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Notes Chapter 1 The Making of the Japanese Physicist 1. Inazp Nitobe, Bushido: The Soul of Japan (Tokyo: Kodansha International, 2002), p. 152. First published in 1900 by The Leeds and Biddle Co., Philadelphia. Revised edition published in 1905. 2. Nitobe, Bushido, p. 134. 3. For a fuller exploration of this, see Kam Louie and Morris Low (eds), Asian Masculinities: The Meaning and Practice of Manhood in China and Japan (London: Routledge Curzon, 2003). 4. Motoko Kuwahara, “Japanese Women in Science and Technology,” Minerva, vol. 39 (2001), 203–216, esp. p. 208. 5. Iwan Rhys Morus, Michael Faraday and the Electrical Century (Cambridge, UK: Icon Books, 2004), pp. 7–8. 6. Ray A. Moore, “Adoption and Samurai Mobility in Tokugawa Japan,” The Journal of Asian Studies, vol. 29, no. 3 (May 1970), 617–32. 7. Sharon Traweek, “Generating High Energy Physics in Japan: Moral Imperatives of a Future Pluperfect,” unpublished paper. A version pub- lished in David Kaiser (ed.), Pedagogy and Practice in Physics: Historical and Contemporary Perspectives (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2005). 8. James Richard Bartholomew, “The Acculturation of Science in Japan: Kitasato Shibasaburo and the Japanese Bacteriological Community, 1885–1920,” unpublished PhD dissertation, Department of History, Stanford University, 1971, p. 228. 9. Bartholomew, “Acculturation of Science,” p. 234. 10. Thomas W. Burkmann, “Nationalist Actors in the Internationalist Theatre: Nitobe Inazp and Ishii Kikujirp and the League of Nations,” in Dick Stegewerns (ed.), Nationalism and Internationalism in Imperial Japan: Autonomy, Asian Brotherhood, or World Citizenship (London: Routledge Curzon, 2003), pp. 89–113. 11. Masayoshi Sugimoto and David L. Swain, Science and Culture in Traditional Japan (Rutland, Vermont/Tokyo: Tuttle, 1989), pp. 224, 229. 202 Notes 12. Shigeru Nakayama, Characteristics of Scientific Development in Japan (New Delhi: The Centre for the Study of Science, Technology and Development, CSIR, 1977), pp. 8–9. 13. Thomas Sprat, “Sprat’s Criticisms of Artisans, 1667,” in Hugh Kearney (ed.), Origins of the Scientific Revolution (London: Longman, 1964), pp. 141–42, esp. p. 141. Extract from his History of the Royal Society (1667). 14. James Richard Bartholomew, The Formation of Science in Japan: Building a Research Tradition (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1989), pp. 18, 22–23. 15. Bartholomew, Formation of Science, p. 21. 16. Bartholomew, Formation of Science, pp. 23, 32–34. Quote (from Yukichi Fukuzawa) on p. 34 taken from Masao Maruyama, “Fukuzawa Yukichi no jukyp hihan” (“Yukichi Fukuzawa’s Criticism of Confucianism”), in Tokyo Imperial University (ed.), Tokyo Teikoku Daigaku gakujutsu taikan: Hpgakubu keizai gakubu (Tokyo Imperial University Research: Law and Economics) (Tokyo: Tokyo Imperial University, 1942), p. 415. 17. Bartholomew, Formation of Science, p. 4. 18. Andrew E. Barshay, State and Intellectual in Imperial Japan: The Public Man in Crisis (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988), pp. xiii, 24. 19. See Shigeru Nakayama, “Japanese Scientific Thought,” in Charles C. Gillispie (ed.), Dictionary of Scientific Biography: Volume 15, Supplement 1, Topical Essays (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1978), pp. 728–58. 20. Sugimoto and Swain, Science and Culture, pp. 305–306. 21. Bartholomew, Formation of Science, p. 133; Shigeru Nakayama, Teikoku daigaku no tanjp (The Birth of Imperial Universities) (Tokyo: Chup Kpronsha, 1978), esp. pp. 34–71. For details of this process, see D.E. Westney, Imitation and Innovation: The Transfer of Western Organizational Patterns to Meiji Japan (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1987). 22. Shigeru Nakayama, trans. Jerry Dusenbury, Academic and Scientific Traditions in China, Japan and the West (Tokyo: University of Tokyo Press, 1984), pp. 219–20. 23. Bartholomew, Formation of Science, p. 144. 24. James Richard Bartholomew, “The Japanese Scientific Community in Formation, 1870–1920: Part 1,” Journal of Asian Affairs, vol. 5, no. 1 (1980), pp. 62–84. 25. Kenkichirp Koizumi, “The Emergence of Japan’s First Physicists: 1868–1900,” Historical Studies in the Physical Sciences, vol. 6 (1975), pp. 3–108, esp. pp. 50–51. 26. Nakayama, Academic and Scientific Traditions, p. 209. 27. See Nakayama, “Japanese Scientific Thought,” pp. 728–58. 28. Nakayama, Academic and Scientific Traditions, pp. 210–11. Notes 203 29. Bartholomew, Formation of Science, p. 65. 30. W.H. Brock, “The Japanese Connexion: Engineering in Tokyo, London, and Glasgow at the End of the Nineteenth Century,” British Journal for the History of Science, vol. 14, no. 48 (1981), pp. 227–43. 31. Nobuhiro Miyoshi, Meiji no enjinia kypiku (Meiji Engineering Education) (Tokyo: Chup Kpronsha, 1983), pp. 195–96. 32. Eikoh Shimao, “Some Aspects of Japanese Science, 1868–1945,” Annals of Science, vol. 46 (1989), pp. 69–91, esp. pp. 74–75. 33. Hiro Tawara, Pioneers of Physics in the Early Days of Japan (Amsterdam: North Holland, ca. 1989), pp. 57–58. 34. Kenkichirp Koizumi, “The Development of Physics in Meiji Japan: 1868–1912,” unpublished PhD dissertation, University of Pennsylvania, 1973, pp. 244–47. 35. Erwin Baelz, Das Leben eines deutschen Arztes im erwachenden Japan (Stuttgart: J. Engelhorns Nachfolger, 1931). Cited in Masao Watanabe, trans. Otto Theodor Benfey, The Japanese and Western Science (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1990), p. 125. 36. Watanabe, The Japanese, p. 5. 37. Cited in Watanabe, The Japanese, p. 20. 38. Susumu Tonegawa, “Questioning Japanese Creativity,” in Japanese, Kagaku Asahi (August 1987), pp. 51–75, cited in Watanabe, The Japanese, pp. 130–31. 39. Nakayama, Academic and Scientific Traditions, p. 51. For carpentry, see William H. Coaldrake, The Way of the Carpenter: Tools and Japanese Architecture (New York: Weatherhill, 1990). 40. For details, see Chikayoshi Kamatani, “History of Research Organization in Japan,” Japanese Studies in the History of Science, no. 2 (1963), pp. 1–77, esp. pp. 34, 38. 41. According to Bartholomew, this degree was invented in the late 1880s by the Japanese Minister of Education and given for significant contributions to one’s field, as judged by one’s peers. There are various types of doctorates depending on the field. The rigaku hakasegp is for science and is often written as DSc to distinguish it from others. Although there is no exact equivalent elsewhere, it tends toward a German PhD with formal dissertation. For an explanation, see Bartholomew, Formation of Science, pp. 51–52. 42. Eri Yagi, “The Statistical Analysis of the Growth of Physics in Japan,” in Shigeru Nakayama, David L. Swain, and Eri Yagi (eds), Science and Society in Modern Japan: Selected Historical Sources (Tokyo: University of Tokyo Press, 1974), pp. 108–113. 43. For further details of the Imperial Institute, see David Cahan, An Institute for an Empire: The Physikalisch-Technische Reichsanstalt, 1871–1918 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989). 44. See Michael A. Cusumano, “ ‘Scientific Industry’: Strategy, Technology, and Entrepreneurship in Prewar Japan,” in William D. Wray (ed.), Managing Industrial Enterprise: Cases from Japan’s 204 Notes Prewar Experience (Cambridge, MA: Council on East Asian Studies, Harvard University, 1989), pp. 269–315, esp. p. 274. Quoted passage in Kiyonobu Itakura, Kiyonobu, and Eri Yagi, “The Japanese Research System and the Establishment of the Institute of Physical and Chemical Research,” in Nakayama, Swain, and Yagi (eds), Science and Society, pp. 158–201, esp. pp. 191–92. 45. Shimao, “Some Aspects,” pp. 69–91, esp. pp. 84–85. 46. Tetu Hirosige, Kindai kagaku saikp (Reevaluating Modern Science) (Tokyo: Asahi Shinbunsha, 1979), pp. 181–83. 47. Shimao, “Some Aspects,” p. 86. 48. See Table 115, “Estimated Trained Personnel in Selected Scientific and Technical Professions, 1947,” in General Headquarters, Supreme Commander of the Allied Powers, Japanese Natural Resources: A Comprehensive Survey (Tokyo, 1949), p. 519. 49. General Headquarters, p. 506. 50. Shigeru Nakayama, Science, Technology and Society in Postwar Japan (London: Kegan Paul International, 1991), pp. 61–62. 51. Tetu Hirosige, Kagaku no shakaishi: Kindai Nihon no kagaku taisei (The Social History of Science: The Organization of Science in Modern Japan) (Tokyo: Chup Kpronsha, 1973), p. 295. 52. David Kaiser, “Cold War Requisitions, Scientific Manpower, and the Production of American Physicists after World War II,” Historical Studies in the Physical and Biological Sciences, vol. 33, part 1 (Fall 2002), pp. 131–59. 53. Barshay, State and Intellectual, p. 228. 54. Chalmers Johnson, MITI and the Japanese Miracle: The Growth of Industrial Policy, 1925–1975 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1982), p. 307. Chapter 2 Mobilizing Science in World War II: Yoshio Nishina 1. Letter, May 5, 1933, Y. Nishina to G. Hevesy, in G. Hevesy–Y. Nishina: Correspondence, 1928–1949 (Tokyo: Nishina Memorial Foundation, 1983), pp. 10–11. 2. He does, however, lend his name to the “Klein–Nishina formula,” which he and O. Klein arrived at in 1928 to describe the differential cross-section of Compton scattering, enabling one to calculate the probability or frequency of scattering of high-energy quanta by electrons. See Yuji Yazaki, “Klein-Nishina kpshiki dpshutsu no katei (1): Riken no Nishina shiryp o chushin ni” (“How was the Klein- Nishina Formula Derived? (Part 1): Based on the Nishina Archives at Riken”), Kagakushi kenkyu (Studies in the History of Science), series 2, vol. 31, no. 182 (Summer 1992), pp. 81–91. 3. Joseph M. Goedertier, A Dictionary
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