JANUARY Is the First Month in the Modern Calendar and Has 31 Days

JANUARY is the first month in the modern calendar and has 31 days. Although the days have begun to grow longer by this point during the year, the temperature in the Northern Hemisphere continues to fall, making January one of the coldest, most oppressive months of the year. In 1853 the Russian emperor Nicholas I said, “Russia has two generals in whom she can con- fide—January and February,” referring to the bru- tal winter months which have frequently defended the country against invaders. The name (Januar- ius in Latin) is derived from the two-faced Roman god Janus, who is simultaneously looking forward and backward. Some scholars have claimed that the name Janus is from the Latin ianua, meaning door, while others have explained it as the mascu- line form of Diana, which would be Dianus or Ianus. There are many conflicting theories about Janus and his role in the Roman religion. He apparently figured prominently as the god of all beginnings, watching over gates and doorways and presiding over the first hour of the day, the first day of the month, and the first month of the year. His name was invoked at the start of important undertakings, perhaps with the idea that his intervention as the “janitor” of all avenues would speed prayers directly to the immor- tals. Janus was also entitled Consivius, or sower, in reference to his role as the beginner or orig- inator of agriculture. As the animistic spirit of doorways (ianuae) and arches (iani), Janus guarded the numerous ceremonial gateways in Rome. These freestanding structures—such as the Ianus geminus, the arcade or covered passage facing east and west and located at the north- east end of the Roman Forum—were used for noteworthy entrances and exits on state occa- sions, and for troops marching to and returning from battle. The early Romans originally began the calendar year with Martius (see March), until Numa Pompilius (715–673 B.C.), as is supposed, decreed that two new months should be added at the end of the 10 previous ones. He called the first of these additions Januarius, in honor of Janus. In 153 B.C. the Roman state proclaimed January 1 to be New Year’s Day, thus turning the 11th month, Januarius, into the first month of the year. After the fall of the Roman Empire and throughout the Middle Ages, however, political fragmentation, meager communications, and the hostility of the Catholic Church to pagan traditions resulted in much diversity in the mark- ing of the new year. Finally, in 1582 Pope Gregory XIII instituted a calendar that began on Jan- uary 1, an innovation that over the next 170 years was gradually accepted by Protestants as well. The Anglo-Saxons called January Wulf-monath in allusion to the hunger of the wolves, which made them bold enough at that time of year to leave the forests and enter the villages in search of food. The name Aefter-Yule was also used to designate the month after the great feast of Christmas. Charlemagne, the early medieval Frankish emperor, appropriately called January Wintarmanoth or Wintermonth. The Native Americans knew the month as Snow Moon, while the French Revolutionary calendar similarly designated the period from late December to early January as Nivôse (snowy). In ancient and modern times, particular stones have been connected with the various months. The lucky gem or birthstone often associated with January is the garnet, which symbolizes con- stancy.

three-day-long holiday known as Shogatsu January 1 Sanganichi. The start of the new year has a special meaning for the Japanese, for it sym- Japanese New Year bolizes the birth of their nation, in mythologi- cal time, as well as a new beginning in the The Japanese New Year celebration is a chronological calendar. On this day, they try to start anew, finishing payment of their The International Book of Days 3 January 1 debts and completing projects rather than Special dishes cooked for the holiday are an carrying them over to the following year. It is important tradition as well. Since most of the a time for families to come together and stores are closed during the festivities, rice spend time visiting shrines, watching holiday and vegetables, which keep well, are very programs, or playing games. Many families important in the creation of meals. One go on vacation, taking advantage of the important dish is Omochi—steamed rice, extended time off from work. The celebration pounded and shaped into cakes, and then is filled with traditional observances that are either grilled and eaten or put into soup. believed to ensure a prosperous and happy There are many other rituals and customs future. that accompany the New Year celebrations. One important custom practiced at this For instance, on January 2 storekeepers cele- time is Susuharai, the cleaning of the house. brate Hatsuni, a ceremony for the arrival and Cleaning the house thoroughly is thought to stocking of the year’s first merchandise. On purify the home spiritually and physically of January 2, Kaizome, the year’s first calli- any stains remaining from the previous year, graphic writing done with a brush, is also cel- thereby preparing it for the upcoming year. ebrated. On the third day of the holiday, To encourage good luck, pine decorations Gagaku, special dances and music are per- called Kadomatsu are placed on either side of formed at the Imperial Court in Tokyo. the entrance to the home, and a Shimenawa, or sacred rope, is hung from above the door- Act of Union Between Great way. Strips of zig-zag paper are attached to the rope, which is made of straw, to ward off Britain and Ireland Creates the evil spirits. United Kingdom On New Year’s Eve, families stay up until midnight to hear the bells of the Buddhist The Act of Union between Great Britain temples, which toll 108 times, cleansing peo- and Ireland went into effect on January 1, ple of 108 sins. New Year’s Day begins with 1801, joining the two nations into a single people presenting offerings to household gods kingdom. Among other stipulations, Dublin’s and making resolutions for the upcoming parliament was abolished and Ireland was year. Although the Japanese visit shrines represented in Westminster; the Anglican throughout the year, the First Visit, or Hat- Church became the official church of Ireland; sumairi, on New Year’s Day is particularly and Catholics were prohibited from holding important. On this visit, they are supposed to public office. The union took place in the pray for a prosperous and happy year, and wake of the French declaration of war on special charms are issued at local shrines to England in 1793. While Irish Protestants secure the worshipers’ happiness. Sending wanted to remain allies with England, Irish cards to friends and relatives is also a popu- Catholics admired France’s revolutionary lar custom. On New Year’s Day, the post ideals of liberty, equality, fraternity, and office delivers bundles of cards to each house. democracy. The Catholics wanted emancipa- Visiting friends and family on the new year is tion from Anglican persecution, to break their also an important tradition called Nenshi. ties with England, and to unite the country. The holiday season, which extends beyond Because the Protestants feared that Irish the official conclusion of New Year festivities Catholics would unite with the French and on January 3, is an especially joyous time for create an independent Ireland accessible to children, who receive gifts and money, play England’s enemies, the Protestants pushed special games, and are allowed to wear their for an Act of Union in an attempt to forever nicest clothes. A popular card game played unite Ireland and Great Britain. during the holiday is known as Karuta, in which cards with pictures or words are Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein Is spread out. As the reader recites the first Published part of a poem, the other players scramble to find the card holding the last piece of it. Girls The book Frankenstein; or the Modern like to play Hane-tsuki, a game otherwise Prometheus, the “hideous progeny” of 19- known as battledore or shuttlecock, and the year-old Mary Shelley, was published on this strong winds around this time of year are day in 1818. It was the product of an alleged ideal for flying kites. bet between Mary and the English poets Lord

4 The International Book of Days January 1

Byron and Percy Bysshe Shelley, her hus- deaths of everyone he loves. The book’s vivid band. Not only did Mary win the bet—to imagery and the manner in which it write a ghost story—made during one partic- addresses complex moral and philosophical ularly rainy summer in Switzerland in 1816, issues about science and human rights have but the story she produced has become a clas- resonated with readers for nearly two centu- sic of Gothic literature and one of the most ries, making it a favorite work of students famous works in the English language. By and film adaptors worldwide. the end of the 20th century, her story about a brilliant but overly ambitious scientist Commonwealth of Australia named Victor Frankenstein, who steals thun- Comes into Being der from the gods by restoring life to a dead human being, had inspired numerous film and television adaptations and become Until January 1, 1901, when the Common- ingrained in Western culture. Victor’s wealth of Australia was officially formed, the Promethean endeavor in “giving birth” to his continent of Australia consisted of six sepa- malformed creature has served as a caution- rate British colonies, each with its own set of ary tale for scientists for nearly two centu- laws and governing practices. The British ries. had first settled Australia in 1788, when they The daughter of feminist Mary Woll- established a penal colony on the continent, stonecraft and the philosopher William God- but free settlers began arriving shortly after- win, Mary Shelley received a unique wards in the 1790s. Before long, six gover- education. Her mother died while giving nors were administering to the separate birth to her in 1797, so Mary was raised by colonies of Victoria, New South Wales, her father in a house frequented by some of Queensland, South Australia, Western Aus- the most radical philosophical minds in tralia, and Tasmania. Great Britain passed Europe. She listened to their conversations an act that gave the colonies further auton- while reading their works and those of her omy in 1850, but in time the system by which mother, who had vigorously promoted the they governed separately proved to be detri- education of young girls. Mary eloped with mental to the security and economic well- Percy Shelley in 1814 while he was still mar- being of all. A central government was ried to his wife Harriet, prompting Godwin to needed to deal with such issues as defense, cut off all communication with Mary for two trade, and immigration. Many also felt the years. In 1816 Harriet drowned herself and taxes on goods transported between colonies her unborn child (her third with Percy); Mary and Percy Shelley married, and Mary and her father began speaking again. During her elopement with Shelley, Mary had given birth prematurely to a girl, Clara, who had died shortly thereafter, and then to a healthy boy, William. Mary’s personal history is reflected in Frankenstein, with its themes of parental rejection, the trauma of childbirth, and the tragedy of untimely death. When the novel (Mary’s first) was published, it was greeted with a fair amount of shock, and many did not believe that it could have been written by a young woman. Women who did write during the 19th century typically produced bucolic domestic tales of virtuous heroines whose primary goal was to preserve or establish a happy marriage and family life. Frankenstein, by contrast, is a domestic nightmare, in which men isolate themselves from their families, parents reject children, an innocent creature is deemed “monstrous” by his father and by society, and one man’s attempt to play God causes the Australia with its neighboring countries. The International Book of Days 5 January 1 should be abolished along with customs and From the beginning NAFTA was controver- quarantine checks. In 1897, in a climate of sial. Labor groups in the United States feared growing nationalism, a constitution was the loss of jobs to Mexico, which could supply drawn up, and the Australian populace voted cheaper labor, and environmental groups decisively for it. The British Parliament then were concerned that laws controlling pollu- passed an act allowing Australia to become tion and food safety would be more difficult to its own nation, and in 1901 the Common- enforce. In an attempt to appease both wealth was officially formed. groups, the three countries signed supple- mental agreements addressing some of these Republic of China Is Founded issues in 1993. In late 1994 talks began to expand NAFTA to include all Latin American The founding of the Republic of China on nations, except for Cuba, as long as that January 1, 1912, was a result of the success- nation remained communist. ful Wuchang Uprising of October 10, 1911, a day celebrated as Double Tenth, or National Unified Currency in Europe Is Day, in Taiwan. The uprising was an antifeu- Adopted dal, anti-imperialist revolution which forced Chinese emperor Xuan Tong of the Qing During the 20th century, the use of multi- dynasty and his government to abdicate. The ple European currencies was inconveniencing new government of the Republic of China tourists, companies doing business in Europe, (ROC) elected Dr. Sun Yat-sen its interim and small towns along each country’s bor- president and created a democratic constitu- ders. In order to relieve this difficulty, on tion declaring all people equal, regardless of January 1, 1999, 11 nations—Austria, Bel- class or race, and entitled to the freedoms of gium, France, Finland, Germany, Ireland, speech, religion, and association. In 1949 Italy, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Spain, and Chinese communists took over the govern- Portugal—surrendered their national curren- ment of mainland China and, with the back- cies and adopted the euro, a unified Euro- ing of the Soviet Union, formed the People’s pean currency. On January 1, 2001, Greece Republic of China. The ROC government was became the 12th nation to do so. By January forced to move to the tiny island of Taiwan off 1, 2002, the national currencies of the 12 the coast of China, where it remains indepen- countries were phased out of circulation, and dent of mainland rule. all banking, stocks, bonds, and debts were quoted exclusively in the euro. In the years North American Free Trade before the new system took effect, competi- Agreement (NAFTA) Takes tions were held for the designs of the euro banknote and coins, with Robert Kalina of Effect the Austrian Central Bank winning for his banknote design in 1996, and the coin design Signed in 1992 by Prime Minister Brian of Luc Luycx of the Belgian Royal Mint being Mulroney of Canada, President George H. W. chosen in 1997. Bush of the United States, and President One important purpose of uniting all of Carlos Salinas de Gortari of Mexico, the Europe under a single form of currency was North American Free Trade Agreement to enable the participating nations, with their (NAFTA) went into effect on January 1, 1994. combined annual output of $6.28 trillion, to It removed tariffs and other investment and compete as a single force with America’s dom- trade barriers on goods produced and sold inant $8.1-trillion economy. To achieve this between the three countries in the course of feat, the nations involved had to overcome the next 15 years. The agreement also elimi- philosophical differences as well as disagree- nated restrictions on automobiles, agricul- ments regarding control of the new European tural products, textiles, and investments. It central bank. As of this writing, not all of the called for minimum wages, safe working con- 15 members of the European Union, estab- ditions, and environmental protection while lished on February 7, 1992, have adopted the protecting copyrights, patents, and trade- euro; Denmark and the United Kingdom marks. have opted out of the currency’s adoption, while Sweden is expected to adopt it in the near future.

6 The International Book of Days January 2

Cuban Liberation Day

January 1 commemorates two significant anniversaries for the Caribbean island nation of Cuba. On this day in 1899, Cuba won its independence from Spain after several years of conflict, and, 60 years later to the day, Fidel Castro overthrew the regime of Fulgen- cio Batista. The leader of Cuba’s struggle for independence was its national hero, José Martí, who returned from exile in 1895 and announced a “call to arms.” Banished to Spain at the age of 17, Martí openly argued against colonial rule. His views on liberty and patriotism were heavily influenced by the writings of Father Felix Varela, whose Lecciones de filosofia had been the primary textbook for Cubans during the 19th century. Martí had published an exposé about the horrific treatment of politi- The statue of José Martí at Central Park in cal prisoners in Cuba and believed that con- New York City depicts the moment he was flict was rooted in good and evil, not in class mortally wounded during the battle for and race. When he returned to Cuba in 1895, Cuba’s liberation from the Spanish. he rejoined the war for Cuban independence on the Moncada barracks in Oriente province, that he had carefully organized while in exile. an action that led to his imprisonment. The United States became involved in the Released on amnesty, Castro launched conflict in February 1898 after the explosion another unsuccessful attack, on December 2, of the USS Maine in Havana Harbor, an 1956, with his newly formed July 26th Revo- event that triggered the Spanish-American lutionary Movement, but he was forced to War. As a consequence of winning the war, retreat into the mountains, where he carried America gained control of Cuba in December on guerrilla warfare against Batista’s govern- 1898 under the terms of the Treaty of Paris. ment. Alienated as they were by Batista’s By January 1, 1899, Cuba was free from harsh rule and the decline of the Cuban econ- Spanish rule but remained under American omy, a growing number of followers joined control until 1902, when it was finally Castro. Finally Castro’s guerrilla tactics granted full independence. forced Batista to flee Cuba on January 1, After gaining its independence from the 1959, at which time Castro assumed power. United States, Cuba soon spiraled into tur- Soon afterward, Castro allied Cuba with the moil. Military rulers came to power by force, Soviet Union and established the only com- politicians were corrupt, and uprisings were munist regime in the Western Hemisphere. frequent. In 1933, Sergeant Fulgencio He has survived numerous political crises, Batista led a revolt that established himself including several confrontations with the as a dominant political force in Cuba for the United States, and remains Cuba’s dictator next 25 years. In 1952, under conditions of to this day. See related articles throughout widespread gangsterism and political unrest, this book. Batista was able to justify a coup d’état, taking power and canceling scheduled elections for that year. January 2 Fidel Castro, a lawyer born in the Oriente province of Cuba and educated at the Univer- sity of Havana Law School, had intended to Berchtold’s Day run for a seat in parliament in 1952. With the election canceled and the court rejecting Cas- Berchtold’s Day, celebrated in Liechten- tro’s petition that Batista had violated the stein and Switzerland on January 2, pays constitution, Castro saw no other course of tribute to Berchtold V, duke of Zähringen, action than to stage a revolt. On July 26, who founded Switzerland’s capitol, Bern, in 1953, he led his supporters in a failed attack 1191. Berchtold was appointed by the Ger- The International Book of Days 7 January 2 man emperor Lothar II to be one of the chan- It had taken centuries for the Spanish to cellors of Burgundy, which included not only reconquer their country, a process known as present-day Burgundy in France but also the the Reconquista, and their success symbol- territory west of the river Aare in the French- ized the eclipse of Islamic civilization and the speaking area of present-day Switzerland. growing might of European nation-states. These chancellors defended the land from Christianity was introduced into Spain by rebellious nobles while safeguarding a strate- the Visigoths, a Germanic tribe which had gically important mountain route from Ger- invaded from the north and conquered Spain many down through Italy. Berchtold decided and part of France in A.D. 419. In 711 invad- to build his city in Upper Burgundy, on the ers from North Africa, galvanized by the rev- Aare in the area surrounding Nydegg Castle, olutionary new faith of Islam, changed the a fortress built perhaps in the 11th century course of Spanish history forever. Known as and around which a small village had grown. the Moors and led by Tariq ibn Ziyad, they Legend has it that, during a hunt in the crossed the Strait of Gibraltar into Spain and woods surrounding the village, Berchtold defeated the Visigothic king Roderigo near said he would name the city after the first Barbate. The Islamic forces swept through animal that was killed. That animal was a Spain and into France, where their jugger- bear, or bern in German, and thus the capitol naut was finally halted near Tours and Poit- of Switzerland is named Bern. However, iers by the Frankish king Charles Martel in some believe that Bern may have been 732. named for Verona, which was called Bern or The Moors now controlled all of Spain, Welsch Bern in German during the Middle except for small areas in the north. Spain Ages. became part of the vast caliphate of Dam- ascus, which ruled North Africa and much of Granada Falls: Spain the Middle East. Dynastic power struggles eventually weakened the caliphate, until the Completes the Reconquista independent Spanish emirate of Córdoba was established in 756, ruled by the Umayyad On January 2, 1492, Spanish forces took dynasty. Meanwhile, the remaining Visig- the city of Granada, the last outpost of the othic Christian kingdoms in the north main- Moors who had once ruled virtually all of tained a precarious independence, and by Spain and terrified Europe with their armies. 1037 they were united under a single ruler, Ferdinand I. The Moorish caliphate of Córdoba was one of the most prosperous and advanced states in Europe. Córdoba itself rivaled Constanti- nople for the beauty of its architecture and as a center of learning and culture. The Cór- doban caliphs also improved agriculture by building irrigation systems, encouraged commerce, and sponsored many fine universities. Ancient Greek literature, nearly lost to the rest of Europe during this period, was known and studied in Córdoba. The Christian kingdoms to the north did, nevertheless, overrun Córdoba and several other Moorish holdings with the end of the Umayyad dynasty in 1036. The Christian Reconquista suffered a temporary setback when new Islamic forces arrived from North Africa, but it resumed apace in the 13th century. By 1212 most of Spain was ruled by the Christian states of Castile and León in the northwest and Aragon in the east, with the Moors confined to Cádiz and Granada. In Modern-day Spain with its neighboring 1469 Queen Isabella I of Castile and King countries. Ferdinand V of Aragon were married, bring- 8 The International Book of Days January 3 ing both kingdoms under joint rule by 1479. large storehouse, a watchtower, a powder In 1480 a parliamentary assembly, known as house, and a hospital. Archeologists have also a Cortes, was held at Toledo and acted to cen- found the remains of a church, the first in the tralize royal authority in Castile while New World, at the site of the first mass held reforming government institutions. Ferdi- in the New World on January 6, 1494. A nand and Isabella, both fervent Catholics, quarry about a half a mile away from the site also introduced the infamous Spanish Inqui- reveals evidence of the first Old World–style sition into their domains. Now stronger than manufacturing in America of such items as ever and inspired by religious zeal, they cannon balls and ceramic pottery. launched a decade-long war against Moorish Granada. On January 2, 1492, they finally took Granada, and nearly eight centuries of January 3 Reconquista came to an end. The fall of Granada in 1492 signified Cicero’s Birthday Spain’s appearance on the European scene as a great power. Later that same year Colum- Marcus Tullius Cicero, the famous Roman bus would discover America and Spain would statesman and writer, was born into a begin to build a worldwide empire. Isabella’s wealthy family on or about January 3, 106 death in 1504 momentarily stalled Spain’s B.C., in the Italian city of Arpinum, now rise, as Castile’s throne passed to Joanna and known as Arpino. As a public official, he then to her husband Philip. However, Philip fought the political changes and centraliza- died in 1506 and Ferdinand asserted control tion of power in the hands of a small elite over Castile. He died in 1516 and was suc- that eventually turned the Roman Republic ceeded by his grandson Charles, who as heir into the Roman Empire. His contributions to to both Aragon and Castile became the first Roman literature include books on oratory, king of a united Spain. rhetoric, and philosophy, in addition to his letters and political treatises. La Isabela Is Founded Cicero attended schools in Rome and Greece and also studied law. His first known During Christopher Columbus’s second appearance in the Roman courts was in 81 voyage for Spain, the explorer landed on the B.C. Cicero quickly earned a reputation as an northern coast of Hispaniola (today the exceptional lawyer and orator, but he decided Dominican Republic) on January 2, 1494, at to enter public service in 75 B.C. and accepted which time he founded La Isabela, the first a commission as a quaestor, or financial settlement in the New World. Although it administrator, in Sicily. Over time he seemed like an ideal spot, the colony was achieved the judicial office of praetor, a posi- soon plagued by diseases and pounded by tion of some importance in Roman politics. hurricanes, at least two of which resulted in During the 60s B.C., Cicero became more the loss of several vessels. The site also suf- deeply involved in the political affairs of the fered from a lack of fresh water, and the pau- centuries-old Roman Republic, which had city of gold found there created friction been weakened by civil wars, slave rebellions, among the settlers, who jealously coveted the and unrest among the peoples that the commodity. The weight of these crises caused Romans had conquered over the centuries. dissension and rebellion against Columbus Ambitious and powerful politicians, generals, among the men, while the native Tainos were aristocrats, and wealthy men of commerce also provoked into hostility against the Span- were contesting for control over the decaying iards—and Columbus in particular. In 1498 Republic. This struggle would eventually lead King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella of Spain to the destruction of the Republic and its ordered the establishment of a new settle- replacement by the Roman Empire, under ment on the southern shore of the island, which an emperor and a narrow oligarchy of today known as Santo Domingo, and La Isa- military leaders, bureaucrats, and members bela was abandoned. of the imperial families ruled the Roman While the Spaniards occupied La Isabela, lands with a decidedly undemocratic hand. they erected a number of structures that Cicero fought this transition, ultimately have been uncovered by recent archeological without success. excavations. These include a barracks, a

The International Book of Days 9 January 3

Cicero first allied himself with the oppo- politically inconvenient for both Octavian nents of Marcus Licinius Crassus, the and Mark Antony, and he was executed on wealthiest man in Rome and also the com- December 7, 43 B.C., near Formia in Italy. mander of several legions. Cicero opposed The severed head and hands of the man Crassus’s desire to parlay his wealth, aristo- who opposed the demise of the Roman Repub- cratic prestige, and military power into rule lic were publicly displayed at the forum in over the Republic, and was successful enough Rome. The Roman Empire, which followed, in this quest to achieve election in 63 B.C. as lasted until A.D. 476 in Western Europe, and consul, one of the most ancient and respected its eastern half lasted until the 15th century offices in the Republic. under various guises. Cicero used his new position to expose the seditious machinations of Catiline, a politi- March of Dimes Is Founded cian who unsuccessfully attempted to assas- sinate Cicero, flee Rome, and organize a Founded by U.S. president Franklin D. rebellion throughout Italy. Cicero had Cat- Roosevelt on January 3, 1938, the National iline captured and executed, an act that Foundation for Infantile Paralysis is today earned him enormous popularity among the known as the March of Dimes Birth Defects Roman people. However, he was unable to Foundation. It was originally established to unite the populace and stem the Republic’s find a cure for polio, a disease that had crip- decline. In 60 B.C. Cicero refused to join Cras- pled Roosevelt at the age of 39 and which had sus, Julius Caesar, and Pompey in a political reached epidemic proportions among Amer- alliance, and in 58 B.C. he fled Rome in fear ica’s youth. The nickname March of Dimes, a for his life as more anti-Republican adversar- play on the popular newsreel feature “March ies rose to power. Cicero lived in exile until 57 of Time,” was coined by comedian Eddie Can- B.C. and then returned for the next few years tor, who urged radio listeners interested in to work against the Crassus-Caesar-Pompey donating to the organization to send their alliance, which now dominated Roman poli- dimes directly to the White House. After this tics. hugely successful campaign, the name stuck, During the 50s B.C.—Cicero’s most produc- but the National Foundation would not offi- tive period as a writer—he wrote some of his cially change its name to the March of Dimes most famous books, including On the Orator until 1979. Money from the foundation (55 B.C.), On the Republic (54–52 B.C.), and helped to fund the research of Dr. Jonas Salk, On the Laws (52 B.C.) He studied philosophy, who discovered a vaccine against polio in wrote hundreds of letters that have survived 1948. The March of Dimes is now dedicated to this day, and perfected his distinctive to preventing birth defects and infant mortal- prose style. Cicero also served as governor of ity and to improving the health of infants. the province of Cilicia in 51 B.C. Cicero returned to Rome from Cilicia in 50 B.C. to find that Julius Caesar was now eliminating United States Severs his former allies, including Pompey and Cras- Diplomatic Relations with sus, in order to consolidate his political con- Cuba trol and establish a de facto dictatorship. Resigned to defeat, Cicero left public service The United States and Cuba officially sev- for private life and ended his open opposition ered diplomatic relations on January 3, 1961, to Caesar. He lived quietly and continued his after nearly 100 years of U.S. involvement in writing. Cuban affairs. The Cuban government, led by After Caesar’s assassination in 44 B.C., Fidel Castro, who had become prime minister Cicero continued to advocate a return to the in 1959, had reestablished diplomatic rela- traditions of the Roman Republic, supporting tions with the Soviet Union in 1960 and had Caesar’s adopted son Octavian in Octavian’s negotiated agreements with the Soviet Union power struggle with a new leader named to eliminate Cuban dependence on the Mark Antony. Cicero wrongly thought that United States. After Cuba seized and nation- Octavian would restore the Republic, but alized U.S. petroleum properties in June Octavian eventually made himself the 1960, a U.S. trade embargo was imposed on emperor Augustus, first emperor of the the country in August. By September the first Roman Empire. Meanwhile, Cicero became shipment of Soviet arms had reached Cuba

10 The International Book of Days January 3 and were being assembled. By December Russia, which was still reeling from the fall of Cuba had openly admitted to aligning itself the Communist regime in 1991, felt that the with the Soviet Union, but on January 2, country was in no position to make decisions 1961, Soviet leader Nikita Krushchev pub- on its nuclear arsenal in a time of economic licly denied that the Soviet Union had estab- uncertainty. They believed that, given Rus- lished a military base on the island, a claim sia’s rapidly declining economy, the country that would be disproved in October of 1961 would not be able to afford the cost of replac- during the Cuban Missile Crisis. See The ing the multiple warheads with single war- American Book of Days, 4th edition, for infor- heads, and that possessing MIRVed ICBMs mation about the latter event. was the most economical way for Russia to remain on a level playing field with the U.S. People’s Uprising With or without START II, Russia was going (Burkina Faso) to have to reduce its military forces for economic reasons, and maintaining MIRVed ICBMs was their last chance to remain a A coup popularly known as the People’s superpower. Uprising was led by Lt. Col. Sangoulé Lami- The Duma’s second concern was a strategic zana in Upper Volta, present-day Burkina one. Those who opposed START II felt that Faso, on January 3, 1966. Upper Volta, Russia’s national security would be threat- located in Western Africa, had gained its ened by the cut in the nuclear stockpile. independence from France on August 5, 1960, NATO expansion and the spread of the and Maurice Yaméogo had become its first United States’ international presence were president. Yaméogo proceeded to ban all seen as direct threats to Russia, and, with the political parties except for his, the Voltaic already heavy reductions in Russia’s conven- Democratic Union. Ethnic conflicts and eco- tional forces, the Duma thought it was the nomic instability caused unrest, and wrong time to agree to further military cuts. Yaméogo found his supporters dwindling. The Duma also believed that replenishing its After numerous strikes and demonstrations forces, should the treaty fail, would be more by civil servants, labor unions, and students, difficult for Russia than it would be for the Yaméogo was ousted in the coup headed by United States. There was also the question of Lt. Col. Lamizana in 1966. After he assumed the Anti-Ballistic Missile (ABM) Treaty of power, Lamizana dissolved the constitution 1972. With the U.S. looking to amend the and the national assembly, and prohibited all ABM Treaty to allow for missile defense political activity. Upper Volta, which changed shields to be constructed to defend against its name to Burkina Faso in 1984, has experi- rogue states, Russia worried about its future. enced an almost continuous cycle of political If Russia signed START II, further reducing upheaval ever since. its nuclear stockpiles, the United States could truly have the upper hand if it ever put START II Treaty Is Signed a missile defense shield in place over Europe. Many feared that the United States could The second Strategic Arms Reduction possibly use that shield one day against Rus- Treaty (START II), was signed on January 3, sia, which neither had such a defensive shield 1993, by presidents George H. W. Bush of the of its own nor could afford to build one. Also, United States and Boris Yeltsin of Russia. START II dealt with land-based nuclear mis- START II was a bilateral arms control treaty siles, not the kinds of sea- or air-launched aimed at cutting both countries’ nuclear arse- nuclear missiles that the United States pos- nals by two-thirds. It stipulated that each sessed but Russia did not. country would reduce its strategic nuclear Those in favor of START II in Russia even- warhead stockpiles to 3,000–3,500 by 2007. It tually prevailed, and the Duma ratified the also required all ground-launched interconti- treaty on April 14, 2000. Supporters of nental ballistic missiles (ICBMs) with multi- START II saw it as a good way to reduce the ple independently targetable reentry vehicles cost of maintaining strategic forces, which (MIRVs) to be eliminated as well. would have to be done due to the downturn in The U.S. Senate ratified START II on Jan- the Russian economy. It was also viewed as uary 26, 1996, but the Russian Duma was not an effective means of forcing the United as supportive. They had several concerns, the States to reduce its own nuclear arsenal. The first being economic. Strategic planners in money Russia saved on maintaining strategic The International Book of Days 11 January 4 forces could then be used to improve its con- dently discovered calculus in 1675 and pub- ventional forces, which were in shambles, lished his findings. It was Leibniz who while still maintaining something of a actually coined the word calculus, and he got nuclear defense system. Many Russian stra- sole credit for the achievement until Newton tegic missiles were also past, or quickly finally published his own work in the field. approaching the end of, their service life and While Lucasian Professor, Newton devel- were going to have to be discarded anyway. oped an interest in optics beginning in 1670. By signing START II, Russia would not have He discovered that a beam of white light the financial burden of replacing them. Rus- could be broken into a spectrum of colors by sia would also have more leverage in thwart- passing it through a glass prism. Newton also ing attempts made by the United States to perfected a new type of telescope called a amend the ABM Treaty. Finally, Russia saw reflecting telescope, which earned him a posi- START II as a way to stay out of another tion as Fellow of the Royal Society in 1672. nuclear arms race with the most powerful His “corpuscular” theory concerning the country in the world. nature of light earned him some criticism, however, to which he reacted by withdrawing to Cambridge. His book Opticks was not pub- January 4 lished until 1704. The death of his mother and what may have been a nervous break- Isaac Newton’s Birthday down in 1678 further contributed to Newton’s self-imposed isolation. During the 1680s Newton emerged from Isaac Newton was born on January 4, 1643, this seclusion with his discovery of the laws in Woolsthorpe, near Grantham in Lincoln- of universal gravitation. Until Albert Ein- shire, England. His parents were prosperous stein published his special and general theo- farmers, though he never knew his father, ries of relativity in the early 20th century, who died in October 1642, before Isaac was the motions of all objects on Earth and in born. His mother, Hannah Ayscough, remar- space were explained by the force Newton ried in 1645 to Barnabas Smith, a minister in named gravity. Whether or not Newton’s the- the nearby village of North Witham. Isaac ories were actually inspired by his being hit was largely raised by his grandmother, Marg- by a falling apple while sleeping under a tree ery Ayscough, in Woolsthorpe. He entered is uncertain. For many decades the story was Trinity College at the University of Cam- discredited, but more recently it has gained bridge in 1661 and graduated with a bache- some credence. Regardless, in 1687 Newton lor’s degree in 1665. published his ground-breaking treatise Newton received a fellowship from Cam- Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathemat- bridge and was awarded his master’s degree ica, or Principia, as it is usually called, in in 1668. It was while he pursued his master’s which he set forth the laws of gravity and degree that Newton developed the revolution- motion. The book was a success and is quite ary new mathematics of differential and inte- likely his greatest contribution to scientific gral calculus, which he referred to as progress. “fluxions.” Calculus enabled the user to solve Newton also became involved in a struggle such problems as finding the lengths of against the efforts of the unpopular Roman curves and the area swept by curves. Catholic king James II to make Cambridge a In 1669 Newton was appointed to the pres- Catholic university. When a position at Cam- tigious Lucasian Chair at the University of bridge became vacant, the king would Cambridge and given the official title of appoint a Roman Catholic to fill it, a policy Lucasian Professor of Mathematics. His that Newton and other Protestant faculty mathematical abilities and discoveries were members challenged. In 1688 James II was by now widely known in English academia, ousted in the Glorious Revolution, which and, although in 1671 he wrote his book De brought the Protestant king William of Methodis Serierum et Fluxionum concerning Orange to the English throne. Cambridge calculus, he was reluctant to publish it. New- elected Newton as one of its representatives ton did not tolerate criticism, and he kept his to the Convention Parliament of 1689, at discoveries out of the limelight. This came to which William and his queen Mary were haunt him when a German mathematician crowned England’s monarchs. named Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz indepen-

12 The International Book of Days