TRANSITION from the TRIO WAY of LIFE Mirella Nankoe1

Academic Journal, 2019, 10, 34-53 Sociologie , full article

FROM NOMADS TO SEDENTARY VILLAGE RESIDENTS: TRANSITION FROM THE TRIO WAY OF LIFE

Mirella Nankoe1

ABSTRACT --- This article describes the initiation of the Baptist Mission and interaction between the Trio tribes and the Baptist mission in the interior of Suriname. The Trio led a nomadic and self- sufficient life in harmony with nature as agriculturalists, hunters and gatherers prior to the arrival of the Baptist mission in the sixties of the last century. The Baptist mission had a significant effect in reshaping the social, cultural, economic and demographic landscape of the Trio during the first two decades of their presence. The most obvious effect was the transformation of the Trio settlement patterns. Missionary activities included evangelization, spiritual guidance, literacy and health care. The interaction between the Trio and the missionaries gradually changed from a hostile attitude and aloofness to acceptance.

Keywords: Trio, Wayana, West Indies Mission, evangelization, demographics, Suriname interior

1 Institute for Graduate Studies and Research (IGSR), Anton de Kom University of Suriname.

Introduction communities. However, this article will only focus on the initiation of the Baptist mission Historiographies and oral narratives concerning among the Trio and transition of their Amerindian societies indicate that they have settlement patterns. been characterized by periods of transition The inception of the Baptist mission through space and time, affecting the internal amongst the Trio and Wayana political, economic, cultural and social dynamics of these societies. Looking at the Baptist missionary work in Suriname began in nature of historical changes in native 1954 by the launch of the West Indies Mission Amazonia, the nature of contacts with (WIM).2 The WIM was however not the first particular reference to diseases, changes in Baptist congregation in Suriname.3 The WIM native ecology and settlement, warfare and began in Cuba in 1928 when Elmer Thompson, regional trade systems should also be taken into a young American, founded a seminary. account (Whitehead, 1993: 285-286 in Nankoe, Initially, this mission’s organization focused on 2017: 718). Transformations in Amerindian the following countries in the western part of societies are often associated with external the Caribbean: (1) Haiti, (2) Dominican influences, however in these societies there is Republic, (3) Jamaica and (4) Guadeloupe. also an internal dynamic. Missionary work as During the sixties the focus shifted to countries an external influence among natives can be of the south-eastern Caribbean, including studied from different points of view. Initially, Suriname. missionary work often implies evangelization Initially it was rather challenging for the or spreading the gospel and converting WIM, because obtaining permission from the nonbelievers or dissidents. However, when Surinamese government was problematic. looking at the Baptist missionary work among There were already several religious the Trio people in Suriname, the impact appears denominations present in Paramaribo, which to have been much more than just conversion to made it difficult for the Baptist to become Christianity. established. Their intended strategy was “to As a sociological phenomenon, place national evangelists in each of the target evangelization or religious conversion through subcultures in the city” (Conley, 2000: 385). missionary work is rarely limited only to a The basic education system in Suriname was transformation in religious beliefs. It is always also seen as an advantage to expedite the accompanied by social and cultural changes. evangelism process. Based on the literature, it can be noted that However, the population in Paramaribo group or community conversion often lead to was unresponsive to the mission’s work, thus social transformation. Studies and narratives shifting their focus to youth work which was show that Baptist mission had a significant met with a better response. The WIM began to impact on transforming the social, cultural, show interest in the natives of the hinterland economic and demographic landscape of the when the missionary Walter Jackson first made Trio during their presence in the local contact with a group of Wayana, who arrived in

2 Henceforth, the West Indies Mission will be addressed as WIM. Gemeente’ led by Carel Paulus Rier commenced. During the second 3 The founder of Baptism in Suriname was Meyer Salomon Bromet half of the fifties, the WIM and the Baptist churches in Suriname who initiated the ‘Vrije Evangelisatie’ in 1888, also known as the embarked on a collaboration which resulted in the foundation of a congregation of baptized Christians. Since its formation, the Union of Baptist Churches in December 1970 (Jabini, 2000: 98- congregation consisted mainly of Creoles and Jews but in the sixties of 101,110; see also www. vrijeevangelisatie.org). The Trio and Wayana the last century Hindustani and Javanese also joined. In 1898 there was congregations are also affiliated with the Union of Baptist Churches. a division in the congregation and the ‘Surinaamse Baptisten

dugout canoes in the frontier town of Albina in they were thus officially employed by the 1959. The Baptists lacked experience with government of Suriname to facilitate the missionary work among jungle tribes of non- building of several airstrips. cognate language groups and the associated The following seven airstrips5 were construc- logistics. Furthermore, such was never of ted in the hinterland of Suriname for the interest to them. They also never experienced government to pursue exploration activities: (1) the logistics of accessing native people. Kabalebo, (2) Coeroenie, (3) Kayser, (4) However, the Wayana encounter appeared to Tafelberg, (5) Palumeu, (6) Oelemari and (7) have challenged the WIM to explore a new field Sipaliwini; of these, Tafelberg, Sipaliwini, and of work (Conley, 2000: 388; Nichols, 1979: 9). Kayser were built by DTL. Construction They started lobbying with the Surinamese activities took place under difficult and critical government to obtain permission for execution conditions.6 Due to their significant contribu- of their activities among these natives. The tion to ‘Operation Grasshopper’, the DTL sixties of the last century provided an received permission from the Surinamese opportunity for the missionaries when the government to work amongst the indigenous Surinamese government authorized the tribes in the south of Suriname below the 4th construction of airstrips in the hinterland. parallel, which is a circle of latitude that is 4 The project, called ‘Operation degrees south of the equatorial plane. Grasshopper’, was embedded in the govern- The Trio and Wayana actually made a ment's Ten-Year Plan regarding the economic significant contribution in assisting the building development of Suriname. The project was of the airstrips, and thereby to the development initiated in 1959 with the objective of building of Suriname. Because of their mutual interest in airstrips in order for ground expeditions to the natives, the WIM and DTL worked together search for natural resources in the hinterland. in reaching the Trio and Wayana. There was Bob Price and Eugene Friesen, the co-founders also cooperation with other mission stations of the Door to Life Ministries (DTL)4, initially due to their experience with native tribes in the came as volunteers to Suriname in 1959 with a neighboring countries. In 1963 a merger was small budget to work among unreached accomplished between the WIM and the DTL indigenous tribes in the hinterland. They were in response to common goals and a harmonious equipped with a small Piper Super Cub plane working relationship. Based on this union, the necessary for the difficult landings in the newly formed organization was named hinterland. However, their application to the Suriname Interior Fellowship. In 1978 the authorities stagnated. (E. Friesen, personal WIM changed the name of the organization to communication, August 2017). ‘World Team’.7 Nonetheless, a chance meeting with a The DTL mission aviation services Dutch government official enrolled them in were succeeded by the Missionary Aviation ‘Operation Grasshopper’ as licensed pilots and

4 Henceforth, the Door to Life Ministries will be referred to as DTL. 7 See Also Conley, 2000: 385-386; Heemskerk and Delvoye, 2007: 37- 5 Also the then newly established SLM (‘Surinaamse Luchtvaart 38; Nichols, 1979: 1-5; Wekker, Molendijk & Vernooij, 1992: 41-42. Maatschappij’) played an important role in providing air transport for Other relevant sources include: Harry Debisarun (personal ‘Operation Grasshopper’. The construction of airstrips was executed by communication, July 23, 2012) who worked for the World Team from LARECO NV, while the government, by means of the Department of 1963 onwards; Roy Lytle (personal communication, September 6, Construction and Traffic, performed the overall coordination 2012) who worked among the Wayana from 1970 until 1983; and Fred (Wijdenbosch, 1996:79). Vermeulen (personal communication, October 30, 2014), who worked 6 Friesen recalls that 14 planes crashed during the first year of the among the Trio from 1965 until 1972. Lyttle, who resumed working for project; in only one two pilots were fatally killed: Rudi Kappel and World Team, and Vermeulen continued to visit these tribes afterwards Vincent Fayks (E. Friesen, personal communication, August 2017). as well, but had no permanent residence anymore.

Fellowship (MAF)8, which provided transport rarely interacted with ‘white people’. Until that at cost price for the missionaries and other time, they maintained a dense network of organizations. On January 15, 1983 an interaction, exchanges and warfare among amendment was introduced to the by-laws of themselves and with other neighboring the MAF and the name was changed to indigenous groups, and established trade ‘Surinaamse Zendings Vliegdienst’ (SZV) 9 . relations with the Maroons (Nankoe, 2017). Because SZV was still known in the interior as Schoen (1968: 2) stated that the Trio once told ‘MAF’ the name ‘MAF Suriname’ was the missionaries that their trust in them was officially added in 2013. As of 1982 this fostered by the presence of their wives and organization operates under Surinamese children. This confirmed that no harm was supervision and focuses on three target groups, intended towards their women and children. namely mission, medical care and community The narratives from Trio shaman (pïjai) Tëmeta development. (Koelewijn, 2003)10 indicated that women and children were often abducted during encounters First encounters or warfare between the tribes. These occurrences between the tribes nurtured their The focus of this article is on the early fear for outsiders, including the missionaries. interactions between the Trio and the missionaries, and the effects of those Missionary work amongst the Trio in encounters. Prior to the arrival of the Baptist Suriname and Brazil mission in the sixties of the last century, the Trio lived as a nomadic group in small- Pioneers to work among the Trio in Suriname scattered ‘villages’ or extended bands (Nankoe, were Claude (Kron) and Barbara (Maramara) 2017: 724). This way of life changed Leavitt. Prior to their activities in Suriname substantially with the arrival of the they worked with the Wai Wai in Kanashen missionaries in their communities. The first Upper Essequibo, in British Guyana for 10 encounter with the Trio did not appear to be a years, under the Unevangelized Fields Mission. warm welcome for the missionaries. These Leavitt participated in an expedition to search natives intensely feared the pananakiri (i.e. for the Trio at the invitation of Friesen due to outsiders; also used to refer to white people), a his experience with the Wai Wai. The disposition which was also embraced by the expedition set out to explore the area in Maroons in order to maintain their trade southern Suriname between the Sipaliwini monopoly with this indigenous group. They Savannah and the Kayser Mountains on were unknowledgeable about these outsiders February 4, 1960. The first contact with the and their intent and were also suspicious of the Trio was made on February 5, 1960 by Claude missionaries’ motives. Apart from brief Leavitt, Eugene Friesen and three Wai Wai encounters with expedition members in the late Christians -Totori, Kiripaka and Japoma- 11 nineteenth and early twentieth century, the Trio near the Sipaliwini airstrip where they

8 Henceforth, the Mission Aviation Fellowship will referred to as MAF. recorded the oral narratives of the Trio through former village captain The MAF was officially established as a foundation in Suriname on Tëmeta. These oral narratives are compiled in two books; the first August 2, 1967, but had commenced operations since 1964 edition (1987) is published in English in collaboration with Peter (www.maf.sr). Rivière he second edition (2003) is published in the Dutch and Trio 9 . T Henceforth, the ‘Surinaamse Zendings Vliegdienst’ will be referred language (Nankoe, 2017; see also Koelewijn & Rivière, 1987). to as SZV. 11 10 Makoepiena, personal communication, August 8, 2014; A. Cees Koelewijn lived with his family in Tëpu from 1973 until 1981 Alalaparu, personal communication, June 21, 2017. and worked as a teacher. During his residence in the village, he

encountered the first village consisting of his elder brother in the Tapanahony area, but approximately 15 persons. On the following subsequently went to Panapipa and Maha. He day, they came across the second village recalls that Leavitt went to Matatikiri to discuss consisting of approximately 30 persons where the options of settling in a single village. After they remained for four days. They also a mutual discussion between Leavitt and the encountered a third village of which the number villagers, Alalapadu was selected as the new of residents remains undocumented (De West, site for a village and Leavitt sent the message March 19, 1960: 1; E. Friesen, personal to the residents of Panapipa and Maha to communication, August 2017; See also Nichols relocate to Alalapadu, This site was chosen, 1979: 11). The Trio were not eager to receive because it was conveniently situated to build an the missionaries and attend the meetings with airstrip (personal communication, June 21, Leavitt. Japoma, the descendant of an 2017). intermarriage between a Wai Wai and a Trio, Approximately 100 people settled in the was able to speak the Trio language and new village initially. The expedition group performed a crucial role in facilitating the remained six weeks amongst the Trio. This communication between the Trio and Leavitt. provided the group with an opportunity for The Trio had already been recipients of other speech development in the local language, tribes reaching out to them, particularly the Wai while simultaneously building the airstrip. The Wai, who also became trading partners with the first missionary contact with the Trio in Brazil Trio in Suriname and Brazil. Thus, their trading developed relatively around the same time relationships and some intermarriages 12 period as in Suriname. In 1948 the Franciscan facilitated the contact (A. Alalaparu, personal missionary and ethnologist Protasio Frikel communication, June 21, 2017; See also received permission to work in the Brazilian Findlay 2011). region conducting a study on linguistic and The purpose of this first expedition was ethnic affiliations of various indigenous groups to build an airstrip near the Trio villages in over the following decades (See also Carlin, order to gain easy access to the tribe and to 1998; Rivière, 1969: 14). In 1961 the Brazilian decipher their language to facilitate the contact. Air Force (FAB) built a permanent airstrip on The present granman Ashongo13 indicated that the Paru Savannah, along the upper West Paru there were several Trio, Okomayana en River as part of a small airbase. In that same Sïkiiyana villages located in the area. He year the Franciscan mission established a provided a list of the following villages: provisional mission station on the Brazilian Panapipa, Paikarakapë, Maha, Matapimpë and side of the frontier named Missão Tiriyó, which Matatikiri. In Panapipa the inhabitants became permanent in 1963. 14 The FAB observed the airplane of Friesen fly low over cooperated with the missionaries in the village. Concurrently Ashongo was visiting establishing permanent settlements along the

12 Contacts between the Wai Wai and Trio date back for many years government needed identifiable authoritive figures and a clearly when the former killed visiting Trio men and took their women as wives defined leadership system to develop a more functional relationship (Dowdy, 1963: 228). with the indigenous groups. The Maroon model of governance was then 13 Granman is the Surinamese term originally used by the Maroons of established amongst indigenous groups (Healy, De Vries, Parahoe & Suriname to indicate the highest authority of their ethnic community. Van Ommeren, 2003). Only since 2000 have the Trio formally known In cooperation with the village council he exerts the traditional a granman, Asongo, appointed by the then president Wijdenbosch. authority over his people. He is the representative voice of his people This institutional model is only accepted by the Trio and Wayana and within the Surinamese administrative system. This traditional form of not by other indigenous groups in Suriname, namely the Lokono and administration is institutionalized within the national administrative Kaliña. system, yet it is not legally recognized. The Trio and Wayana system 14 Povos indígenas no Brasil: of authority is aligned with the traditional administrative system of the http://pib.socioambiental.org/en/povo/tiriyo/665, accessed June, 14, Maroons. In the eighties of the previous century, the national 2015.

Brazilian border for reasons of national policies towards the Trio. The Catholic mission security. The Trio in Brazil had also suffered in Brazil concentrated more on secular aspects population decline. Illnesses and deaths and paid less attention to spiritual work, while ravaged the indigenous populations of the the Baptist mission focused primary on region in the years 1950/60, but they received evangelization (Nankoe, 2017: 724). medical assistance from the St. Anthony Franciscan since 1961 (Tilkin Gallois & Mission stations, health care and education Fajardo Grupioni, 2009: 9).15 The missions in Suriname and Brazil competed with each other The implementation of missionary work in the to centralize the greatest possible number of hinterland required permanent settlement. The indigenous tribes in the vicinity. missionaries actively endeavored to assemble The Alalapadu and Palumeu mission stations in the Trio in larger sedentary settlements, since Suriname began to attract people from the West administering services would have been more Paru, Tromebatas and Marapi areas in Brazil. efficient as opposed to administering to them in Many Trio crossed the border in the 1960’s, scattered locations while living a nomadic while those who remained in Brazil clustered lifestyle. In 1960 four mission stations were around the mission station in Missão Tiriyó. founded in the interior by the WIM: the first This resulted in a conglomeration of several was near the Palumeu airstrip, followed by the tribes who lived in Alalapadu and which is still second near the Alalapadu Creek in the reflected in the current composition of Sipaliwini basin, the third at Lawa and the final Kwamalasamutu, Sipaliwini and the present one on the Sipaliwini Savannah. The Alalapadu. The Brazilian centralization process missionaries built an airstrip wherever a came to a peak around 1968, with only three mission station was established, mainly to missionary stations and no other village in the supply their families and administer the health region. The Catholic mission also attracted clinic. Friesen and Price built the airstrip near some families of the Kaxuyana and Tsikuyana the Alalapadu Creek with the assistance of the tribe. local Trio and Wayana (De West, March 19, By the end of the seventies, when most 1960:1). of the missionaries returned to their country of The subsequent airstrips at Alalapadu, origin, the emphasis on centralization was Tëpu and Kwamalasamutu were established by passing in both countries, leading to the gradu- the Trio themselves with assistance from the al resumption of a more decentralized way of missionaries, but under supervision of MAF life (see also Fajardo Grupioni, 2009).16 pilots. Although it is stated in the literature17 This resulted in a significant number of that the missionaries went to congregate the families returning to Brazil, some of which Trio in their respective villages to persuade established new villages. Rivière (1981: 2) them to live in lager settlements, it seems more stated that the two missionary organizations likely that the latter decided for themselves to differed on many accounts regarding their relocate to the mission stations thus abandoning

15 According to Nankoe (2017: 719) “these circumstances occurred due 16 Other sources: David Kaxuyna (personal communication, September to contact with outsiders and diseases they were not accustomed to. 12, 2013) and Dimitrio Amisipa Tiriyó, (personal communication, Historiography indicated that the destabilization and decline of various September 12, 2013) in Macapa, Brazil. indigenous populations resulted from non-native diseases and the 17 Heemskerk & Delvoye (2007: 37) assert that “they abandoned their demands for excessive and ultimately destructive exploitation”. For a relative isolationism in the early 1960’s, when they were persuaded by detailed description regarding the Trio state of health before the US missionaries to live in a few larger population centers”. Also Boven commencement of the Baptist mission see also Nankoe 2017: 720 -721. (2009:101) asserts that “indigenous villages were urged to settle in larger settlement”.

their relative state of isolation. 18 In fact, the helped them in sharing of the gospel. Back in missionaries had no instruments to force the the seventies we knew that civilization was Trio to move to a centralized village, since they coming. It was great having them in were dependent on the Trio and did not know isolation. When we went there you hardly their language. saw anybody from the outside and that was The Trio had become aware of the good for us and it was good for the people as missionary activities in neighboring villages (in well. They had their lifestyle and their Brazil and British-Guiana) and appeared culture, but it was good for us because we curious about the Gospel. Poor health and were trying to help them get established in population decline in the years before the something that is very new to them and if you missionaries entered their communities also had other religious groups coming in saying affected their decision to relocate. 19 Nankoe something different, then you started arguing (2017: 721) states that “the encounters with the much and so on. But we had many years back Maroons and Europeans in their habitat then when nobody was coming in and that facilitated the transmission of deadly diseases, helped us immensely to lay a strong especially tuberculosis (‘coughing disease’) foundation. We knew what was coming and and influenza. It is also presumed that the Trio we tried to help them face that; how are you were subjected to or were infected by western going to deal with it. We have learned and diseases, simply due to the fact that they lived many people said: ‘well leave the Indians in the same residential area where the Maroons alone, they are happy the way they are. Look inhabited, without actually coming into contact at the mess we made of our world’. It doesn’t with ill people.” work that way. But if you can help them The missionaries preferred to keep the prepare for what’s coming, then they will Trio isolated from the outside world due to fear have a better chance of surviving it.” (R. of contagion. The risk of diseases caused by Lytle, personal communication, September outsiders was substantial, because they already 6, 2012). suffered poor health from malaria. 20 The missionaries felt that contact with outsiders had However, the Trio were not completely to be cautiously handled in order to prevent isolated. In particular the Trio living at the extinction. In addition, they wanted to keep Palumeu mission station frequently guard over their working area and prepare the encountered outsiders, including tourists and natives for future contingencies. The following government employees, who ultimately led to quote from a missionary reinforces this notion: their relocation to Tëpu. However, Alalapadu “And one of their biggest needs was medical. was hardly visited by outsiders due to its People were dying, there was disease and geographical isolation. sickness and things. And as the missionaries Nevertheless, missionary service was were able to help them with medicine, they positively received by the Trio; they stated that saw the love of the people and they became their lives have been spiritually, physically and friends and developed this relationship that

18 This statement is based on accounts from fieldwork in (2011&2012), Alalapadu (2011), Tëpu (2013) and Palumeu (2014) also Kwamalasamutu (December 2011 & January 2012), Alalapadu endorse this statement. See also Rivière (1969). (January, 2011), Tëpu (February-March 2013) and Palumeu (August 20 Friesen noticed signs of malaria among several Trio during his visit 2014); F. Vermeulen, personal communication, October 30, 2014). in February 1960. He took blood smears from the Trio at the request of 19 R. Lyttle, personal communication, September 6, 2012. Personal the World Health Organization to reveal how prevalent malaria was communication with various elderly people in Kwamalsamutu among the tribe. The blood smears indicated that all subjects were infected by the disease (Friesen, 2015: 223).

mentally improved. 21 In her dissertation, the and an increase in life expectancy. This fact anthropologist Boven (2009: 100) stated that: was substantiated by his research findings “the fate of the Trio, Wayana and Akuriyo regarding the large proportion of four- was sealed by the permission granted to generation families. This mode of life is still the Baptist Mission to operate among these common at present. tribes. They came into the hands of the The female missionaries, some of Baptist church by the consent of the whom were trained as doctors and nurses, Government of Suriname for provided medical services including Christianization without their being aware implementation of basic hygiene to prevent of it or their involvement”. infections and skin diseases. Doctor Nancy Lepperd pioneered the medical work among the Viewed from this perspective, several Trio and Wayana in 1960 (T. Vermeulen, anthropologists rate any practices that disrupt personal communication, October 30, 2014).22 the lifestyle of indigenous tribes as damaging. The Trio perceived this service as an This may be true in terms of lack of opportunity to improve their medical situation involvement in decision making regarding the with reference to the depopulation induced governments’ permission granted to the through transmission of various diseases as missionaries desirous of entering their well as sustained fractures and other physical communities. Personal statements from Trio ailments due to warfare among the tribes. In elders revealed a contradicting perspective in addition to cannibalism in times of warfare, that missionary activities were not forced upon infanticide was administered by the tribe, them, but eventually accepted by them. In fact presumably to control the population due to it has frequently been stated by Trio elders, but their excessive dependence on natural also by several knowledgeable authors such as resources. The mission imposed a ban on Rivière, that the missionaries saved them from infanticide. In the missionaries’ view every extinction (See also Schalkwijk, 2007). child was a gift from God and therefore not be In the early sixties medical care was the killed. Since the conversion of the Trio, the primary need among the Trio due to poor health practice of infanticide was abandoned (See also and high mortality (R. Lytle, personal Schalkwijk 2007: 31-32). Patients in need of communication, September 6, 2012). Albeit advanced medical care were transported to the having their own traditional health care system, city for free by MAF. The missionaries as well they were not always capable to cope with as the Trio have stated that the latter were western diseases transmitted through contact preserved from extinction due to health care with other tribes and ethnic groups. Rivière services from the sixties onwards. (1981b: 9) stated that the major contributions of Unlike some administrative the Baptist mission included a reduction of the governments and/or missionary groups who mortality rate, an increase of the fertility rate forced cultural assimilation practices in some

21 Compilation of statements retrieved from interviews in the area below the 5th latitude was entrusted by the Surinamese Kwamalasamutu (2011 & 2012), Alalapadu (2011), Tëpu (2013) and government to three medical missionary foundations, i.e. the Medical Palumeu (2014). Mission of Suriname (MZS), the Pater Alhbrinck Foundation (PAS) 22 After the departure of doctor Lepperd in 1963, the medical care was and the Moravian Medical Mission (Medizeps) in an umbrella sustained by the physician Jan van Mazijk who periodically visited the organization. In 2002 the three organizations merged into the Stichting villages and provided counselling to the missionary clinics via radio Medical Mission Primary Health Care Suriname (MZP), which is contact. He founded the Medical Mission of Suriname (MZS) in 1966, active in more than 40 areas in Suriname. The foundation has adequate which gradually adopted the clinics and education in the villages in the clinics in the 5 main Trio villages, which are staffed by trained local hinterland from the missionaries (Nichols, 1979: 26-27; H. Debisarun, medical assistants (GZA’s). personal communication, July 23 2012). In 1977, the medical care in

communities in various regions among native hinterland, several missionary couples lived tribes, the Baptist missionaries seemed to have and worked among the Trio and Wayana while had an appreciation for maintaining native raising their children in the villages. Several cultural rituals and rites which they deemed subsequent individuals or families who lived harmless. Nevertheless, missionary activity has and/or worked among the Trio in Suriname been disruptive in certain areas of society and were: (1) Dean and Wilma Ford (Alalapadu), culture. Religious conversion and transition in (2) Joe and Tamara Hill (Tëpu), (3) Ted and traditional settlement patterns brought about Gail McKinney (Tëpu), (4) Mike and Mary- changes in their structure and culture which are Lou Jones (Kwamalasamutu), (5) Marie currently observable (Nankoe, 2017: 724). Heritage (Kwamalasamutu). In exploring the territory in 1960, Some missionaries visited Suriname for Claude Leavitt and Eugene Friesen regarded short periods, approximately several months to the area in close proximity to the Alalaparu one or two years, to experience the missionary Creek (also known as the Wioemi Creek), as work among the indigenous tribes without fully the preferred location to establish a mission internalizing their language and other station. Simultaneously, the mission station dimensions of their culture. Normally, which was established at Palumeu by the missionary families were stationed for a period missionary couples Morgan (Maksi) and Mary of four years followed by a yearlong furlough, Jane Jones and Ivan and Doris Schoen, was but some of the families returned to resume subsequently relocated to Tëpu (Pelelutëpu) in working.25 1966. Walter and Marjorie Jackson were The main objective of the Baptist stationed among the Wayana at Apetina mission was to preach the Gospel to the natives, (Puleowïme) as well as Dean and Wilma Ford in addition to which a church was established and Roy and Margaret Lytle at Kawemhakan in each village. Learning the Trio language and (Anapaike). Eventually, the Schoen family dimensions of the culture was a primary joined the Jacksons at Apetina. Fred and Trudy condition for biblical teaching. This learning Vermeulen 23 also worked among the Trio in process was built into the daily routine Palumeu and Tëpu from 1964 to 1972. activities that involved clearing agricultural Vermeulen estimated that there were only 28 plots, food collection and in the construction of people living upstream from the airstrip along homes, schools and airstrips. In propagating the Tapanahony River, mainly Wayana, when Christian morals the missionaries provided the Morgan Jones arrived at Palumeu (personal Trio with clothing (including kamisa) 26 and communication, October 30, 2014). They shoes, as they considered traditional attire to be relocated to Paluma Këni, which was indecent. Foods, tools and utensils were also established on a river island 24 opposite the goods, which they learned to use and/or mission station near the confluence of the consume. Self-sufficiency and problem-solving Palumeu and Tapanahony rivers. Since the skills were strengthened in an attempt to establishment of missionary stations in the become empowered to survive in a modern

23 Among the Trio they are known by their ‘corrupted’ names Peledie 25 Nichols, 1979: 29; R. Lytle, personal communication, September 6, and Teloedie. The Trio do not have a F in their language and replace it 2012; with a P. In addition, two consonants cannot be juxtaposed without a F. Vermeulen, personal communication, October 30, 2014. vowel. The R is also not pronounced. The first is an L sound and the 26 A kamisa is a cotton loincloth, usually red colored, which was second a D sound (F. Vermeulen, personal communication, October 30, provided by the missionaries to replace the traditional kweju. The latter 2014). is a tiny loincloth from natural materials, used by men and women, 24 This natural island is also referred to as Popoh, which means “on the which is held by a thin cord as a mini-apron around the waist to cover island”. up the genitals. The Trio often adorn this loincloth with fringes, seeds or beads.

world. This self-sufficiency was highlighted missionaries to become church leaders. In the during the internal civil war in the eighties narratives (Koelewijn, 2003) the shaman when they were completely dependent on each Tëmeta recounts the breakthrough in his other and their natural surroundings. 27 Apart conversion to Christianity at the Palumeu from evangelization, other services were mission station. The following is Tëmeta’s provided such as western medical care and reflection regarding his conversion: literacy. “They were children of God they said. Education initially comprised of First they told about Noah ... I did not teaching the Gospel through literacy. Before know, and then they told about Eve ... I the arrival of the missionaries, the Trio only did not know.” mastered an oral language and –tradition which had not been put into writing. Morgan Jones After the introduction the missionaries Jones and Claude Leavitt practiced the analysis of the and Schoen build their houses and continued to Trio language to form an alphabet and preach the Bible. Tëmeta became curious, but grammar. Walter Jackson and Ivan Schoen did was also cautious due to stories he heard about the same with the Wayana language. They the seduction by the pananakiri. His son's worked two years on establishing an alphabet sickness on his way to Paramaribo brought the in the respective languages (Nichols 1979: 19). change in his view of the Christian faith. To While learning the language, they taught the prove that the missionaries were liars and to get Trio to read and write with the help of primers rid of them, he prayed, not as a pïjai, but in the and mimeographing. They were also taught Christian way. His son recovered and that made simple arithmetic. 28 During their residence him think. among the Trio and Wayana, Claude Leavitt "How is it possible, I thought. I only and Ivan Schoen contributed towards spoke, I did not work hard at all, not like translating the bible with the assistance of with my hands, and my mouth did not several locals. In 1979 the translation of the blow or spit. Maybe it's true that God is New Testament was completed in both strong. I'll keep doing this, I thought. languages. The translation of the Old Then I became a Christian. That filled Testament in the Wayana language was my mind." (Koelewijn, 2003: 751-753). completed in 2012 by Ivan Schoen and he presented it to the people in April 2012 at their Conley (2000: 383) states that the conversion annual bible conference. Leavitt translated of the other Trio occurred when Tëmeta much of the Old Testament, which was explained the demonic purposes of his maraka completed by Fred Vermeulen (see also (rattle) among his tribesmen and handed them Conley, 2000: 392; Nichols, 1979: 22).29 over to the missionaries. This event is not described in his narratives, but the renunciation Missionary outreach and bible conferences of his maraka occured after a thorough reflection and deliberation with the spirits By 1965 most of the Trio had been converted to (Koelewijn, 2003: 754). Conley (2000: 391) Christianity and some were being trained by the continues to state that Tëmeta was not the first

27 Conley 2000; R. Lytle, personal communication, September 6, 2012; personal communication, Paramaribo July 23, 2012; R. Lytle personal F. Vermeulen, personal communication, October 30, 2014. communication, Paramaribo September 6, 2012. 28 See also Conley, 2000: 389; Nichols, 1979: 11; Kloos, 1977: 15; 29 Also, personal communication with R. Lytle (Paramaribo, September Wekker et al, 1992: 42. Other relevant sources include H. Debisarun, 6, 2012) and F. Vermeulen (Paramaribo, October 30, 2014).

believer among the Trio, but his important in (8) Coeroenie and (9) Amotopo. These position in the tribe and his diversion from congregations are members of the Surinamese shamanism facilitated the building of a strong Union of Baptist Churches. Approximately church in Palumeu. The first believer is 90% of the Trio and Wayana are Christians (H. presumed to be the late granman Pësaiphë (A. Debisarun, personal communication, July 23, Alalaparu, personal communication, June 21, 2012). The biblical teachings were passed on by 2017). The following section recounts another Trio church leaders during local ceremonies story of Tëmeta’s conversion as told by the and annually via bible conferences. missionaries: In 1973, the first interior bible “It is an interesting story, because Tëmeta conference was held at the village of Palumeu was the medicine man who was ill, and (Nichols 1979: 24; R. Lytle personal they left him in a small camp. They communication, September 6, 2012). This was returned without him because they said that a central location in the country, so the people his spirit would take revenge on them if he from the east and the west could attend. Over died. So they left him. And what we have the years, the bible conference was held heard is that Morgan Jones and Ted annually at Palumeu, but it gradually shifted to Lepperd went to pick him up and thus other villages in both Suriname and Brazil. reached Tëmeta with the Gospel. I'm not Lytle recounted the first bible conference: sure if he was the first believer. I get the “The Indians used to come together to fight impression he was, and that he was helpful. and war against each other. Now many of The people knew of the medicine men that them have become believers in the Lord they were dead within three days if they Jesus Christ and attitudes have changed. refrained from these practices. He had Those animosities were broken, were laid awoken the first morning and then the aside. Instead of coming together to fight second morning and then the third we wanted them to come together for peace morning. And then they thought that they and fellowship and encouragement and must believe that as whole spirit believers. helping one another.” (Personal Tëmeta told the people: "God in me is communication, September 6, 2012). stronger than all the spirits that I have served so far.” And thus those people After conversion, the Trio and Wayana converted. Tëmeta was a natural leader in undertook journeys to reach out to other tribes the tribe. He had a lot of respect and was a thus reaching segments of several tribes in wise man.” (F. Vermeulen, personal Suriname and Brazil. In addition to biblical communication, October, 30, 2014; T. teaching, the bible conferences are intended as Vermeulen, personal communication, a social gathering of family groups or clans and October, 30, 2014). distinct tribes. The bible conferences also Thus, leaders emerged and churches were display the variety of Trio and Wayana music, established in each Trio and Wayana village song writing and drama. There is also an from 1961 onwards. At present there are seven element of healthy competition between large congregations among the Trio and different villages. The bible conferences are Wayana in the following hinterland locations: well attended and many Trio and Wayana (1) Alalapadu, (2) Kwamalasamutu, (3) spend substantial amounts on travelling, while Sipaliwini, (4) Tëpu, (5) Apetina, (6) Palumeu, (7) Kawemhakan, and two small congregations

for the MAF it is a major logistical challenge.30 to the first contacts. Communication with the Tribal groups from Brazil attend the bible group was established due to the similarities conferences as well, often travelling many between the Akuriyo language and the Trio weeks by boat and on foot. language. The Baptist mission endeavored to The second expedition commenced in spread the Gospel to other tribes, among which September 1968 by Ivan and Doris Schoen, the Akuriyo.31 Historical accounts suggest that Claude Leavitt and fourteen natives from the this tribe lived a stone-aged and nomadic life in Lawa. The band was encountered in the forest the hinterland and intentionally shunned near the Upper Litani River. Roy Little joined contact with other Amerindian tribes and several expeditions that were conducted in the Maroons. They were presumed a ‘lost tribe’ in early seventies. The Trio, along with the the hinterland of Suriname, particularly living Wayana, were instrumental in reaching the as hunters and gatherers. However, it is Akuriyo. assumed that the Trio already coexisted with Between 1968 and 1971, the the Akuriyo, for instance in Samuwaka.32 From missionaries located a total of seven Akuriyo 1965 onwards, the Baptist mission under families in the forest. They relocated the supervision of Ivan Schoen had made several families to Tëpu after a four-month long expeditions in search of the Akuriyo to acclimatization period in the forest under determine if any members of the tribe still supervision of two Trio families (F. Ver- survived. He was occasionally accompanied by meulen, personal communication, October 30, Fred Vermeulen, Claude Leavitt and Dean 2014). This was necessary in order to gain Ford. They succeeded in contacting the information on territory, language and habits Akuriyo over the course of eight expeditions. for future plans. In 1970 a large group of The missionaries’ motives to locate the Akuriyo relocated to Alalapadu and afterwards Akuriyo was similar to their motive for locating to Kwamalasamutu in 1976. The Akuriyo were the Trio and Wayana: to bring the Gospel to the adopted by Trio families and most of them natives. Prior to those expeditions the tribe was became Christians (see also de Boer, 1970). encountered by a group of Wayana working for In line with the missionary outreach, the K.L.M. Aerocarto 33 near the Waremapan Trio are also reaching out to tribes in Northern Creek, a tributary of the Litani River. The Brazil among which is the nomadic tribe of the meeting came to the attention of the Zo’é. This tribe is considered primitive by the missionaries and on June 20, 1968 an Trio and is strongly protected by the Brazilian expedition by Ivan and Doris Schoen, Art and government, through the ‘Fundação National Abby Johner, and Dean Ford, with the do Indio’ (FUNAI, National Indian assistance of five Trio and five Wayana, set out Foundation), which has officially been to find the Akuriyo (Schoen, 1968: 1-2). After acknowledged. Brazilian Indigenous four days, they encountered a group which led legislation declares that the FUNAI is

30 The villages of the Trio and Wayana are located at long distances in River who dreaded them because of their aggressive nature (1970: 260). the Southern Suriname and can be reached only by air. The villagers Akoerio or Akurijo is presumably the name of one of their subgroups, pay for the distance between the villages, while MAF subsidizes the the Akuri (Schoen, 1971: 14). other costs (distance from Paramaribo to the villages, and transport of 32 This assumption was stated by several informants. It is also aviation gasoline). mentioned in the narratives of Tëmeta (Koelewijn, 2003). Samuwaka 31 Based on the literature, this tribe is also referred to as Wajarekoelé or seemed to be the first large settlement situated in the Sipaliwini Wayarekule (Geijkes, 1970:261, Schoen: 1968); Wama (Alhbrinck Savannah, close to a large rock named Kantani, south of the current 1956), Akoerio or Akurijo (Kloos, 1977). Geijskes asserts that this tribe border of Suriname with Brazil (Nankoe, 2017: 725). or a related tribe was long known as Wajarekoelé by other upland 33 KLM-Aerocarto was assigned to aerial surveying by the colonial indigenous tribes and by the Bush Negroes living along the Tapanahony government from the 1940’s-1960’s.

responsible for mapping out and protecting even though the Brazilian government tries to land that are traditionally inhabited and used by prevent these encounters. This is in line with the indigenous communities, and to prevent their journeys to reach other tribes with the invasion of indigenous territories by outsiders. Gospel. This practice confirms that the Trio In practice this signifies that the outside world have adopted the approach used by the Baptist and other indigenous tribes are prohibited to missionaries regarding evangelization.34 contact the Zo’é without the permission from FUNAI. In 2010 a group of Trio church Transition from Trio settlement patterns members from Suriname (Kwamalasamutu) and Brazil (Missão Tiriyó) successfully The congregation of the Trio, including their approached this tribe under the radar after subgroups, and other Amerindian tribes in learning about their primitive conditions. larger sedentary settlements during the 1960’ Gifts were exchanged and the group s resulted in a gradual transition to sedentary prayed for their wellbeing and sincerity in village life. This was however not their first receiving the Gospel. The Surinamese Trio congregation. The oral history of the Trio goes viewed the Zo’é as backward, as they back to the eighteenth century Samuwaka, previously were themselves, in terms of which appeared to be the first agglomeration of lifestyle. In their view the Zo’é deserved to be settlements near the Sipaliwini Savannah, subjected to a similar process which they had where several different or related tribes lived undergone in order to improve their wellbeing together. 35 Cohabiting as a large population and ultimately their survival. Upon returning to did not seem sustainable due to the pressure that Suriname, a young male Zo’é was eager to such large populations imposed on the natural join the group despite the protests of the tribe environment for nutritional self-sufficiency, leader. The leader was afraid of the reprisals by thus resulting in the dispersion to other regions the FUNAI, but after negotiation he gave the in Suriname and Brazil (Nankoe, 2017: 725- young man permission to visit 727). Under the influence of the Baptist mission Kwamalasamutu. This visit lasted for some of these indigenous tribes once again approximately three months and he had to merged into two main villages, Alalapadu and return to his living erea because his son fell ill. Palumeu in 1960. As a consequence, the During his stay he adapted to village life, traditional life of the Trio was subjected to participating in social and religious activities. significant changes in their culture, including Thus, the FUNAI eventually learned about the their social, economic, administrative and encounter with the Trio, seizing all the gifts. demographic structure in the widest sense of This caused tension between the FUNAI and development. The provision of western health the Trio, in particularly Missão Tiriyó. In care ultimately resulted in improved physical September 2012, FUNAI demanded a meeting well-being and, thus, alterations in their with the Trio chiefs Sëmëntoe from Brazil and demographic structure in sedentary lifestyle. Ashongo from Suriname. It seems that the Trio The major merits of the Baptist mission have a commitment to help these people and included reduction of the mortality rate, believe that God wants them to reach the tribe increase of the fertility rate and increase of life

34 For a detailed description of the missionary outreach among the occupied and unoccupied settlements (Nankoe, 2017: 728). Boven Akuriyo and Zo'e see my forthcoming dissertation. (2001) also provided a map of various former Trio villages, among 35 In 2009 the Amazon Conservation Team designed two which was Samuwaka (see Nankoe, 2017: 727). geographical maps of the traditional lands of the Trio and Wayana in collaboration with the local communities, which included mapping of

expectancy, thus, resulting in population which involved pruning of the trees, building growth. 36 Table 1 presents an over-view of their huts, and establishing their gardens. demographic development in 1965 and the first Additionally, they were required to await half year of 1966. An increase in the population harvest from the newly established gardens between 1965 and the first half of 1966 can be before mass migration. noticed. Since the fertility and mortality rates Presently, Kwamalasamutu is the were low, the increase in population can be largest Trio community, accounting for almost attributed to natural migration from Brazil and two-third of the Surinamese Trio population. between the villages in Suriname. Between 1998 and 2000 inhabitants from Kwamalasamutu, who were originally from Table 1: Population characteristic of the Trio villages Brazil, migrated back to their country to secure In 1965 and 1966 their nationality, property and social security Mission station benefits. This was a period when the economic Total Alalapadu Palumeu situation in Suriname was declining due to high 1965* 1966** 1965 1966 1965 1966 inflation, which stimulated migration to Brazil. Total population 320 319 225 244 545 563 Most of the returning immigrants were elderly # living births 16 2 16 4 32 6 and did not wish to live longer in # lifeless births 0 1 1 1 1 2 aforementioned village.38 In addition granman Infant mortality 2 0 1 1 3 1 Ashongo, the present leader, has been (> 1 year) encouraging his people to disperse again over a Child mortality 2 1 0 0 2 1 (1-12 years) larger area upwards towards the Corantijn river Mortality 7 2 3 2 10 4 basin. Heemkerk & Delvoye (2007: 32) noted (due to diseases) Birth surplus 9 0 13 2 22 2 that the granman sent several of his captains Source: Van Mazijk, 1966a/1966b with their extended families to the following * the figures for 1965 for both villages cover the entire year. strategically located villages that mark the ** the figures of 1966 for both villages cover the first half year. boundaries of the Trio territory: A turning point in their sedentary (1) to Wanapan (1998), settlement history was the mass migration from (2) to Alalapadu (1999), Alalapadu to Kwamalasamutu which occurred (3) to Sipaliwini (2000), from 1975 to 1979. The reason for dispersal (4) to Kuruni (+ 2001-2), was the depletion of the natural resources base (5) to Kasuelen (Guyana; + 2002), near the villages due to a population increase. (6) to Amotopo (2003), As fish and game became sparser, the (7) to Lucie (2004). inhabitants traveled further distances in search of food. The population of Alalapadu numbered (See also Mans, 2012: 121). approximately 500 inhabitants at the time of the One reason for the second wave of migration 37 first migration to Kwamalasamutu. This was once again the awareness of population migration process was a considerable growth at Kwamalasamutu, thus exerting transition. It occurred over a span of years, as pressures on the natural resources base near the the Trio had to strengthen their livelihood,

36 Rivière (1966: 103) recounted in his article ‘a policy for the Trio “demographic evidence was already emerging at Alalapadu in 1963 Indian of Suriname’ that “there were approximately 220 Trio at where there were seven births and eleven deaths of which seven were Palumeu and 160 at Alalapadu in April 1964, some of whom had of children under thirteen years. In 1964 the figures were twelve births moved into Suriname from Brazil. By March 1965 the population at and only one single death.” (Rivière, 1966: 111). Alalapadu increased to approximately 300 persons due to migration 37 E. Oochpaataapo, personal communication, February 7, 2012. from Brazil and also from Palumeu.” He further implied that 38 Ibidem.

village. However, another reason for this the first and second-generation residents in dispersal was to re-claim the traditional Trio Palumeu and Tëpu inhabited these villages: lands in support of territorial claims. Since the some of the second-generation residents were 1970’s the issue of the indigenous lands rights even born there. For those who were born has been on the agenda of the government, but elsewhere, the following villages and regions yet to be legally resolved. were mentioned: (1) Mataware, (2) Alalapadu is currently one of the Kariwïntumphe (Pokorowa River), (3) fastest growing Trio villages in Suriname. Kapiwaraië ënï, (4) Tëpu Inkapiru, (5) Okoime, Pësaihpë was the first elected village chief in (6) Samuwaka, (7) Arawataïme, and (8) Alalapadu, and acknowledged as granman of Kwepipan. Several of these villages and the Trio in Suriname by the Surinamese regions could be traced and located on the government from 1965 on. After his passing in Amazon Conservation Team’s geographical 1997, he was succeeded by Ashongo Alalaparu. map of the traditional lands of the Trio and Presently, a grandson of Ashongo is appointed Wayana in respectively south-western and by the Trio people to succeed the present central Suriname, respectively, after comparing granman. One of Pësaihpë’s descendants, the them to other sources (see also Nankoe, 2017). late captain Euka, was village leader of Sipaliwini, which was founded in the 1960’s. It Table 2: Total population of the Trio villages between 1973 and 1977. was however a sparsely populated area until Population per village 1997, when Euka reestablished the village, Total initiating the process of migration in 1998. Year Alalapadu Tëpu Population

Population concentration in the three nuclei 1973 445 341 786 missions was transitory, as the population 1974 500* 350 850 gradually returned to a more decentralized way 1975 500* 350 850 of life. 1976 580 369 949 Prior to their permanent settlement in 1977 603** 352 955 1961, the Trio living around the Palumeu and Source: Van Mazijk 1978. Tapanahoni rivers were concentrated in the * estimated number based on incomplete data. following 6 villages: (1) Makuimë Enï, (2) ** joint number of Alalapadu and Kwamalasamutu due to the relocation that started in 1976. Makuimë (3) Imphe, (4) Awarapë, (4) Pënimë, (5) Pajesoela 39 and (6) Tepoe. 40 The latter People from the Brazilian side migrated originated as a small camp, but was later from the Eastern-Paru, Marapi and Jari Rivers abandoned when the residents moved to to the Tapanahony-Palumeu River basin. Palumeu. The aforementioned villages origin- According to Trio informants in Palumeu and nated upstream in close proximity to the border Tëpu, Tëpu Inkapiru and Okoime were villages with Brazil and the Trio gradually moved situated in Suriname near Samuwaka. Okoime downstream to Paloema Këni 41 , which was can be traced on the map of various Trio established on an island near the confluence of villages provided by Boven (2001) (see also the Tapanahony and Palumeu Rivers opposite Nankoe, 2017: 727). Furthermore, in the oral the Palumeu mission station. The majority of tradition of Palumeu and Tëpu, the following

39 Paje was a Maroon who drowned in the rapids (‘soela’) when his boat 40 Fielwork data Tëpu (2013) and Palemeu (2014). toppled in the river. The village, which was situated on an island in the 41 This natural island is also referred to as Monkey Island by the local Palumeu River, thus derived its name from this person and the event people of Palumeu. that occurred.

village leaders were frequently mentioned: missionaries Fred Vermeulen and Morgan Joeroe, Kawate (son of Joeroe), Joepie, Phisede Jones. The majority of the inhabitants moved and Arabaja. Kawate is referred to as the first from Palumeu to Tëpu, while only those Trio village leader in the Tapanahony-Palemeu working for the government on the airstrip, River basin. KLM Aerocarto, the Hydrodynamics Service He lived in Arawataïme which was (‘Dienst Waterloopkunde’), and the GMD abandoned at his wife’s death, after which he remained in the village.42 founded a new village called Paratoeroe. He In 1989, during the interior war, the was succeeded by Arabaja who was the leader majority of the people fled Tëpu due to an of Kwepipan and who died in 1989. Phisede incursion of the Jungle Commando led by was the third village leader up till his death in Ronny Brunswijk. Many of the people fled to 1999. He was succeeded by the late Pikumi Brazil, namely to Mataware, while some fled to who made a self-declaration as the region’s Palumeu and Kwamalasamutu or went into granman since the year 2000, although such hiding in the jungle for a short period of time. office was not recognized by the Surinamese The Trio became involved in the conflict when government. Joepie was the village leader of weapons and soldiers were sent at the command Pajesoela. One account refers to the dispute of the national army in order to establish a between Arabaja and Phisede. Both of them militia among a group of young Trio men in the claimed to be the granman, whilst Pësaihpë was interior. This resulted in the incursion by the acknowledged as the official granman of the Jungle Commando to disarm this group. Since Trio by the Surinamese government. Kawate no shooting occurred, there were no fatalities. was initially succeeded by Aroepie, who was After this incident, a small group of residents supposedly poisoned by Arabaja and Tëmeta. who escaped into the jungle returned to the The former was then elected as granman by the village, but the majority of the refugees community. After his death Phisede made a remained in refugee villages. The former self-declaration as the granman (personal struggled with self-preservation, because many communication with F. Vermeulen, October families were dispersed and their living 30, 2014 and T. Vermeulen, October 30, 2014). conditions were shattered. Nevertheless, they Presently, the villages of Palumeu and Tëpu are managed to reconstruct their livelihoods and governed by Pïside Paddoe and Moshisi villages, thus resulting in the gradual re- Shanauphe (the son of the late Tëmeta), migration of refugees back to Tëpu at the respectively. beginning of the nineties. However, to date a Pelelutëpu (Tëpu) came into existence small group of former residents have not in 1966 due to the influx of tourists and returned. 43 (See also Boven, 2001, 32; government workers into Palumeu. The Heemskerk & Devloye, 2007: 38). This Palumeu airstrip was a busy landing, serving as incident confirms the resilience of the Trio to a starting point for expeditions of the stand their ground in adverse circumstances. Geological Mining Department (GMD) and other companies and institutions. The inhabi- Present geographical location tants of Palumeu migrated further up the river and located Tëpu with assistance of the

42 Fielworkdata from Tëpu (2013) and Palemeu (2014); R. Lytle, 43 Compilation of statements from keypersons in Tëpu, (2013) and Personal communication, September 6, 2012. Palumeu (2014); C. Koelewijn, personal communication, November 2, 2012.

At present the Trio populate a large area in the northern Amazon Region, on both sides along the Suriname-Brazil border. The demarcation between Brazil and Suriname covers the watershed of the rivers that flow northward toward the Atlantic Ocean and the southern streams that flow into the Amazon River. The natural habitat of the Trio is thus cross- bordered, transcending the geopolitical boundaries of both countries. Mans (2012: 16) states that the political boundaries have created two different spheres of influence, which have affected both the Surinamese and the Brazilian Trio in a different manner. The Trio habitat is in fact divided into three subsets. In Suriname, the Trio live in (1) the upper Sipaliwini-

Corantijn River basin (tributaries are the Figure 1: Trio village communities in Suriname Kutari- and Kuruni River and the Wioemi Source: Heemskerk en Delvoye, 2007: 31 creek) and (2) the Tapanahony-Palumeu River basin. The villages are mainly situated along Conclusion the banks of rivers and creeks, with the exception of Sipaliwini, which is located in the The Trio lived in relative isolation in relation to savannah near the Sipaliwini Nature Reserve. the city before their encounters with In Brazil, they live in the (3) Terra Indigena missionaries. Through efforts of some pioneer Parque do Tumucumaque (Tumuchumac missionaries, the Baptist mission gained Reserve) alongside the Paru- and the Marapi permission to execute their activities among the River (See also Fajardo Grupioni/Iepé, 2009). Trio. Missionary activity from 1960 onwards In Suriname the Trio reside in ten has been disruptive in certain areas of Trio village communities in the resorts of Coeroeni society, but also had a huge impact on the and Tapanahony, i.e. Kwamalasamutu, demographic growth and psychical well-being Sipaliwini, Alalapadu, Amotopo, Wanapan, of this indigenous group. Religious conversion Coeroeni, Lucie, Sandlanding, Tëpu and and transformation of traditional settlement Palumeu. Figure 1 shows the location of the patterns were the most visible effects of Trio on the Surinamese map. missionary activity and obvious changes in On the western side of the their structure and culture. These changes are Tumachumac, reserve the Trio cohabit with the still presently unfolding. Nowadays, the Trio Kaxuyana and Tsikiyana tribe in the large still populate a large area in the northern village of Missão alongside the West-Paru Amazon Region, on both sides of the Suriname- River and separately alongside the Marapi Brazil border, consisting of small population River in the villages Castanhal, Aiki, Maripa, settlements with low demographic density. Kuxaré, Urunai, Yawa en Marítëpu. In the east, Although the Trio follow a sedentary the Trio inhabit the villages of Cachoerinha and lifestyle and hold permanent residence in a Mataware alongside the Eastern-Paru River. village, population numbers in the village

communities can fluctuate due to the high FAJARDO GRUPIONI, D. & IEPÉ, 2009. Arte Visual spatial mobility of the residents. They often dos Povos Tiriyó e Kaxuyana: padrões de uma estética ameríndia. São Paolo: Iepé. travel for longer periods visiting family, FINDLAY, D.G.A., 2011. Trio en Wayana Indianen in forging (marriage) alliances, attending (bible) Suriname. Paramaribo: Uitgeverij de West conferences in Brazil or in nearby villages, FRIESEN, E. W., 2015. Reflections at eventide. Tucson: seeking medical or other services in the city, or Good Oak Press, LLC. migrating temporarily to other areas in the GEIJSKES, DIRK C., 1970. Documentary Information about the Surinam Wama or Akurio Indians. country for labor purposes. Nieuwe West-Indische Gids 47: 206-258. The travel distances between the HEALY, CH., DE VRIES, B., PARAHOE, M. & H. different villages and regions require that they VAN OMMEREN, 2003. Kwamalasamutu: an stay there for a longer periods of time. The analysis of governance, resource management and transition to a sedentary settlement area also development issues. Paramaribo: Amazon Conservation Team. means that the traditional life of the Trio was HEEMSKERK, M. & K. DELVOYE, 2007. Trio base- subjected to significant changes in their culture, line study: a sustainable livelihoods perspective on including their social, economic, administrative the Trio Indigenous Peoples of South Suriname. and demographic structure in the widest sense Paramaribo: Amazone Conservation Team. of development. The construction of airstrips in JABINI, F., 2000. Het kruis voor een Kankantrie: een beknopt overzicht van de Surinaamse Kerkgeschie- each Trio settlement also facilitated increased denis. Paramaribo: Evangelische Boekhandel De mobility, especially to the city, but nevertheless Christen. the villages still remain geographically KLOOS, P., 1974. Het Idianenprobleem in Zuid- isolated. Amerika. Assen: Van Gorcum & Comp.B.V. KLOOS, P., 1977. The Akuriyo of Surinam: a case of emergence from isolation. Kopenhagen: Bibliography International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs. KOELEWIJN, C., 2003. Tëmeta Inponopïhpë Panpira AHLBRINCK, W., 1956. Op zoek naar de Indianen. (Testament van Tamenta). Katwijk: Van den Berg. Amsterdam: Koninklijk Instituut voor de Tropen. KOELEWIJN, C. & P. RIVIÈRE, 1987. Oral literature BOER, M. W. H. de, 1970. Report of a contact with of the Trio Indians of Surinam. Leiden: Koninklijk Stone-Age Indians in Southern Suriname. Nieuwe Instituut voor Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde. West-Indische Gids 47: 249-259. MANS, J., 2012. Amatopoan Trails: a recent archeology BOVEN, K., 2001. Samuwaka herdacht: een of Trio movements. Leiden: Sidestone Press. geschiedenis van het Trio volk. Paramaribo: MAZIJK, J. van (1966a). Het medisch werk van de Amazone Conservation Team. Surinam Interior Fellowship in het tweede halfjaar BOVEN, K., 2009. Overleven in een grensgebied: van 1965. Paramaribo: author. veranderings-processen bij de Wayana in Suriname MAZIJK, J. van (1966b). Het medisch werk van de en Frans-Guyana. Amsterdam: Rozenberg Surinam Interior Fellowship in het eerste halfjaar Publishers. van 1966. Paramaribo: author. CARLIN, EITHNE, 1998. Speech Community MAZIJK, J. van (1978). Verslag van vijf jaren Medische Formation: A Socio-linguistic Profile of the Trio of Zending in Suriname. Paramaribo: author Suriname. Nieuwe West-Indische Gids 72: 4-42. CONLEY, J.F., 2000. Drumbeats that Changed the NANKOE, M., 2017. Trio’s in Suriname and Brazil: a World: A History of the Regions beyond brief history. www.adekusjournal.sr Missionary Union and the West Indies Mission, NICHOLS, A., 1979. I will build my Church. 1873-1999. California: William Carey Library. Paramaribo: np. DE WEST, “Friesen terug van Sipaliwini-Savannah”, RIVIÈRE, P., 1966. A policy for the Trio Indians of March 19, 1960. Suriname. Nieuwe West-Indische Gids 45: 95- DOWDY, H., 1963. Christ’s Witchdoctor. Michigan: 120RIVIÈRE, P., 1969. Marriage among the Trio. Zondervan Publishing House. A principle of social organization. Oxford: Clarendon Press.

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