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Arthur C. Clarke

“Arthur Clarke” redirects here. For other uses, see 1.1 Early years Arthur Clarke (disambiguation). Clarke was born in Minehead, Somerset, England, and Sri Lankabhimanya Sir Arthur Charles Clarke, CBE, grew up in nearby Bishops Lydeard. As a boy, he FRAS (16 December 1917 – 19 March 2008) was grew up on a farm enjoying stargazing and reading old a British science fiction writer, science writer and American science fiction pulp magazines. He received futurist,[3] inventor, undersea explorer, and television se- his secondary education at Huish Grammar school in ries host. Taunton. In his teens, he joined the Junior Astronomi- cal Association and contributed to Urania, the society’s He is perhaps most famous for being co-writer of the journal, which was edited in Glasgow by Marion Eadie. screenplay for the movie 2001: A , widely At Clarke’s request, she added an Astronautics Section, considered to be one of the most influential films of all which featured a series of articles by him on spacecraft [4][5] time. His other science fiction writings earned him and space travel. Clarke also contributed pieces to the a number of Hugo and Nebula awards, which along with Debates and Discussions Corner, a counterblast to a Ura- a large readership made him one of the towering figures nia article offering the case against space travel, and also of science fiction. For many years Clarke, Robert Hein- his recollections of the Walt Disney film Fantasia. He lein and were known as the “Big Three” of moved to London in 1936 and joined the Board of Edu- [6] science fiction. cation as a pensions auditor.[17] Clarke was a lifelong proponent of space travel. In 1934, while still a teenager, he joined the British Interplanetary Society. In 1945, he proposed a communication 1.2 World War II system,[7] an idea which won him the Franklin Institute's Stuart Ballantine Medal[8] in 1963, and other honours.[9] During World War II from 1941 to 1946 he served in Later he was the chairman of the British Interplanetary the Royal Air Force as a radar specialist and was in- Society from 1946–47 and again in 1951–53.[10] volved in the early-warning radar defence system, which Clarke was a science writer, who was both an avid pop- contributed to the RAF’s success during the Battle of ulariser of space travel and a futurist of uncanny ability. Britain. Clarke spent most of his wartime service work- On these subjects he wrote over a dozen books and many ing on ground-controlled approach (GCA) radar, as docu- essays, which appeared in various popular magazines. In mented in the semi-autobiographical , his only 1961 he was awarded the Kalinga Prize, an award which non-science-fiction novel. Although GCA did not see is given by UNESCO for popularizing science. These much practical use during the war, it proved vital to the along with his science fiction writings eventually earned Berlin Airlift of 1948–1949 after several years of devel- him the moniker “Prophet of the Space Age”.[11] opment. Clarke initially served in the ranks, and was a corporal instructor on radar at No. 2 Radio School, RAF Clarke immigrated to in 1956, largely to pursue Yatesbury in Wiltshire. He was commissioned as a pilot [12] his interest in scuba diving. That year he discovered officer (technical branch) on 27 May 1943.[18] He was the underwater ruins of the ancient Koneswaram temple promoted flying officer on 27 November 1943.[19] He in Trincomalee. was appointed chief training instructor at RAF Honiley Clarke augmented his fame later on in the 1980s, from in Warwickshire and was demobilised with the rank of being the host of several television shows such as Arthur flight lieutenant. C. Clarke’s Mysterious World. He lived in Sri Lanka until his death.[13] He was knighted in 1998[14][15] and was awarded Sri Lanka’s highest civil 1.3 Postwar honour, Sri Lankabhimanya, in 2005.[16] After the war he attained a first-class degree in mathe- matics and physics from King’s College London.[20] Af- ter this he worked as assistant editor at Physics Abstracts. Clarke then served as chairman of the British Interplane- 1 Biography tary Society from 1946 to 1947[21] and again from 1951 to 1953.[22]

1 2 1 BIOGRAPHY

Although he was not the originator of the concept of in Taunton, Somerset, England, and referred to as the geostationary , one of his most important con- “Clarkives”. Clarke said that some of his private diaries tributions in this field may be his idea that they would be will not be published until 30 years after his death. When ideal telecommunications relays. He advanced this idea asked why they were sealed, he answered, “Well, there in a paper privately circulated among the core technical might be all sorts of embarrassing things in them.”[3] members of the British Interplanetary Society in 1945. The concept was published in Wireless World in Octo- ber of that year.[23][24][25] Clarke also wrote a number of 1.4 Sri Lanka non-fiction books describing the technical details and so- cietal implications of rocketry and space flight. The most Clarke lived in Sri Lanka from 1956 until his death in notable of these may be Interplanetary Flight (1950), 2008, having immigrated there when it was still called The Exploration of Space (1951) and The Promise of Ceylon, first in Unawatuna on the south coast, and then in [32] Space (1968). In recognition of these contributions, the . The Sri Lankan government offered Clarke [36] geostationary 36,000 kilometres (22,000 mi) above resident guest status in 1975; he was so influential that the equator is officially recognised by the International the Sri Lanka Air Force provided a helicopter to take a [37] Astronomical Union as a Clarke Orbit.[26] visiting Robert Heinlein around the country. On 20 July 1969 Clarke appeared as a commentator for CBS for the Apollo 11 landing.[27][28]

1.3.1 Sexuality

On a trip to Florida in 1953[1] Clarke met and quickly married Marilyn Mayfield, a 22-year-old American di- vorcee with a young son. They separated permanently after six months, although the divorce was not finalised until 1964.[29] “The marriage was incompatible from the beginning”, said Clarke.[29] Clarke never remarried, but 1974 ABC interview with Clarke in which he describes a future was close to a Sri Lankan man, Leslie Ekanayake, whom of ubiquitous, internet-enabled, personal computers. Clarke called his “only perfect friend of a lifetime”, in [30] the dedication to his novel The Fountains of Paradise. In the early 1970s Clarke signed a three-book publish- Clarke is buried with Ekanayake, who predeceased him ing deal, a record for a science-fiction writer at the time. by three decades, in Colombo's central cemetery. In his The first of the three was in 1973, biography of , John Baxter cites Clarke’s which won all the main genre awards[38] and spawned se- homosexuality as a reason why he relocated, due to quels that along with the 2001 series formed the backbone more tolerant laws with regard to homosexuality in Sri of his later career. Lanka.[31] Journalists who enquired of Clarke whether he was gay were told, “No, merely mildly cheerful.”[32] How- In a 1974 taped interview with the Australian Broadcast- ever, has written: ing Corporation, the interviewer asked Clarke how he be- lieved the computer would change the future for the ev- Everyone knew he was gay. In the 1950s eryday person, and what life would be like around the I'd go out drinking with his boyfriend. We year 2001. Clarke accurately predicted many things that met his protégés, western and eastern, and their became reality, including online banking, online shop- families, people who had only the most gener- ping, and other now commonplace things. Responding ous praise for his kindness. Self-absorbed he to a question about how the interviewer’s son’s life would might be and a teetotaller, but an impeccable be different, Clarke responded: “He will have, in his own gent through and through.”[33] house, not a computer as big as this, [points to nearby computer], but at least, a console through which he can In an interview in the July 1986 issue of Playboy mag- talk, through his local computer and get all the informa- azine, when asked if he had had a bisexual experience, tion he needs, for his everyday life, like his bank state- Clarke stated “Of course. Who hasn't?"[34] In his obitu- ments, his theatre reservations, all the information you ary, Clarke’s friend Kerry O'Quinn wrote: “Yes, Arthur need in the course of living in our complex modern so- was gay ... As Isaac Asimov once told me, 'I think he sim- ciety, this will be in a compact form in his own house ... and he will take it as much for granted as we take the ply found he preferred men.' Arthur didn't publicize his [39] sexuality—that wasn't the focus of his life—but if asked, telephone.” he was open and honest.”[35] In 1986 Clarke was named a Grand Master by the Science [40] Clarke maintained a vast collection of manuscripts and Fiction Writers of America. personal memoirs, maintained by his brother Fred Clarke In 1988 he was diagnosed with post-polio syndrome, hav- 3

ing originally contracted polio in 1962, and needed to use address for the Robert A. Heinlein Centennial in which a wheelchair most of the time thereafter.[32] Clarke was he closed his comments with a goodbye to his fans. for many years a Vice-Patron of the British Polio Fellow- In September 2007, he provided a video greeting for ship.[41] NASA's Cassini probe's flyby of Iapetus (which plays an [54] In the 1989 Queen’s Birthday Honours Clarke was ap- important role in the book of 2001: A Space Odyssey). pointed Commander of the Order of the British Empire In December 2007 on his 90th birthday, Clarke recorded a video message to his friends and fans bidding them (CBE) “for services to British cultural interests in Sri [55] Lanka”.[42] The same year he became the first Chancellor good-bye. of the International Space University, serving from 1989 Clarke died in Sri Lanka on 19 March 2008 after suffer- to 2004. He also served as Chancellor of Moratuwa Uni- ing from respiratory failure, according to Rohan de Silva, versity in Sri Lanka from 1979 to 2002. one of his aides.[32][56][57][58] His aide described the cause as respiratory complications and heart failure stemming In 1994, Clarke appeared in a science fiction film; he por- [59] trayed himself in the telefilm Without Warning, an Amer- from post-polio syndrome. ican production about an apocalyptic alien first-contact Just hours before Clarke’s death a massive gamma-ray scenario presented in the form of a faux newscast. burst (GRB) reached . Known as GRB 080319B, the burst set a new record as the farthest object that Clarke also became active in promoting the protection [60] of gorillas and became a patron of the Gorilla Organiza- could be seen from Earth with the naked eye. It oc- tion which fights for the preservation of gorillas.[43] When curred about 7.5 billion years ago (roughly equal to half the time since the Big Bang), taking the light that long tantalum mining for cell phone manufacture threatened [60] the gorillas in 2001, he lent his voice to their cause.[44] to reach Earth. It was suggested by Larry Sessions, a science writer for Sky and Telescope magazine blogging on earthsky.org, that the burst be named “The Clarke [61][62] 1.5 Television series host Event”. American Atheist Magazine wrote of the idea, “It would be a fitting tribute to a man who con- tributed so much, and helped lift our eyes and our minds In the 1980s Clarke became well known to many for [63] his television programmes Arthur C. Clarke’s Mysterious to a cosmos once thought to be province only of gods.” World, Arthur C. Clarke’s World of Strange Powers and Astronomer Phil Plait understood Sessions’ sentiment but Arthur C. Clarke’s Mysterious Universe. felt the naming would be unnecessary. “The poetic align- ment of the two events is enough for me, to be honest.”[64] A few days before he died, he had reviewed the 1.6 Knighthood manuscript of his final work, , on which he had collaborated by e-mail with his contemporary On 26 May 2000 he was made a Knight Bachelor “for .[65] The book was published after Clarke’s services to literature” at a ceremony in Colombo.[15][45] death.[66] Clarke was buried in Colombo in traditional Sri The award of a knighthood had been announced in the Lankan fashion on 22 March. His younger brother, Fred 1998 New Year Honours list,[14][46] but investiture with Clarke, and his Sri Lankan adoptive family were among the award had been delayed, at Clarke’s request, because the thousands in attendance.[67] of an accusation, by the British tabloid The Sunday Mir- ror, of pedophilia.[47][48] The charge was subsequently found to be baseless by the Sri Lankan police.[49][50] Ac- 2 Science fiction writer cording to The Daily Telegraph (London), the Mirror sub- sequently published an apology, and Clarke chose not to sue for defamation.[51][52] Clarke was then duly knighted. 2.1 Beginnings

While Clarke had a few stories published in fanzines, be- 1.7 Later years tween 1937 and 1945, his first professional sale appeared in Astounding in 1946: "Loophole" was Although he and his home were unharmed by the published in April, while "Rescue Party", his first sale, 2004 earthquake tsunami, his “Arthur C. was published in May.[lower-alpha 1] Along with his writ- Clarke Diving School” at was destroyed. He ing Clarke briefly worked as assistant editor of Science made humanitarian appeals, and the Arthur C. Clarke Abstracts (1949) before devoting himself in 1951 to full- Foundation worked towards better disaster notification time writing. [53] systems. The school has since been rebuilt. Clarke began carving out his reputation as a “scientific” Because of his post-polio deficits, which limited his abil- science fiction writer with his first science fiction novel, ity to travel and gave him halting speech, most of Clarke’s Against the Fall of Night, published as a novella in 1948. communications in his last years were in the form of It was very popular and considered ground-breaking work recorded addresses. In July 2007, he provided a video for some of the concepts it contained. Clarke revised and 4 2 SCIENCE FICTION WRITER

Clarke’s novella “The Road to the Sea” was originally published Clarke’s novelette "Jupiter Five" was cover-featured on the May in Two Complete Science-Adventure Books in 1951 as “Seeker 1953 issue of If of the Sphinx”

its original version, Against the Fall of Night), Childhood’s expanded the novella into a full novel which was pub- End, and the 2001 series, this encounter produces a con- lished in 1953. Clarke would later rewrite and expand ceptual breakthrough that accelerates humanity into the this work a third time to become The City and the Stars next stage of its evolution. In Clarke’s authorised biogra- in 1956, which rapidly became a definitive must-read in phy, Neil McAleer writes that: “many readers and critics the field. His third science fiction novel, Childhood’s End, still consider [Childhood’s End] Arthur C. Clarke’s best was also published in 1953, cementing his popularity. novel.”[29] Clarke capped the first phase of his writing career with Almost all of his short stories can be found in the book his sixth novel, A Fall of Moondust, in 1961, which is The Collected Stories of Arthur C. Clarke (2001). also an acknowledged classic of the period. A collection of early essays was published in The View During this time, Clarke corresponded with C. S. Lewis in from Serendip (1977), which also included one short the 1940s and 1950s and they once met in an Oxford pub, piece of fiction, "When the Twerms Came". Clarke The Eastgate, to discuss science fiction and space travel. also wrote short stories under the pseudonyms of E. G. Clarke voiced great praise for Lewis upon his death, say- O'Brien and Charles Willis.[69] ing that the Ransom trilogy was one of the few works of science fiction that should be considered literature.[68]

2.3 The “Big Three” 2.2 “” For much of the later 20th century, Clarke, Isaac Asi- In 1948 he wrote "The Sentinel" for a BBC competi- mov and Robert Heinlein were informally known as the tion. Though the story was rejected, it changed the course “Big Three” of science fiction writers.[6] Clarke and Hein- of Clarke’s career. Not only was it the basis for 2001: lein began writing to each other after The Exploration A Space Odyssey, but “The Sentinel” also introduced a of Space was published in 1951, and first met in person more cosmic element to Clarke’s work. Many of Clarke’s the following year. They remained on cordial terms for later works feature a technologically advanced but still- many years, including visits in the United States and Sri prejudiced mankind being confronted by a superior alien Lanka. In 1984, Clarke testified before Congress against intelligence. In the cases of The City and the Stars (and the Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI).[70] 2.4 2001 series of novels 5

foreign and space policy (especially the SDI), vigorously advocating a strong defence posture. Although the two later reconciled formally, they remained distant until Heinlein’s death in 1988.[29] Clarke and Asimov first met in New York City in 1953, and they traded friendly insults and gibes for decades. They established an oral agreement, the “Clarke–Asimov Treaty”, that when asked who was best, the two would say Clarke was the best science fiction writer and Asimov was the best science writer. In 1972, Clarke put the “treaty” on paper in his dedication to Report on Planet Three and Other Speculations.[29][71]

2.4 2001 series of novels

2001: A Space Odyssey, Clarke’s most famous work, was extended well beyond the 1968 movie as the Space Odyssey series. In 1982, Clarke wrote a sequel to 2001 titled 2010: Odyssey Two, which was made into a film in 1984. Clarke wrote two further sequels that have not been adapted into motion pictures: 2061: Odyssey Three (published in 1987) and 3001: The Final Odyssey (pub- lished in 1997). 2061: Odyssey Three involves a visit to Halley’s Comet on its next plunge through the Inner Solar System and a Clarke’s novelette "The Songs of Distant Earth", the cover story spaceship crash on the Jovian moon Europa. The where- for the June 1958 issue of If, was expanded to novel length al- abouts of Dave Bowman (the “Star Child”), the most three decades later artificial intelligence HAL 9000, and the development of native life on Europa, protected by the alien , are revealed. Finally, in 3001: The Final Odyssey, astronaut Frank Poole's freeze-dried body, found by a spaceship beyond the orbit of Neptune, is revived by advanced medical sci- ence. The novel details the threat posed to humanity by the alien monoliths, whose actions are not always as their builders had intended.

2.5 2001: A Space Odyssey

Clarke’s first venture into film was 2001: A Space Odyssey, directed by Stanley Kubrick. Kubrick and Clarke had met in New York City in 1964 to discuss the possibility of a collaborative film project. As the idea de- veloped, they decided to loosely base the story on Clarke’s short story, The Sentinel, written in 1948 as an entry in a BBC short story competition. Originally, Clarke was going to write the screenplay for the film, but Kubrick suggested during one of their brainstorming meetings that before beginning on the actual script, they should let their imaginations soar free by writing a novel first, on which Clarke as depicted in in 1953 they would base the film. “This is more or less the way it worked out, though toward the end, novel and screenplay were being written simultaneously, with feedback in both Later, at the home of in California, a con- directions. Thus I rewrote some sections after seeing the cerned Heinlein attacked Clarke’s views on United States movie rushes—a rather expensive method of literary cre- 6 3 SCIENCE WRITER ation, which few other authors can have enjoyed.”[72] The and Kubrick as the Soviet Premier. novel ended up being published a few months after the release of the movie. 2.7 Rendezvous with Rama Due to the hectic schedule of the film’s production, Kubrick and Clarke had difficulty collaborating on the Clarke’s award-winning novel Rendezvous with Rama book. Clarke completed a draft of the novel at the end of (1972) was optioned for filmmaking decades ago, but this 1964 with the plan to publish in 1965 in advance of the motion picture is in "development hell" as of 2014. In the film’s release in 1966. After many delays the film was early 2000s, the actor Morgan Freeman expressed his de- released in the spring of 1968, before the book was com- sire to produce a movie based on Rendezvous with Rama. pleted. The book was credited to Clarke alone. Clarke After a drawn-out development process – which Freeman later complained that this had the effect of making the attributed to difficulties in getting financing – it appeared book into a novelisation, that Kubrick had manipulated that in 2003 this project might be proceeding, but this is circumstances to downplay Clarke’s authorship. For these very dubious.[76] The film was to be produced by Free- and other reasons, the details of the story differ slightly man’s production company, Revelations Entertainment, from the book to the movie. The film contains little ex- and David Fincher has been touted on Revelations’ Rama planation for the events taking place. Clarke, on the other web page as far back as 2001 as the film’s director.[77] hand, wrote thorough explanations of “cause and effect” After years of no progress, Fincher stated in an interview for the events in the novel. James Randi later recounted in late 2007 (in which he also credited the novel as being that upon seeing the premiere of 2001, Clarke left the the- influential on the films Alien and Star Trek: The Motion atre at the intermission in tears, after having watched an Picture) that he is still attached to helm.[78] Revelations eleven-minute scene (which did not make it into general indicated that Stel Pavlou had written the adaptation. release) where an astronaut is doing nothing more than jogging inside the spaceship, which was Kubrick’s idea In late 2008, Fincher stated the movie is unlikely to be of showing the audience how boring space travels could made. “It looks like it’s not going to happen. There’s be.[73] no script and as you know, Morgan Freeman’s not in the best of health right now. We've been trying to do it but In 1972, Clarke published The Lost Worlds of 2001, it’s probably not going to happen.”[79] However, in 2010 which included his accounts of the production, and al- it was announced that the film was still planned for future ternate versions of key scenes. The “special edition” of production and both Freeman and Fincher mentioned it the novel A Space Odyssey (released in 1999) contains an as still needing a worthy script.[80] introduction by Clarke in which he documents the events leading to the release of the novel and film. 3 Science writer 2.6 2010: Odyssey Two Clarke published a number of non-fiction books with es- In 1982 Clarke continued the 2001 epic with a sequel, says, speeches, addresses, etc. Several of his non-fiction 2010: Odyssey Two. This novel was also made into a books are composed of chapters that can stand on their film, 2010, directed by for release in 1984. own as separate essays. Because of the political environment in America in the 1980s, the film presents a Cold War theme, with the looming tensions of nuclear warfare not featured in the 3.1 Space travel novel. The film was not considered to be as revolutionary or artistic as 2001, but the reviews were still positive. In particular, Clarke was a populariser of the concept of space travel. In 1950 he wrote Interplanetary Flight, Clarke’s email correspondence with Hyams was pub- a book outlining the basics of space flight for laymen. lished in 1984.[74][75] Titled The Odyssey File: The Mak- Later books about space travel included The Exploration ing of 2010, and co-authored with Hyams, it illustrates of Space (1951), The Challenge of the Spaceship (1959), his fascination with the then-pioneering medium of email Voices from the Sky (1965), The Promise of Space (1968, and its use for them to communicate on an almost daily rev. ed. 1970) and Report on Planet Three (1972) among basis at the time of planning and production of the film others. while living on opposite sides of the world. The book also included Clarke’s personal list of the best science-fiction films ever made. 3.2 Futurism Clarke appeared in the film, first as the man feeding the pigeons while Dr. Heywood Floyd is engaged in a con- His books on space travel usually included chapters about versation in front of the White House. Later, in the hos- other aspects of science and technology, such as comput- pital scene with David Bowman's mother, an image of the ers and bioengineering. He predicted telecommunication cover of Time portrays Clarke as the American President satellites (albeit serviced by in space suits, who 7 would replace the satellite’s vacuum tubes as they burned Main article: out).[81] His many predictions culminated in 1958 when he began Clarke contributed to the popularity of the idea that a series of magazine essays that eventually became Pro- geostationary satellites would be ideal telecommunica- files of the Future, published in book form in 1962. [82] A tions relays. He first described this in a letter to the ed- timetable[83] up to the year 2100 describes inventions and itor of Wireless World in February 1945[84] and elabo- ideas including such things as a “global library” for 2005. rated on the concept in a paper titled Extra-Terrestrial The same work also contained “Clarke’s First Law” and Relays – Can Rocket Stations Give Worldwide Radio Cov- text that became Clarke’s three laws in later editions.[29] erage?, published in Wireless World in October 1945.[85] The geostationary orbit is now sometimes known as the In a 1959 essay Clarke predicted global satellite TV [86][87] broadcasts that would cross national boundaries indis- Clarke Orbit or the Clarke Belt in his honour. criminately and would bring hundreds of channels avail- It is not clear that this article was actually the inspiration able anywhere in the world. He also envisioned a “per- for the modern telecommunications satellite. According sonal transceiver, so small and compact that every man to John R. Pierce, of Bell Labs, who was involved in the carries one.” He wrote: “the time will come when we will Echo satellite and Telstar projects, he gave a talk upon be able to call a person anywhere on Earth merely by di- the subject in 1954 (published in 1955), using ideas that alling a number.” Such a device would also, in Clarke’s were “in the air”, but was not aware of Clarke’s article vision, include means for global positioning so that “no at the time.[88] In an interview given shortly before his one need ever again be lost.” Later, in Profiles of the Fu- death, Clarke was asked whether he had ever suspected ture, he predicted the advent of such a device taking place that one day communications satellites would become so in the mid-1980s.[82] important; he replied: An extensive selection of Clarke’s essays and book chap- ters (from 1934 to 1998; 110 pieces, 63 of them previ- “I'm often asked why I didn't try to patent ously uncollected in his books) can be found in the book the idea of communications satellites. My an- Greetings, Carbon-Based Bipeds! (2000), together with swer is always, 'A patent is really a license to [89] a new introduction and many prefatory notes. Another be sued.' " fine collection of essays, all previously collected, is By Space Possessed (1993). Clarke’s technical papers, to- Though different from Clarke’s idea of telecom relay, gether with several essays and extensive autobiographical the idea of communicating via satellites in geostation- material, are collected in Ascent to Orbit: A Scientific Au- ary orbit itself had been described earlier. For exam- tobiography (1984). ple, the concept of geostationary satellites was described in Hermann Oberth's 1923 book Die Rakete zu den Planetenräumen (The Rocket into Interplanetary Space), and then the idea of radio communication by means of 4 Geostationary communications those satellites in Herman Potočnik's (written under the satellite pseudonym Hermann Noordung) 1928 book Das Prob- lem der Befahrung des Weltraums – der Raketen-Motor (The Problem of Space Travel — The Rocket Motor), sec- tions: Providing for Long Distance Communications and Safety[lower-alpha 2], and (possibly referring to the idea of relaying messages via satellite, but not that 3 would be optimal) Observing and Researching the Earth’s Surface, published in Berlin.[90][lower-alpha 3] Clarke acknowledged the earlier concept in his book Profiles of the Future.[91]

5 Undersea explorer

Clarke was an avid scuba diver and a member of the Underwater Explorers Club. In addition to writing, Clarke set up several diving-related ventures with his business partner Mike Wilson. In 1956, while scuba diving, Wilson and Clarke uncovered ruined masonry, architecture and idol images of the sunken original Koneswaram temple – including carved columns with flower insignias, and stones in the form of elephant heads Geostationary orbit – spread on the shallow surrounding seabed.[92][93] Other 8 7 THEMES, STYLE, AND INFLUENCES

discoveries included Chola bronzes from the original vent atrocities and wars over time.[104] In his introduction shrine, and these discoveries were described in Clarke’s to the penultimate episode of Mysterious World, entitled 1957 book The Reefs of Taprobane.[94] In 1961, while “Strange Skies”, Clarke said: “I sometimes think that the filming off Great Basses Reef, Wilson found a wreck and universe is a machine designed for the perpetual aston- retrieved silver coins. Plans to dive on the wreck the fol- ishment of astronomers,” reflecting the dialogue of the lowing year were stopped when Clarke developed paral- episode, in which he stated this concept more broadly, ysis, ultimately diagnosed as polio. A year later, Clarke referring to “mankind”. Near the very end of that same observed the salvage from the shore and the surface. The episode, the last segment of which covered the Star of ship, ultimately identified as belonging to the Mughal Bethlehem, he said that his favourite theory[105] was that Emperor, Aurangzeb, yielded fused bags of silver rupees, it might be a pulsar. Given that pulsars were discovered in cannons, and other artefacts, carefully documented, be- the interval between his writing the short story, "The Star" came the basis for The Treasure of the Great Reef.[29][95] (1955), and making Mysterious World (1980), and given Living in Sri Lanka and learning its history also inspired the more recent discovery of pulsar PSR B1913+16, he the backdrop for his novel The Fountains of Paradise in said: “How romantic, if even now, we can hear the dying which he described a space elevator. This, he believed, voice of a star, which heralded the Christian era.”[105] would make rocket-based access to space obsolete and, Clarke left written instructions for a funeral that stated: more than geostationary satellites, would ultimately be his [96] “Absolutely no religious rites of any kind, relating to any scientific legacy. religious faith, should be associated with my funeral.”[106]

6 Views 6.2 Paranormal phenomena Early in his career, Clarke had a fascination with the 6.1 On religion paranormal and stated that it was part of the inspira- tion for his novel Childhood’s End. Citing the numer- Themes of religion and spirituality appear in much of ous promising paranormal claims that were shown to be Clarke’s writing. He said: “Any path to knowledge is fraudulent, Clarke described his earlier openness to the a path to God—or Reality, whichever word one prefers paranormal having turned to being “an almost total scep- to use.”[97] He described himself as “fascinated by the tic” by the time of his 1992 biography.[29] During inter- concept of God”. J. B. S. Haldane, near the end of his views, both in 1993 and 2004–2005, he stated that he life, suggested in a personal letter to Clarke that Clarke did not believe in reincarnation, citing that there was no should receive a prize in theology for being one of the mechanism to make it possible, though he stated “I'm al- few people to write anything new on the subject, and went ways paraphrasing J. B. S. Haldane: 'The universe is not on to say that if Clarke’s writings did not contain multi- only stranger than we imagine, it’s stranger than we can ple contradictory theological views, he might have been a imagine.'"[107][108] He described the idea of reincarnation menace.[98] When he entered the Royal Air Force, Clarke as fascinating, but favoured a finite existence.[109] insisted that his dog tags be marked "pantheist" rather Clarke was well known for his television series investigat- than the default, Church of England,[29] and in a 1991 es- ing paranormal phenomena – Arthur C. Clarke’s Mysteri- say entitled “Credo”, described himself as a logical pos- ous World (1980), Arthur C. Clarke’s World of Strange itivist from the age of ten.[98] In 2000, Clarke told the Powers (1985) and Arthur C. Clarke’s Mysterious Uni- Sri Lankan newspaper, The Island, “I don't believe in verse (1994) – enough to be parodied in an episode of The God or an afterlife,”[99] and he identified himself as an Goodies in which his show is cancelled after it is claimed atheist.[100] He was honoured as a Humanist Laureate in that he does not exist. the International Academy of Humanism.[101] He has also described himself as a “crypto-Buddhist”, insisting that is not a religion.[102] He displayed little inter- est about religion early in his life, for example, only dis- 7 Themes, style, and influences covering a few months after marrying that his wife had strong Presbyterian beliefs. Clarke’s work is marked by an optimistic view of sci- A famous quotation of Clarke’s is often cited: “One of ence empowering mankind’s exploration of the Solar Sys- the great tragedies of mankind is that morality has been tem and the world’s oceans. His images of the future hijacked by religion.”[102] He was quoted in Popular Sci- often feature a Utopian setting with highly developed technology, ecology, and society, based on the author’s ence in 2004 as saying of religion: “Most malevolent and [110] persistent of all mind viruses. We should get rid of it ideals. His early published stories usually featured the as quick as we can.”[103] In a three-day “dialogue on man extrapolation of a technological innovation or scientific and his world” with Alan Watts, Clarke stated that he was breakthrough into the underlying decadence of his own biased against religion and said that he could not forgive society. religions for what he perceived as their inability to pre- A recurring theme in Clarke’s works is the notion that 9

space program. The fame of 2001 was enough to get the Command Module of the Apollo 13 craft named “Odyssey”.[115] • Shared a 1969 Academy Award nomination with Stanley Kubrick in the category Best Writing, Story and Screenplay – Written Directly for the Screen for 2001: A Space Odyssey.[116] • In 1985 the Science Fiction Writers of America named him its 7th SFWA Grand Master.[117] • In 1988, he was awarded an Honorary Degree (Doc- tor of Letters) by the University of Bath.[118] • Readers of the British monthly Interzone voted him the all-time second best science fiction author in 1988–1989.[38] • He received a CBE in 1989,[42] and was knighted in 2000.[14][45][46] Clarke’s health did not allow him to travel to London to receive the latter honour person- ally from the Queen, so the United Kingdom’s High Commissioner to Sri Lanka invested him as a Knight Bachelor at a ceremony in Colombo.[15] • In 1994, Clarke was nominated for a Nobel Peace Cover of August 1951 Thrilling Wonder Stories in which Clarke Prize by law professor Glenn Reynolds.[119] story “” first appears prior to his expanded novel. Fu- ture exploration of the unknown was encouraged by Clarke. • The Science Fiction and Fantasy Hall of Fame in- ducted Clarke in 1997, its second class of two de- ceased and two living persons. Among the living, the evolution of an intelligent species would eventually Clarke and followed A. E. van Vogt make them something close to gods. This was explored in and .[120] his 1953 novel Childhood’s End and briefly touched upon in his novel Imperial Earth. This idea of transcendence • In 2000, he was named a Distinguished Supporter through evolution seems to have been influenced by Olaf of the British Humanist Association.[121] Stapledon, who wrote a number of books dealing with • this theme. Clarke has said of Stapledon’s 1930 book Last The 2001 Mars Odyssey orbiter is named in honour and First Men that “No other book had a greater influence of Clarke’s works. on my life ... [It] and its successor Star Maker (1937) are • [111] In 2003, Clarke was awarded the Telluride Tech Fes- the twin summits of [Stapledon’s] literary career”. tival Award of Technology, where he appeared on stage via a 3-D hologram with a group of old friends that included Jill Tarter, Neil Armstrong, Lewis 8 Awards, honours and other Branscomb, Charles Townes, Freeman Dyson, recognition Bruce Murray, and Scott Brown. • In 2004, Clarke won the Heinlein Award for out- Clarke won more than a dozen annual literary awards for standing achievement in hard or science-oriented particular works of science fiction.[38] science fiction.[122] • On 14 November 2005 Sri Lanka awarded Clarke its • In 1956, Clarke won a for his short [112] highest civilian award, the Sri Lankabhimanya (The story, "The Star". Pride of Sri Lanka), for his contributions to science • Clarke won the UNESCO–Kalinga Prize for the and technology and his commitment to his adopted [16] Popularization of Science in 1961.[113] country. • • He won the Stuart Ballantine Medal in 1963.[114] Clarke was the Honorary Board Chair of the Institute for Cooperation in Space, founded by Carol • Following the 1968 release of 2001, Clarke be- Rosin, and served on the Board of Governors of the came much in demand as a commentator on science National Space Society, a space advocacy organisa- and technology, especially at the time of the Apollo tion originally founded by Wernher von Braun. 10 9 SELECTED WORKS

8.1 Named after Clarke • Arthur C. Clarke Institute for Modern Technologies, one of the major research institutes in Sri Lanka is 8.1.1 Awards named after him. • • Arthur C. Clarke Awards for science fiction writing, The main protagonist of the Dead Space series of awarded annually in the United Kingdom. video games, Isaac Clarke, takes his surname from Arthur C. Clarke, and his given name from Clarke’s friendly rival and associate, Isaac Asimov. In 1986, Clarke provided a grant to fund the prize money (initially £1,000) for the Arthur C. Clarke Award for the • A proposed outer-circular orbital beltway in best science fiction novel published in the United King- Colombo, Sri Lanka, is to be named 'Arthur C. dom in the previous year. In 2001 the prize was increased Clarke Expressway' in honour of Clarke.[126][127] to £2001, and its value now matches the year (e.g., £2005 in 2005). • 'The Clarke Event' is a proposed name for GRB 080319B, a gamma-ray burst detected just hours be- fore Clarke’s death that set a new record for the most • , for achievements in space, intrinsically bright object ever observed by humans awarded annually in the United Kingdom. in the universe. The name would honour Clarke and his award-winning short story “The Star”. In 2005 he lent his name to the inaugural Sir Arthur Clarke Awards—dubbed the “Space Oscars”. His brother attended the awards ceremony, and presented an award 9 Selected works specially chosen by Arthur (and not by the panel of judges who chose the other awards) to the British Interplanetary Society. Main article: Arthur C. Clarke bibliography

• Arthur C. Clarke Foundation awards: “Arthur C. Clarke Innovator’s Award” and “Arthur C. Clarke 9.1 Novels Lifetime Achievement Award”[123] • Against the Fall of Night (1948, 1953) original ver- • The Sir Arthur C. Clarke Memorial Trophy In- sion of The City and the Stars ter School Quiz Competition, held in Sri Lanka every year and organised by the Astro- • The Sands of Mars (1951) nomical Association of Ananda College, Colombo. The competition first started in 2001 as “The Sir • Childhood’s End (1953) Arthur C. Clarke Trophy Inter School Astronomy • The City and the Stars (1956) Quiz Competition” and was later renamed after his death.[124][125] • The Deep Range (1957) • A Fall of Moondust (1961) 8.1.2 Other • - A Story of the People of the Sea • An asteroid was named in Clarke’s honour, 4923 (1963) Clarke (the number was assigned prior to, and in- • Glide Path (1963) dependently of, the name – 2001, however appro- priate, was unavailable, having previously been as- • 2001: A Space Odyssey (film with Stanley Kubrick) signed to Albert Einstein). (1968)

• A species of ceratopsian dinosaur, discovered in • Rendezvous with Rama (1972) (Nebula Award win- Inverloch in Australia, was named after Clarke, ner, 1973;[128] Hugo Award winner, 1974[129]) Serendipaceratops arthurcclarkei. The genus name may also be an allusion to his adopted country, Sri • Imperial Earth (1976) Lanka, one of whose former names is Serendip. • The Fountains of Paradise (1979) (Hugo Award [130] • The Learning Resource Centre at Richard Huish winner, 1979; and Nebula Award winner, [131] College, Taunton, which Clarke attended when it 1980 ) was Huish Grammar School, is named after him. • 2010: Odyssey Two (1982) • Clarke was a distinguished vice-president of the H. • The Songs of Distant Earth (1986) G. Wells Society, being strongly influenced by Wells as a science-fiction writer. • 2061: Odyssey Three (1987) 11

• The Ghost from the Grand Banks (1990) • , Random House, ISBN 0- 394-41796-8, 1977 • The Hammer of God (1993) • Astounding Days: A Science Fictional Autobiogra- • 3001: The Final Odyssey (1997) phy. London: Gollancz, 1989 • A Time Odyssey (2003, 2005, 2007) a series of three • : Beyond the Global Village, novels Bantam. ISBN 0-553-07440-7. 1992

• Greetings, Carbon-Based Bipeds! : Collected Essays, 9.2 Short story collections 1934–1998. New York: St. Martin’s Press, and London: Voyager, 1999 Main article: Short fiction by Arthur C. Clarke

10 Documentaries • (1953)

• Reach for Tomorrow (1956) • To Mars by A-Bomb: The Secret History of Project Orion • Tales from the White Hart (1957) • The Other Side of the Sky (1958) 11 See also • Tales of Ten Worlds (1962) • The Nine Billion Names of God (1967) 12 Notes • (1972) [1] ISFDB catalogues one “Letter” to Amazing Stories pub- • The Best Of Arthur C. Clarke 1937-1955 (1982) lished in 1935, ten more nonfiction items (“Essays”) pub- lished 1938 to 1945, and five “Shortfiction” published [2] • The Sentinel (1983) 1937 to 1942.

• Tales From Planet Earth (2001) [2] Full text: “Providing for Long Distance Communications and Safety”. Archived from the original on 14 January • The Collected Stories of Arthur C. Clarke (2001) 2009. Retrieved 23 December 2008. [3] Full text: “Observing and Researching the Earth’s Sur- face”. Archived from the original on 14 January 2009. 9.3 Non-fiction Retrieved 23 December 2008. • Interplanetary Flight: an introduction to astronautics. London: Temple Press, ISBN 0-425-06448-4, 1950 13 References • The Exploration of Space, New York: Harper & Brothers, 1951 [1] Liukkonen, Petri. “Arthur C. Clarke”. Books and Writ- • ers (kirjasto.sci.fi). Finland: Kuusankoski Public Library. The Exploration of the Moon, with R. A. Smith, New Archived from the original on 10 February 2015. York: Harper Brothers, 1954 [2] “Arthur C. Clarke – Summary Bibliography”.(ISFDB). • The Coast of Coral (1955) Retrieved 2 April 2013. Select a title to see its linked publication history and general information. Select a par- • Boy Beneath the Sea (1958) ISBN 0060212667 ticular edition (title) for more data at that level, such as a front cover image or linked contents. • Voice Across the Sea. New York: Harper, 1958 [3] Adams, Tim (12 September 1999). “Man on the moon”. • Profiles of the Future: An Inquiry into the Limits of The Guardian. Retrieved 15 December 2014. the Possible (1962) [4] Ranked #15 by the American Film Institute. “AFI’s 100 • The Treasure of the Great Reef, with Mike Wilson. Years...100 Movies – 10th Anniversary Edition”. Re- New York: Harper & Row, 1964 trieved 28 February 2014.

• Voices from the Sky: Previews of the Coming Space [5] Ranked #6 by the British Film Institute. Christie, Ian, Age. New York: Harper & Row, 1965 ed. (1 August 2012). “The Top 50 Greatest Films of All Time”. Sight & Sound (September 2012). Retrieved 20 • The Promise of Space (1968) September 2014. 12 13 REFERENCES

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[119] Burns, John F. “Colombo Journal; A Nonfiction Journey • Arthur C. Clarke at the Internet Movie Database to a More Peaceful World” New York Times, 28 Novem- ber 1994 • Sir Arthur C Clarke: 90th Birthday Reflections on YouTube [120] “Science Fiction and Fantasy Hall of Fame”. Mid Amer- ican Science Fiction and Fantasy Conventions, Inc. Re- • Arthur C. Clarke 31 word short story on Letters of trieved 24 March 2013. This was the official website of Note the hall of fame to 2004. • Works by or about Arthur C. Clarke at Internet [121] Iain Thomson (19 March 2008). “Sir Arthur C Clarke dies”. Information World Reviews. Oxford: VNU Busi- Archive ness Publications. OCLC 61313783. Retrieved 18 Au- • Works by Arthur C. Clarke at LibriVox (public do- gust 2009. main audiobooks) [122] “Sir Arthur Clarke Named Recipient of 2004 Heinlein Award” (Press release). 22 May 2004. Archived from • Works by Arthur C. Clarke at Open Library the original on 22 June 2009. Retrieved 20 June 2009. Other [123] “Awards | The Arthur C. Clarke Foundation”. Clarke- foundation.org. 12 August 2014. Retrieved 18 August 2014. • “Sir Arthur C. Clarke”. Find a Grave. Retrieved 10 August 2010. [124] “Arthur C. Clarke Memorial Trophy Interschool Astron- omy Quiz Competition”. SKYLk. Retrieved 8 December • “Arthur C. Clarke and ”. Official tran- 2015. script, Sci Fi Channel chat. 1 November 1996. Archived from the original on 31 October 2002. [125] Sir Arthur C Clarke Quiz Competition 2011, link re- trieved 21 June 2011. • The Arthur C. Clarke Foundation at the Wayback Machine (archived 25 July 2011) [126] A Speedy and safe journey to

[127] First phase opens in August

[128] “1973 Award Winners & Nominees”. Worlds Without End. Retrieved 30 June 2009.

[129] “1974 Award Winners & Nominees”. Worlds Without End. Retrieved 30 June 2009.

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[131] “1980 Award Winners & Nominees”. Worlds Without End. Retrieved 30 June 2009. 16 15 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

15 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

15.1 Text

• Arthur C. 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15.2 Images

• File:ABC_Clarke_predicts_internet_and_PC.ogv Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/69/ABC_Clarke_ predicts_internet_and_PC.ogv License: CC BY-SA 3.0 au Contributors: Australian Broadcasting Corporation Original artist: ARTHUR C CLARKE PREDICTS THE INTERNET provided by the Australian Broadcasting Corporation (ABC) • File:Arthur_C,_Clarke_Amazing_5306.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bb/Arthur_C%2C_Clarke_ Amazing_5306.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Amazing Stories, June-July 1953 Original artist: Ziff-Davis Publishing / uniden- tified staff artist • File:Commons-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contribu- tors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Earth-moon.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5c/Earth-moon.jpg License: Public domain Contribu- tors: NASA [1] Original artist: Apollo 8 crewmember Bill Anders • File:Flag_of_Sri_Lanka.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/11/Flag_of_Sri_Lanka.svg License: Public domain Contributors: SLS 693 - National flag of Sri Lanka Original artist: Zscout370 • File:Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg License: Cc-by- sa-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Geostat.gif Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/49/Geostat.gif License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work. Rendered with PovRay-3.0, the pov file is available on demand. Original artist: Brandir • File:If_195305.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4f/If_195305.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://philsp.com/mags/if.html Original artist: Quinn Publishing/Kenneth Fagg • File:If_195806.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/81/If_195806.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.philsp.com/mags/if.html Original artist: Quinn Publishing / Mel Hunter • File:People_icon.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/37/People_icon.svg License: CC0 Contributors: Open- Clipart Original artist: OpenClipart • File:Portal-puzzle.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/fd/Portal-puzzle.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Sf-userbox.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/0/05/Sf-userbox.png License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: I(Senix (talk)) created this work entirely by myself. Original artist: Senix (talk) • File:Speaker_Icon.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/21/Speaker_Icon.svg License: Public domain Con- tributors: No machine-readable source provided. Own work assumed (based on copyright claims). Original artist: No machine-readable author provided. Mobius assumed (based on copyright claims). • File:Thrilling_wonder_stories_195108.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/06/Thrilling_wonder_stories_ 195108.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.philsp.com/mags/wonderstories.html Original artist: Sam Merwin, Jr. / Publisher: Standard Magazines, Inc. • File:Two_complete_science_adventure_books_1951spr_n2.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bf/ Two_complete_science_adventure_books_1951spr_n2.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.philsp.com/mags/sf_tuv. html#two_complete_science_adventure_books Original artist: Wings Publishing / Allen Anderson • File:Wikiquote-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Rei-artur

15.3 Content license

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