, September 1, 1939, Marshall supreme headquarters. Cairo, it seems clear that Hopkins had worked untiringly to build the Marshall's colleagues on the joint mentioned Roosevelt's qualms. U.S. army and the army's air forces chiefs of staff continued to plead to Hopkins' statement that Roosevelt from some 200,000 men to an awe­ Roosevelt that they could not spare wanted to know Marshall's wishes some strength of 8.3 million before Marshall. A plan was worked out for indicated that the President was the end of 1944. He had been the de­ presentation to the British in which troubled over the decision. Marshall termined advocate of the cross­ Marshall would be supreme com­ replied that he wanted no considera­ channel operation from the spring of mander but would continue as a tion of his personal wishes: The 1942 and had battled Churchill and member of the U.S. joint chiefs of main consideration should be the the British chiefs of staff for the con­ staff. Marshall himself opposed it, good of the country. cept since the earliest conferences. declaring that the British would nev­ Marshall had put the ball back in Appearing frequently before con­ er accept it at the Cairo conference. the President's court. Roosevelt then gressional committees, he pressed Perhaps, by then, Marshall realized asked the general to come to his vil­ unceasingly for more arms and men. that it was the only way he would be la. According to Marshall, the Presi­ He demanded realistic training and picked for the appointment he dent went back and forth on the was tireless in improving leadership strongly desired. Stimson himself in subject and then again asked for and in coordinating military efforts the fall of 1943 predicted that Marshall's personal reaction. around the world. Marshall's innate modesty would Keeping in mind what had hap­ cost him the command. pened at home and what Hopkins When President Roosevelt's party had told him, Marshall recalled that he rosy prospects for his pa­ stopped to see Eisenhower en route he told the President: "I wanted him tron left Eisenhower some­ to Cairo, the visitors spoke only of to feel free to act in whatever way he what glum. He was pleased Eisenhower's return to Washington felt as to the best interest of the forT Marshall, but he was unhappy in the near future. The diary kept by country and to his satisfaction and that Marshall's shift to the supreme his naval aide reflected Ike's mount­ not in anyway to consider my feel­ command in Europe would be ac­ ing gloom. ings. I would cheerfully go whatever companied by Eisenhower's own re­ The first phase of the Cairo meet­ way he wanted me to go." The Presi­ turn to Washington as chief of staff. ing passed without any word of a fi­ dent apparently considered the mat­ He felt ill-prepared for a political role nal decision by Roosevelt. The Brit­ ter settled and said, "Well, I didn't and urged that he be allowed to have ish, as Marshall predicted, declined feel I could sleep at ease if you were a field command in the European to accept the strange proposal that out of Washington." theater under Marshall, but visitors the Americans had advanced. At the conclusion of his conversa­ from Washington gave him no hope It was Josef Stalin at Tehran who tion with Roosevelt, Marshall rapidly that he could escape the chief-of- forced the issue. He had long been composed the message that Roose­ staff position. promised a second front on the con­ velt had promised to Stalin at As a good soldier, Eisenhower tinent of Europe. Now, he wanted to Tehran. He wrote: "The immediate knew from his Mediterranean expe­ know, who would command the appointment of General Eisenhower riences which members of his staff Overlord operation? The President to command Overlord operation has Marshall should have in building his still temporized but finally promised been decided on" and handed the invasion force. "You should have to announce his decision after his re­ message to Roosevelt to sign. Some­ Bradley," he said in an early mes­ turn to Cairo. Perhaps he was stall­ time after it was sent out by radio, sage. It was advice scarcely needed ing to weigh the problem of losing Marshall retrieved the paper and by Marshall: He had put Bradley on Marshall from the joint chiefs of sent it to the new supreme com­ his staff as an instructor at the Infan­ staff. At the early meetings aboard mander. He scrawled across the bot­ try School for four years, had as­ ship, at the early sessions in Cairo tom of the original, "Dear Eisenhow­ signed him to his personal staff early and Tehran, he saw Marshall's lead­ er: I thought you might like to have after becoming chief of staff, had ership in the making of high-level this as a memento. It was written jumped him from lieutenant colonel decisions. He also saw how well Ei­ very hurriedly by me as the final to brigadier general, had succes­ senhower had developed as an Al­ meeting broke up yesterday, the sively given him two divisions, and lied commander. Ike was now accus­ President signing it immediately. had sent him to North Africa to be tomed to dealing with the British, G .C .M ." □ Eisenhower's "eyes and ears." An­ French, and American military and other name on Eisenhower's sug­ political officials with whom a com­ gested list was George Patton, to mander would have to work in the To develop a documentary film about whom Marshall had given a task Overlord operations. Marshall, in 1989 New York City's Great force in the North African invasion. By the time of his return to Cairo, Projects Film Company received a Marshall, meanwhile, sent over a Roosevelt was no longer firmly set $50,000 scripting grant and a $455,502 few officers from Washington to on giving Marshall the opportunity production grant from the Humanities London and brought General Sir to lead into combat the force that he Projects in Media program of the Divi­ Frederick Morgan, head of the COS- had prepared for Overlord. sion of General Programs.

18 SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER

\ From West Point to the White House

eing the highest- tinued under Andrew Johnson's ad­ ranking general in the ministration, and was finally uncov­ BU.S. army was an un­ ered during Grant's presidency. likely circumstance for someone The volumes of the Grant pa­ who as a youngster showed pers, first published in 1967 and no military inclination. prepared with support from Bom in 1822 in Point Pleas­ the National Endowment for ant, Ohio, Hiram Ulysses the Humanities since 1983, Grant reluctantly went off at have become the essential re­ his father's insistence to the source in modern studies of United States Military Acade­ Grant. To date, sixteen volumes of my at West Point, New York, in the Grant papers have been pub­ 1839. People called him "Ulysses," lished. Volume 1 covers the pre­ and the congressman who ap­ National Portrait Gallery, Smithsonian Institution war years from 1837 to 1861; vol­ pointed him to the academy, as­ umes 2 to 14 cover the war years suming this to be the boy's first from April 1861 to April 1865; and name and his mother's maiden volumes 15 and 16, published in name (Simpson) to be his middle 1988, cover the early Reconstruc­ one, affixed the misnomer "Ulys­ The Papers tion period during 1865 and 1866 ses S. Grant" to the appointment. respectively. It stuck. As these most recent volumes Eventually the initials "U. S." show, Grant in the first twenty came to combine the man and his of months of the postwar period was cause until, some quarter of a cen­ occupied with military matters tury later, there he was— general Ulysses S. such as the reorganization of the in chief of all Union forces— offer­ army, the French attempt to estab­ ing surrender terms to his Con­ lish an empire in Mexico despite federate nemesis Robert E. Lee in Grant the Monroe Doctrine, and trouble the McLean house parlor at Appo­ on the Canadian border caused by mattox Court House, Virginia, BY JAMES S. TURNER Irish nationalists who hoped to ending the most appalling war force England to grant Irish inde­ that Americans had ever known. pendence. The two volumes also The victory at Appomattox made shed light on Grant's commitment Grant a hero in the North, and he been controversial. In battle, he's to the well-being of the South's went on to become the nation's eigh­ been called a butcher, a man of great freedmen, his view of Johnson's Re­ teenth President, serving two terms luck, someone who really didn't win construction policy, and his political from 1869 to 1877— the youngest the Civil War but was simply on the ambitions. man ever elected to the presidency scene when the Confederates finally While Grant's urging of leniency at that point in American history. Yet were forced to abandon it. toward former officers of the Con­ despite such fame, his personality "In terms of the presidency, he's federacy, including Lee, is well- remains a riddle. been looked upon as a man who did known, his determination to protect "There's always been a mystery too much and a man who did too the South's freedmen has been dis­ about Grant," says John Y. Simon, little. On Reconstruction, for exam­ puted. In fact, says Simon, Grant editor of The Papers of Ulysses S. Grant ple, he was viewed as a man who never wavered in his desire to pro­ (Southern Illinois University Press) pushed too hard for black civil rights tect the former slaves. After a tour of and director of the Ulysses S. Grant when he should have known better, several southern states in late 1865, Association at Southern Illinois Uni­ and as a man who didn't do nearly Grant wrote in a letter of December versity, Carbondale. "Both the mili­ enough." Moreover, says Simon, al­ 18, 1865, to President Johnson: "In tary career and the presidency have though Grant has been faulted as some form the Freedman's Bureau is being the dupe of conniving politi­ an absolute necessity until civil law cians, much of the corruption asso­ is established and enforced securing James S. Turner is assistant editor of ciated with his presidency had flour­ to the freedmen their rights and full Humanities. ished during the Civil War, had con­ protection."

HUMANITIES 19 On the matter of Johnson's Recon­ itic and truculent speeches delivered Sherman, Sheridan, and Meade; and struction policy, Grant found himself on the infamous "swing around the some letters from ordinary citizens, caught politically between Johnson, circle" electioneering tour through recounting their problems and difficul­ who sought to restore state govern­ the Midwest in 1866, which ignited ties. The project aims to publish all ments in the former Confederacy, re­ the impeachment sentiment that of Grant's letters and the important plete with severe restrictions on eventually led to Johnson's political correspondence to him. A micro­ black suffrage, as a means of hasten­ demise, Grant, who accompanied form edition of all the less crucial let­ ing the South's reincorporation into Johnson, wrote in a September 9, ters to Grant will also become available. the Union, and the North's "radical" 1866, letter to his wife, Julia: "I look One of the pleasures for Simon in Republicans, who sought much upon them as a National disgrace. his work with the Grant papers is stricter exactions as a means of pre­ Of course you will not shew this let­ the precision and grace of Grant's serving the fruits of victory and ter to anyone for so long as Mr. prose. Simon observes a direct ensuring the South's proper rehabili­ Johnson is President I must respect correlation between Grant's literary tation. Referring to Johnson's impol­ him as such, and it is in the coun­ ability and his capacity for leader­ try's interest that I should also have ship. An example is Grant's three- his confidence." sentence letter of February 16, 1862, About Grant's desire to become demanding Confederate commander President, "it's just not true," says Simon Buckner's surrender of the Simon. "Grant didn't like politicians 15,000-man garrison of Fort Donel- and didn't want to be one himself. son in Tennessee: He was forced into the presidency— Sir; he used the phrase 'in spite of my­ Yours of this date proposing Armistice, self.'" So apolitical was Grant, Simon and appointment of commissioners, to points out, that he did not vote settle terms of capitulation is just re­ in a presidential election ceived. No terms except an unconditional until 1856, and then and immediate surrender can be for a Democrat, not accepted. because he favored 1 propose to move immediately upon James Buchanan, your works. but because he de­ I am sir; very respectfully plored the candi­ your obt. servt. date of the newly es­ U. S. Grant Brig. Gen. tablished Republican party, John Fremont. "The letter expressed exactly what Grant did not vote again Grant wanted with the greatest until after he had served economy," says Simon. "It shows a both of his terms as Presi­ man who is direct, clearheaded, and dent— this time voting for a perhaps there's a glint of genius in Republican. He did not his expressing things that others make a political speech un­ didn't see. No one has ever figured til 1880, when he had been out the origin of his phrase 'uncon­ out of the White House ditional and immediate.'" for three years. What is clear, however, is that the coincidence of the initial letters of Y incorporating "unconditional surrender" with the important let­ Grant's own first initials was not lost Bters and docu­ on his troops. The nickname of ments that played a "Unconditional Surrender" Grant, role in Grant's thinking, which stayed with him through the the volumes present more remainder of the war, imbued the correspondence that Grant re­ man with an even more inspiring ceived than material that he actu­ aura of steadfastness than that im­ ally wrote. "As he advanced up plied by the patriotic sobriquet the military ladder and entered "Uncle Sam" Grant, which he had the political arena, he was a mag­ acquired at West Point. net for correspondence from all Many readers of Grant's Memoirs, sorts of people," says Simon. the first volume of which appeared "Through the Grant papers, we get in 1885, the year of Grant's death, a window on what people were wonder how Grant learned to write concerned about at the time." The so well, says Simon. The Grant pa­ volumes include requests for ap­ pers make it clear, he says, that pointments, which Grant called Grant was a master of concise, force­ "begging letters"; letters from key ful, and original prose from early in General Grant in 1864. military figures such as generals his career.

20 SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER S BOTH SOLDIER and Pres­ Simon. While many scholars stress peted America's might and contribu­ ident, Grant helped shape the failure of Grant's government to tions to the industrial wonders of A the United States as a mod­ guarantee to blacks what was prom­ the world, including a demonstra­ ern nation. "The Civil War is abso­ ised to them in legislation, Grant tion of the telephone by Alexander lutely the central experience of the kept up the pressure for reform. Graham Bell. American people," says Simon. "It "What went wrong was Grant's re- A subsequent trip around the had the force of transforming the election," Simon posits. "In his sec­ world, a failed bid for a third term, a United States from one country into ond term he tended to give in to his plunge into financial ruin that left another. The institution of slavery friends in Congress, weaken his him penniless, the onset of the was a cancer that had been eating support for Reconstruction, and to throat cancer that slowly and pain­ away at the American republic from waver under intense pressure in the fully killed him— all the outward its start, and its eradication through South for local control of the black facts of Grant's life are well docu­ the Civil War created a new political population." In addition, the ex­ mented. Yet Grant's personality re­ society which vindicated the Ameri­ panding nation faced daunting eco­ mains intriguing. can experiment." Grant's role as the nomic problems, such as the depres­ "If publication of the papers put engineer of Northern victory places sion of 1873. "Grant's first instinct all the controversies about Grant to him indisputably among the great was to start public works to get peo­ rest," says Simon, "it would have a founders of the modern United ple employed," says Simon. "But the deadly effect on scholarship rather States, says Simon. conventional wisdom on Capitol Hill than the encouraging one that we'd As President, Grant also helped was that the government should rather achieve. I don't think there's forge the new nation. "If he had economize rather than spend, and an absolutely knowable past that's served only one term, I think he eventually Grant succumbed." created through documentary edi­ would be remembered as one of the Even as Grant tried to preserve the tions. These are tools rather than fi­ better Presidents of the United ideals of the republic for which the nal answers, and they are certainly States, with a record marred only by Civil War was fought, the nation was going to raise every discussion about his insistence on acquiring Santo Do­ moving in vertiginous new direc­ Grant to a higher level of sophistica­ mingo. In domestic affairs, his rec­ tions. Ironically, in 1876, at nearly tion and accuracy." □ ord is quite remarkable." In 1870, the same time that General Custer with the passage of the Fifteenth and his men were being massacred Since 1983, the Ulysses S. Grant Asso­ Amendment, blacks were voting in the last of the great Indian battles ciation has received $139,443 in outright more fairly and freely throughout out West, President Grant was funds from the Editions category of the the South than they did until Lyn­ attending the U.S. centennial expo­ Division of Research Programs to prepare don Johnson became President, says sition in Philadelphia, which trum­ volumes of the Grant papers.

The last photograph of Grant, four days before his death in 1885.

HUMANITIES 21 Cartoon inspired by the capture of the British brig Boxer by the American Enterprise, September 13, 1813. Broadsheet, 1813. UNCLE SAM VS. JOHN BULL

BY PETER MELLINI

ISTORIANS MAKE a mis­ the portly John Bull provide the his­ reign, he was finally captured (along take when they treat those torian and anthropologist with a with Britannia) by the governing two national cartoon charac­ means of studying the impact of na­ classes and "gentrified" by artists ters, Uncle Sam and John Bull, as tionalism and the varieties of nation­ and writers in the new middle-class unchanging symbols like America's al character. Their iconographies are periodicals, especially Punch. Old Glory or the British Union Jack. part of what Erik Hobsbawm, The mid-Victorian Bull and his The two are "actors" in the politi­ Clifford Geertz, and others call the female counterpart, Britannia, cal dialogue between the United "invention of tradition"— a complex though highly gender specific, were States and the United Kingdom, and process in which a modernizing soci­ largely desexualized. "Old John" be­ as Uncle Sam has gone from country ety or community rifles its past, de­ came a portly country squire, the bumpkin to sophisticated Yankee, veloping and using myths to pro­ embodiment of the bourgeois British the changes have reflected America's duce nationalism. upper-middle-class character. Like own changing self-image. He and Bull had begun his existence more the British empire at its height, Bull than a century earlier than Uncle was overweight, self-confident, Sam as the put-upon common man bumptious, and stuffy. Britannia, Peter Mellini is a professor of modern in a series of anti-Whig political who began in the seventeenth cen­ European history at Sonoma State Uni­ pamphlets done in 1712 by the Tory tury as an emblem for the nation, versity and teaches the history of jour­ satirist Dr. John Arbuthnot. By the had evolved into a matronly battle-ax nalism at San Francisco State Univer­ 1790s, cartoonists had turned Bull — the ideological center of Truth, sity, California. He is the coauthor of a into a radical-patriot-lout, depicted Justice, Bravery, and the Empire. forthcoming book on the origins and evo­ with crudity by Gillray and others. She is dignified and elevated. Bull lution of national symbols. By the first years of Queen Victoria's does the actual living. British manu-

22 SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER facturers subsequently discovered monsensical, clever, rational, and del Hill and others popularized the that the Victorian's Bull and Britan­ able to drive a hard bargain. rustic, regional Yankee onstage in nia were potent, attractive advertis­ The name "Uncle Sam" apparently the Jacksonian era. Hill's attribution ing icons. originated during the War of 1812, of white top hat, striped trousers, Uncle Sam also took more than when barrels of beef and pork and and gaiters to the figure were the half a century to acquire his persona wagons stamped with "U. S." antithesis of fashion, the rejection of as the mythic male personifying the (United States) came to be known as European-dominated culture. new republic's character. His appear­ Uncle Sam's— a nickname for Sam­ Cartoonists portrayed Uncle Sam ance before the revolution was one uel Wilson, one of the principal mili­ in the 1830s as a stocky, beardless of the earliest signs of the existence tary contractors. Albert Matthews man dressed in an old-fashioned tail of American nationalism. Initially he has shown that the nickname at first coat. He was soon blended with the was a Yankee rustic known as was always used in a negative or "American cousin" and with Seba Yankee Doodle, or Brother Jonathan. antiwar context. Sam's appearance Smith's down-Maine fictional pun­ This "American cousin" became a fa­ and dress took as long as John Bull's dit, Major Jack Downing, who was vorite type in popular literature, in to become stereotyped. George Han­ the personification of the doubting music, on stage, and in popular art.

Cocky, crude, clever, he was some­ Canterbury Caricatures, and Cartoons of Study the for Center Society Antiquarian American times plump and short, more often thin and lanky. His dress, behavior, and speech indicated a freedom from the bonds of Old World custom and conventions. He did not care who owned the land or dominated the world. This particularly American per­ sonality evolved out of popular or vernacular culture. Many Americans wanted to be culturally independent and used self-created types, in Joshua Taylor's phrase, "to foster a national consciousness quite differ­ ent from that dependent on political institutions and their imagery." Between 1830 and 1860, this rustic cousin matured into the cartoonists' Uncle Sam. He came to embody a complex set of values, traits, and at­ titudes that were recognized gener­ ally as American. In dress and man­ YOUTH AND AGE John Bull - ”'Pon my word, Jonathan, I am quite sorry to see you so loaded. ner he rejected the aristocratic I am afraid it will break you down!" European conventions. He was self- Jonathan - "Not a bit o f it, Johnny! I'm younger and stronger than you are. made, independent, honest, com- It's a mere trifle to w hatl can carry." Broadsheet, 1863

n. 3 38 3 -S' 352 S*3 oan J. (left) "Let us clasp hands over (what might have been) a bloody chasm." Thomas Nast, Harper's Weekly, October 5,1872. Nast was one of the chief creators of the Uncle Sam image that we know today.

(right) "John Bull, the pore old guy." Strube, London Daily Express, November 5, 1940. Hitler and Mussolini point out straw man John Bull to a suspicious Uncle Sam.

HUMANITIES 23 public. During the 1850s, Sam shed symbolism that had originated in En­ sonification of the nation in a variety his local associations and grew into a gland with Britannia and John Bull. of settings, from political cartoons to lanky, rural rustic clad in top hat, The heyday of John Bull's family American advertisements to Russian striped gaiters, often with a star- lasted through the First World War. and American signboards to political speckled vest under his tail coat. By the late 1930s, the relative decline demonstrations at home and abroad. During the Civil War a newly of Britain and her empire can be de­ Why has Uncle Sam survived bearded Lincoln came to embody the tected in the displacement of their when John Bull is long retired? Part­ Union, and he too was combined qualities. The portly squire and the ly because Uncle Sam is more mal­ into Uncle Sam. After the war, car­ matronly goddess were hardly reso­ leable. Cartoonists often use the cos­ toonists at home and abroad nant cartoon stereotypes. In Britain tume and create new forms. Pat dropped Brother Jonathan, Yankee a few graphic satirists, including Oliphant, for example, often turns Doodle, et al, and refined Uncle Sam Max Beerbohm, Donald McGill, him into W. C. Field's raffish confi­ as we know him. The father of David Low, and Will Dyson, sought dence man and hustler. Sometimes American political cartooning, unsuccessfully to modernize John cartoonists simply make him the vic­ Thomas Nast, and his disciple, Bull and his family. Several compet­ tim of whatever demons are plagu­ Joseph Keppler, probably did the ing figures appeared, among them ing the American body politic. most to foster the iconographic syn­ Poy's John Citizen and Strube's Little More important, Sam persists be­ thesis we recognize as Uncle Sam— Man. The males represented the cause he emerged out of the Ameri­ the mythic male personifying the common man, such as the mis­ can vernacular, unlike his British American republic. guided Neville Chamberlain, who rival. He can still be used to person­ Nast's and Keppler's version of brandished a furled umbrella at the ify many, if not all, male Americans, Uncle Sam has lasted to this day. Depression and at Hitler. Bull's re­ while the stereotypical John Bull is Through the First World War, Uncle tirement coincides exactly with the clearly a creature of one class and Sam and his female counterpart, Co­ decline of British power and influ­ one era. Despite his anachronistic lumbia/Liberty, were often portrayed ence, as the winds of change blew costume, Uncle Sam still represents as a couple. She was a humanized away the empire. America. Like the nation he person­ goddess, and he was a nationalized Meanwhile, Uncle Sam continues ifies, he has continually changed. At folk symbol. In John Higham's ex­ in use along with his female coun­ the same time his essential traits— pression, "Columbia stood for na­ terpart, although their propaganda independence, honesty, skepticism tional ideals, while Sam took charge role has declined since the 1940s. toward conventions, and down-to- of the practical sphere of power and The attention to Liberty during the earth practicality— are relished and diplomacy. She was the teacher; he bicentennial revived her not as a na­ respected by the public. □ was the doer." Nast and other Amer­ tional symbol, but as a reminder of ican cartoonists took advantage of the nation's increasingly precarious To study Uncle Sam and John Bull as na­ the contrasting and complementary virtues and values. Late in the De­ tional symbols, Peter Mellini received a roles assigned by Victorian middle- pression, Woody Guthrie sang of $3,500 Summer Stipend through the Di­ class culture to each sex. America "Uncle Sam's Fine Land." Fifty years vision of Fellowships and Seminars in now had its own version of the dual later Uncle Sam appears as the per­ 1988. © A (ei Kallaugher) (KevinKAL

24 SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER CALENDAR September ♦ October

m e awara-winning "Beauty ana tne oeast," narrated by Mia Farrow, will be broadcast September 8 on PBS as part of the children's series, Long Ago and Far Away.

"The Civil War," an eleven-hour documen­ tary series by filmmaker Ken Burns, airs nightly on PBS September 23-27.

"Anxious Visions: Surrealist A rt," an exhibi­ tion opening October 3 at the University of California, Berkeley, places the movement in historical context.

A city's competing cultural vi­ sions are the subject of "A City Comes of Age: Chicago in the 1890s," an exhibition opening at The four-hundreth anniversary the Chicago Historical Society of the publication of Edmund October 24; a conference, Spenser's The Faerie Queene will "Modes of Inquiry for American be marked with a conference "Launching the Republic," (left) City History," will be held September 14-16 at Princeton a permanent exhibition focusing October 25-27. University. on the first Congress (1789-90), opens at the Federal Hall Na­ tional Memorial in New York City on September 25.

— Kristen Hall

HUMANITIES 25 Conversation with... ent moral and intellectual responses They are not the only determinant, continued from page 7 to contemporary life. But this they may not be the most significant doesn't mean it's in the genes. It determinant, but they can't be erased. doesn't mean there's a little strand of Cheney: That is a point we would woman owner of the farm on which DNA running around in me saying, agree on. When I become uncom­ she was a young maid treated her "Catharine, think 'affiliation' rather fortable is when it is reduced to be­ kindly. But there was a real power than 'autonomy.'" ing the only determinant, when the difference between my twelve-year- Cheney: I've just become troubled big three— race, gender, and class— old grandmother and the woman by moving from what happens in are seen as the only determining fac­ who owned the farm. one particular experiment to gener­ tors in human achievement. Cheney: When I heard you talk alizations, overgeneralizations about Stimpson: If you use race, class, and about overgeneralization about all women. It seems to diminish gender like a cookie cutter and apply women, I thought of what troubles women to suggest that Jane Austen those categories automatically, you me most, and that's the notion that was pretty good for a woman. She deny the specificity of history, and women all think in a special way; it's was good by any standard. you also deny the tremendous and different from the way that men Stimpson: I detect two things here, valiant effort that person after per­ think; that women use language in a Lynne, and I think we're in agree­ son put into overcoming the dis­ special way that's different from the ment on this. One is, it did matter abilities of those categories. way men use language. When I hear that Jane Austen was a woman. It's What some feminists say, as you that, I feel as though I'm being ghet­ not the only thing that mattered. It know, is that we ought to celebrate toized. I never sit down to write and may not even be the primary thing those differences. It's the fear that call gender into play. I call rationality that mattered, but it did matter. If the female is lesser that makes a into play, and those are the over­ she'd been born a boy, she might writer like Elizabeth Bishop say, generalizations that trouble me. Do have gone into the navy. She "Don't call me a woman writer." But you think that women do think and wouldn't have had her fears of eco­ one aspect of feminism, especially of write in a special way? nomic dependence. Or she might cultural feminism, is to say these Stimpson: There are studies that have become a clergyman. Her sense female differences are marvelous, show that women of a certain class of what she might do with her life that women are not castrated men. and a certain place do speak differ­ would have been different. I also On the contrary, men are castrated ently from the men of that class and suggest that her extraordinary and women, poor darlings. that place. Women will sometimes ironic understanding of marriage Cheney: I guess I would just prefer use more question marks than men. and of courtship and of their rela­ to think of both genders as human Men will interrupt more often than tionship to money was shaped by beings. women. Women will do what's been her gender and by her intelligence. Stimpson: Men and women have called the "housework of conversa­ Cheney: Maybe it's a matter of de­ more in common than what sepa­ tion." If there's a pause, if there's a grees here, what we would credit rates us. But we cannot deny what silence, they'll rush in and say, "Isn't things to. To talk about Jane Aus­ separates us because it is often very it a nice day?" or "Would you like to ten's achievement in terms of what I painful and cannot be easily have another Coca-Cola?" I also be­ think of as accidents of place and changed. I don't like to be separated lieve studies that show that many time and gender, instead of talking from men by the fact that I earn 70 women do respond to the world in a about them in terms of her genius, percent of what they earn. That different way. I think Carol Gilligan seems to diminish her in my eyes. seems to be an unnecessary [author of In a Different Voice] is on to It's interesting to do, but to stop difference. something, though she needs, as there, and not talk about this won­ Cheney: Exactly. Well, you men­ she knows, to do more studies of derful accomplishment of the human tioned not thinking it was proper to women according to race and differ­ spirit, to me is reductive. use race, class, and gender as the ent kinds of communities. But the sole way of looking at literature and question is the cause of gender dif­ Stimpson: But I think you can do the humanities. I do, though, when ferences. If we see differences in both simultaneously. If you look at I look at the MLA program, suspect men's and women's speech and if we what Jane Austen did, you can also that something like that is going on. see differences in the way in which see her acting as a writer of resis­ Every year the MLA puts on a huge men and women relate to the world, tance. She becomes a better writer convention and the program be­ is this caused by some innate biolog­ by looking at gender, because you comes the laughing stock of news­ ical difference, or is this socially con­ can see that she had to teach herself paper columnists across the country. ditioned and specific to a particular that she could be a writer. How do you explain this? society? That's what I tend to believe Cheney: But this is like saying that — that we can see differences, but Emily Dickinson was a better writer Stimpson: Well, first I would say they're specific to a time and place because she was shy and retiring you could probably do that to any and caused by that time and place. and had time to spend away from professional convention. I've just been reading a book, Erot­ the world, looking inside herself and Cheney: I don't think anybody else ic Wars, by Lillian Rubin, who is a thinking. There are all kinds of acci­ had "The Muse of Masturbation" wise and sagacious psychologist. dents of time and circumstance. this year. She's interviewed hundreds of men Stimpson: But they are also crucial Stimpson: Do you know, it's a good and women, and she picks up differ­ to the construction of the writing. paper.

26 SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER Cheney: Is that right? It sounded to being shocked culturally is probably Cheney: Should we call them endur­ me as though it were saying rather pretty good for us. ing ones? amazing things about Emily Dickin­ But, as you know, there's a much Stimpson: Let me say it's been an son, but I'll withhold judgment until deeper problem than an occasional enduring problem. I have a chance to read it. playful title at the MLA convention. Cheney: It is a two-sided problem. I And what are the deeper problems? worry that the most gifted of our Stimpson: It's an interesting paper. What are the things we really ought novelists have retreated into forms But I've looked at business conven­ that the educated general public tions, I've looked at the American to be worrying about if we care finds unreadable. It may be that College of Cardiology convention, about the future of the humanities? One, we have to be worried about there is encouragement to retreat and I think if you look at any profes­ literacy, and I know how concerned into those forms by a perception that sional organization, you could al­ the public is largely philistine, but in ways find something to make your you are about this. The humanities eyebrows go up. I have asked myself why journalists take such pleasure in using one or two titles as a sign of what silly people we are. he humanities work by texts. And Cheney: I think there's a conscious attempt to shock. I can't imagine what's going to happen to us if you anybody is really surprised that the T newspapers wrote about "The Muse have a country where 27 million adults, of Masturbation." Stimpson: What is the intellectual at least, are illiterate? movement behind this? It's quite a simple thing, I think. It's that people Stimpson do write about sexuality and that sexuality is not something that is locked up to be released after mar­ riage. It is a part of life, and again in work by texts. And what's going to return it's hard for the public to literature. And this is one of the happen to us if you have a country prove itself otherwise. great struggles, as you know, in where 27 million adults, at least, are Stimpson: That's a slightly different twentieth-century literature, the illiterate? How are you going to have problem. That seems to be the prob­ open narrative of sexuality, which people love the humanities, no mat­ lem of any new form of expression. got Ulysses into a great deal of trou­ ter how expansive and multicultural Gertrude Stein, in her essay "Com­ ble, which got D.H. Lawrence into a they are, if they can't read? position as Explanation," has a won­ great deal of trouble, et cetera, et derful phrase where she says that cetera. And what this critical move­ Cheney: One of the really great gifts the new always seems ugly, and ment is trying to do is to say, how that the state humanities councils then after it's accepted it becomes have poets and novelists and es­ have given all of us is an example of beautiful. And when we look back at sayists written about desire? What how you can use the humanities to the history of modern art, we do see has been the language for it, and encourage people to read and to a history of things that were popular how has desire been a motive for learn to read better. that then disappeared and things writing? How has it worked? What's Stimpson: A second thing is—you that were not popular or known that been its linguistic expression and its know that phrase of yours I like so we now love. Samuel Beckett's nov­ linguistic shape? much, the parallel school—we have to develop support for parallel els, when they first came out, were Cheney: I worry that there's a great schools— museums, the serious TV thought to be enormously difficult gulf between the way that literature programs, and what have you. I and very hard to teach, but Beckett is thought about professionally and keep saying that higher education won the Nobel Prize. Some experi­ the world at large, and that we will has to be far more connected sys­ mental novels are terribly difficult to never find the humanities taking a tematically to the parallel schools, read. They may make sense in a place in our society that's as central and that work for the parallel generation or two. as you and I think it should be until schools has to be recognized. Cheney: I do think the problem has somehow we diminish that gulf. The third problem is a question of been exacerbated, though, by novel­ And I do worry that session titles national values. Where are the big ists' not having to write for an audi­ like that are a little designed epater le salaries going? Not to the humani­ ence anymore, being academic nov­ bourgeois— "let's shock those folks ties. What is the relationship of a line elists, so to speak, where you're not out there"—rather than reach out of Shakespeare to the bottom line? forced to seek out an audience. and understand that, after all, these When you and I worry about the hu­ Stimpson: I would agree with you. works of art are theirs as well. manities— and I think everybody in When you talk about certain aca­ Stimpson: Yes, there's a little bit of the humanities, no matter what their demic novels not having an audi­ that. That spirit is a spirit that does approach, should be in this together ence, I think one reason is because animate modern art. And some­ — what we're worrying about is a set the sense of story sometimes seems times, in fact I think most times, of national and international values. missing. I think what the novels

HUMANITIES 27 without the stories are trying to tell Stimpson: There are examples of Stimpson: But then you know exact­ us is that our life no longer has a hope in Toni Morrison or Adrienne ly what I'm going to say. I want my fixed story. And the question then Rich. But I wanted to push the no­ students to understand how culture becomes for the literary artist, how tion of the audience a little bit fur­ works and how some works become do you write when the narrative is ther. I hope you would agree that popular, how some works don't, the all smashed up, when life's narra­ one of the jobs of contemporary hu­ same as an anthropologist wants us tives seem to be all smashed up? manities is to make yourself heard in to understand social structure and Cheney: I just have to read this to a culture that has an overload of su­ the historian wants us to understand you, a fascinating section on self-re- perficial information. Just walking the process of history. I want my flexive fiction in the new Columbia down the street, you're bombarded students to see George Eliot and to Literary History: by ads, bombarded by triviality, and read Middlemarch or to read Freder­ ick Douglass's autobiography, but also to see the cultural context out of which this comes. The second thing I would say is that I share your sense that I only have so much time in ~ here's only so much time, and to my whatever I'm going to do, but then I relax and I think that what we're set­ JL way of thinking, it's time that has to ting up in the United States is what A Nation at Risk calls a "community be spent on works that will endure, on of lifelong learners." If I can't teach people who can be models of excellence. this text now to a nineteen-year-old, I hope he or she will come back at thirty-nine and the classroom will be Cheney there for him or her. So I try to give them my own passion for this activi­ ty, to serve as a living witness for a way of being in the world that not only respects reading, writing, Confronting the fiasco of recent historical bombarded by a public speech that is thinking, valuing, and judging, but events, the new novelists— "chaos-drunk often deceptive. I find myself in my finds in it a source of an exalted writers, " as they have been called— offer classes saying, "Listen more care­ sense of happiness. a new idea of history: Since civilization fully. Learn how to sort out, but Cheney: Let me ask one last ques­ has become fraudulent, since it has don't tune out. Sort out, but don't tion. You're president of the MLA. turned into an enormous lie, it is impor­ tune out." What do you hope to do in a year in tant to examine its deceptions, its ruins, Cheney: The first thing that comes to what is one of the most prestigious its cliches— the mess of civilization and my mind is why in the world, when positions in the humanities? culture. But above all, it is important to we are bombarded by popular Stimpson: Well, first of all, Lynne, I examine and denounce the language that culture all the time, would we want was honored to be elected. Second, continues to perpetuate lies and to bring it into the classroom? my election showed that I represent­ illusions. Stimpson: Because it's important for ed some of the values in the profes­ So, you're right. It is a way of try­ us to understand where it's coming sion today, and I hope they're de­ ing to record experiences as these from and why it is popular, and be­ cent values. I hope that what I speak artists perceive it, but it's certainly cause not all of it is terrible. A study for is felt by people who are teaching difficult for the public at large to by Janice Radway about the Harle­ in lots of different institutions and understand. quin Romances shows them playing writing lots of different books and Stimpson: I've been utterly moved, a very important role in the lives of papers and articles. I hope there is as I think we all have been, by read­ young women, presenting what some broad agreement across the ing the accounts of how writers sur­ these young women think to be real profession that there are things that vived under censorship and under a dilemmas in their own lives. we share. This doesn't mean that suffocating state system in Eastern Cheney: Well, this is a point on we're ditto marks. This doesn't Europe, where they have had no au­ which I guess we would differ be­ mean that we don't have conflicts, dience, except maybe an audience of cause it seems to me that those but that we share a commitment to one or two or three. And, of course, young women are taking a college literacy, we share a commitment to what these wonderful Eastern Euro­ class in which we should present languages, we share a commitment pean writers had is a tradition and a them with the very best works the to diversity of approaches, we share set of ideas, a strongly felt internal ages have to offer and with historical a commitment to the wonder of dia­ morality, and a few kindred souls. characters who are heroic, whether logue. And I hope that we see that Cheney: It is interesting, isn't it, that it's Susan B. Anthony or Rosa Parks. research and teaching are compati­ writers in Eastern Europe, con­ There's only so much time, and to ble, not incompatible activities, and fronted with the most awful condi­ my way of thinking, it's time that has that the humanities are in danger, tions of existence, end up with a to be spent on works that will en­ not from our internal quarrels, but kind of faith in the human spirit that dure, on people who can be models from a world that may be indifferent our own novelists don't have. of excellence. to us. □

28 SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER THE NUMBERS GAME BY JEFFREY THOMAS

HE ENDOWMENT has been gathering statistics Tfor some time now about the vitality of the hu­ manities in the nation's col­ leges and universities. Some of the questions we are at­ tempting to answer: How many college and university students are concentrating in the humanities? How many are getting advanced degrees? Where are new Ph.D.s being employed? Here are some of the findings.

Degrees in Humanities Leveling Off Over the decade of the 1980s, student interest in the humanities appears to have stabilized. This leveling off is re­ flected in the numbers of bachelor's and doctoral degrees awarded in hu­ manities fields, and in the number of enrollments in undergraduate human­ ities courses. The decline in degrees had been steep: Between 1971 and 1981, the number of bachelor's degrees awarded in the humanities fell 52 percent (see Chart 1); doctorates in the humani­ ties over the period 1973-83 declined 35 percent (see Chart 2). The fall-off in bachelor's degrees in the humanities was particularly noticeable when measured against the number of bachelor's degrees as a whole, which was increasing by 11 percent over Data in Charts 1-3 are from three sources: (1) the Department of Education's higher education surveys; (2) the National Research Council's Survey of Earned Doctorates; and (3) Westat's Undergraduate the ten-year period. On the doctoral Course Offerings and Enrollments in Humanities. The National Research Council and Westat sur­ level, the shrinkage in the number of veys receive support from NEH. those earning advanced degrees in the humanities was occurring as the overall number of doctorates was Undergraduate degrees in the hu­ lected humanities subjects. As with holding steady. But by the mid­ manities began inching upward earned degrees, the recent pattern is eighties, the situation had altered: again and graduate-degree produc­ one of stability. In fact, the only sta­ tion steadied. tistically significant changes in en­ rollments occurred in two-year col­ Jeffrey Thomas is the assistant director Enrollments Stable in the 1980s leges, where enrollments in both for humanities studies in the Office of NEH periodically collects undergrad­ philosophy and remedial/develop­ Planning and Budget. uate enrollment information on se­ mental composition increased over

HUMANITIES 29 the period 1980-1988 (see Chart 3). Perhaps more surprising is the share of all undergraduate humanities en­ rollments captured by two-year col­ leges—30 per cent of all such enroll­ ments in the fall of 1988.

Nonacademic Employment Up Between 1977 and 1989 the number of employed humanities Ph.D.s, both ac­ ademic and nonacademic, increased by 51 percent, from 58,400 to 88,400. Over these twelve years, the propor­ tion of people with humanities docto­ rates working in nonacademic settings increased by nearly 10 percent, in part reflecting the inability of academic in­ stitutions to absorb the large number of those awarded doctorates in the 1970s (see Table 1). A substantial popu­ lation of doctorate recipients— almost 17,000 in 1989—were working in such settings as businesses, museums, foun­ dations, and government agencies. Whether by choice or because of TABLE 1: Type of Employer of Humanities Ph.D.s, Time-series: 1977-1989 the continued tightness in the aca­ in percent demic job market in the 1980s, those who earned doctorates between 1983 Type of Employer 1989 1987 1985 1983 1981 1979 1977 and 1988 in such fields as history Employed Population* 88,400 84,200 81,600 75,500 70,400 63,700 58,400 and philosophy were especially like­ Educational Institution 81.0 81.0 82.3 82.9 85.3 86.3 89.9 ly to look beyond the academy (see 4-Year Coll/Univ/Med School 73.4 73.0 74.3 74.8 77.6 79.3 82.4 2-Year College 4.6 4.9 5.1 5.1 4.9 Table 2). Conversely, those receiving 4.3 5.1 Elem/Secondary School 3.1 3.2 2.9 3.0 2.8 2.6 2.4 doctorates in languages and litera­ Business/Industry* * 9.8 9.8 8.7 8.8 6.5 5.4 3.2 tures are employed in academic U.S. Government 2.7 2.1 2.4 2.1 2.2 1.8 1.7 work, with almost nine in ten recent State/Local Government 1.1 1.1 1.7 1.7 1.6 1.0 0.8 English Ph.D.s choosing educational Nonprofit Organization 5.1 5.5 4.6 4.2 3.7 4.5 3.5 No Report 0.2 0.2 settings. □ 0.2 0.3 0.6 0.9 0.7 *lncludes those employed full-time or part-time. *Includes those who were self-employed. NOTE: Percentages for those reporting "other" types of employers, 0.3 percent of the total for all fields combined, are not included in this table; therefore, totals may not add to 100 percent.

TABLE 2: Type of Employer of Humanities PH.D.s. (1983-1988 Graduates) by Field of Doctorate, 1989 in percent Eng./ Class­ Amer. ical Modern All American Other Art Speech/ Lang. Lang. Lang. Other 1989 Type of Employer Fields History History History Music Theater Philos. & Lit. & Lit. & Lit. Humanities

Employed Population51' 16,458 1,084 1,421 684 2,376 743 1,072 3,482 230 2,759 2,607 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% Educational Institution 81.9 82.1 79.0 75.6 77.4 82.9 82.3 89.7 92.2 87.9 70.9 4-Year Coll/Univ/Med Sch. 73.7 69.9 76.6 73.4 70.1 75.8 71.2 78.4 80.4 78.9 65.5 2-Year College 4.1 4.4 2.5 1.5 2.7 6.2 8.3 5.5 4.6 2.3 Elem/Secondary School 4.1 7.7 .7 4.6 .9 2.8 5.8 11.7 4.4 3.1 Business/Industry’*'* 9.1 2.1 5.3 5.3 13.6 10.4 8.9 6.0 6.5 6.5 17.8 U.S. Government 2.5 4.4 11.2 1.8 4.5 2.3 2.8 State/Local Government .4 2.1 1.3 1.0 .7 .1 .3 Nonprofit Organization 5.6 6.2 3.2 16.4 8.7 6.7 2.3 4.3 1.3 3.1 7.0 No Report .2 .3 .3 1.4 .1 *lncludes those employed full-time or part-time. **lncludes those who were self-employed. NOTE: Percentages for those reporting “other" types of employers are not included in this table; therefore, totals may not add to 100 percent.

Data in Tables 1 and 2 are from the biennial Survey of Doctorate Recipients. As-yet unpublished findings from the 1989 survey are included with published data from earlier surveys, taken from the series entitled Humanities Doctorates in the United States.

30 SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER OPENING BY JAMES S. TURNER DOORS I year ago, fifty-three outstanding teachers were se­ “But in the great modernists, you don't usually get any whining or lected to spend a year away from the classroom, a complaining. In fact, the modernists A \year in which to recharge themselves intellectually had the feeling that if they could get and to bring new ideas and enthusiasm back to their elemen­ away from the lofty vagueness and what Ezra Pound called the 'emo­ tary and secondary schools. They are the first NEH/Read­ tional slither' of the genteel tradi­ er's Digest Teacher-Scholars, part of a three-year program tion, which marked the decline of underwritten by the National Endowment for the Humani­ high romanticism in the nineteenth century, and take words and knock ties and the DeWitt and Leila Wallace Foundation. them free, almost as if they were As these teachers head back to their classrooms this fall, pieces of a sculpture that had be­ here is what some of them had to say about their year of inde­ come encrusted with barnacles— if pendent study: they could knock words free of all those barnacles of custom, that you'd get absolutely clean pieces to udith H. Lightfoot, who teaches ture very much under the impact of work with, and then words would high school English at Lakeside School an accelerated pace of living, a feel­ change the vision of the people who Jin Seattle, Washington, studied nine ing of displacement, and lack of con­ experienced them. Much of the work American poets. trol in the social world. of Ezra Pound, William Carlos Wil­ “What the modernists found was liams, Wallace Stevens, and Mari­ “My big discovery has less to do that human beings live in an inhos­ anne Moore shows that they saw with information that you simply pitable world. The romantics be­ themselves as freeing language from hand on to students than with a lieved that, even if the world was not its encrustations of stale, tired, shift in a whole framework of think­ macte to human measure, at least it blinding traditions and conventions, ing about modern literature," Light­ was possible to create a home in it. I so that the world could be described foot says. "I had the sense that the think of Thoreau and Emerson and afresh. And I think that they really modernist period began after World the nineteenth-century Transcenden- believed they could change the War I, when disillusionment set in talists, who really believed that world if they succeeded. after the steady progressive rise of through the shaping power of the “As a teacher, I'm part romantic optimism during the Victorian peri­ imagination in contact with nature, and part traditionalist. There's this od. But recent historians I read have sometimes a transcendent spirit uni­ romantic side which really believes argued that the modernist outlook fying everything could be found. that students bring to literature, in began around 1890. They suggest “Now the modernists felt a com­ latent form, much of what will even­ that since then we have been a cul­ plete disjunction between the indi­ tually happen to them in studying it. vidual self and the world, and they On the other hand, I have developed included not only society, which had this enormous body of knowledge. gotten more and more complex and So I have to hold back much of this bureaucratic and impersonal, but na­ knowledge and let students discover ture as well. Melville is often consid­ some of what I have learned. ered the first modernist because he “This year has given me confi­ looked at that white whale and saw dence that I understand the process­ that it wasn't just food, or spirit, but es that lead the mind and feelings that it could be demonic, or it could and language forward in a difficult be absolute nothingness. That partic­ modernist poem. I can now see what ular kind of pessimism characterizes to affirm and how to pull students the modernist period, a sense that farther along. In the course on mod­ the world is not of our making and ern American poetry I will teach this was not made for us. fall, I know that if I open the book to a poem I've never seen before, the atmosphere will be one of confident James S. Turner is assistant editor of exploration that will take us all Humanities. somewhere valuable."

HUMANITIES 31 ical, and when they are, tend to be "This project was a survey of cur­ more didactic." rent children's literature, and a very The five most philosophical chil­ incomplete one at that. The wealth of dren's novels that Berman read are philosophical material in the best King Matt /, a Polish novel by Janusz children's novels is staggering and Korczak; North to Freedom, a Danish worthy of much further study." novel by Anne Holm; The Yearling, an American novel by Marjorie Kin- lice H. Price, who teaches English nan Rawlings; The Never-ending Story, A at Lincoln Park High School in a German novel by Michael Ende; Chicago, examined the narrative voice in and Goodnight, Mr. Tom, a British Africa n-American li ter at u re. novel by Michelle Magorian. Three of them are translations. "I realized early in my reading that "The translations are unusual in the slave narratives are a genre that interesting ways. Each deals with is still influencing African-American political philosophy and ethics, writings, so it is most important to att L. Berman teaches grades 3 themes which are more rare in U.S.- ground oneself in them in any in- Mand 4 at Metairie Park Country produced books," Berman says. depth study of African-American lit­ Day School in Metairie, Louisiana. His "None didactically promulgates a erature," Price says. "If I could study project was philosophy in children's particular viewpoint, but all contain slave narratives more thoroughly, I literature. extended interior monologues as the would trace the function of songs, main characters struggle to grow, for the prominence of song contin­ "My method was to read chil­ learn, and develop their own ideas. ues from Douglass to DuBois's actual dren's books, annotate them for phil­ These characters provide models of reprinting of snatches of the music osophical concepts covered, and the process of inquiry that rational, itself in The Souls of Black Folk. cross-reference them to traditional thinking people go through as they "In addition to learning about the philosophy and other children's lit­ try to adapt their philosophies to centrality of music in the literature erature," says Berman. "I focused changing and difficult circum­ itself, I have noted that there are primarily on mainstream children's stances. Each of the translated nov­ literature, but I also took the oppor­ els has an open-ended conclusion, tunity this year to read several hun­ and in none can the main character dred books which are less commonly be considered triumphant by the used as part of classroom reading end of the book. In all of these re­ programs and which are generally spects they are unlike the majority of less widely known. the American books I studied. This "In the vast majority of truly high is obviously a very small sampling, quality children's books, there seems but these observations do indicate to be a high correlation between interesting areas for further study. philosophical content and riveting "One disappointing discovery is plots. Not only are philosophical that few of the books had the depth concepts introduced, but at least one and sophistication of thought of of them is integral to the plot and which children are quite capable. In moves the story forward. The nature discussion, it is not unusual for chil­ of friendship was the most common dren spontaneously to recapitulate theme I found and was most often the ideas of traditional philosophers, integral to the story. More surprising but this seemed more rare in the were the next three most commonly books. I found few instances of many different approaches to Afri­ appearing concepts: the nature of thought paralleling those of tradi­ can-American literature and black reality, the process of understand­ tional philosophers. Some of those feminist criticism. For example, Ha­ ing, and death. that do present a developed philoso­ zel Carby might treat African-Ameri- "Modern children's literature phy, however, become didactic and can feminism from a cultural/histori­ tends to treat children as if they are make too many assumptions. This cal point of view, whereas Barbara intelligent, reasoning creatures who may explain why some overtly philo­ Johnson would use a more rhetorical are capable of dealing with open- sophical books, such as The Little deconstructionist reading to critique ended questions, who enjoy wres­ Prince, are unpopular with children; normative models in psychoanalysis. tling with philosophical thought, they perceive that they are not being "Another scholar, Henry Louis and who don't want or need pat an­ engaged in a cooperative effort with Gates, would stress more generally swers. Many classics, such as Trea­ the author, but instead are being lec­ the African diaspora tradition within sure Island, are not very philosoph­ tured to. the body of African-American writ­

32 SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER ings, whereas Houston Baker might ful use of small groups and in-class intellectuals turned to Western focus more precisely upon the ver­ debates as techniques to bring stu­ schools and the study of science. nacular blues. dents together to discuss very con­ "While studying medicine in Japan "But the most striking aspect of troversial and difficult issues. The in­ in 1902, Lu Xun realized it wasn't the criticism for me is to see the con­ timacy of the group, the collegiality China's physical being that needed nections the scholars make to each of the efforts, and the openness of medical attention, it was its spiritual other's work. Because this is a rela­ the debate all suggest the power of being," says Olds. "At that point he tively new field, it seems that every­ having students talk to one another resolved to create a revolution one knows everyone else. There during class time. I think this type of through literature, and that was the seems to be much collegial sharing." exchange is very valuable in erasing beginning of his literary career. Price attended seminars, art exhi­ stereotypes." "He was the first Chinese author bitions, and conferences that tied to incorporate foreign forms to create into her project. She mentions lec­ a new fiction that was consistent tures by Gates on the importance of with the modern world," Olds ex­ African-American literature in the plains. "As part of the May Fourth curriculum, by Barbara Johnson on movement of 1919, he urged the use psychoanalysis and African-Ameri- of the vernacular for the writing of can literature, and by James Gross­ fiction and essays instead of the for­ man on his new book, Land of Hope, mal, classical Chinese. He wanted documenting the movement of Afri­ the intellectuals to make connections can-Americans to the North after 1916. with the people rather than set Currently she is involved in a se­ themselves apart." ries of fifteen Saturday seminars for Olds learned enough Mandarin Chicago public school teachers titled Chinese at the University of Colora­ "Race, Multiethnicity, Literacy," do and on his own over the past sponsored by the University of Chi­ year to be able to converse, and last cago. She will speak about her study January he spent two weeks in Tai­ in September; in October, she will be wan pursuing his Chinese studies. talking about slave narratives at the "There are scores of articles in Chi­ annual conference of the Illinois As­ nese journals on Lu Xun right sociation of Teachers of English in lan E. Olds teaches literature at through the sixties and seventies, Springfield. Price has also been in­ A Arvada West High School in Ar­ whereas a lot of good writers disap­ vited to Northeastern Illinois State vada, Colorado. He studied Chinese au­ peared because their politics weren't University to talk with staff about thor Lu Xun, whose literary career right. His weren't necessarily right writing curriculum based on her spanned the first third of the twentieth either, but Mao liked him and that year of reading. century. was enough." "Many of the eighty-some books I As an experiment, Olds returned have read could be used in high "Lu Xun wrote only twenty-six to his school for three weeks last school classrooms. I plan to use sev­ short stories, from the mid-1910s to spring to teach. "I picked five mod­ eral titles in my own classes and in the mid-1920s, but he is depicted in ern Chinese short stories, starting my after-school seminar series. I China as the father of modern Chi­ with one by Lu Xun, who represents would hope that by introducing nese literature," says Olds. China's step into the modern age in more literature by African-American "Confucian society was really in­ the 1920s," says Olds. "My goal was authors to my racially mixed classes sular and self-satisfied," Olds says. for the students to read those stories that I would be able to expose all the "It attempted to explain everything, with something other than Western students to a variety of histories, life and if something new came along, eyes, and that's tough, because what experiences, and opinions. These you just fit it into what already exist­ you understand is what you bring to readings will reflect their own ethnic ed. Mathematics, science, or any of the story from your own cultural diversity and that of the city. the practical arts were considered perspective. I want the students first "During the past year, I was one of unworthy of formal study." of all to respect a culture that's differ­ two white students in classes at local As a member of the Confucian in­ ent from their own. It's all too easy colleges. As such, I found myself the telligentsia, Lu Xun was painfully to be biased against China based on outsider. While it was sometimes aware that China, taken over by current events, but there's much lonely, it has made me more aware foreign traders, saddled with in­ more to China than that." of psychological and racial differenc­ demnities, and plagued with opium He showed slides of his trip, es that a classroom cannot always al­ addiction and wars, had lost its posi­ taught them to say a few Chinese ter. But in attending classes at Co­ tion in the world. In hopes of restor­ words, and had them practice writ­ lumbia College and Roosevelt ing China's and their own power ing several Chinese characters to University, I have seen the success­ and sense of self-worth, the young glimpse the aesthetics.

HUMANITIES 33 He also introduced them to Chi­ "They were told when to start and doesn't work in describing these nese Lives, a collection of interviews when to stop, and by the end of the complicated party divisions. Issues with ordinary people made by two day they just collapsed. They had lit­ such as banking, tariffs, and nul­ Chinese students who traveled all tle opportunity to control their lives. lification fostered a strong Whig par­ over China in the 1980s. "I had ev­ "But in the low country of South ty in the South, especially in the ery student read a different one of Carolina and Georgia, where the rice banking and business community. these interviews, summarize it for plantations were, evidence indicates Only in the 1850s did slavery force a the class, and then talk about some­ that the slaves developed a much division between the so-called Cot­ thing in it that they couldn't under­ greater sense of self-regulation. ton and Conscience Whigs." stand, or something new about the Work was divided into tasks accord­ The concept of democracy posed a Chinese experience that <:his person ing to physical ability. Once a slave maddening obstacle for the apolo­ revealed to them," Olds says. "It's a gists of slavery in the South, says fabulous way for students to deal Meeker. "America's philosophical with a primary source; after all, real debt to John Locke, and thus to nat­ life is a matter of listening to people's ural rights and the social contract, voices and deciding how to react. was a real problem for John C. Cal­ "I think that one of the reasons we houn and others. What emerged in avoid learning about the Orient in the South was a rejection of Locke the West is because it is so differ­ and Jefferson, and acceptance in­ ent," Olds suggests. "In China, peo­ stead of a more Hobbesian view of ple simply don't think the same as man's nature. we do. For me, Lu Xun is an out­ "Calhoun and others proposed standing entrance point into Chinese that democracy was possible only in thought, because he stood right be­ a society that recognized inequality tween the past and the present. In as a law of nature, but one in which order to understand who he was, I the capable would tend to the com­ had to learn something about Chi­ finished his or her task, the rest of mon good. Only with slavery could na's past. And to understand his im­ the day was free. Not only were the the rest of society be free to develop pact on the present, I had to trace slaves more accountable for their its talent." his concerns through the nationalist own tasks, but they could make de­ In one sense, Meeker's research decade and the Hunan period, cisions on how to govern their time, over the past year poses some prob­ through the Communist regime and lively slave economies based on lems. "In the sections of the U.S. right to the present. What I learned barter evolved." history course that I teach, I don't is that his concerns in 1919 were the In addition to reading such clas­ know how I'm ever going to move same as those in China today. sics as Wilbur J. Cash's The Mind of through the first half of the nine­ They're still dealing with the issue of the South and Vernon L. Parrington's teenth century with any speed, now how to preserve a rich tradition in a Main Currents of American Thought, that I see all the complexities that re­ world of pressing concerns." Meeker found that some of her most quire elaboration," says Meeker. valuable days were spent discover­ "But I have the ability now to steer ing recent interpretations of the an­ my students to books that can help usan G. Meeker, who teaches sev­ tebellum period in scholarly jour­ them find what they're looking for. Senth- through tivelfth-grade history nals. "There is a time lag of nearly "I've been teaching long enough and social studies at Hunter College twenty years between publication of to feel very comfortable saying to my High School in New York City, studied new interpretations and their inclu­ class, 'I don't know.' Now it's going the antebellum South, 1830 to 1860. sion in standard texts," she says. to be wonderful to be able to say, "This is especially true of the in­ 'I'm glad you asked!'" □ "My research confirms what I sus­ stitution of slavery and slave pected— that you can't talk about the communities." The NEH/Reader's Digest Teacher- South or the slave community very She has also become wary of sim­ Scholar Program provides sabbatical sti­ easily," says Meeker. "You have to plistic interpretations of the party pends of up to $27,500 to fifty-three ele­ talk about different sections of the structure in the South. "We tend to mentary and secondary teachers, selected South and about different levels of think of the South as the continuing from each of the fifty states, the District society." bastion of the Democratic party from of Columbia, Puerto Rico, and the U.S. An example is the distinction be­ Jefferson to F. D. R., but my research Virgin Islands. The program is receiving tween the gang and the task systems has given me a clear picture of a vital $1 million through the Division of Edu­ of slave labor. "The cotton planta­ two-party system in the South in the cation Programs and $500,000 through tions relied on mass gangs of slaves 1830s and 1840s," says Meeker. "Our the DeWitt and Leila Wallace Foundation who worked across the fields from twentieth-century terminology of in each of the fiscal years 1989, 1990, dawn until dark," Meeker says. 'liberal' and 'conservative' just and 1991.

34 SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER Applying for an Editions Grant

HE ENDOWMENT'S EDITIONS ants if different versions of the text ex­ category provides support for BY DOUGLAS M. ARNOLD ist? What type of editorial and critical scholars to edit and prepare for apparatus will the editors employ to Tpublication important texts and docu­ make the texts and documents of ments in any field of the humanities. edge and understanding. The appli­ maximum usefulness to the reader Typical Editions grants range from cant must also show how the proposed (e.g., introductions, textual notes, ex­ $25,000 to $100,000 per year, de­ edition will fill a need by making planatory notes, indices, etc.)? In deal­ pending on the size and complexity of available materials that have been pre­ ing with these matters, the applicant the project, for periods of up to three viously inaccessible or that have exist­ should not only discuss how the edi­ years. Current work funded in the Edi­ ed only in seriously flawed editions. torial work will be done, but why the tions category includes a multivolume Although many of the editions sup­ proposed methods are appropriate for edition of the papers of George Wash­ ported by the category are used pri­ the task. ington, the complete writings of Her­ marily by research scholars, the En­ Editorial Samples. The Editions cate­ man Melville, the works of Giuseppe dowment is always interested in gory requires the applicant to submit Verdi, and the correspondence of projects that have the potential to ap­ editorial samples consisting of photo­ Marcel Proust. peal to students, teachers, or a wide copies of portions of the original texts An Editions application consists of public audience. or documents, edited transcriptions of several parts: a short statement of the Methodology. Editing is an enter­ those portions, and appropriate edito­ significance and impact of the project; prise of care and precision, and the rial apparatus. The samples should re­ a narrative description of the project's section of the application dealing with semble as closely as possible the fin­ nature and history, staff, editorial methodology deserves particular atten­ ished version. Reviewers for the cate­ methodology, plan of work, and form tion. Modern standards of editing in all gory take these samples under close of publication; actual samples of the fields of the humanities have become scrutiny, since they are often the only editors' work; a project budget; and increasingly sophisticated, while the available evidence of how the editors supporting documentation. great variety of texts and documents of will perform their tasks. Applicants Although careful and thorough current interest to scholars presents a should thus take great care to prepare preparation of all parts of an Editions correspondingly great variety of edi­ samples that will demonstrate both the application is important to success, the torial challenges. The applicant should importance of the material and the following aspects are most crucial: demonstrate an understanding of gen­ quality of the editorial work. Significance and Need. The Endow­ eral editorial standards, as well as of Because of the complex nature of ment supports projects on subjects of the special needs of the material he or many editorial projects— and the re­ significance. An applicant should she proposes to edit. Among the mat­ sulting complexity of many Editions therefore demonstrate the importance ters requiring clear and detailed dis­ applications and budgets— it is recom­ of the proposed project to the humani­ cussion in this section are the follow­ mended that applicants first contact a ties as a whole as well as to the spe­ ing: How will the texts or documents member of the Editions staff for advice cialist field. In addressing the question to be included in the edition be col­ and then submit a draft of the proposal of significance, the applicant should lected and organized? If the proposed six to eight weeks in advance of the be as concrete as possible about the work is a complete edition, why does deadline for comment. potential audience for the edition and the subject warrant this type of in­ The next deadline for the Editions the ways in which it will affect future clusive treatment? If the proposed category is June 1, 1991. For applica­ scholarship as well as general knowl- work is a selective edition, by what tion materials and further information, criteria will the selection be made? By write or call the Texts program, NEH what methods will the materials be Division of Research Programs, Room Douglas M. Arnold is program officer transcribed and how will the accuracy 318, 1100 Pennsylvania Avenue, for Editions in the Division of Research of the transcriptions be verified? How N.W., Washington, D.C. 20506; Programs. do the editors propose to handle vari­ 202/786-0207. □

HUMANITIES 35 Robert M. Hill: University of Texas, San Anto­ Tradition: Its History, Aesthetics, and Social Archaeology and nio, Colonial Cakchiquels: Highland Maya Ad­ Development Anthropology aptations to Spanish Rule Martha Feldman: University of Southern Califor­ Michael C. Hoff: University of Nebraska, Lin­ nia, Los Angeles, Venice and the Madrigal in the UNIVERSITY TEACHERS coln, The Sebasteion-Market Complex at Athens: High Renaissance An Architectural and Historical Study Fred W . Lerdahl: University of Michigan, Ann Ellen B. Basso: University of Arizona, Tucson, A Janet D. Jones: Bucknell University, Lewisburg, Arbor, On the Theory and Composition of Music Study of Biography in a South American Oral PA, The Glass and Faience from Gordion: Cata­ Theodore C. Levin: Princeton University, NJ, History loguing Excavated Artifacts from the Capital of Musical Ethnographies from the Soviet Union Julie M. Hansen: Boston University, MA, Palaeo- Ancient Phrygia Bernth O. Lindfors: University of Texas, Austin, ethnobotany of the Old World Adria J. LaViolette: Rice University, Houston, The Early Career of Ira Aldridge, "African" Actor Andrew M. T. Moore: Yale University, New Ha­ TX, The Swahili Fortification of Pujini: An Ar­ Thomas E. Postlewait: Indiana University, ven, CT, The Genesis of Agriculture Worldwide: chaeological Investigation Bloomington, The Criteria for Periodization in A Comparative Study Mary E. Moser: Dickinson College, Carlisle, PA, Theater History Russell T. Scott, Jr.: Bryn Mawr College, PA, The The Etruscan City of Vulci: An Archaeological Walter M. Spink: University of Michigan, Ann Area Sacra of Vesta in the Roman Forum History Arbor, Ajanta's Chronology: The Paintings James R. Wiseman: Boston University, MA, Syn­ Christopher C. Parslow: Rice University, Hous­ Bell Yung: University of Pittsburgh, PA, Chinese thesis of Archaeological and Historical Research ton, TX, Karl Weber and the Rediscovery of Her­ Narrative Songs on Stobi, Yugoslavia culaneum and Pompeii Olga Soffer: University of Illinois, Urbana- COLLEGE TEACHERS AND INDEPENDENT COLLEGE TEACHERS AND INDEPENDENT Champaign, Moravian Ceramic Figurines: A SCHOLARS SCHOLARS Study of Late Paleolithic Material Culture W ye J. Allanbrook: St. John's College, Annapo­ Thomas H. Carpenter: Virginia Polytechnic In­ SUMMER SEMINARS FOR SCHOOL lis, MD, Expression and Form in the Chamber stitute and State University, Blacksburg, Dionysi­ TEACHERS Music of Mozart and Haydn an Imagery in Classical Creek Art JoAnne G. Bernstein: Mills College, Oakland, Steven E. Kemper: Bates College, Lewiston, Richard G. Fox: Duke University, Durham, NC, CA, The Colleoni Chapel and the Heroic ME, The Buddhist Monkhood and Politics in Gandhi: Autobiography and Nonviolence Tradition Modern Sri Lanka Jason Berry: Independent Scholar, The History Kirin Narayan: Hampshire College, Amherst, of jazz Funerals in New Orleans MA, Brides, Birds, and Buses: Kangra Wedding Geoffrey H. Block: University of Puget Sound, Songs and Women's Experiences Tacoma, WA, The American Musical from Thomas M. Wilson: UN International School, Arts —History and "Show Boat' to Sondheim New York City, Rural Ireland loins Europe: The M. Jennifer Bloxam: Williams College, Wil- Cultural Effects of European Common Market Criticism liamstown, MA, Features of Sacred Music and Policies on County Meath UNIVERSITY TEACHERS the Arts in the Middle Ages Norma Broude: American University, Washing­ YOUNGER SCHOLARS Rick Altman: University of Iowa, Iowa City, The ton, D.C., French Painting and the Feminist Role of Sound in American Film, Television, and Wendy L. Giddens: University of Central Flori­ Movement: From David to Cassatt da, Orlando, The Impact of Black Market Ce­ Culture Roberta R. Bickford: Brown University, Provi­ Beth Cohen: Independent Scholar, The Iconog­ ramics on the Archaeological Record dence, Rl, The Painting of Flowers and Birds in raphy of Armor and Weapons in Greek Art SUMMER SEMINAR FOR COLLEGE TEACHERS Late Song-Early Yuan China Suzanne G. Cusick: SUNY Research Founda­ Philip V. Bohlman: University of Chicago, IL, tion/College at Oswego, NY, Opera's First Wom­ Michael Herzfeld: Indiana University, Bloom­ Music in the Central European lewish Communi­ an Composer, Francesca Caccini ington, Poetics and Social Life ty from the Enlightenment until World War II Patricia A. Emison: University of New Hamp­ James M. Borders: University of Michigan, Ann shire, Durham, From Ideas to Images in Renais­ SUMMER STIPENDS Arbor, Roman Plainchant in the Renaissance: sance Art William Y. Adams: University of Kentucky, Lex­ From Script to Print Francis R. Kowsky: SUNY Research Foundation/ ington, An Archaeological Study of Kulubnarti, Sarah C. Brett-Smith: Rutgers University, New Buffalo, NY, Calvert Vaux and the Architecture of Sudan: A Report Brunswick, NJ, Human Objects: The Bamana Public Parks Nicole Constable: Western Michigan University, Theory of Artistic Creation Lowell E. Lindgren: Massachusetts Institute of Kalamazoo, Hakka Chinese Christian Biogra­ Morris R. Brownell: University of Nevada, Re­ Technology, Cambridge, Italian Music and Musi­ phies and Testimonials no, Horace Walpole: A Life of Art cians in London, 1660-1760 Pam J. Crabtree: Princeton University, NJ, An­ Susan P. Casteras: Yale University, New Haven, Amy L. Neff: University of Tennessee, Knoxville, glo-Saxon Diet and Subsistence: An Archaeolog­ CT, Parables in Paint: The Gospel of Faith in Vic­ The Supplications Variae: Imagery and Text in an ical Investigation torian Religious Art Early Franciscan Manuscript James G. Flanagan: University of Southern Mis­ Barbara A. Coeyman: West Virginia University, William J. Nichols: San Francisco State Universi­ sissippi, Hattiesburg, The Representation of Gae­ Morgantown, Performances of Musical-Theatri- ty, CA, Representing Reality: Form, Rhetoric, lic Culture in Autobiography cal Productions in the Court of Louis XIV, 1643- and Meaning in the Documentary Film Robert J. Foster: University of Chicago, IL, The 1715 Catherine M. Soussloff: University of Califor­ Creation of a National Culture in Papua New Vidya J. Dehejia: Columbia University, New nia, Santa Cruz, Biographies of Artists in Italy, Guinea York City, Visual Narratives: Discourse in Early 1470-1700 Andrea I. Gerstle: Western Michigan University, Buddhist Art Michael S. Wilson: Skidmore College, Saratoga Kalamazoo, Ceren, El Salvador: Understanding Jacqueline C. DjeDje: University of California, Springs, NY, Theater and the Visual Arts in Brit­ a Prehistoric Society on the Mayan Periphery Los Angeles, The African-American Fiddle ain, 1695-1830

36 SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER HBCU GRADUATE FELLOWSHIPS Anthony D. Colantuono: Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, Guido Reni's Abduction of Classics Ethel M. Norris: Saint Paul's College, Lawrence- Helen: A Baroque Painting and Its Critical ville, VA, Music History UNIVERSITY TEACHERS Reception YOUNGER SCHOLARS Thomas Cripps: Morgan State University, Balti­ Elizabeth Asmis: University of Chicago, IL, more, MD, A Social History of American Motion Greek Views of Poetry from Plato to the Elissa A. Auther: San Francisco State University, Pictures Neoplatonists CA, The Painting of Antoine-Baptiste Greuze Henry J. Drewal: Cleveland State University, Nancy H. Demand: Indiana University, Bloom­ Laurel R. Berge: University of New Mexico, Al­ OH, The Chameleon's Clothes: Art and Ethos ington, Birth, Death, and Motherhood: Images buquerque, Classical Heroes from 15th-Century among the Tjebu Yoruba and Reality in Classical Greece Siena Susan Duffy: California Polytechnic State Uni- David Konstan: Brown University, Providence, Cheryl Castagno: The Academy of St. Aloysius, versity-San Luis Obispo, American Labor on Rl, Love and the Ancient Greek Novel Jersey City, NJ, George Bernard Shaw and His Stage: Dramatic Interpretations of the Steel and Anthony A. Long: University of California, Relationship with the "Unwomanly Woman" Textile Industries in the 1930s Berkeley, Creek Models of Mind Michael J. D' Amato: Trinity College, Hartford, Stephen F. Eisenman: Occidental College, Los Mark P.O. Morford: University of Virginia, CT, The Evolution and Practice of Postmodern Angeles, CA, Symbolist Art and Traditional Charlottesville, Lucan's Roman Epic Style in Film Culture Martin Ostwald: University of Pennsylvania, Michael P. Denny: CUNY Research Foundation/ Joy S. Emery: University of Rhode Island, King­ Philadelphia, Oligarchy in Ancient Greece City College, New York City, Olin Downes and ston, Documents of Everyday Dress: Creating an Laura M. Slatkin: Columbia University, New Virgil Thomson as Music Critics Archive of Commercial Clothing Patterns York City, Metaphor and Social Order: The Poet­ Kirsten E. Gilderhus: Gustavus Adolphus Col­ ics of Exchange in the Iliad lege, St. Peter, MN, Frida Kahlo: Intimate Imag­ Gail Feigenbaum: National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C., Teaching and Learning in the Paul A. Vander Waerdt: Duke University, ery and the Dichotomy of Existence Durham, NC, The Theory of Natural Law in Eulogio Guzman: Southern California Institute Carracci Academy Antiquity of Architecture, Santa Monica, Oriental Influ­ Millard F. Hearn: University of Pittsburgh, PA, ence on Frank Lloyd Wright's Landscape Design The Cult of Becket and Architectural Alterations COLLEGE TEACHERS AND INDEPENDENT Suzanne E. Herzman: Geneseo Central School, in the Choir of Canterbury Cathedral, 1175-84 SCHOLARS D. Kern Holoman: University of California, NY, The Painting of Renaissance Siena Steven H. Lonsdale: Davidson College, NC, Carolyn F. Hoffmann: University of Illinois, Ur- Davis, The Societe des Concerts de Conserva­ toire, 1828-1967: A History Dance and Ritual Movement in Ancient Greek bana-Champaign, Renaissance Views of the Religion New World: 1492-1564 William E. Hood: Oberlin College, OH, Fra An­ Judith B. Perkins: Saint Joseph College, West Sara J. Honstein: University of Northern Colora­ gelico's Frescoes at the Convent of San Marco in Florence Hartford, CT, Conversion in the Early Roman do, Greeley, Luigi Boccherini and the Technique Empire of the Cello Honey Meconi: Rice University, Houston, TX, The Franco-Flemish Renaissance Composer Judy J. Lamothe: Northwestern State University YOUNGER SCHOLARS of Louisiana, Natchitoches, The Louisiana Pierre de la Rue, ca. 1460-1518: A Biographi­ State Capitol: A Study of Propaganda and cal Study John Bruni: University of Rochester, NY, Shake­ Iconography Jana O'Keefe-Bazzoni: CUNY Research Foun­ spearean Dream Worlds and the Postmodern Pippa Murray: John Jay High School, Cross Riv­ dation/Bernard Baruch College, New York City, Reader er, NY, The Creation of a Gothic Portal at the Ca­ Twenty-Five Years of Staging Pirandello: A Criti­ Andrew J. Carriker: Gonzaga University, thedral of Saint John the Divine cal Study of Productions of Six Characters in Spokane, WA, A Biography of Diocletian, 305- Lisa H. Neuberger: St. John's School, Houston, Search of an Author 316 TX, Shifts in Perception: The Impact of Photogra­ Adelaida Reyes Schramm: Jersey City State Col­ Michael J. Cedrone: St. Sebastian's Country Day phy on Art, 1839-1989 lege, NJ, Refugees in Resettlement: Vietnamese School, Needham, MA, Aeneas and Odysseus Aron D. Reppmann: Trinity Christian College, Musical Life in Orange County, California Compared as Leaders of Men Palos Heights, IL, Bach's "St. Matthew Passion": Wayne L. Roosa: Bethel College, St. Paul, MN, Jennifer L. Hevelone: Gordon College, Wen- Personal Theology and Public Impact Stuart Davis: An Intellectual and Artistic Profile ham, MA, St. Coluthus and Coptic Christian Joshua T. Werner: Woodstock High School, VT, June Schlueter: Lafayette College, Easton, PA, Syncretization of Greco-Roman Healing Cults Philosophical Analysis of the Geometric Art of Closure in Modern Drama Christopher L. Kirby: University of Chicago, IL, M.C. Escher Kathryn A. Smith: Southern California Institute Politics in the Medea of Architecture, Santa Monica, Frank Lloyd Nicholas A. Montfort: Robert E. Lee High SUMMER SEMINARS FOR COLLEGE Wright's Designs for Aline BarnsdaU's Theater School, San Antonio, TX, The Metamorphosis of TEACHERS Community Olive Hill, 1914-24 Ovid: From Poet Laureate to Exile Robert Bailey: New York University, New York Peter C. Sturman: University of California, San­ SUMMER SEMINARS FOR COLLEGE City, The Operas of Wagner ta Barbara, The History of Painting by Mi Fu, TEACHERS Robert G. Calkins: Cornell University, Ithaca, 1052-1107: A Translation and Commentary NY, Narrative and Synthesis in Medieval Book Daniel J. Sullivan: Independent Scholar, Los An­ Seth Benardete: New York University, NY, The Illumination geles, CA, William Inge, 1913-73: The Bio­ Ancient Philosophy of Law Samuel A. Floyd: Columbia College, Chicago, graphy of an American Playwright SUMMER STIPENDS Black Music in the United States: Aspects of His­ Anne Swartz: CUNY Research Foundation/Ber­ tory, Philosophy, and Analysis nard Baruch College, New York City, Chopin as Carol L. Dougherty-Glenn: Wellesley College, Richard D. Leppert: University of Minnesota, Modernist in 19th-Century Russia MA, Colonial Poetics: A Study of the Delphic Minneapolis, Music and Society, 1700-1910 Matthew H. Wikander: University of Toledo, Apollo and Colonial Mythology in the Victory Howard Stein: Columbia University, New York OH, Royal Audience and Royal Performance, Odes of Pindar City, The American Playwright, 1920-80 1600-1789: Royal Role-Making in England, Michael A. Flower: Franklin and Marshall Col­ France, and Sweden lege, Lancaster, PA, Theopompus of Chios and SUMMER STIPENDS Christopher Wilkinson: West Virginia Univer­ 4th-Century Historiography Robert W . Baldwin: Connecticut College, New sity, Morgantown, Integrating National and Re­ Richard K. Garner: Yale University, New Haven, London, Poverty, Humility, and Prosperity in gional Jazz Styles: The Musical and Social CT, Two Studies in the Euripidean Chorus Northern European Religious Art, 1400-1700 Achievements of Don Albert as a Case Study Mary R. Lefkowitz: Wellesley College, MA, Philip V. Bohlman: University of Chicago, IL, Simon J. C. Williams: University of California, Euripides and the Cods Musical Life in the Siebengemeinden: The For­ Santa Barbara, The Romantic Actor in His Time: Nancy S. Rabinowitz: Hamilton College, Clin­ mation of Jewish Aesthetics and Community in The Careers of Ludwig Devrient, Edmund Kean, ton, NY, The Exchange of Women In Euripides' Central Europe and Frederick Lemaitre Medea and Ion Sarah A. Bryant-Bertail: University of South Car­ Joanna Woods-Marsden: University of Califor­ Gary L. Reger: Trinity College, Hartford, CT, The olina, Columbia, The Legacy of Epic Theater: nia, Los Angeles, How Quattrocento Princes Epigraphy of the Cyclades in the Hellenistic From J.M.R. Lenz and Georg Buechner to the Used Art: Court Patronage of Secular Art in 15th- Period Present Century Italy Joseph A. Russo: Haverford College, PA, John A. Chewning: University of Cincinnati, Ancient Greek Proverbs: An Edition and SUMMER SEMINARS FOR SCHOOL OH, Architectural Vocabulary and Historic Translation TEACHERS American Architecture: The Preparation of an Il­ SUMMER SEMINARS FOR SCHOOL lustrated Dictionary Richard P. Benedum: University of Dayton, OH, TEACHERS Elizabeth C. Childs: SUNY Research Founda­ Mozart: The Man, His Music, and His Vienna tion/Purchase, NY, In Search of Paradise: Pho­ Suzanne Summerville: University of Alaska, Charles D. Hamilton: San Diego State Univer­ tography, Painting, and the Image of Tahiti, Fairbanks, Orpheus: A Creator's Myth in the His­ sity, CA, Creek Values in Crisis: Thucydides, 1880-1905 tory of Opera Sophocles, Plato

HUMANITIES 37 Martin Mueller: Northwestern University, Evan­ NY, The Roles of Russian Peasant Women within Seth M. Schulman: Cornell University, Ithaca, ston, IL, Homer's Iliad and Odyssey the Family, 1861-1928 NY, The Moral Economy Mentality in 18th-Cen­ Gregory Nagy: Harvard University, Cambridge, Carmela V. Franklin: Saint John's University, tury England MA, Principles of Creek and Latin Lyric: A Com­ Collegeville, MN, The Persian Monk Magundat- Stephen B. Stalicup: Southern Methodist Uni­ parative Approach Anastasius in the Latin West in the Early Middle versity, Dallas, TX, The Dynamics of the Medi­ Ages eval English Debate Poem James S. Grubb: University of Maryland, Balti­ Erika K. Vanden Berg: Michigan State Univer­ more County, The Arnaldi of Vicenza: A Provin­ sity, East Lansing, The King's Peace in Medieval History — Non-U.S. cial Family of the Italian Rensaissance England Thomas R. H. Havens: Connecticut College, SUMMER SEMINARS FOR COLLEGE TEACHERS UNIVERSITY TEACHERS New London, Japan's New Merchant Princes: Kenneth J. Andrien: Ohio State University, The Tsutsumi Family and the Seibu Enterprises, Roger S. Bagnall: Columbia University, New Columbus, The Kingdom of Quito in the 18th 1915-90 York City, The Greek City: An Interdisciplinary Century Pamela M. Jones: University of Massachusetts, Approach Richard E. Ashcraft: University of California, Los Boston, Federico Borromeo's Ambrosiana: Art Thomas N. Bisson: Harvard University, Cam­ Angeles, John Stuart Mill, Liberalism, and the and Spirituality in Italy, 1590-1630 bridge, MA, Power and Society in Medieval Working Class Gerard M. Koot: Southeastern Massachusetts Europe John W . Baldwin: Johns Hopkins University, University, North Dartmouth, Historical and Alan D. E. Cameron: Columbia University, New Baltimore, MD, French Chivalric Ethos, ca. Economic Mythmakers: The Discipline of Eco-. York City, Pagans and Christians in the 4th 1200: The Romances of Jean Renart nomic History in Britain, 1920-60 Century Juan R. I. Cole: University of Michigan, Ann Louise Marlow: Wellesley College, MA, Advice Albert Craig: Harvard University, Cambridge, Arbor, Charismatic Revival in Shi'ite Islam and History: Islamic Political Culture in the 13th MA, Japan's 19th-Century Transformation Allen J. Frantzen: Loyola University, Chicago, and 14th Centuries Julia H. Gaisser: American Academy in Rome, The Desire for Origins and the History of Anglo- Linda Martz: Independent Scholar, Washington, New York City, Roman Humanism, 1471-1527 Saxon Studies D.C., A History of Families of Jewish Origins in John N. King: Ohio State University Research W endy Z. Goldman: Carnegie-Mellon Univer­ Toledo, 1485-1650 Foundation, Columbus, The Protestant Imagina­ sity, Pittsburgh, PA, Revolution in the Family: Kathryn B. Meyer: Ohio Wesleyan University, tion: From Tyndale to Milton Soviet Law and Social Change, 1917-36 Delaware, International Narcotics Trafficking in W . Roger Louis: University of Texas, Austin, The William W . Hagen : University of California, the Early 20th Century End of the British Empire Davis, Peasant Life, Noble Lordship, and Royal Laurie Nussdorfer: Wesleyan University, Mid­ E. William Monter: Northwestern University, Justice in Brandenburg, 1700-1850 dletown, CT, Guilds and Society in 17th-Century Evanston, IL, Church, State, and Moral Control John M. Hart: University of Houston-University Rome in Early Modern Europe Park, TX, Power and Property: The United States John D. Rogers: Independent Scholar, The Legal Robert Wohl: University of California, Los An­ and Mexico, 1868-1940 Face of Colonialism: Criminal Justice in Sri Lan­ geles, Culture and Politics in Europe in the Era of Sandra L. Hindman: Northwestern University, ka, 1833-1931 the Liberal Crisis, 1880-1945 Evanston, IL, Illuminated Manuscripts of Carole E. Straw: Mount Holyoke College, South SUMMER STIPENDS Chretien de Troyes Hadley, MA, Christian Attitudes and Practices Steven Justice: University of California, Berke­ Concerning Death in Late Antiquity David E. Barclay: Kalamazoo College, Ml, King, ley, The Imagination of Authority in Late Medi­ Gerald D. Surh: North Carolina State University, Court, and Prussian Society in the Age of Freder­ eval Literature Raleigh, Accomplices of Revolution: The St. Pe­ ick William IV, 1840-61 Robert J. Kaczorowski: Fordham University, tersburg Underclass, 1895-1914 Rebecca S. Beal: University of Scranton, PA, New York City, Railroads and Economic Devel­ David J. Weber: Southern Methodist University, Iconographies of Love and Power in Dante's Di­ Dallas, TX, The Spanish Frontier in North Amer­ opment: The Law of Property Damage and Per­ vine Comedy sonal Injury ica, 1513-1821 Jane Caplan: Bryn Mawr College, PA, The Regis­ Thomas W . Laqueur: University of California, tration and Classification of Civil and Political YOUNGER SCHOLARS Berkeley, The Creat War in British Memory Identity in Modern Britain and Germany David E. Ludden: University of Pennsylvania, Chara Armon: Golden High School, CO, Anthony J. Celano: Stonehill College, North Philadelphia, Agrarian South Asia: A Com­ MechtUd of Hackeborn: A Study of Medieval Easton, MA, Robert Kilwardby's Commentary on parative History, 1550-1950 Leadership Aristotle's Ethics Florencia E. Mallon: University of Wisconsin, Malcolm L. Bell: SUNY Research Foundation/ Thomas J. M. Cerbu: University of Georgia, Madison, Peasants and the Making of Nation- Geneseo, NY, Historiography of the Mongol Athens, Learned Exchange in 17th-Century States: Mexico and Peru in the 19th Century Invasion Europe: An Edition of Leone Allacci's Kristin Mann: Emory University, Atlanta, GA, Marko L. Burgar: University of Notre Dame, IN, Correspondence The Birth of an African City: Economy, State, and The Transfer of Sovereignty in the Installation of Stephen F. Dale: Ohio State University, Colum­ Society in 19th-Century Lagos the Dukes of Carinthia bus, Babur and the Indian Naqshbandi Sufi Martin A. Miller: Duke University, Durham, NC, Rebecca B. Colvin: Buckingham Browne & Nic­ Order Freud in Russia hols, Cambridge, MA, The Historical Origins of Carole K. Fink: University of North Carolina, Terry M. Parssinen: Temple University, Philadel­ Democracy in China Wilmington, The Polish Minority Treaty, June 28, phia, PA, A History of the International Narcot­ Susan J. Cray: University of Iowa, Iowa City, The 1919 ics Traffic Role of Noble Women in France from the 12th Philip R. Gavitt: University of Tennessee, Knox­ Daniel J. Sherman: Catholic University of Amer­ through the 14th Centuries ville, Childhood, Society, and the State in 16th- ica, Washington, D.C., Monuments, Politics, Dennis A. Frey, Jr.: Carnegie-Mellon University, Century Florence and the Culture of Commemoration in Interwar Pittsburgh, PA, The American Response to the Pericles B. Georges: Lake Forest College, IL, France Rebellion of 1798 in Ireland Quantifying the Human Cost of the Roman Steve J. Stern: University of Wisconsin, Robin O. Harris: Georgia College, Milledge- Games: How Many Died? Madison, Gender Concepts and Relationships ville, Historical and Feminist Theories in the Richard A. Gerberding: University of Alabama, among the Poor in Three Mexican Regions, Works of Julia Flisch Huntsville, Seventh-Century Frankish 1760-1820 Angie M. Menkhaus: Mother of Mercy High Hagiographical Sources: A Critical Study Timothy N. Tackett: University of California, School, Cincinnati, OH, The Curative Power of Jonathon P. Glassman: Northwestern University, Irvine, The Constituent Assembly, 1789-91, and Medieval Medicine Evanston, IL, Social Rebellion and Swahili the French Revolution Adam B. Price: Columbia University, New York Culture: Patricians, Plebs, and Slaves in Resis­ City, Hu Shi and the May Fourth Movement: A tance to German Colonial Conquest, 1870-91 COLLEGE TEACHERS AND INDEPENDENT History of Chinese Student Protests Michaela P. Grudin: University of Oregon, Eu­ SCHOLARS Cashman K. Prince: Wesleyan University, Mid­ gene, The Politics of Poetry in The Canterbury Ervand Abrahamian: CUNY Research Founda­ dletown, CT, Spenser, Colonialism, and the Forg­ Tales tion/Bernard Baruch College, New York City, ing of an English National Identity Karen I. Halbersleben: SUNY Research Founda­ The Dream Deferred: Marxists in the Iranian Paul J. Radzilowski: University of Minnesota, tion/Oswego, NY, Women's Participation in the Revolution Minneapolis, Heraldic Legends, Gentry Ide­ British Antislavery Movement, 1825-70 David A. Cressy: California State University, ology, and Renaissance Culture in Poland Rebecca A. Horn: University of Utah, Salt Lake Long Beach Foundation, Rites of Passage in Early Mark E. Ruff: SUNY Research Foundation/Buf­ City, Spaniards in the Indian Countryside: Cul­ Modern England falo, NY, Drafting the Preamble to the United tural Contact and Transformation in Early Colo­ Angel Delgado-Gomez: University of Notre Nations Charter: A Historical Analysis nial Mexico Dame, IN, Hernan Cortes's Cartas de Relacion: Daniel B. Saltzstein: Scarsdale High School, NY, Robert P. Hymes: Columbia University, New The Conquistador as Historian The Struggle for Power after Lenin's Death, York City, Epidermic Disease in Late Sung and Beatrice Farnsworth: Wells College, Aurora, 1924-28 Early Ming China

38 SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER Frances A. Kelleher: Grand Valley State College, Michael J. Curley: University of Puget Sound, YOUNGER SCHOLARS Allendale, Ml, Men and Women of the State: Tacoma, WA, Arthurian Literature of the Middle Jennifer L. Braszile: Columbia University, New Primary School Teachers in France, 1880-1914 Ages York City, The Gender Identity of Slave Women Seth D. Koven: Villanova University, PA, Brave Charles M. Edmondson: Rollins College, Winter in the Antebellum South Poor Things or Defective Children: Crippled Park, FL, The Russian Revolution in Memoir Donna D. Curtin: University of Massachusetts, Children, Women, and the State in Great Britain, Histories Boston, Pilgrim Mothers: Early Female Colonists 1880-1948 John V. Fleming: Princeton University, NJ, The in New England Jeanne E. Krochalis: Pennsylvania State Univer­ Classical Heritage of Medieval European Thomas A. Earles: Woodberry Forest School, sity, New Kensington, The Day-Book of Santa Literature VA, Little Rock and Ole Miss: A Comparative Reparata, Florence Russell A. Peck: University of Rochester, NY, Study in Presidential Leadership Karma D. Lochrie: Loyola University, Chicago, Chaucer and The Canterbury Tales Jill E. Hasday: Scarsdale High School, NY, Nat IL, Mysticism in the 15th Century: The Relation­ William A. Stephany: University of Vermont, Love: The Autobiography of a Black American ship between Richard Methley and Margery Burlington, Dante's Commedia Cowboy Kempe John Tutino: Boston College, Chestnut Hill, Peter Luddington: University of California, Ir­ Katherine A. Lynch: Carnegie-Mellon Univer­ MA, Versions of the Mexican Revolution: Mar­ vine, Prelude to McCarthyism: A Case Study in sity, Pittsburgh, PA, The Family and the Revolu­ iano Azuela's The Underdogs and John Reed's Three California Campaigns tion in France, 1789-1804 Insurgent Mexico Rod D. Martin: University of Arkansas, Fayette­ Abraham Marcus: University of Texas, Austin, ville, Winthrop Rockefeller and the Enfranchise­ Death in Arab Popular Lore, 1700-1900 ment of Arkansas Blacks Katharine E. Maus: University of Virginia, Char­ History — U.S. Taffni D. Moore: Northwestern High School, lottesville, Analogies of Creativity in the Poetry Detroit, Ml, The Role of Tituba in the Salem UNIVERSITY TEACHERS of the English Renaissance Witch Hunt Elizabeth A. Meyer: University of Virginia, Ruth H. Bloch: University of California, Los Peter M. Newman: Kent Roosevelt High School, Charlottesville, The Development and Implica­ Angeles, The Intellectual Origins of Modern OH, The Social Impact of the Government Arse­ tions of Written Procedure in the Roman Meanings of Marriage, 1680-1800 nal at Ravenna, Ohio Courtroom Paul K. Conkin: Vanderbilt University, Paula J. Priebe: Le Moyne College, Syracuse, James M. Murray: University of Cincinnati, OH, Nashville, TN, The Christian Century: American NY, The Underground Railroad in Western New Bankers and Innkeepers in Late Medieval Bruges Christianity in the 19th Century York Martha G. Newman: University of Texas, Aus­ James N. Gregory: University of California, Kit E. Purdy: Richard King High School, Corpus tin, The Boundaries of Charity: The Position of Berkeley, Upton Sinclair, the EPIC Campaign, Christi, TX, The Letters of Maria Blucher: Life in Cistercian Monasticism in 12th-Century Society and the Politics of the Great Depression Early South Texas Karen S. Nicholas: SUNY Research Foundation/ Alexander Keyssar: Duke University, Durham, Daniel D. Scheidt: University of Notre Dame, Oswego, NY, Feudal Relationships in the Low NC, American Workers and the "Free Gift of the IN, Rights and Education: Two Complementary Countries: A Comparative Study of Nine Ballot": A Reconsideration Jeffersonian Philosophies Principalities Robert Rodgers Korstad: University of North Edwin T. Schock: Mil lersviI le University of Deborah L. Pearl: Cleveland State University, Carolina, Chapel Hill, Civil Rights Activism in Pennsylvania, John Winthrop's Writings and the OH, Russian Revolutionary Propaganda Liter­ the 1940s, Winston-Salem, North Carolina Realities of Puritan Settlement ature and Its Impact on Urban Workers in the Gloria L. Main: University of Colorado, Boulder, Keith E. Smith: Purdue University, West Late 19th Century The New England Family, 1630-1770 Lafayette, IN, Japanese Investment in the United Matthew D. Ramsey: Vanderbilt University, Peter Novick: University of Chicago, IL, The States: A Local History Nashville, TN, The Development of Professional Evolution of Holocaust Consciousness in the Monika A. Textor: Steinmetz High School, Chi­ Monopoly in French Medicine, 1770-1830 United States cago, IL, George Armstrong Custer and the Michael E. Robinson: University of Southern David M. Oshinsky: Rutgers University, New Image-Makers California, Los Angeles, Popular Culture in Brunswick, NJ, A History of Parch man Plantation Dominic M. Thomas: Cedar Shoals High Colonial Korea, 1931-37 Mary P. Ryan: University of California, Berkeley, School, Athens, GA, The Life and Impact of Wil­ Michael J. Rocke: Unaffiliated, Male Homosex­ Public Life in 19th-Century America: Culture liam Bartram, 18th-Century Naturalist uality and Its Regulation in Late Medieval and Politics in Three Cities, 1825-80 Sarah E. Wagner: Western Reserve Academy, Florence R. Sean Wilentz: Princeton University, NJ, The Hudson, OH, Bertha Palmer: Feminism and Pro­ Zachary S. Schiffman: Northeastern Illinois Uni­ Rise of American Democracy: Society, Politics, hibition in North Dakota, 1910-33 versity, Chicago, On the Threshold of Moderni­ and the Market Revolution, 1787-1848 ty: Relativism in the French Renaissance SUMMER SEMINAR FOR COLLEGE TEACHERS Gilbert I. Schrank: Nassau Community College, COLLEGE TEACHERS AND INDEPENDENT Garden City, NY, Agricultural Modernization in SCHOLARS David M. Katzman: University of Kansas, Law­ rence, The Growth of Urban Black Communities the Orkney Islands of Scotland, 1840-80 Terry L. Alford: Northern Virginia Community in America Robert M. Schwartz: Mount Holyoke College, College, Annandale, John Wilkes Booth and the Maris A. Vinovskis: University of Michigan, Ann South Hadley, MA, Rural Communities in Assassination of Abraham Lincoln Arbor, American Institutions and the Develop­ France during the 18th and Early 19th Centuries Joseph W . Bendersky: Virginia Commonwealth ment of the Family Thomas J. Sullivan: Conception Seminary Col­ University, Richmond, Anti-Semitism in the U.S. lege, MO, Benedictine Masters at the University Military Intelligence Division, 1917-45 SUMMER STIPENDS of Paris, 1215-1500: A Prosopographical Ernst A. Breisach: Western Michigan University, Analysis Kalamazoo, American Progressive History: Ex­ Brian H. Balogh: Harvard University, Cam­ William J. Tighe: Muhlenberg College, Allen­ periment in Modernity bridge, MA, The Master Builders: Pinchot, Hoo­ town, PA, The Court of Elizabeth I: Chamber Faye E. Dudden: Union College, Schenectady, ver, Lilienthal, Wiesner, and the Rise of the and Privy Chamber, 1558-1603 NY, Women and the American Theater, 1790- American Administrative State William A. Weber: California State University, 1870 Susan Porter Benson: University of Missouri, Long Beach Foundation, The Public of the 18th- Dana L. Frank: University of Missouri, St. Louis, Columbia, Working-Class Families and Cultures Century Paris Opera Labor and the Politics of Consumption in Seattle, of Consumption in the United States, 1880- Barbara S. Weinstein: SUNY Research Founda­ 1919-29 1960 tion/Stony Brook, NY, Brazilian Industrialists and Jonathan A. Glickstein: Independent Scholar, David G. Cantrell: Sam Houston State Univer­ the Search for Social Peace: Worker Training and Concepts of Free Labor in Antebellum America sity, Huntsville, TX, Populism to Progressivism in Services, 1920-70 Max M. Holland: Washington, D.C., A Bio­ a Southern Community: Milam County, Texas, Eric D. Weitz: Saint Olaf College, Northfield, graphy of John J. McCloy 1892-1906 MN, National Traditions, Political Strategies, and Eve Kornfeld: San Diego State University, CA, Robert W . Cherny: San Francisco State Univer­ the Formation of the German, French, and Ital­ Making an American Culture, 1775-1815: Intel­ sity, CA, Harry Bridges: A Biography ian Communist Parties lectuals and Society in Revolutionary America Jens P. Christiansen: Mount Holyoke College, Michael W . Wolfe: Pennsylvania State Univer­ John H. Roper: Emory and Henry College, VA, South Hadley, MA, Technology and Women's sity, Altoona, The Impact of Siege Warfare on A Biography of Paul Green Work: A Case Study of Holyoke, Massachusetts, Early Modern French Cities: Sancerre in 1574 as Anne C. Rose: Independent Scholar, American 1850-1920 a Case Study Thought and Culture, 1830-60 Melvin P. Ely: Yale University, New Haven, CT, E. Anthony Rotundo: Phillips Academy, An­ Black Israel: A Southern Experiment in Afro- SUMMER SEMINARS FOR SCHOOL dover, MA, Manhood and Men's Roles among American Freedom TEACHERS Middle-Class Americans in the 19th Century Timothy W . Gleason: University of Oregon, Eu­ Heather M. Arden: University of Cincinnati, Winifred D. Wandersee: Hartwick College, gene, Libel Law and the Newspaper Industry: A OH, The Romance of the Rose: Love, Reason, Oneonta, NY, Frances Perkins and the 20th- Campaign for Legislative Relief and Nature in Medieval Literature Century Reform Tradition Richard Godbeer: University of California,

HUMANITIES 39 Riverside, The Devil's Dominion: Magic and Candace A. Slater: University of California, Kimberlee L. Gunning: Macalester College, St. Religion in Early New England Berkeley, The Idea of the Amazon Paul, MN, Women's Autobiographies of the Pro­ Marjorie M. King: Saint John's University, Col- Valerie A. Smith: Princeton University, NJ, gressive Era legevilie, Minnesota, Ida Pruitt, Executive Secre­ Slavery and Recent Afro-American Fiction Susan E. Hillman: Grinnell College, IA, Building tary of the American Committee for the Chinese Richard B. Wolin: Rice University, Houston, TX, the Liberal Arts: A Study of Grinnell College Industrial Cooperatives, 1938-52 The Seductions of Unreason: The Ethical and Po­ Cheryl A. Hornady: Hastings College, NE, Sin­ W . David Lewis: Auburn University, AL, The litical Views of Foucault, Lyotard, and Derrida gle Women on the Homestead Claims of Central Sloss Furnaces and the Industrial Transformation Nebraska COLLEGE TEACHERS AND INDEPENDENT of Northern Alabama David A. Kaufman: Teachers College, Columbia SCHOLARS William A. Link: University of North Carolina, University, New York City, The Foundations of Greensboro, Reform and the Decline of Lo­ David E. Aune: Saint Xavier College, Chicago, the Core Curriculum at Columbia College calism in the South, 1880-1930 IL, American Scholarship on Hellenistic Judaism Michelle T. King: Herbert Henry Dow High James H. Merrell: Vassar College, Poughkeep­ Abraham Brumberg: Independent Scholar, The School, Midland, Ml, Growing Up Chinese in sie, NY, Cultural Brokers of Colonial Pennsylva­ Role of the Soviet Press in Perestroika and America: The Transmission of a Cultural nia: Mediators between Indians and Colonists Clasnost Heritage on the Early American Frontier William E. Cain: Wellesley College, MA, The Sharon A. Kowalsky: Interlochen Arts Academy, Michael J. Mullin: Augustana College, Sioux Cultural Criticism of W. E. B. DuBois Ml, Anti-Semitism and the Works of Sholom Falls, SD, The Political Ramifications of Pontiac's Elisheva Carlebach: CUNY Research Founda­ Aleichem and Isaac Bashevis Singer Rebellion tion/Queens College, Flushing, NY, Heresy and Christopher P. Lindgren: Marlboro College, VT, James R. Reckner: Texas Tech University, Lub­ Authority in Jewish Communities in Early Mod­ Educational Change in Rural Vermont: A Case bock, Enlisted Men in Teddy Roosevelt's Navy: A ern Europe Study of Marlboro, 1900-46 Social History Jeannette M. Danaan-Mageo: American Samoa Ginger L. Lorentson: University of Iowa, Iowa Roy E. Reed: University of Arkansas, Fayette­ Community College, Pago Pago, Loto: The Inner City, Primo Levi's Writings and the Holocaust ville, Orval E. Faubus: A Biography World of the Self in Samoa Paula S. Meyer: University of Oklahoma, Nor­ Leo P. Ribuffo: George Washington University, Rena Fraden: Pomona College, Claremont, CA, man, Images of Man in the Mirror of Nature Washington, D.C., The Limits of Moderation: Afro-Americans on the Federal Theater Project, William Nelson: To'Hajiilee Community School, jimmy Carter and the Ironies of American 1935-39 Canoncito, NM, Stories Told Long Ago: Transla­ Liberalism Katherine C. Grier: Strong Museum, Rochester, tions from the Navajo Howard P. Segal: University of Maine, Orono, NY, Regarding Animals: Popular Thought about Amy K. Olsen: University of Maryland, College Recasting the Machine Age: Henry Ford's Village Animals in the 19th-Century American Park, Paul Robeson and the Peekskill Incident, Industries and the Vision of Decentralized Household 1949: A Historical Analysis Technology Frederick E. Hoxie: Newberry Library, Chicago, Sarah B. Parsons: University School of Nash­ Marc J. Stern: Bentley College, Waltham, MA, IL, Transforming Nations: The History of the ville, TN, Black Women in Literature: Zora The Potters of Trenton, New Jersey, 1850-1929: Crow Indians, 1880-1935 Neale Hurston and Alice Walker Markets, Workers, and the Mechanization of Patricia A. Johnston: Salem State College, MA, Edward C. Rafferty: Washington University, St. Production Edward Steichen's Commercial Photography and Louis, MO, A History of City Planning in St. Robert M. Weir: University of South Carolina, the Aesthetics of Commercial Art Louis, 1890-1920 Columbia, Origins of the Fugitive Slave Clauses Arnold Krupat: Sarah Lawrence College, Bronx- Anupama P. Rao: University of Chicago, IL, Im­ in the U.S. Constitution and in the Ordinance of vi I le, NY, Toward a Theory of American-lndian ages of Indian Women: Where Legal and Literary 1787 Literature Discourses Collide Holt N. Parker: University of Arizona, Tucson, Stephanie J. Reents: Amherst College, MA, SUMMER SEMINARS FOR SCHOOL The Daughters of Asclepius: Women and Medi­ Reinterpreting Women's Captivity Narratives, TEACHERS cine in Antiquity 1682-1876 Gerald E. Poyo: University of Texas, San James L. Shulevitz: Swarthmore College, PA, Pa­ Patrick N. Allitt: Emory University, Atlanta, GA, Antonio, A History of the Cuban-American triarchy in the Hebrew Scriptures Henry Adams: Four Aspects of His Work Experience Alison Siegler: University of Chicago Lab High Davis D. Joyce: East Central University, Ada, Jane E. Schultz: Indiana/Purdue University, Indi­ School, IL, Community Opinion and Constitu­ OK, The Frontier, American Indians, and the anapolis, Women's Narratives of Civil War Life Environment tional Rights in Conflict John E. O'Connor: New Jersey Institute of Tech­ YOUNGER SCHOLARS Dafna R. Siegman: Columbia University, New York City, Don Isaac Abravanel's Messianic nology, Newark, Film and the Study of History: Adam L. Biggs: University of Chicago Lab High History The Plow that Broke the Plains and The Grapes School, IL, Charles Hamilton Houston and Civil Laura M. Thorn: Northwestern State University of Wrath Rights Law of Louisiana, Natchitoches, Cammie Henry as Elisabeth I. Perry: Vanderbilt University, Nash­ Julia C. Connell: Richfield Senior High School, Patron of Louisiana Artists ville, TN, Feminist Classics in American Culture, MN, A Comparative Study of Simon Bolivar and Mark E. VanDerWeide: University of Iowa, Iowa 1850-1930 George Washington City, The Idea of the Sublime in Edmund Burke's Jeremy M. Creelan: Yale University, New Ha­ Reflections ven, CT, Lu Xun: Artist or Revolutionary? Regina D. Weaver: Goshen College, Indiana, George M. Dolan: St. John's College, Annapo­ The Cathleen ni Houlihan Archetype in Modern lis, MD, The Physiology of William Harvey: Irish Poetry Interdisciplinary Aristotelian or Mechanistic? Anna D. Wilde: Beloit Memorial High School, Amy D. Dooling: Columbia University, New W l, Black-Jewish Relations and Civil Rights in UNIVERSITY TEACHERS York City, Feminist Consciousness in Contempo­ Beloit, Wisconsin, 1955-65 rary Chinese Fiction Joan J. Brumberg: Cornell University, Ithaca, Gregory P. Wong: James Madison High School, Elizabeth C. Dunn: University of Rochester, NY, NY, The Changing Experience of Female Adoles­ San Diego, CA, Radical and Conservative Lead­ A Textual Analysis of Political Speeches by Mao cence in America ers in African American History Ronald C. Egan: University of California, Santa Zedong Barbara, Su Shih and the Integration of Culture Shelly Eversley: Columbia University, New York SUMMER SEMINAR FOR COLLEGE TEACHERS Monica H. Green: Duke University, Durham, City, Zora Neale Hurston: An Experiment in NC, Medical Writings on Women from the Early Form and Genre Hans Aarsleff: Princeton University, NJ, Reflec­ Middle Ages Daniel Y. Fine: Southfield Christian High tions on Language and Human Nature: Locke W endy Griswold: University of Chicago, IL, The School, Ml, A History of the Chinese Democ­ through Romanticism Novel in Nigeria racy Movement of 1989 Edward Friedman: University of Wisconsin, E. Perry Link: University of California, Los Ange­ Katherine A. Folk: Mary Baldwin College, Madison, Democratization in Leninist States les, Chinese Intellectual Crisis in the Late 1980s Staunton, VA, An Analysis and Critique of Nel Mark Krupnick: University of Illinois, Chicago, Louis Menand: CUNY Research Foundation/ Noddings's Caring Jewish-American Writing since 1945 Queens College, New York City, lames, Peirce, Bridget Ford: CUNY Research Foundation/Ber­ Carroll W . Pursell: Case Western Reserve Uni­ Holmes, and the Shaping of Modern American nard Baruch College, New York City, Work, Eth­ versity, Cleveland, OH, The Role of Technology Culture nicity, and the Railways in Sacramento, 1900-17 in American History Charles J. Musser: Columbia University, New Wendy M. Futterman: Lawrence High School, Michael Shapiro: Brown University, Providence, York City, Metropolitan Visions: New York City Cedarhurst, NY, The Transportation Revolution Rl, Semiotic Perspectives on Language and Ver­ on the Screen in New York City bal Art Catherine M. Price: University of Oklahoma, Ginger L. Griffin: University of Maryland, Col­ Kathryn K. Sklar: SUNY Research Foundation/ Norman, An Ethnohistorical Study of Oglala lege Park, The Black Aesthetic in American Binghamton, NY, The History of American (Sioux) Politics, 1840-89 Opera Women through Social Movements, 1800-1930

40 SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER SUMMER STIPENDS Mortimer Sellers: University of Baltimore, MD, David Kaufmann: George Mason University, The Classical Origins of American Republican­ Fairfax, VA, Malthus and Ann Radcliffe: The In­ Inta Gale Carpenter: Indiana University, Bloom­ ism and the Political Philosophy of the U.S. terrelation of Novelistic, Political, and Economic ington, Symbolic Homecoming: Latvian Exiles as Constitution Discourse Participants in the 1990 Riga Song Festival Jane Kaufman Winn: Southern Methodist Uni­ Rosina L. Lippi-Green: University of Michigan, Susan C. Hale: Texas A&M University, College versity, Dallas, TX, Law and Modernization: A Ann Arbor, The Development of Communicative Station, Imaginary Numbers and the Justification Study of the Underground Financial System in Competence between Ages Six and Eight of Mathematical Ontology Taiwan Donald C. Stewart: Kansas State University, Sergei Kan: Dartmouth College, Hanover, NH, Manhattan, American Higher Education and the A Comparative Ethnohistory of Tlingit/Christian Teaching of Rhetoric: The Role of Fred Newton Encounter in Southeastern Alaska, 1830-1980 Scott Richard D. McKirahan: Pomona College, Clare­ Language and Linguistics mont, CA, Principles and Proofs: Aristotle's Theory of Demonstrative Science UNIVERSITY TEACHERS Jill L. Norgren: CUNY Research Foundation/ John Jay College, New York City, Attorneys in Alice C. Harris: Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Literature 19th-Century American Indian Litigation TN, Syntactic Change: A Cross-Linguistic Approach David M. Ricci: Hebrew University, Israel, The UNIVERSITY TEACHERS Rise of Washington Think Tanks Marc K. Manganaro: University of Hawaii at S. Paul Rice: Coastal Carolina Community Col­ Manoa, A Modernist Will to Power: The Rhet­ David F. Bell: Duke University, Durham, NC, lege, Conway, SC, Alexander L. Posey: The Place oric of Anthropological Authority Chance in the Literary Text of His Poetry in the 19th-Century American Naomi A. Schor: Brown University, Providence, Gerald L. Bruns: University of Notre Dame, Indian Canon Rl, Idealism in the Novel: Recanonizing George IN, On the Relations between Philosophy and Laurie J. Sears: University of Washington, Seat­ Sand Literature tle, The Organization of Knowledge in the Early Gregory T. Stump: University of Kentucky, Lex­ Elizabeth Butler-Cullingford: University of 20th-Century Dutch Indies Press ington, The Breton Inflectional System and Its Texas, Austin, The Love Poetry of W. B. Yeats Paul Russell Spickard: Capital University, Implications for Morphological Theory Annette Wheeler Cafarelli: Columbia Universi­ Columbus, OH, The Migration of Blacks to Los ty, New York City, Romanticism and Patronage COLLEGE TEACHERS AND INDEPENDENT Angeles, 1930-55 Joanne A. Dobson: Fordham University, SCHOLARS Orlan J. Svingen: Washington State University, Bronx, NY, The American Women's Literary Pullman, Scholars' Treatment of Pawnee Skeletal Donna J. Napoli: Swarthmore College, PA, An Renaissance Remains: A Historical Study Introduction to Linguistic Analysis Edwin M. Eigner: University of California, River­ David E. Roessel: Independent Scholar, The side, History of Victorian Criticism of Fiction SUMMER SEMINARS FOR SCHOOL Creco-Turkish War and the Death of Romanti­ Neil R. Fraistat: University of Maryland, College TEACHERS cism in Modern English and American Literature Park, The Making of Shelley's Texts William W . Dunham: Ohio State University Willard L. Spiegelman: Southern Methodist Uni­ Joseph N. Frank: Stanford University, CA, Dos­ Research Foundation, Columbus, The Great versity, Dallas, TX, Indolence in English Roman­ toevsky: The Struggle against Nihilism, 1865-70 Theorems of Mathematics in Historical Context tic Poetry Gregory Freidin: Stanford University, CA, Liter­ Michael E. Lestz: Trinity College, Hartford, CT, ary Authorship and Soviet Citizenship in the Sta­ HBCU GRADUATE FELLOWSHIPS The Writer as Social Critic in Modern China lin Revolution, 1928-34 Irving L. Markovitz: CUNY Research Founda­ Charles L. Metze: Allen University, Columbia, Priscilla H. Hunt: University of Massachusetts, tion/Queens College, Flushing, NY, Great Issues SC, English Composition and Rhetoric Amherst, The Autobiographical Writings of the of African Politics, Philosophy, and Literature Archpriest Avvakum YOUNGER SCHOLARS James A. Miller: Trinity College, Hartford, CT, Janet L. Larson: Rutgers University, New Bruns­ Four Classic Afro-American Novels Stacy D. Blevins: Southwest Missouri State Uni­ wick, NJ, The Victorian Woman's Bible John E. Murdoch: President and Fellows of Har­ versity, Springfield, Origins of Apodidie Law in Dore J. Levy: Brown University, Providence, Rl, vard College, Cambridge, MA, Aristotle's Theory the Ancient Near East An Interpretation of the Chinese Novel, The Jour­ of Science Alexander Eulenberg: University of Michigan, ney to the West Peter M. Rutkoff: Kenyon College, Gambier, Ann Arbor, Studying Prehistoric Languages: A Michael P. Predmore: Stanford University, CA, OH, Studies in American Culture: 1930-45 Comparison of Modern Approaches The Aesthetics of Popular Culture in the Works Joshua T. Katz: Yale University, New Haven, CT, of Valle-lnclan The Semantics of Generalized Causatives in David L. Quint: Princeton University, NJ, Aristo­ Yuman cratic Identity in Renaissance Literature and Kennis Koldewyn: Fairview High School, Boul­ Culture Jurisprudence der, CO, Neoglot: A New Artificial Language James L. Rice: University of Oregon, Eugene, Based on Modern Theories Dostoevsky in Freud's World: Sigmund Freud's UNIVERSITY TEACHERS Perception of Dostoevsky and the Russian Na­ SUMMER SEMINARS FOR COLLEGE Alfred S. Konefsky: SUNY Research Foundation/ tional Character, 1856-1939 TEACHERS Buffalo, NY, Simon Greenleaf, Republican Legal Thomas P. Riggio: University of Connecticut, Culture, and the Rise of the Harvard Law School Llyod F. Bitzer: University of Wisconsin, Madi­ Storrs, A Biography of Theodore Dreiser in Mid-19th-Century America son, 18th-Century British Sources of Early Amer­ Mark Rose: University of California, Santa Bar­ David K. Millon: Washington and Lee Universi­ ican Rhetoric bara, The Author as Proprietor: Copyright and ty, Lexington, VA, From Communal Justice to James K. Chandler: University of Chicago, IL, the Genealogy of Modern Authorship Common Law: The Origins of Modern Legal The Romance of History and the Fate of Walter John P. Rumrich: University of Texas, Austin, Theory Scott Uninventing Milton: Paradise Lost and Contem­ porary Criticism YOUNGER SCHOLARS SUMMER STIPENDS Regina M. Schwartz: Duke University, Durham, Loretta K. Gallaher: Tulane University of Louisi­ L. Raymond Camp: North Carolina State Uni­ NC, Depicting the Past: The Bible and Biblical ana, New Orleans, Rape Cases and Their Rela­ versity, Raleigh, The Sir Walter Raleigh Treason Scholarship tion to Racial Attitudes in the Antebellum Era Trial of 1603 Stephanie A. Sieburth: Duke University, Dur­ Sara C. Kaplan: Georgetown Day School, Wash­ Daniel L. Finer: SUNY Research Foundation/ ham, NC, The Modern Spanish Novel and Mass ington, D.C., Racial Integration in Washington, Stony Brook, NY, Universals of Question Forma­ Culture D.C.: A Legal History tion in Selayarese Garrett Stewart: University of California, Santa Daniel S. Markovits: Yale University, New Samuel E. Fox: Independent Scholar, Neo-Ara­ Barbara, The Conscripted Reader in Victorian Haven, CT, Constraints on Judicial Freedom in maic: The Documentation of a Disappearing Fiction Legal Interpretation Dialect Carol Lynne Tatlock: Washington University, St. Reginetta Haboucha: CUNY Research Founda­ Louis, MO, The Role of Fact in the Construction SUMMER SEMINAR FOR COLLEGE tion/Lehman College, Bronx, NY, Judeo-Spanish of Contemporary Life in the 17th-Century Ger­ TEACHERS Oral Narratives from Israel: The Creation of an man Novel Robert W. Gordon: Stanford University, CA, Index Julian M. Weiss: University of Virginia, Char­ Liberal Ideals in American Law, 1870-1940 John A. Hawkins: University of Southern Califor­ lottesville, The Creation of a Classic: Hernan nia, Los Angeles, Word Order and Constituent Nunez's Commentary on El Laberinto de Fortuna SUMMER STIPENDS Structure across Languages by Juan de Mena Susan A. Dwyer-Shick: Pacific Lutheran Univer­ Mara Holt: Ohio University, Athens, GA, Educa­ Sabine Wilke: Stanford University, CA, sity, Tacoma, WA, When May "Cultural Factors" tion for Democracy: Collaborative Writing In­ Mythology Revisited in East and West German Be a Legal Defense in American Courts? struction in American Colleges, 1911-90 Literature

HUMANITIES COLLEGE TEACHERS AND INDEPENDENT Samuel E. Baker: Columbia University, New John E. Nilsson: Duke University, Durham, NC, SCHOLARS York City, Evading and Confronting the Adven­ Isolation and Alienation in the Modern Animal Allan H. Barr: Pomona College, Claremont, CA, tures of Huckleberry Finn Tale The Classical Chinese Tale in the Ming Period, Jackolyn L. Barnhouse: University of Arkansas, Colleen C. O'Brien: Le Moyne College, Syra­ 1368-1644 Little Rock, The Shape of Alexander Pope's cuse, NY, Black Consciousness Poetry in South Kimberly W . Benston: Haverford College, PA, Career Africa The Black Arts Movement, 1964-74 William F. Bradley: College Preparatory School, Keir Pryde Paterson: Central High School, Phil­ Robert Boyers: Skidmore College, Saratoga Oakland, CA, James Joyce and Authority adelphia, PA, The Emerging American Character Springs, NY, A Biography of George Steiner Peter A. Campbell: University of Detroit Jesuit in the Works of Early American Humorists John L. Bryant: Hofstra University, Hempstead, High School, Ml, The Beat Generation: Life into Wayne W . Plasha: Columbia University, New NY, American Repose: Humor in Melville Art York City, New Perspectives on the Self and Dino S. Cervigni: University of Notre Dame, IN, Ashley M. Chappell: University of North Caroli­ Faulkner's Light in August Dante's Journey in the Commedia: Silence, na, Chapel Hill, Baudelaire's Poetry Measured Julie N. Rubaud: University of Vermont, Bur­ Names, and Words by His Aesthetic Theory lington, The Idea of Community in Milton: From Sergei Davydov: Middlebury College, VT, Alex­ Thomas A. Colley: Hillsboro Comprehensive Pamphlet to Epic ander Pushkin: From Fiction to History High School, Nashville, TN, The Relationship of Rebecca L. Seaman: Hume-Fogg Academic Robert T. Fallon: La Salle College, Philadelphia, Dante's Inferno to Book 6 of the Aeneid High School, Nashville, TN, The Influence of PA, John Milton's Service as Secretary for For­ Carla H. Croissant: University High School, Catullus on Millay's Fatal Interview eign Tongues to the English Republic, 1649-60 Normal, IL, Dostoyevski: Storyteller or Social William C. Stull: Haverford School, PA, Social Judith Ferster: North Carolina State University, Chronicler? Criticism in the Victorian Novel: Thackeray, Raleigh, Mirrors for Princes: Late Medieval Liter­ Maureen F. Curtin: Manhattan College, Bronx, Dickens, and Eliot ature of Advice NY, Egyptian Mythology in Ulysses: A Textual Corey Benjamin Todaro: Jesuit High School, Margaret M. Fogle: Louisiana State University Reality? New Orleans, LA, William Wordsworth's Auto­ and A&M College, Baton Rouge, The Life and Serena Davila: Bloomington High School North, biographical Poem: A Study of The Prelude Work of Evelyn Scott IN, Literary Authority in the Works of Isabel Claus E. Von Zastrow: Dartmouth College, James A. Heffernan: Dartmouth College, Hano­ Allende Hanover, NH, The German and English Bild- ver, NH, Ekphrasis: The Literary Representation Thomas J. Davis: Teachers College, Columbia ungsroman: Goethe, Keller, Lawrence, Mann, of Graphic Art University, New York City, Olson's Maximus: and Lessing Heather A. Henderson: Mount Holyoke Col­ Time and History in Gloucester Matthew D. Wagner: Kent State University, lege, South Hadley, MA, The Traveler and the Richard J. Dircks: Chaminade High School, OH, The Tragic Nature of Shakespeare's First Text: English and American Travel Literature in Mineola, NY, A Study of G.B. Shaw's Social Tetralogy the 19th and 20th Centuries Thought Alan N. Walkow: Columbia University, New James R. Holstun: University of Vermont, Bur­ Claire A. Dumas: Roeper City and Country York City, A Study of the Jonah Story and Its lington, Opposition: Rhetoric and Practice in School, Bloomfield Hills, Ml, Kafka's Spirituali­ Related Literature the Literature of Radical Sects in the English ty: An Introductory Analysis of Its Aesthetic Adam J. Wasson: Carleton College, Northfield, Revolution Relevance MN, Swift's Divergence from the Classical Tradi­ Andrew J. Kappel: Hofstra University, Hemp­ Kristen L. Fresonke: Columbia University, New tion of Satire stead, NY, Sursum Corda: The Religious Mod­ York City, Charles B. Brown's Wieland and Mar- Stephen E. White: Columbia University, New ernism of Marianne Moore bury v. Madison: Law and Letters in the Early York City, Political and Verbal Representations in Harry P. Marten: Union College, Schenectady, Republic Shakespeare's History Plays NY, Contemporary British Poetry and the Ameri­ Antonia R. Fusco: New School for Social Re­ can Experience search, New York City, The Art and Psychology SUMMER SEMINARS FOR COLLEGE TEACHERS James C. McKusick: University of Maryland, of D.H. Lawrence Stuart A. Curran: University of Pennsylvania, Baltimore County, Catonsville, Language and Laurel F. Graham: University of Rochester, NY, Philadelphia, Women and Men Poets in British Ideology in Romantic Poetry The Classics' Design for Women Romanticism Ralph A. Ranald: CUNY Research Foundation/ Elizabeth A. Green: Winona Senior High William W . Hallo: Yale University, New Haven, Hostos Community College, Bronx, NY, Litera­ School, MN, From Comedia to Play: The Effects CT, The Bible in the Light of Cuneiform ture and Society: An Appraisal of Current Liter­ of Translation on Lope de Vega's Peribanez Literature ary Theory Jennifer L. Hanson: Monona Grove High Javier S. Herrero: University of Virginia, Char­ Michael D. Robertson: Lafayette College, Eas­ School, W l, A Profile in Song: Music in the lottesville, Structuralism after Poststructuralism: ton, PA, Stephen Crane, Reporter: Journalism Work of James Joyce Author, Text, and Context in Lorca, Dali, and and the Making of Modern American Literature Ashleigh S. Imus: New York University, NY, Sty­ Bunuel Jason P. Rosenblatt: Georgetown University, listic Foundations in Dante's Inferno, Purgatorio, Charles Molesworth: CUNY Research Founda­ Washington, D.C., Law and Gospel in Paradise and Paradiso tion/Queens College, New York City, American Lost Samantha A. Jones: St. Ursula Academy, Cin­ Modernist Poetry Joan H. Stewart: North Carolina State Universi­ cinnati, OH, The Effect of Exploration on English James Olney: Louisiana State University and ty, Raleigh, Women's Novels in Late 18th-Cen­ Renaissance Drama A&M College, Baton Rouge, The Forms of tury France Gavin B. Kelly: Urban School of San Francisco, Autobiography Diane F. Urey: Illinois State University, Normal, CA, The Development of Dostoyevski's Attempt Morton D. Paley: University of California, The First Historical Novels of Galdos to Reconcile Freedom and Faith Berkeley, British Romanticism in an Epoch of Carlos A. Vega: Wellesley College, MA, Popular Katharina B. Kietzmann: Notre Dame College, Revolution Devotion and 15th- and 16th-Century Spanish Cleveland, OH, Nineteenth-Century Female Ar­ Annabel M. Patterson: Middlebury College, VT, Chapbooks chetypes: A Comparison of Two Novels The Theory and Practice of Cultural History: Sandra L. Lawrence: Humboldt State University, Shakespeare HBCU GRADUATE FELLOWSHIPS Areata, CA, Gendered Responses in 19th- Donald E. Pease: Dartmouth College, Hanover, Geneva H. Baxter: Spelman College, Atlanta, Century British Industrial Fiction NH, Reconstructing America's Civil Imagination GA, American Literature Daryl P. Lee: Brigham Young University, Provo, 1845-1900 Jacqueline A. Blackwell: Hampton University, UT, The Role of Aristocratic Women in Postrevo­ Francois Rigolot: Princeton University, NJ, VA, American Literature lutionary France Modern Critical Theory and French Narrative Marilee Lindemann: Howard University, Wash­ Sara E. Levin: Reed College, Portland, OR, An Thomas P. Roche: Princeton University, NJ, Ro­ ington, D.C., American Literature Investigation of Anna Akhmatova's Memoiristic mance in Dramatic Form: Sidney, Shakespeare, Wanda C. Macon: Lane College, Jackson, TN, Prose and the English Renaissance American Literature Heide R. Li: Punahou School, Honolulu, HI, Enrico M. Santi: Georgetown University, Wash­ Leonard R. Minter: Albany State College, GA, The Ship as a Microcosm in Melville and ington, D.C., Modern Poetry and Poetics in Lat­ American Literature Conrad in America, 1880-1980 Olga Litvak: Columbia University, New York Daniel R. Schwarz: Cornell University, Ithaca, YOUNGER SCHOLARS City, The Outcast as Hero in Shakespeare, Scott, NY, Critical Perspectives on the High Modernist David M. Anderson: Boston College, Chestnut and George Eliot Tradition Hill, MA, The Fragility of Civilization in Conrad Michelle L. Lounibos: University of the Pacific, Eric J. Sundquist: University of California, and Koestler Stockton, CA, Kora in Context: William Carlos Berkeley, The Problem of Race in American David C. Art: Lincoln-Sudbury Regional High Williams and His Circle, 1920-34 Literature, 1850-1930 School, MA, Time in the Works of William Peter J. Morris: Haverford School, PA, Henry Richard H. Wendorf: President and Fellows of Faulkner James and the International Theme Harvard College, Cambridge, MA, Portraiture: Emilio R. Baez Rivera: University of Puerto Rico, John L. Newsome: Bethesda-Chevy Chase High Biography, Portrait Painting, and the Representa­ Rio Piedras, Jorge Luis Borges as a Mystical Writer School, MD, The Writings of Ana Maria Matute tion of Historical Character

42 SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER SUMMER STIPENDS Almut R. McAuley: Spokane Falls Community burgh, PA, Paradise Lost and the Contemporary Sandra L. Ballard: Carson-Newman College, College, WA, East German Poetry: Translations Reader Jefferson City, TN, Harriette Arnow: A Biography of Selected Works Walter G. Langlois: University of Wyoming, La­ Alan J. Berkowitz: Swarthmore College, Swarth- Laurie E. Osborne: Oakland University, Roches­ ramie, The Novelist Andre Malraux, Witness to more, PA, Reclusion in Early and Medieval ter, Ml, The Multiple Texts of Twelfth Night an Age in Crisis: Adventurism, Revolution, and China Judith W . Page: Millsaps College, Jackson, MS, Antifascism John D. Bernard: University of Houston-Univer- Wordsworth and the Cultivation of Women Douglas N. Leonard: Gustavus Adolphus sity Park, TX, Writing in the Age of Print: Studies Ronald E. Pepin: Greater Hartford Community College, St. Peter, MN, The Poetry of Emily in Renaissance Literary Authority College, CT, The Satires of Sergardi Dickinson Michael F. Berube: University of Illinois, Ur- Rosa Perelmuter-Perez: University of North Andrew M. McLean: University of Wisconsin, bana, Melvin Tolson and Thomas Pynchon: The Carolina, Chapel Hill, Idealized Landscapes in Parkside, Kenosha, Shakespeare's Henriad: Critical Reception of Their Work the New World Epic Richard II, First Part of Henry IV, Second Part of Edwin Frank Block: Marquette University, Mil­ Fernando O. Reati: University of Alabama, Bir­ Henry IV, Henry V waukee, W l, Victorian Culture and "Dual Con­ mingham, Authoritarianism and the Rhetoric of August J. Nigro: Kutztown University, PA, sciousness": Some Intersections of Literature and Argentine Guerrilla Publications in the 1970s Thomas Hardy and T.S. Eliot: Literature and Science Indira S. Satyendra: University of Chicago, IL, Landscape Mark Bracher: Kent State University, OH, Identi­ Figurative Language in Chinese Narrative: The Gessler M. Nkondo: Vassar College, Pough­ fication and Discourse in Lacanian Theory Chin P'lng Mei Tz'u Hua keepsie, NY, African Poetry and the Modern Karen M. Canine: Scott Community College, Haruo Shirane: Columbia University, New York English Tradition Bettendorf, IA, William Faulkner and the Blues City, Festive Madness in the Literature of Matsuo Patrick J. O'Donnell: West Virginia University, Joseph C. Carroll: University of Missouri, St. Basho, 1644-94 Morgantown, Faulkner's Absalom, Absalom! Louis, Literary Relations among Five Victorian John O. Silva: CUNY Research Foundation/La- John C. Olmsted: Oberlin College, OH, Novels Writers: Newman, Arnold, Eliot, Pater, and James Guardia Community College, Long Island City, by 19th-Century British Women Michael P. Clark: University of California, Ir­ NY, Montemayor's Diana: Tradition and the David M. Robinson: Oregon State University vine, Witchcraft, History, and Representation in Individual Talent Foundation, Corvallis, Nature and Society in Colonial New England Johanna M. Smith: University of Texas, Arling­ American Transcendentalism: Emerson, Fuller, Bonnie Costello: Boston University, MA, Nature ton, Literary and Nonliterary Representations of and Thoreau at the Margins in Modern and Contemporary 19th-Century British Working-Class Politics Patricia Sharpe: Simon's Rock of Bard College, American Poetry Kathleen L. Spencer: Millsaps College, Jackson, Great Barrington, MA, Women and Fiction: David G. Cowart: University of South Carolina, MS, The Discourse of Science and Late Victorian Austen, Bronte, Woolf, Hurston, and Walker Columbia, Literary Works and the Works on Fantastic Fiction Lisa M. Steinman: Reed College, Portland, OR, which They Are Based: A Study of Intertextual Leonard J. Stanton: Louisiana State University The Place of Poetry in Modern America: Relationships and A&M College, Baton Rouge, The Optina Williams, Stevens, and Moore Susan D. Dean: Bryn Mawr College, PA, Whit­ Pustyn' Monastery in the Russian Literary Marcel Tetel: Duke University, Durham, NC, man's Liminality: The Quaker Ground of Leaves Imagination French Renaissance Humanism: Rabelais, of Grass Michael F. Suarez: Le Moyne College, Syracuse, Marguerite of Navarre, Montaigne Martine M. Debaisieux: University of Wiscon­ NY, Dodsley's Collection of Poems and the Mak­ Mary Ann F. Witt: North Carolina State Univer­ sin, Madison, Subverting Literary Tradition in ing of the 18th-Century English Canon sity, Raleigh, Theatricality and Reality in Modern Preclassical French Prose Narrative: Women and Ernest W . Sullivan: Texas Tech University, Lub­ European Drama Libertine Writers bock, John Donne: The Uncollected 17th- Michele L. Farrell: Duke University, Durham, Century Printed Verse NC, The Poetics and Politics of Exoticism in Louis Tremaine: University of Richmond, VA, 17th-Century French Theater Cross-Racial Relationships and the Literary Imag­ Philosophy Ann W . Fisher-Wirth: University of Mississippi, ination in Recent South African Fiction UNIVERSITY TEACHERS University, Parables of Loss: The Major Novels of Akiko Tsuchiya: Purdue University, West Lafay­ Willa Gather ette, IN, Literary Representation and Self-Reflec- Jonathan F. Bennett: Syracuse University, NY, Blanche H. Gelfant: Dartmouth College, Hano­ tion in Contemporary Spanish Women's Fiction Consequentialist Theories of Morality ver, NH, American Realism, Rape, and the Law: Gaurl Viswanathan: Columbia University, New Gerald Dworkin: University of Illinois, Chicago, James T. Farrell's Studs Lonigan York City, Conversion and the Colonial Experi­ Autonomy and the Enforcement of Values Susan K. Gillman: University of California, San­ ence: Self-Doubt and Self-Empowerment in Mis­ Daniel M. Farrell: Ohio State University, Colum­ ta Cruz, The Black Maternal Melodrama: Racial sionary and Indigenous Texts bus, The Justification of Deterrent Violence Identity in Late 19th-Century American Fiction Margaret C. Ziolkowski: Miami University, Ox­ David J. Furley: Princeton University, NJ, Steven R. Goldsmith: University of California, ford, OH, Reimagining the Stalin Era: Recurrent History of Graeco-Roman Cosmology Berkeley, Unbuilding Jerusalem: The Represen­ Motifs in Post-Stalinist Literature Terence H. Irwin: Cornell University, Ithaca, tation of Apocalypse in the Literature of English NY, The Development of Ethics Romanticism SUMMER SEMINARS FOR SCHOOL Charles H. Kahn: University of Pennsylvania, TEACHERS Evlyn Gould: University of Oregon, Eugene, The Philadelphia, Plato and the Creation of the Carmen of Prosper Merimee, Georges Bizet, and David Cavitch: Tufts University, Medford, MA, Socratic Dialogue Carlos Saura: A Comparative Study Fiction and Life Histories: Joyce, Lawrence, and Saul A. Kripke: Princeton University, NJ, A Alessandra Graves: Pennsylvania State Universi­ Woolf Theory of Truth ty, Delaware Campus, Media, The Traditional Herbert R. Coursen: Bowdoin College, Bruns­ Jefferson A. McMahan: University of Illinois, Ballads of Costa Rica wick, MA, A Midsummer Night's Dream Urbana, The Ethics of War and Nuclear Roland A. Greene: Harvard University, Cam­ Robert J. Daly: SUNY Research Foundation/Buf­ Deterrence bridge, MA, Petrarchism, the Renaissance Colo­ falo, NY, Nathaniel Hawthorne: In Detail and in Thomas W . Pogge: Columbia University, New nial Enterprise, and New World Modernism Context York City, Moral Incentives Elizabeth L. Gregory: University of Houston- Merlin H. Forster: Brigham Young University, Hilary Putnam: Harvard University, Cambridge, University Park, TX, Robbed of Speech: Quota­ Provo, UT, Fiction of Fictions: Reading Jorge MA, The Relevance of Pragmatism: A New Look tion and Modern American Poetry Luis Borges at James David P. Haney: Auburn University, Auburn Jay L. Halio: University of Delaware, Newark, Richard Rorty: University of Virginia, Char­ University, AL, Wordsworth and the Poetics of Shakespeare: Enacting the Text lottesville, A Study of Dewey's Intellectual Incarnation Patrick G. Henry: Whitman College, Walla Development Charles L. James: Swarthmore College, PA, Arna Walla, WA, Montaigne's Essays Susan Marie Sauve: Harvard University, Cam­ W. Bontemps: A Biographical Study Sue Ellen Holbrook: Southern Connecticut State bridge, MA, Aristotle on Moral Responsibility Carol E. Johnston: Clemson University, SC, The University, New Haven, Reading Sir Thomas Richard M. Shusterman: Temple University, Journals of Theodore Parker: The Preparation of Malory's Arthuriad, Le Morte Darthur Philadelphia, PA, Art, Theory, Praxis: Pragmatist a Transcription and Index Lewis Kamm: Southeastern Massachusetts Uni­ Aesthetics for Postmodern Conditions George L. Joseph: Hobart and William Smith versity, North Dartmouth, Balzac and Zola: Kendall Lewis Walton: University of Michigan, Colleges, Geneva, NY, Neither French nor Esthetics and Ethics Ann Arbor, A Philosophical Study of Purist Con­ African: Narration in the Fiction of Ousmane Robert S. Knapp: Reed College, Portland, OR, ceptions of Music Sembene and Camara Laye Some Versions of King Lear COLLEGE TEACHERS AND INDEPENDENT Randall K. Knoper: Lafayette College, Easton, Ulrich C. Knoepflmacher: Princeton University, SCHOLARS PA, Mark Twain and Popular Performance NJ, American and British Children's Classics Jayne E. Lewis: University of California, Los Earle G. Labor: Centenary College of Louisiana, Jonathan E. Adler: CUNY Research Foundation/ Angeles, The Aesopic Fable in Neoclassical Shreveport, Jack London: The Major Works Brooklyn College, NY, Intuitive and Critical England Albert C. Labriola: Duquesne University, Pitts­ Thinking in Utilitarianism

HUMANITIES John P. Christman: Virginia Polytechnic Institute Gerald Dworkin: University of Illinois, Chicago, Robert A. Orsi: Indiana University, Bloom­ and State University, Blacksburg, Equal Property: The Nature and Value of Autonomy ington, Women's Devotion to the Patron Saint of Egalitarianism and the Justification of Private Peter A. French: Trinity University, San Antonio, Hopeless Cases, 1929-65 Property TX, The Spectrum of Responsibility Susan E. Schreiner: University of Chicago, IL, David J. Depew: California State University-Full- Jaegwon Kim: Brown University, Providence, Calvin's Sermons on Job: Protestant Reformer, erton Foundation, Biology, Politics, and Philoso­ Rl, Supervenience and Its Philosophical Genevan Audience, and the Medieval Interpre­ phy in Aristotle's Politics Applications tive Tradition Martin J. Donougho: University of South Caroli­ Huston Smith: Pacific School of Religion, Steven M. Tipton: Emory University, Atlanta, na, Columbia, Hegel's Philosophy of Art Berkeley, CA, Metaphysics and the Great Chain GA, Public Pulpits: Institutional Religion and Vi­ Gary B. Ferngren: Oregon State University of Being: A Cross-Cultural Inquiry sionary Politics Foundation, Corvallis, The History of the Con­ Gregory Vlastos: University of California, Frank R. Trombley: University of California, Los cept of the Sanctity of Life in the Ancient World Berkeley, The Philosophy of Socrates Angeles, The Transformation of Greek Religion Helen S. Lang: Trinity College, Hartford, CT, Merold E. Westphal: Fordham University, in Late Antiquity and the Byzantine Period, 500- The Writing and Rhetoric of Science: The Tradi­ Bronx, NY, Religion and Society in Hegel, Marx, 1500 tion of Aristotle's Physics and Kierkegaard Joseph Levine: North Carolina State University, COLLEGE TEACHERS AND INDEPENDENT Raleigh, The Mind's Place: Conceptions of SUMMER STIPENDS SCHOLARS Consciousness Harold I. Brown: Northern Illinois University, David G. Hunter: College of Saint Thomas, St. Timothy D. Roche: Memphis State University, DeKalb, Causal Necessity: The Views of Wilfrid Paul, MN, Asceticism and Heresy in the Late TN, Aristotle's Method of Argument in the Nico- Sellars Fourth Century machean Ethics Joshua Cohen: Massachusetts Institute of Tech­ Susan R. Niditch: Amherst College, MA, The Henry Rosemont, Jr.: Saint Mary's College of nology, Cambridge, The Moral Arc of the Uni­ Ideology of Sacrifice in Ancient Israel Maryland, St. Mary's City, Classical Confucian­ verse: An Examination of Ethical Explanations for Paula S. Richman: Oberlin College, OH, Tamil ism and Contemporary Ethics the Demise of Slavery Religious Poetry Stephen E. Rosenbaum: Illinois State University, Eve Browning Cole: University of Minnesota, Normal, Epicurus's View of Death and Contem­ Duluth, The Soul of the Beast in Greek Moral HBCU GRADUATE FELLOWSHIPS porary Moral Life Philosophy Kathleen M. Gaffney: Xavier University of Loui­ Thomas E. Wartenberg: Mount Holyoke Col­ Ellery T. Eells: University of Wisconsin, Madi­ siana, New Orleans, History and Theology lege, South Hadley, MA, Hegel's Phenomenolo­ son, Explaining Events: Philosophical Models of gy and the Traditions of Philosophy Explanation YOUNGER SCHOLARS Roslyn E. Weiss: University of Delaware, New­ Lewis S. Ford: Old Dominion University, Nor­ Aaron F. Adams: Los Alamos High School, NM, ark, Socrates on the Teachability of Virtue folk, VA, Transforming Theism: Six Whitehead­ The Hero's Journey: Plato and Joseph Campbell ian Concepts of God YOUNGER SCHOLARS Richard L. Blitstein: Cornell University, Ithaca, Jorge L. Garcia: Georgetown University, Wash­ NY, Wrathful Deities in Hinduism and Indo-Ti- Joel B. Ard: Linn-Mar High School, Marion, IA, ington, D.C., Virtues as the Basis of Ethics betan Buddhism Bertrand Russell: A Philosopher's Life Louis F. Goble: Willamette University, Salem, Catherine F. Sarther: Carl Sandburg High Heather D. Battaly: University of Vermont, Bur­ OR, The Logic of Obligation: A Philosophical School, Orland Park, IL, Abraham and Akhena- lington, Functionalism and the Identity Theory: Investigation ten: A Study in the Success and Failure of Mono­ Which is More Reasonable? Jeffrey L. Hoover: Coe College, Cedar Rapids, theism Kerstin W . Byorni: Hope College, Holland, Ml, IA, Friedrich Schleiermacher's Various Lecture Sarah K. Siwicki: Leon High School, Tallahas­ Philosophical Consistency in Seneca's Essays Series on the State: A Comparative Analysis see, FL, The Concept of the "Little People" in and Tragedies E. D. Klemke: Iowa State University, Ames, The Celtic Mythology Michael W . Cole: Williams College, Williams- Metaphysics of G. E. Moore town, MA, Remoteness in the Aristotelian George Klosko: University of Virginia, Char­ SUMMER STIPENDS Virtues lottesville, Rawls and Political Obligation Wanda Cizewski: Marquette University, Mil­ Bram E. Duchovnay: The Bolles School, Jack­ Michael Losonsky: Colorado State University, waukee, W l, The Creation of Woman: Latin sonville, FL, Authenticity and Society in Heideg­ Ft. Collins, Platonic Enthusiasm in Leibniz's Phi­ Commentaries on the Text of Genesis from Am­ ger, Sartre, and Percy losophy of Language and Meaning brose of Milan to Peter Lombard Byron S. Estep: Yale University, New Haven, CT, Richard R. McCarty: East Carolina University, Kant, Peirce, and Pragmaticism Greenville, NC, Kant's Aesthetic of Morals William J. Desmond: Loyola College, Baltimore, MD, Hegel, Dialectical Thinking, and the Com­ Scott G. Gettman: Stetson University, Deland, Robert N. McCauley: Emory University, Atlanta, prehension of Evil FL, Self and Society in the Novels of Sartre and GA, Intertheoretic Relations in Science and Douglas A. Foster: David Lipscomb College, Camus Their Implications for the Status of Psychology Nashville, TN, Universalism in the Southern Richard R. Hoffman, Jr.: Washington University, Richard B. Miller: Indiana University, Bloom­ United States: A Religious and Intellectual St. Louis, MO, Paul Feyerabend's Theory of ington, The Moral Problem of War and the Tradi­ History Meaning tions of Pacifism and Just-War Theory Garrett Green: Connecticut College, New Lon­ Barbara A. Izzo: University of Notre Dame, IN, Georgia C. Warnke: Yale University, New Ha­ don, J. G. Hamann, 1730-88: A Defender of Jean-Paul Sartre's Attitude towards Male-Female ven, CT, Justice and Interpretation: The Herme­ Faith in the Age of Reason Relationships neutic Turn in Political Philosophy Jean O. McDowell: Agnes Scott College, Deca­ Takashi Yagisawa: California State University, Paul J. Griffiths: University of Notre Dame, IN, tur, GA, Bioethics, Utilitarianism, and Mill Northridge Foundation, Metaphysical Access to On Being a Buddha: A Study in the Develop­ Gregory Robert Mulhauser: Willamette Univer­ Particulars through Proper Names ment of Yogacara Buddhist Doctrine sity, Salem, OR, Chaos Theory and the Idea of Michael J. Hollerich: Santa Clara University, CA, Human Freedom SUMMER SEMINARS FOR SCHOOL A Critical Study of Erik Peterson's Der Mono- James V. Pryor: Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, TEACHERS theismus als Politisches Problem Plato's Analysis of Perception in the Theaetetus Robert K. Holyer: Arkansas College, Batesville, Eugene Garver: Saint John's University, College- Maria T. Rhomberg: University of Notre Dame, C. S. Lewis's View of the Importance of Literature ville, MN, Machiavelli's The Prince IN, Law and Virtue: St. Thomas Aquinas's Sum- for Religious Belief ma Theologica Gerald R. McDermott: Roanoke College, Mary B. Small: Steinmetz Academic Centre, Salem, VA, The Public Theology of Jonathan Chicago, The Meaning of Socrates' Death: A Edwards Personal Quest for Resolution Religion Charles D. Orzech: University of NC, Greens­ Douglas G. Smith: SUNY Research Foundation/ boro, The Sutra for Humane Kings: A Translation UNIVERSITY TEACHERS Buffalo, NY, Moral Criteria in the Determination Michael S. Slusser: Duquesne University, Pitts­ of Beliefs: A Critique of Meiland James L. Crenshaw: Duke University, Durham, burgh, PA, The Traditional Views of Later Arian- Laura M. Stevens: Villanova University, PA, NC, The Acquisition of Knowledge and Its Dis­ ism: A Historical Overview Hans-Ceorg Gadamer's Hermeneutics and the semination in Ancient Israelite Wisdom David C. Steinmetz: Duke University, Durham, Poetry of Seamus Heaney Literature NC, Calvin and Paul: The Interpretation of Ro­ Richard M. Swartz: Washburn Rural High John Stratton Hawley: Barnard College, New mans in the 16th Century School, Topeka, KS, An Ethics for the Reasoning York City, The New Hindu Consciousness SUMMER SEMINARS FOR SCHOOL State Gordon D. Kaufman: Harvard University, Cam­ TEACHERS bridge, MA, A Biohistorical Theology SUMMER SEMINARS FOR COLLEGE TEACHERS Carol L. Meyers: Duke University, Durham, NC, Peter J. Awn: Columbia University, New York Jonathan F. Bennett: Syracuse University, NY, State Formation and the Status of Women in Bib­ City, The Islamic Vision in Religion and Litera­ Consequentialist Theories of Morality lical Israel ture: Four Classical Texts

44 SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER Thomas V. Morris: University of Notre Dame, SUMMER SEMINAR FOR COLLEGE TEACHERS Jeffrey C. Isaac: Indiana University, Blooming­ IN, Pascal's Pensees: Faith, Reason, and the ton, Arendt, Camus, and Postmodern Politics Donald N. Levine: University of Chicago, IL, Donald B. Kraybill: Elizabethtown College, PA, Meaning of Life Philosophical Foundations of the Social Sciences James G. Moseley: Chapman College, Orange, Amish, Mennonites, and Brethren in the Quan­ M. Crawford Young: University of Wisconsin, dary of Modernity, 1880-1980 CA, Winthrop's Journal: Religion, Politics, and Madison, Cultural Pluralism and National Inte­ Narrative in Early America Mary P. Nichols: Fordham University, Bronx, gration in Comparative Perspectives Wolfgang M. W . Roth: Garrett-Evangelical NY, Friendship in the Political Thought of Plato Theological Seminary, Evanston, IL, Biblical SUMMER STIPENDS and Aristotle Lydia M. Pulsipher: University of Tennessee, Narrative: Ruth, Joseph, and Job Edwin L. Amenta: New York University, NY, The Terrence W . Tilley: Saint Michael's College, Knoxville, The Post-Columbian Exchange of Cul­ Townsend Movement and American Old-Age Winooski, VT, Job, Boethius, and J.B. tures: The Diffusion of Food Plants between the Spending Policies New and the Old Worlds Amrita Basu: Amherst College, MA, Popular Patricia L. Sykes: American University, Wash­ Culture, Women's Collective Identities, and ington, D.C., "Conviction Politicians" and the Social Change in India Creation of a New Public Philosophy Social Science Charles D. Brockett: University of the South, Sewanee, TN, The Quiet Interlude: U.S. Policy SUMMER SEMINARS FOR SCHOOL TEACHERS UNIVERSITY TEACHERS toward Central America, 1955-76 Richard G. Biernacki: University of Chicago, IL, John B. Christiansen: Gallaudet University, Harry M. Clor: Kenyon College, Gambier, OH, The Cultural Construction of Labor in 19th- Washington, D.C., The 1988 "Deaf President Tocqueville on Modern Democracy and Human Century German and British Textile Mills Now" Protest at Gallaudet University: A De­ Well Being George P. Steinmetz: University of Chicago, IL, scription and Analysis Walter J. Nicgorski: University of Notre Dame, A Historical-Sociological Study of the Welfare Timothy Fuller: Colorado College, Colorado IN, Cicero's Moral and Political Aspirations State in Imperial Germany Springs, Hobbes and the Rule of Law Michael J. Palmer: University of Maine, Orono, Judith A. Swanson: Boston University, MA, David C. Hendrickson: Colorado College, Colo­ The Political Wisdom of Thucydides Aristotle's View of Poetry and Its Political rado Springs, The Significance of the Union in Peter J. Steinberger: Reed College, Portland, Implications American History: Nation-Building and Its OR, Plato's Republic: The Moral Foundations of Legacy Politics COLLEGE TEACHERS AND INDEPENDENT SCHOLARS Murray S. Davis: Independent Scholar, Concep­ tions of Comedy and Society Lotte E. Feinberg: CUNY Research Foundation/ John Jay College, New York City, The Freedom of Information Act and the History of Federal In­ formation Policy S Suzanne D. Jacobitti: Southern Illinois Universi­ i - ty, Edwardsville, The Political Thought of Hannah Arendt and Liberal Political Theory Philip Kasinitz: Williams College, Williams- town, MA, Red Hook: The Polarization of Urban Neighborhoods and the Origins of the Underclass Michael D. MacDonald: Williams College, Wil- liamstown, MA, White Politics and the Prospects of Reform in South Africa Stephen G. Salkever: Bryn Mawr College, PA, Liberal Authority: How Liberal Theory Obscures HUMANITIES the Goods of Liberal Practice Carol L. Schmid: Guilford Technical Institute, Jamestown, NC, The Politics of Language: is out to get you! Group Conflict, Language Rights, and Public Policy in the U.S., Ganada, and Switzerland • Authoritative essays by noted scholars YOUNGER SCHOLARS • Features on current NEH-supported projects Michael G. Atkins: Saint John's University, • Guide for those applying for an NEH grant Collegeville, MN, Tocqueville's Critique of Individualism • Calendar of current application deadlines Morgan S. Brown: Carleton College, Northfield, • List of recent grants by discipline MN, Rule of Law or Rule of Men: Executive Pre­ rogative in American Politics Patrick C. Burkart: Reed College, Portland, OR, Symbolic Communication, Politics, and Identity Join the growing number of Humanities Formation Leo J. Burrell: Boston University, MA, The Trans­ subscribers today! formation from Utopia to Dystopia Robert W . 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HUMANITIES 45 Area code for all telephone numbers is 202 Deadline For projects beginning

Division of Education P r o g r a m s —james c. Herbert, Director 786-0373

Higher Education in the Humanities— Lyn Maxwell White 786-0380 October 1, 1990 April 1, 1991

Institutes for College and University Faculty— Barbara A. Ashbrook 786-0380 October 1, 1990 April 1, 1991

Core Curriculum Projects— Frank Frankfort 786-0380 October 1, 1990 April 1, 1991

Two-Year Colleges—Judith Jeffrey Howard 786-0380 October 1, 1990 April 1, 1991

Elementary and Secondary Education in the Humanities— F. Bruce Robinson 786-0377 December 15, 1990 July 1991

Special Opportunity in Foreign Language Education— F. Bruce Robinson 786-0377 March 15, 1991 October 1991

Division of Fellowships c i n d Seminars— Guinevere L. Griest, Director 786-0458

Fellowships for University Teachers— Maben D. Herring 786-0466 June 1, 1991 January 1, 1992

Fellowships for College Teachers and Independent Scholars—Joseph B. Neville 786-0466 June 1, 1991 January 1, 1992

Fellowships on the Foundations of American Society— Maben D. Herring 786-0466 June 1, 1991 January 1, 1992

Summer Stipends— Joseph B. Neville 786-0466 October 1, 1990 May 1, 1991

Travel to Collections— Kathleen Mitchell 786-0463 January 15,1991 June 1, 1991

Faculty Graduate Study Program for Historically Black Colleges and Universities— Maben D. Herring 786-0466 March 15, 1991 September 1, 1992

Younger Scholars— Leon Bramson 786-0463 November 1, 1990 June 1, 1991

Summer Seminars for College Teachers— Stephen Ross 786-0463

Participants March 1, 1991 Summer 1991

Directors March 1, 1991 Summer 1992

Summer Seminars for School Teachers— Michael Hall 786-0463

Participants March 1, 1991 Summer 1991

Directors April 1, 1991 Summer 1992

O ffice Of Challenge Grants — Harold Cannon, Director 786-0361 May 1,1991 December 1, 1990

Distinguished Teaching Professorships December 1, 1990 December 1, 1990

O ffice Of Preservation — George F. Farr, Jr., Director 786-0570

National Heritage Preservation Program— Fredric Miller 786-0570 November 1, 1990 July 1991

Preservation— George F. Farr, jr. 786-0570 December 1, 1990 July 1991

U.S. Newspaper Program—Jeffrey Field 786-0570 December 1, 1990 July 1991

46 SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER Area code for all telephone numbers is 202. Deadline For projects beginning

DlVISIOn of PllbllC Programs— Donald Gibson, Director 786-0267

Humanities Projects in Media—James Dougherty 786-0278 March 15, 1991 October 1, 1991

Humanities Projects in Museums and Historical Organizations— Marsha Semmel 786-0284 December 7, 1990 July 1, 1991

Public Humanities Projects— Wilsonia Cherry 786-0271 March 15, 1991 October 1, 1991

Humanities Projects in Libraries— Thomas Phelps 786-0271

Planning November 2, 1990 April 1, 1991

Implementation March 15, 1991 October 1, 1991

DlVISIOn Of Research Programs— Richard Ekman, Director 786-0200

Texts— Margot Backas 786-0207

Editions— Douglas Arnold 786-0207 June 1, 1991 April 1, 1992 Translations— Martha Chomiak 786-0207 June 1, 1991 April 1, 1992 Publication Subvention— Gordon McKinney 786-0207 April 1, 1991 October 1, 1991

Reference Materials—Jane Rosenberg 786-0358

Tools— Helen Aguera 786-0358 September 1, 1991 July 1, 1992 Access—Jane Rosenberg 786-0358 September 1, 1991 July 1, 1992

Interpretive Research— Daniel Jones 786-0210

Projects— David Wise 786-0210 October 15, 1990 July 1, 1991 Humanities, Science, and Technology— Daniel Jones 786-0210 October 15, 1990 July 1, 1991 Conferences— Christine Kalke 786-0204 January 15, 1991 October 1, 1991 Centers for Advanced Study— David Coder 786-0204 December 1, 1990 July 1, 1991 International Research— David Coder 786-0204 March 15, 1991 January 1, 1992

DlVISIOn of State Programs— Marjorie A. Berlincourt, Director 786-0254 Each state humanities council establishes its own grant guidelines and application deadlines. Addresses and telephone numbers of these state programs may be obtained from the division.

To receive guidelines for any NEH program, contact the Office of Publications and Public Affairs at 202/786-0438. Guidelines are available at least two months in advance of application deadlines.

Telecommunications device for the deaf: 202/786-0282.

HUMANITIES 47