area handbook series j Libya a country study ~APR 131989D N Appwvlf'd fo: public releaulJ 8 9 410 042 Libya a country study Federal Research Division Library of Congress Edited by Helen Chapin Metz Research Completed December 1987 -- ..... .....- II, Jr.- / ~41 tjell On the cover: Beduins approaching a Libyan oasis Fourth Edition, 1989; First Printing, 1989. .Copyright '01989 United States Government as represented by the Secretary of the Army. All rights reserved. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Libya: a country study. (Area handbook series) (DA pam.; 550-85) "Research completed September 1987." Bibliography: pp. 305-324. Includes index. 1. Libya. I. Metz, Helen Chapin, 1928- 11I.Library of Congress. Federal Research Division. III. Series "DT215."533 1988 961'.2 88-60041 S DTIC TAB8 Unanno!! Headquarters, Department of the Army itbtl DA Pam 550-85 AvailhWbtiw -'odes For Wedt by h Superintenden of Docients,t U 9 8ovemmea d Wathingion D.C. 20402 Order No. 008-020-00817-6 $ M911.00 Foreword This volume is one in a continuing series of books now being prepared by the Federal Research Division of the Library of Con- gress under the Country Studies-Area Haýndbook Program. The last page of this book lists the other published studies. Most books in the series deal with a particular foreign country, describing and analyzing its political, economic, social, and national security systems and institutions, and examining the interrelation- ships of those systems and the ways they are shaped by cultural factors. Each study is written by a multidisciplinary team of social scientists. The authors seek to provide a basic understanding of the observed society, striving for a dynamic rather than a static portrayal. Particular attention is devoted to the people who make up the society, their origins, dominant beliefs and values, their com- mon interests and the issues on which they are divided, the nature and extent of their involvement with national institutions, and their attitudes toward each other and toward their social system and political order. The books represent the analysis of the authors and should not be construed as an expression of an official United States govern- ment position, policy, or decision. The authors have sought to adhere to accepted standards of scholarly objectivity. Corrections, additions, and suggestions for changes from readers will be wel- comed for use in future editions. Carol Migdalovitz Acting Chief Federal Research Division Library of Congress Washington, D.C. 20540 Preceding Page/s Blank In Document ½ •\ - . " • •. Acknowledgments The authors wish to acknowledge the contributions of the fol- lowing individuals who wrote the 1979 edition of Libya: A Country Study, which was edited by Harold D. Nelson: Robert Rinehart, "Historical Setting"; David S. McMorris, "The Society and Its Environment"; Howard I. Blutstein, "The Economy"; William A. Mussen, Jr., "Government and Politics"; and David R. Holmes and Harold D. Nelson, "National Security." Their work provided the organization and structure of the present volume, as well as substantial portions of the text. The authors are grateful to individuals in various government agencies and private institutions who gave of their time, research materials, and expertise to the production of this book, especially Marius and Mary Jane Deeb and I. William Zartman. The authors also wish to thank members of the Federal Research Division staff who contributed directly to the preparation of the manuscript. These people include Thomas Collelo, the substantive reviewer of all the textual material; Richard F. Nyrop, who reviewed all drafts and served as liaison with the sponsoring agency; and Martha E. Hopkins, who edited the manuscript, with the assistance of Marilyn L. Majeska, and managed book production. Mary Campbell Wild performed final prepublication review, Also involved in prepar- ing the text were editorial assistants Barbara Edgerton, Monica Shimmin, and Izella Watson. Mary Bodnar of Communicators Connections compiled the index. Malinda B. Neale of the Library of Congress Composing Unit set the type, under the direction of Peggy Pixley. Invaluable graphics support was provided by David P. Cabitto, assisted by Sandra K. Cotugno. Carolina E. Forrester reviewed the map drafts and Greenhorne and O'Mara, Inc., prepared the final maps. Special thanks are owed to Kimberly A. Lord, who designed the cover artwork and the illustrations on the title page of each chapter. The authors would like to thank several individuals who provided research and operational support. ArviesJ. Staton supplied infor- mation on ranks and insignia; Afaf S. McGowan obtained photo- graphs; Robert S. Mason revised one of the chapters; Gwendolyn B. Batts typed manuscript drafts; and Cleophus Coleman transported materials. Finally, the authors acknowledge the generosity r-f the many individuals and public and private agencies who allowed their photographs to be used in this study. v Contents Page Foreword .............................. iii Acknowledgments ........................... , Preface ................................... xiii Country Profile ............................. ×, Introduction ............................... xxiii Chapter 1. Historical Setting ................. 1 La Verle Berry EARLY HISTORY ................................... 4 Tripolitania and the Phoenicians ................... 5 Cyrenaica and the Greeks ........................ 6 Fezzan and the Garamentes .. .................... 7 Libya and the Romans ........................... 8 ISLAM AND THE ARABS ............................. 10 Fatim ids .. ................................... 13 Hilalians ...................................... 14 H afsids .. .................................... 15 Medieval Cyrenaica and Fezzan .................. 16 OTTOMAN REGENCY ............................... 17 Pashas and Deys ............................... 18 Karamanlis .................................... 19 The Ottoman Revival ........................... 20 The Sanusi Order .. ............................ 21 ITALIAN COLONIALISM ............................. 23 Italian Rule and Arab Resistance ................. 24 The Second Italo-Sanusi War .................... 27 The Fourth Shore .............................. 29 WORLD WAR II AND INDEPENDENCE ............... 31 The Desert War ............................... 32 Allied Administration . ......................... .33 The United Nations and Libya ................... 34 INDEPENDENT LIBYA ............................... 37 The September 1969 Coup ....................... 42 Qadhafi and the Revolutionary Command Council . 44 The Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya ..... 47 Petroleum Politics .. ............................ 50 Libya and Arab Unity .......................... 52 vii Libyan Ventures in Sub-Saharan Africa ........... 55 Relations with the United States and Western Europe . 56 Chapter 2. The Society and Its Environment .. .. 61 LaVerle Berry GEOGRAPHY ........................................ 64 Regions ...................................... 64 Climate and f-ydrology . ........................ 68 POPULATION ....................................... 70 ETHNIC GROUPS AND LANGUAGES ................. 73 Peoples of Libya ............................... 73 Languages of Libya .. .......................... 79 STRUCTURE OF SOCIETY ........................... 81 Evolutionary Changes in a Traditional Society ...... 81 The Revolution and Social Change ................ 85 THE FAMILY, THE INDIVIDUAL, AND THE SEXES ... 91 Family and Household .......................... 91 The Traditional View of Men and Women ......... 93 The New Society of the Revolutionary Era ......... 95 RELIGIOUS LIFE .................................... 98 Tenets of Islam . .............................. 100 Saints and Brotherhoods . ....................... 102 The Sanusis . ................................. 103 Islam in Revolutionary Libya . ................... 104 HEALTH AND WELFARE ............................ 107 Social W elfare . ............................... 107 Medical Care .................................. 108 Housing . .................................... 109 EDUCATION ........................................ 110 Primary and Secondary Education ................ 112 Higher Education ............................. 113 Chapter 3. The Economy .................... 117 R. Thomas Lenaghan THE GROWTH AND STRUCTURE OF THE ECONOMY 120 ROLE OF THE GOVERNMENT ....................... 123 IN D U STRY ....................................... 128 Hydrocarbons and Mining ...................... 128 Manufacturing and Construction ................. 136 Energy ...................................... 140 AGRICULTURE ....................... 141 Land Use and Irrigation .......................... 143 Crops and Livestock . .......................... 146 Fishing and Forestry . .......................... 147 viii INCOME AND WEALTH ............................ 148 PUBLIC FINANCE AND BANKING ................... 151 Budget, Expenditures, and Revenues ............. 152 Balance of Payments .......................... 156 Foreign Aid and Investment .................... 158 Banking, Credit, and Currency .................. 160 FOREIGN TRADE ................................. 162 DOMESTIC TRADE AND TOURISM ................. 163 TRANSPORTATION AND TELECOMMUNICATIONS .. , 164 Transportation ............................... 165 Tclecommunications .......................... 168 Chapter 4. Politics and Government ........... 171 Shawky S. Zeidan INTERNAL