Facilitating Microbial Pesticide Use in Agriculture in South Asia

Editors W.A.R.T. Wickramaarachchi SAARC Agriculture Centre (SAC) Dhaka, Bangladesh

Malvika Chaudhary Plantwise Asia, CABI-South Asia New Delhi, India

Jagadeesh Patil ICAR-National Bureau of Agricultural Insect Resources (NBAIR), Bengaluru, India

SAARC Agriculture Centre (SAC) South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC)

i Facilitating Microbial Pesticide Use in Agriculture in South Asia SAARC Regional Expert Consultation on Facilitating Microbial Pesticide Use in Agriculture in South Asia, 21-23 August 2017, ICAR-National Bureau of Agricultural Insect Resources (NBAIR), Bengaluru, India

Editors W.A.R.T. Wickramaarachchi SAARC Agriculture Centre (SAC), Dhaka, Bangladesh Malvika Chaudhary Plantwise Asia, CABI-South Asia, New Delhi, India Jagadeesh Patil ICAR-National Bureau of Agricultural Insect Resources (NBAIR) Bengaluru, India December 2017 @ 2017 SAARC Agriculture Centre Published by the SAARC Agriculture Centre (SAC), South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation, BARC Complex, Farmgate, New Airport Road, Dhaka -1215, Bangladesh (www.sac.org.bd) All rights reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means electronic, mechanical, recording or otherwise without prior permission of the publisher Citation Wickramaarachchi, W.A.R.T., Chaudhary, M. and Patil, J. (Eds). 2017. Facilitating Microbial Pesticide Use in Agriculture in South Asia. SAARC Agriculture Centre, Dhaka, Bangladesh, 226 pp Available online through www.sac.org.bd This book contains the papers and proceedings of the SAARC Regional Expert Consultation on Facilitating microbial pesticides use in agriculture in South Asia jointly organized by SAARC Agriculture Centre (SAC), ICAR-National Bureau of Agricultural Insect Resources (NBAIR) and The Centre for Agriculture and Bioscience International (CABI) at National Bureau of Agricultural Insect Resources (NBAIR), Bengaluru, India from 21-23 August 2017. The experts for country paper presentations were the representative of their respective governments. Other experts selected for technical paper presentations have spoken in their personal capacities. The opinions expressed in this publication are those of the authors and do not imply any opinion whatsoever on the part of SAC especially concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area or its authorities or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. ISBN 978-984-34-3449-4 Cover Design: Mafruha Begum Price US$ 10 for SAARC countries US$ 50 for other countries Printed by Natundhara Printing Press, 277/3, Elephant Road (1st Floor), Kataban Dhal, Dhaka-1205, Bangladesh

ii Foreword

South Asia’s agriculture is highly diverse in term of farm size, crops and productivity due to diversity of geographic and climate in the region. Crop protection in South Asia is predominately based on chemical pesticides in spite of its adverse effects of human health and environment. Concurrent with the removal of some of the highly toxic compounds has been the development of alternative crop protection approaches such as integrated pest management (IPM) which can accommodate the use of microbial pesticides as an integral component. Though there has been considerable research and development activities focused on microbial pesticides by research institutions of SAARC countries, the registered products coming out and extent of agricultural lands under microbial pesticide use is negligible in most countries except India. The increasing consumer demand for health food commodities without pesticide residues and global export horticultural standards are the drivers for microbial pesticide use. However, the microbial pesticide use in South Asia is lagged behind compared to other regions. The consultation was organized to understand the modalities which support the use of microbial pesticides in South Asia. National Focal Point Experts from SAARC Member Countries and a couple of invited experts shared their knowledge and experiences towards the facilitating of microbial pesticide use in the South Asia. It was evident that production and availability of microbial pesticides are not issues in most cases. But there is technology gap on storage, packaging, delivery and application. Further regulatory hurdles, registration formalities, Intellectual Property Rights, export/import, political interference and several other concerns are required due attention and regional harmonization for facilitating the microbial pesticide uses. I strongly believe this publication titled “Facilitating Microbial Pesticide Use in Agriculture in South Asia” is a comprehensive overview of microbial pesticide production, registration, regulation and use in South Asia and bring out value recommendations for facilitating the microbial pesticide use in South Asia.

Dr S.M. Bokhtiar Director SAARC Agriculture Centre

iii

iv Contents

FORWARD iii ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS Chapter 1 Facilitating the Microbial Pesticide Use in 1 Agriculture in South Asia: A Regional Overview W.A.R.T. Wickramaarachchi COUNTRY PAPERS Chapter 2 Facilitating Microbial Pesticide Use in 38 Afghanistan Ghulam Mohammad Saedi Chapter 3 Facilitating Microbial Pesticide Use in 54 Bangladesh Kbd Amitava Das Chapter 4 Facilitating Microbial Pesticide Use in Bhutan 66 Pema Tobagy Chapter 5 Development and Use of Microbial 79 Bio-pesticides in India Rajan, Mohan, Jagadeesh Patil, Mahesh S. Yandigeri and Aravindaram Kandan Chapter 6 Facilitating Microbial Pesticide Use in Maldives 107 Hussain Farah Chapter 7 Facilitating Microbial Pesticide Use in Nepal 116 Dinesh Babu Tiwari Chapter 8 Current Status of Microbial Pesticide Use in Sri 132 Lanka U.S.K. Abeysinghe INVITED PAPERS 150 ABSTRACTS OF INVITED PRESENTATIONS 182 Chapter 9 Proceedings of Consultation 198 Concept Note 212 Program 215 List of Participants 218 Glimpses of Consultation 221

v Chapter 1 Facilitating Microbial Pesticide Use in Agriculture in South Asia: A Regional Overview W.A.R.T. Wickramaarachchi SAARC Agriculture Centre, BARC Complex, Farmgate Dhaka 1215, Bangladesh Email: [email protected]

Abstract Reliance on chemical pesticides for crop production has caused several detrimental effects such as pesticide resistance, pest resurgence and outbreak of secondary pests which reflect the repeated and over use of chemical pesticides to achieve the expected level of control. To overcome the hazards associated with chemical pesticides, the use of bio- pesticides which are derived from plants and microorganisms is increasingly being adopted. Out of all the bio-pesticides used today, microbial bio-pesticides constitute the largest group of broad-spectrum bio-pesticides. Microbial control agents based on naturally occurring fungi, bacteria, viruses or nematodes have offered some realistic alternatives to chemical pesticides. Microbial pesticides have gained attention because of their relatively low toxicity, potential for local production and compatibility with smallholder farming. However, the widespread use of microbial pesticides in South Asia has been restricted owing to various constraints at the developmental, registration and production levels. Efficacy of microbial pesticide in field is highly dependent on the environment conditions. There are potential problems associated with contamination, formulation potency, attenuation of pesticide activity and shelf life. To deal with all these aspects require equipment, expertise, material and capital. Microbial pesticides are regulated by systems designed originally for chemical pesticides that have created market entry barriers by imposing burdensome costs on the microbial pesticide industry. Regulatory authorities generally require bulk information on a microbial pesticide for characterization, assessing its potential risks on human and environment and confirming its effectiveness against pest. There are no properly defined and harmonized regulatory procedures for microbial pesticides in most of South Asian counties. Lack of regional harmonization in enabling regulations is one of the most important barriers to the wider implementation of microbial pesticides. Couple of areas has to be strengthened for facilitating and microbial pesticide development and adaptation. They include increasing the product range aiming the major plant protection issues, development

1 of resilient microbes, ensuring the quality and quantity available in the market, improving storage and quality control, introducing policies to promote microbial pest control strategies, ensuring favorable intellectual property rights for researching, create a healthy regulatory environment, regulatory harmonization across the region and encouraging public private partnerships to attract more SMEs into the microbial pesticide industry. Key words: Microbial pesticides, registration, regulation, commercialization

Introduction The world population is projected to grow by 34 percent from 6.8 billion today to 9.1 billion in 2050. In order to meet the demand of increasing population, the global demand for food, feed and fiber is expected to grow by 70 percent while crops may also be increasingly used for bio- energy and other industrial purposes. It is estimated that demand for food in South Asian region will increase by 40 percent by 2050 due to rapid population growth along with climate volatility. At present, South Asia is home for 27 present of global population. Further, 40 percent of poor people and 35 percent of undernourished people are accumulated in South Asia. Population in rural area accounts for 68 percent while agriculture is the livelihood of 50 percent people of the total population in the region. Despite agriculture being the main occupation in the region, agriculture production and productivity remain low compared to other regions. More than 65 percent of farmers in the region are categorized as small holders with less than 2.5 ac farm holding size. The region’s population is expected to reach 2,200 million by 2050 from 1,868 million people now placing the food supply under intense pressure. Despite of green revolution which is mainly based upon a package of various agricultural inputs such as use of high-yielding varieties, irrigation water, pesticides and chemical fertilizers, agricultural production in South Asia is characterized by low productivity due to number of factors Crop production is at risk due to the incidence of harmful organisms such as animal pests (insects, mites, nematodes, rodents, slugs and snails, birds), plant pathogens (viruses, bacteria, fungi, phytoplasma, viroids) and weeds collectively called as pests. These pests may be controlled by applying cultural, physical, biological and chemical measures (pesticides). Though use of non-chemical practices for pest and disease management increases gradually in Afghanistan, the chemical pesticide remains as the most important and successful pest management strategy. The use of

2 chemical pesticides in Bangladesh showed a decreasing trend from 48,000 MT in 2008 to 39,250 MT in 2014. The private industry has started investing on biological pesticides as a result of formulating the safe food act by the government in 2013. Bhutan restricted import of highly toxic and persistent pesticides and prohibited private imports from 1990. The pesticide subsidy was reduced stepwise from 100 percent to 0 percent by 1995. Currently, pesticides are procured under restriction through government. There was a strong decrease in the use of insecticides and fungicides while the use of herbicides increased in Bhutan. Labor shortage for weeding in paddy cultivations apparently stimulates the herbicide use. Currently, India is the fourth largest global producer of pesticides with an estimated market size of around USD 4.9 billion in 2017 after United States, Japan and China. However, India’s pesticides consumption is one of the lowest in the world with per ha consumption of just 0.6 kg compared to US (5-7 kg/ha) and Japan (11-12 kg/ha). Out of 7,717 MT of total insecticides used in 2015-16, 2,254 MT belonged to WHO Class I showing the laps in the registration and monitoring process. Maldives has given 277 permits to import 302 MT of pesticides in 2016 compared 48 MT of pesticides during 2013. Under the current regulation, MoFA does not allow importing of WHO Class I and partially ban the Class II and any other chemical classified as damaging to marine environment (Ministry of Fisheries and Agriculture, 2016). Realization of negative of these chemical pesticides on human and environment like human health, soil and water poluution, pesticide residue and persticite resistance etc have forced to shift focus on to more reliable, sustainable and envionementaly friendly agensts for pest control. Microbial pesticides are gaining interest because of its advantages associated with the environmental safety, target-specificity, efficacy, biodegradability and suitability in the integrated pest management (IPM) programs. Then it is well known that application of microbial pesticides is safe. Further, it has gained interest in view of the growing demands for organic food. Increasing demand of residue free agricultural produce and growing organic / green food market are some of the key drivers of the microbial pesticide market. Globally, the use of microbial pesticides is increasing steadily by 10 percent every year. About 90 percent of the microbial pesticides are derived from just one entomopathogenic bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis (Kumar and Singh, 2015). Most of the countries have taken initiatives to introduce policies to minimize the use of chemical pesticides and promote the use of microbial pesticides. However, microbial pesticides are still largely regulated in South Asia by the system originally designed for chemical

3 pesticides. This has created market entry barriers by imposing burdensome costs on the microbial pesticide industry. Technological and policy gaps towards effective utilization of microbial pesticides need to be identified and need to be addressed properly at the country level as well as in regional level. This paper discusses the present status of microbial pesticide use in South Asia, technical and policy gaps and future prospects towards the facilitation of microbial pesticide use.

Agricultural pest damages in South Asia Productivity of crops is at risk due to the incidence of pests including insects, weeds and pathogens. Crop losses due to these harmful organisms can be substantial which may be prevented or reduced by crop protection measures. As shown in the Figure 1, potential crop loss in South Asia has estimated above 70 percent where as actual crop losses was around 40 percent.

Figure 1: Potential crop loss, actual crop loss and estimated loss reduction upon crop protection practices in different regions across the world (estimates of monetary losses in barley, cottonseed, maize, oilseed rape, rice, potato, soybean, cotton, sugar beet, tomato and wheat); Source: Oerke, 2006

Crop pests and diseases cause heavy yield losses affecting the food security in Afghanistan. Agriculture in Bangladesh has been highly susceptible to crop pest attacks and diseases. Conservative estimates of annual crop losses are in the range of 10-15 percent without any direct intervention (Meisner, 2004). No systematic study or research was

4 carried out for estimating the extent of crop damaged by pests in Bhutan. However, an average crop loss ranged from 10 to 20 percent under regular pest incidences (Tenzin, 2013). In India alone, 30 percent of the crop yield potential is lost as a result of insects, disease and weeds corresponding to 30 million MT of food grain (Koul, 2011). Food production and storage in the hills of Nepal is suffering from pre harvest and post harvest loss of 20-35 percent due to pest and diseases. Majority of subsistence farmers do not use any control measures or adopt traditional practices for pest control (Ghimire and Khadka, 2005). However, commercial farmers mostly rely on chemical pest control measures. Cotton is one of the major crops in Pakistan. There has been large harvest loss reaching almost 30 percent in spite of adopting chemical control methods (Rehman et al., 2015). It is estimated that 25- 30 present of crop yield is lost due to insects, pathogens and weeds in Sri Lanka (Rajapakshe, 2016).

Use of chemical pesticides In an attempt to avoid such crop losses, the primary strategy employed has been to eliminate the pests by using chemical pesticide. Moreover, the role of pesticides has become critically important with modernization of agriculture with increased use of modem inputs such as chemical fertilizer, irrigation and modern seeds which in turn provide a favorable climate for rapid growth of pests. The pesticide usage varies with the cost of the chemicals (most of them patented), the cost of man power and the prevalence of specific pests in each climatic/geographic region. Average application rates of pesticides per ha of arable land have been computed by FAO and the highest average values attaining 6.5–60 kg/ha occurred in Asia and in some countries of South America. Worldwide pesticide production increased at a rate of about 11 percent per year from 0.2 million MT in 1950s to more than 5 million MT by 2000 (FAO, 2017). Historically, crop protection in Afghanistan has relied heavily on synthetic chemical pesticides. Pesticide use in Bangladesh has doubled since the early 1990s. There is widespread evidence that pesticides are used inappropriately in Bangladesh. In a survey, carried out with several hundred vegetable and fruit farmers in several remote districts in Bangladesh revealed that 50 percent of pesticides were belong to very hazardous group and 47 percent of farmers were found to be overuse the pesticides. Only 4 percent of farmers reported receiving basic training on the safe handling of pesticides (Dasgupta, 2005).

5

Figure 2: South Asian annual pesticide consumption (MT) and associated cost (USD ‘000) in comparison with other countries (based on 2009-2013 data); Source: Syed et al., 2014

Bhutan with a national aspiration to become 100 percent organic in future has undertaken different initiatives to gradually phase out the use of chemical pesticides including withdrawal of subsidies on pesticides, centralized government system for procurement of only required pesticides and establishment of institution for National Organic Program (NOP). The current pest management strategy in India heavily relies on chemical pesticides. As on 2016, 275 pesticides were registered for use in India of which about 115 pesticides are highly hazardous with a potential to cause severe health implications such as high acute toxicity, long-term toxic effects like cancers, hormone disorders, reproductive and developmental disorders (Dileep Kumar and Narasimha Reddy, 2017). Pesticide use in the state of Punjab is about 923 g/ha which is the highest in India. In cotton, it is 2.6 kg/ha in transgenic varieties and 6.4 kg/ha in non-Bt varieties (Agnihotri, 2000). The benefits of using fertilizer on highly alkaline soil and the proper use of pesticides are poorly understood by Maldivian farmers. The freshwater lenses are very vulnerable to fertilizer and pesticide pollution. The organic matter in the soil is dangerously low resulting in the leaching of chemicals into the groundwater. The frequent pesticide spraying has become too intense leaving residue on the harvested crops. Crops are sprayed 6-10 times in a growing season in some islands which are far exceeding the manufacturer’s recommendations.

6 The domestic consumption of pesticide in Nepal is very low 0.142 ai kg/ha comparing with other countries like India (0.5 kg/ha), Mexico (0.75 kg/ha), Germany (3 kg/ha), UK (5 kg/ha), USA (7 kg/ha), Netherlands (9.4 kg/ha), Japan (12 kg/ha), China (14 kg/ha) and Taiwan (17 kg/ha). Fungicides are the dominant form of pesticides used in Nepal. Total active ingredients used in the pesticides during 2011/2012 were about 345 thousands kg or liters of which very minimal amount has been used for public health use. Pesticide use in Pakistan increased from 665 MT in 1980 to 69,897 MT in 2002. The current use of pesticides in Pakistan is about 130,000 MT of which approximately 90 percent is applied on cotton, rice, fruits and vegetables. Pest control in Sri Lanka totally depends on chemical pesticides. According to Pesticide Statistics for 2016 of Office of the Registrar of Pesticides, Sri Lanka, 4,260 MT of chemical pesticides has been imported to Sri Lanka in 2016 spending USD 27 million.

Issues of chemical pesticides Chemical pesticide use has certainly contributed towards improving agricultural production in terms of both yield and quality leading to increase of farming income and to enhance the livelihood of farmers. However, indiscriminate use of pesticides without adhering to the safety norms and recommended practices has posed serious health risks to humans, toxic effects on other living organisms and adverse impact on environment. Prophylactic chemical control ie calendar based pesticide application associated with commercial agriculture leads to excessive use of chemical pesticides. Consequently, beneficial species have been lost and residual problems have increased with subsequent impact on the food chain. Drift of sprays and vapor of chemical pesticides can cause severe problems in different crops, waterways and general environment. Therefore, there has been a growing demand for food safety and quality in recent decades as reflected in the tight safety regulations on imports of products and strict regulations on the amount of pesticide residues on commodities. Moreover, increasingly high standards regarding product quality are continuously being set. Public awareness about the adverse effects of pesticides on the safety of foods and on the environment has increased in recent years. The mechanism for toxic action is not restricted to target pests and toxicity is exerted also on non target similar organisms causing damage to biodiversity and ecosystem health. Reduction in beneficial insects due to the toxicity of these pesticides can result in changes in biodiversity of an area and affect natural biological balance. There are poisoning hazards for pesticide operators given excessive exposure even though it depends on dose, toxicity, sensitivity and

7 duration of exposure. Exposure to pesticides and synthetic chemicals were related to cancer, obesity, endocrine disruption, and other diseases in humans (WHO, 2017). At present, there is a widespread concern about effects of herbicides on human health. For example, glyphosate that is of common use in agriculture is a main carcinogenic agent (Benbrook, 2016). Many cases of intoxication of farmers, rural workers, and their families occurred during pesticide applications and were documented in reports on poisoning and effects of synthetic chemicals on human health. It was reported that unintentional poisonings kill an estimated 355,000 people globally each year and such poisonings are strongly associated with excessive exposure and inappropriate use of toxic chemicals (Alavanja and Bonner 2012). Excessive use led to the creation of new strains of pests resistant to synthetic insecticides. The resistance development often related to receptors modification that involved the mechanisms and targets of action.

Bio-pesticides Bio-pesticides are mass-produced, biologically based agents used for the control of crop pests. They can be living organisms such as nematodes and microorganisms or naturally occurring substances such as plant extracts or insect pheromones. To overcome the hazards associated with chemical pesticides, the use of bio-pesticides which are derived from natural materials as animals, plants, microorganisms and certain minerals is increasingly being adopted. Bio-pesticides have been grouped into four product categories namely 1) Microbial control agents (MCA), 2) Macro-organisms (mostly entomopathoenic nematodes and insect bio-control agents), 3) Semio- chemicals (mostly pheromones, kairomones etc) and 4) Natural products (plant extracts-botanicals, fermentation and other products). There are also legal implications of the terminology of bio-pesticides. Growth regulators, bio-stimulants, plant strengtheners etc. used in modern agricultural production systems often carry less regulatory burden in comparison with products described anywhere as bio-pesticides. Commercial bio-pesticides are becoming increasingly important in modern sustainable agriculture. Bio-pesticides have been becoming increasingly popular in recent years and are considered safer than conventional pesticides. As opposed to chemical pesticides, bio- pesticides are by their nature less detrimental and are more specific to the target pests. Additionally, bio-pesticides are effective in small amounts and decompose quickly without leaving problematic residues. Further, they have gained attention because of potential for local production and

8 compatibility with smallholder farming which is the predominant form of agricultural production in South Asia. Integrated Pest management (IPM) is a preventive strategy of crop protection that uses bio-pesticides as a main pillar and an integral component with various other methods. Specifically, synthetic pesticides can be used as a last option. IPM is cost effective and prioritizes human and environmental safety. IPM also considers farmers’ local knowledge and practices and it needs an appropriate level of education. The global weighted average consumption level of bio-pesticides is approximately 1 kg/ha. With the global organic farming area comprising about 24 million ha, global bio-pesticide consumption is thus estimated at about 24 million kg (Sinha and Biswas, 2008). North America uses the largest percentage of the bio-pesticide market share at 44 percent followed by the EU and Oceania with 20 percent each, South and Latin American countries with 10 percent and about 6 percent in India and other Asian countries (Koul, 2011). Use of bio-pesticides in Afghanistan is limited. Currently, bio-fungicide, Trichoderma is being used (Sharifi, 2013). Bio-pesticide marketing in Bangladesh is in very initial stage. However, several state research institutions including Bangladesh Agriculture Research Institute (BARI) and universities have been doing research on bio-pesticides. Pheromone based insect pest management approaches are popular among farming community (Alam, 2013). There has been little import and use of bio- pesticides in Bhutan. However, most farmers practicing organic agriculture in Bhutan are encouraged to use bio-pesticides especially botanicals (Tshomo, 2013). In India, bio-pesticides represent only 2.89 percent as on 2005 of the overall pesticide and are expected to exhibit an annual growth rate of about 2.3 percent in the coming years. So far in India, only 12 types of bio-pesticides have been registered under the Insecticide Act, 1968. Neem-based pesticides, Bacillus thuringensis, NPV and Trichoderma are the major bio-pesticides produced and used in India (Sinha and Biswas, 2008). Many efforts have been made for researching and development of bio-pesticides in Nepal. Relatively large amount of botanicals are being used against stored pests including neem seeds, tobacco decoction, pea flour, dry wood ash, aconite roots, mustered oil etc. (Ansari et al., 2013). In Pakistan, a number of plant materials have been traditionally used for pest management for centuries. Pakistan Agricultural Research Council (PARC) has made initiatives to produce commercial formulations of bio-pesticides as a public-private joint collaboration (Iqbal, 2013). Though government institutions engage mainly in research and development activities of bio-pesticides in Sri Lanka, there is no adequate engagement of government in the process of mass production and commercialization (Galanihe et al., 2013).

9 Microbial pesticides in pest management Out of all the bio-pesticides used today, microbial bio-pesticides constitute the largest group of broad-spectrum bio-pesticides. Microbial pesticides are also known as Biological Control Agents (BCAs). In this category, the active ingredient is a microorganism that either occurs naturally or is genetically engineered. The pesticide action may be from the organism itself or from a substance it produces. They offer the advantages of higher selectivity and less or no toxicity in comparison to conventional chemical pesticides (MacGregor, 2006). There are at least 1,500 naturally occurring insect-specific microorganisms, 100 of which are insecticidal (Khachatourians, 2009). Microbial control agents based on naturally occurring fungi, bacteria, viruses or nematodes have offered some realistic alternatives to chemical pesticides when used as part of an ecologically based integrated pest management (EBIPM) or area-wide pest management strategy (AWPM) (Koul et al., 2008). There are many reasons for the recent increased interest in microbial pesticides including the development of resistance to conventional synthetic pesticides, a decline in the rate of discovery of novel insecticides, increased public perception of the dangers associated with synthetic pesticides, host-specificity of microbial pesticides and improvement in the production and formulation technology of microbial pesticides (Koul, 2011). Microbial pesticides are non-toxic and non-pathogenic to non-target organisms and the safety offered is their greatest strength. Action of microbes is specific to a single group or species of pests. Therefore, they do not affect directly beneficial animals such as predators and parasitoids. Microbial pesticides can be used in many habitats where chemical pesticides have been prohibited. Such habitats include recreational and urban areas, lake and stream borders of watersheds and near homes and schools in agricultural settings. Residues of microbial pesticides are non- hazardous and are safe all the time even close to harvesting periods of the crops. Most microbes can establish in a pest population or its habitat and provide control during subsequent seasons or pest generations. Commercial microbial pesticides have been around since 1948, when the first microbial product for control of the Japanese beetle based on the bacterium Paenibacillus popilliae was registered in the USA. Since that time, various microbes have been identified and developed.

Bacterial microbial pesticides The bacteria that are used as microbial pesticides can be divided into four categories: crystalliferous spore formers (such as Bacillus thuringiensis),

10 obligate pathogens (such as Bacilluspopilliae), potential pathogens (such as Serratia marcesens) and facultative pathogens (such as Pseudomonas aeruginosa). Out of these four, the spore formers have been most widely adopted for commercial use because of their safety and effectiveness. Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) is by far the most important BCA to date both globally and in South Asia. Bt is the most successful insect pathogen used for insect control in the world which presently occupies about 2 per cent of the total insecticide market (Anonymous, 2007). In recent years, there has also been considerable interest by industry in other Bacillus species (eg B. subtilis, B. pumilus) for disease control. Bacillus spp. are commercially and operationally attractive because have the advantages of ease of production and stability with storage.

Viral microbial pesticides Over 700 insect-infecting viruses have been isolated mostly from Lepidoptera (560) followed by Hymenoptera (100), Coleoptera, Diptera and Orthoptera (40) (Khachatourians, 2009). About a dozen of these viruses have been commercialized for use as bio-pesticides. Among the insect viruses, baculoviruses (Nuclear polyhedrosis virus, NPV and Granulosis virus, GV) are the most promising for insect control particularly of Lepidoptera and Diptera because of their specificity. The main categories of viruses used in pest management have been NPVs and GVs. These viruses are widely used for control of vegetable and field crop pests globally and are effective against plant-chewing insects.

Fungal microbial pesticides Entomopathogenic fungi (EPF) like Beauveria spp, Metarhizium spp, Lecanicillium spp and Isaria spp have been developed as successful mycoinsecticides for various groups of insect pests including Hemiptera, Coleoptera and Diptera (Kachhawa, 2017). The antagonistic fungi Trichoderma spp including T. harzianum has been used for management of soil-borne diseases.

Nematode bio-pesticides Another group of microorganisms that can control pests is the entomopathogenic nematodes (EPN). From a regulatory perspective, they have been treated as macro-organisms in the EU with very little regulatory burden making hence their relative commercial success. Nematodes control weevils, gnats, white grubs and various species of the Sesiidae family (Williams et al., 2002). These fascinating organisms suppress insects in cryptic habitats (such as soil-borne pests and stem borers). Commonly used nematodes in pest management belong to the genera Steinernema and Heterorhabditis which attack the hosts as infective juveniles (IJs) (Kaya and Gaugler, 1993).

11 Protozoan microbial pesticides Only a few BCA products world-wide are based on protozoan parasites including Nosema species against certain insect pests. The reasons for that are manifold, but primarily include difficulties with production and life cycles with sexual stages that pose problems regarding regulator’s demands for genetic stability of isolates. Microsporan protozoans have been investigated extensively as possible components of integrated pest management programs.

Microbial products as microbial pesticides In addition to the proteinaceous toxins, microorganisms are also known to produce anti-pest chemical compounds. Fermentation broths provide a readily screenable source of bioactivity against organisms or targets of agricultural interest. Antinsectan compounds derived from non- filamentous bacteria (eg aminolevulinic acid, thiolutin, thuringiensin, xenorhabdins), actinomycetes and some fungi (eg actinomycin A, aplasmomycin, avermectins, citromycin, milbemycins, nikkomycin, piericidins, spinosyns, various cyclic peptides etc) are well known as toxins, growth inhibitors, anti-feedants and physiological disrupters against a variety of pests (Dowd, 2002).

Genetically modified crops as a microbial based pesticide control approach Some transgenic crops can be considered among microbial based products. Since 1996, more than 200 million ha of land has been planted with Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) based genetically engineered crops (James, 2010). While 29 countries planted commercialized biotech crops in 2010, an additional 32 countries have granted regulatory approval for biotech crops for import of food and feed use and release into the environment since 1996. Bt cotton, maize and brinjal have been successful and other crops such as transgenic rice, soybean and rapeseed are making some headway. Commercial growing was reported in 2009 of smaller amounts of genetically modified (GM) sugar beet, papaya, squash (zucchini), sweet pepper, tomato, petunia, carnations, rose and poplar (GMO Compass, 2009). The US planted the most GMO crop area at 73 million ha followed by Brazil (49 million), Argentina (24 million), Canada (12 million) and India (11 million). These 5 countries made of 91 percent of the global area of GMO crops. The growth rate of the bio-pesticide industry has been forecasted in the next 10 years at 10-15 percent per annum in contrast to 2-3 percent for chemical pesticides (Menn, 1996).

12 Microbial pesticide use in South Asia There is no much progress in use of microbial pesticides under commercial scale in Afghanistan. Ministry of Agriculture has been demonstrating efficacy of several imported microbial pesticides including Trichoderma, Madex Plus and Dipel through Farmers’ Field School (FFS) respectively against vegetable fungal diseases, apple codling moth and cabbage loopers (Sharifi, 2013). Recent studies showed the efficacy of NPV and GV against lepidopteron pests. Biological Control Laboratory established in 2015 under Plant Protection and Quarantine Directorate has already started development of formulation and small scale commercial production of Trichoderma and NPV. Government institutions of Bangladesh have researched on microbial pesticides. Registration of bio-pesticides was started from 20 December 2012 (Alam, 2013). Only one microbial pesticide based on Trichoderma spp has been registered so far while 8 products including Trichoderma spp, Psuedomonas spp, Bacillus spp, Isaria fumososea (EPF), Steinernema feltiae (EPN), Entomopathogenic virus and Bacillus thuringiensis have been under registration. Another couple of products with SNPV, HNPV, Bt, Beaveria brassiana (EPN) and Metarhizium spp (EPF) have been submitted for registration in 2017. Bhutan’s aspiration to become totally organic discourages the use of chemical pesticides and promotes the use of microbial pesticides. Accordingly, many bio-pesticides were imported, evaluated and promoted. (Tshomo, 2013). Mycomite, Niprot (Antogonistic fungi), Metarhizium and Sumona (Antogonostic bacteria) are in testing stage. The microbial pesticides approved in 2015 for import and used in the country include Tent 2% WP (T. asperellum and T. gamsii), Serenade 1.34% and (B. subtilis strain QST 713), Cease 1.34% (B. subtilis strain QST 713), NPV, Bt, EPF product and EPN product. Several other products with Pseudomonas fluorescens, Bacillus subtilis, Paecilomyces lilacinus, Trichoderma viride and T. harzianum are to be submitted to BAFRA for registration. In India, fifteen primary microbial species and sub-species for agricultural pest control have been registered by 2016. There are 970 registered bio-pesticide products manufactured by 466 companies. These products belong to Bacillus thuringiensis, Lysinnibacillus sphaericus, SpliNPV, Beauveria bassiana, Metarhizium anisopliae, Verticillium lecanii, V. chlamidosporium, Pseudomonas fluroescens Trichoderma harzianum, T. viride, Ampelomyces quisqualis, Bacillus subtilis, Hirsutella thompsonii and Paecilomyces lilacinus. The demand of microbial pesticides in 2015-16 was about 8,240 MT. Indian microbial

13 pesticide production is dominated by Trichoderma spp (6,780 MT), Pseudomonas fluorescens (738 MT), Verticillium lecanii (714 MT) and Bacillus thuringiensis (136 MT). There are 58 formulations of B. thuringiensis which have been registered in India. Microbial pesticide in Maldives is in infancy stage. Except individual project base microbial pesticide use, there is no commercial usage. Metarhizium anisopliae has been successfully used for the control of hispid of coconut plantations in 1999. Oryctes rhinoceros nudivirus (OrNV) was also released and widely used for control of coconut beetle, Oryctes monoceros in Maldives. Nepal has been importing quantifiable amounts of microbial pesticides since 2004. Nepal has registered 54 microbial pesticide products of 10 microbial agents including Bacillus subtilis (1), B. thuringiensis (2), Beauveria bassiana (10), Metarhizium anisopliae (7), NPV (3), Paecilomyces lilacinus (1), Pseudomonas fluroescens (11), T. harzianum (2), T. viride (12) and Verticillium lecanii (5). In addition to imported products, a few local isolates of Beauveria bassiana, Metarhizium anisopliae and Steinernema spp were found to be effective. Pathogenicity of Beauveria bassiana to a number of endemic insect pests was demonstrated in Pakistan. Further, EPF including B. bassiana, M. anisopliae, P. fumoroseus and P. cicadae were found to be effective against mites under laboratory conditions (Qazi and Khachatourians, 2005). Sri Lanka has done a considerable number of researches and development works on microbial pesticides. However, the promising findings are still confined to the research laboratories and research demonstrations. No proper initiatives for mass production, quality control, registration and commercialization have been made. Three imported product of Bacillus thuringiensis are the only microbial pesticide which have been registered in the country since 1990 only for house hold pest control. However, there are no reports of their utilization due to high cost and rapid inactivation under local conditions. Efficacy of locally isolated Beauveria brassiana, Steinemema spp, Heterorhabditdae spp and Trichoderma viride has been evaluated in Sri Lanka against a number of pests including coconut black beetle, kalotermitidae termites, Phythium, Phytopthora and Fusarium. The availability of registered microbial pesticides targeting the pressing plant protection issues of major crops is very limited in South Asian countries except India. Though some microbial products have been registered in many countries in the region except Sri Lanka, commercial availability and popularity among farmers are extremely poor. Further, pesticide regulatory guidelines do not cover the microbial pesticides making their registration extremely difficult.

14 Constraints in microbial pesticide use The widespread use of microbial pesticides has been restricted owing to various constraints. i) Lack of commercially available microbial products for a substantial range of pest problems (due to their ‘niche’ status): For example, insect viruses are not widely available. ii) High pest specificity: Owing to the specificity of the action and narrow target species ranges, microbes may control only a portion of the pests present in a field and may not control other type of pests present in treated areas which can continue make a damage. iii) Effectiveness is highly vulnerable to prevailing field conditions: Heat, UV light and desiccation reduce the efficacy of microbial pesticides iv) Lack awareness of the importance of beneficial insects in pest management: Substantial training is required for understanding the true cost and benefits of microbial pesticides other than health and safety of farmers. v) Lack awareness of producers on the risks of residues and adverse effect in the environment vi) Expecting quick knock-down effect with microbial pesticides: Unlike chemical pesticides, microbial pest control agents may infect or cause disease in other living organisms taking more time for showing effectiveness. vii) Complexity of delivery procedures of microbial pesticides compared to the chemical pesticides: viii) Requirement of special formulation and storage procedures: Short shelf life is a constraint. ix) Resistance development: It is evident that some insect species have developed resistance to several insect pathogens as it with chemical pesticides. Pests are found to subject to long-documented insecticide resistance to Bt toxins (Tabashnik, 1994). Thus, resistance management will have to be practiced. x) Issues with human health concerns: Although pest microbial pesticides such as Beauveria and Metarhizium have a century long history of efficacy and safety, it must not be assumed that all fungal isolates are always safe. There are potential adverse effects of microbial pesticides including allergenic, toxic and pathogenic effects on humans and other non-target organisms. For example, individual isolates in certain species of Trichoderma, Isaria and even Metarhizium have been shown to produce secondary

15 metabolites that may be risky to human health. Then it needs accurate identification of promising isolates with a toxicity profile. xi) Unavailability of microbial pesticide regulation guidelines: Pesticide regulation guidelines in many South Asian countries do not cover microbial pesticides adequately. xii) Competition from other bio-rational pesticides: Increased adoption of microbial pesticides has come under threat from the development of new bio-rational pesticides (including pest control agents and chemical analogues of naturally occurring bio- chemicals such as pheromones, insect growth regulators etc). These are more environment friendly than synthetic chemical pesticides. xiii) Lack of scientific knowledge: There is still a lack of knowledge regarding the interactions of microbial pesticides with pests, natural enemies and the wider ecosystem. xiv) Displacement of non-target microorganisms xv) Microbial pesticide industry is mainly in hands of SMEs in South Asia: BCA market was mainly supplied with products from small and medium sized companies with a strong research base. This meant that a relatively small group of BCA suppliers have to compete with a much larger chemical plant protection market which resulted in a very small percentage of market shares for BCA in the plant protection sector. Microbial pest control agents typically have narrow host ranges and occur naturally in the environment to which they are applied. Such factors reduce the likelihood of harm from a microorganism used for pest control. Institutional arrangements and legal framework for research, production, registration, use, import, export, commercialization of microbial pesticides In Afghanistan, Ministry of Agriculture, Irrigation and Livestock has the responsibility of implementing the pesticide legislations through Plant Protection and Quarantine Directorate in order to regulate the production, import, transfer, storage, distribution and use of pesticides. The first pesticide legislation passed first in October 2015 was revised and reformed in October 2016. Microbial pesticides should also follow the guidelines given for chemical pesticides in the legislations. Samples plus applications submitted to Ministry are directed to Plant Protection and Quarantine Directorate and Agro-chemical Department for quality checking and efficacy testing. The results are subsequently submitted to the Pesticide Technical Advisory Committee (PTAC) for approval.

16 Biological Control Laboratory was established in 2015 at Plant Protection and Quarantine Directorate, Kabul in order to take up research on bio-pesticides. In Bangladesh, registration is mandatory prior to import, manufacture, stock, advertise, sell and use of any pesticide. Bangladesh has taken remarkable initiatives to amend the pesticide regulations by incorporating special provision for bio-pesticide registration. Pesticide Ordinance in Bangladesh was promulgated in 1971 and implemented in 1979. The Pesticide Ordinance-1971 was revised in 2007 and currently known as The Pesticide Ordinance (Amended)-2007. The pesticide rules and regulations – 1958 was amended in 2010 with incorporation of the provisions of bio-pesticide registration. The Ordinance is administrated by the Ministry of Agriculture through the Plant Protection Wing (PPW) of Department of Agricultural Extension (DAE). Pesticide Technical Advisory Committee (PTAC), Pesticide Advisory Sub-Committee (Sub- PTAC), Pesticide Analysis Laboratory, Government Analysts, Inspectors and other licensing requirements are in place for all aspects of pesticide production, handling, import/export, packaging, labeling, storage, safety and selling. Registration of a microbial pesticide is applied to Plant Protection Wing (PPW) of Department of Agricultural Extension (DAE) through Form 1(c). The Pesticide Act of Bhutan-2000 outlines the import and use of all agro chemicals. It emphasizes the use of least harmful methods of pest control. Whenever possible, IPM and least toxic chemicals are to be chosen although it does not say anything explicitly on bio-pesticides. In Bhutan, though IPM principles are followed as guidelines for pest management, there are no rules and regulations to make it mandatory practice. The Economic Development Policy – 2010 indicates the tax incentives for commercial farms and organic based business that could also include microbial pesticide production and promotion technology. This document also spells out the phasing out of chemical agrochemicals and need of policy reform for agriculture and biodiversity. Even though this policy is not fully implemented, there is a room for development of bio-pesticide industry in the future (Tshomo, 2013). Bhutan does not manufacture chemical or bio pesticides. Bhutan Food and Agriculture Regulatory Authority (BAFRA) will register pesticides and suppliers based on the technical information given by the National Plant Protection Centre (NPPC) after quality checking. With national aspiration of Bhutan to become 100 percent organic, government has taken various initiatives to phase out the chemical pesticides and in turn to promote the use of bio-pesticides. Those include the withdrawal of subsidy on pesticides, centralized system of procurement and distribution of pesticides and institution of National Organic Program (NOP). Since the start of NOP,

17 the use of bio-pesticides has been promoted through extension system of Ministry of Agriculture and Forests (MoAF). NPPC in collaboration with NOP approves list of bio-pesticides which is then submitted to BAFRA for registration. Registered bio-pesticides are currently procured and distributed by NPPC. NPPC and NOP focus on isolation and development of local strains as microbial pesticides. In India, It is mandatory for manufacturers to register their microbial pesticide products either under 9(3) B (temporary/provincial registration) or 9(3) (regular registration) in Central Insecticide Board (CIB) of Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare. Producers have to submit a full set of data on product characterization, safety, bio-efficacy, labeling and packaging for regular registration. However, producer is allowed to sell the product immediately after receiving the provincial registration. Provincial registration with generic data for any new product of already registered species or new species is valid only for 2 years and then producer has to generate complete set of data within 2 years of provincial registration. This is an important initiative from India for popularization of microbial pesticides. India has established four different institutions to regulate the commercial production and use of microbial pesticides. Those include the Central Insecticide Board - CIB (developing policies), Registration Committee - RC (product registration), Central Insecticide Laboratory – CIL (monitoring the quality of products in the market) and State Department of Agriculture –SDA (issuing manufacturing licenses). There is no rigid legal framework for regulation of microbial pesticides even for chemical pesticides. Further, there is no proper institutional arrangement for pesticide use. Maldives is totally relies on imported pesticides. This may also and restrict the utilization of microbial pesticides. Currently, pesticide import is regulated by the Prohibited Items Act under Ministry of Defense and national Security. MoFA maintains an updated list of approved pesticides along with banned pesticides and issues permits and no objection letters to import pesticides. MoFA as a part of its work plan conducts trainings and awareness programs for popularization of microbial pesticides and IPM. However, Maldives has drafted a Pesticide Bill to regulate production, imports, registration, commercialization, sell, use and disposal of pesticides. Nepal has enacted Pesticide Act-1991 to make provisions for import, export, production, purchase, sale and use of pesticides. Plant Protection Directorate (PPD) has been designated as the National Plant Protection Organization (NPPO) in the country by Nepal Gazette Part 5, Section 63 and No 44. Pesticide Registration and Management Division (PRMD) under PPD engages in pesticide regulation and registration activities. Nepal has recognized the IPM as a major strategy for pest management

18 since 1997. Further, due importance has been given for IPM programs in Agriculture Policy-2004 as well as in Agriculture Development Strategy: 2015-2035. Technical and research back up for plant protection services are provided through National Agricultural Research Council (NARC). In Pakistan, Pesticides are regulated through the Agricultural Pesticides Ordinance 1971. The responsibility of registration, permission for import and quality control is executed through the Department of Plant Protection under the National Food Security and Research (Iqbal, 2013). The Control of Pesticides Act No 33 – 1980 and its amendment No 6 enacted in 1994 regulate the importation, packing, labeling, storage, formulation, transportation, sales and use of pesticides in Sri Lanka (Galanihe et al., 2013). The Registrar of Pesticides under Depart of Agriculture of the Ministry of Agriculture is the national authority for implementing the laws and regulations under the Control of Pesticides Act. As the current pesticide regulation does not provide provisions for the registration of bio-pesticides, a Special Technical Advisory Committee has been appointed to prepare the guidelines for registration of locally produced bio-pesticides including microbial pesticides. The Committee has suggested granting a provincial registration for locally produced bio-pesticides for 3 years and manufacture has to submit the full dossier within 3 years with all required data according to the guidelines in order to obtain the full registration. Any of South Asian does not have fully regulated mechanism for microbial pesticide registration leading to hazels in the process of registration. Most countries require the same registration folders for biological pest control agents as for chemical pesticides since adequate provision has not been given for bio-pesticides in their regulations. India has a provincial registration where as Sri Lanka has made initiatives for providing a provincial registration for microbial pesticides. Most of countries except India may lack the expertise and experience required to evaluate these products and therefore treat them the same way as chemical pesticides even though their characteristics and mode of actions are fundamentally different. This indicates a higher level of uncertainty about registration requirements for these products.

Establishment of infrastructure for monitoring standards and quality parameter of microbial pesticide Biological Control Laboratory inaugurated at Kabul in 2015 under the Plant Protection and Quarantine Directorate takes up research on bio- pesticides along with their efficacy and quality checking. Further, Ministry of Agriculture, Irrigation and Livestock has started in 2016 to build up a laboratory complex of which quality control of bio-pesticides would be one of responsibilities.

19 In Bangladesh, quality parameters of microbial pesticides are evaluated in the Central Laboratory in Plant Protection Wing (PPW) of Department of Agricultural Extension (DAE). The bio-efficacy testing is carried out either in Bangladesh Agriculture University, Dhaka University or at Bangladesh Agricultural Research Institute. The National Organic Program (NOP) in Bhutan is mandated to facilitate and coordinate research and development activities on organic agriculture and supply of bio-pesticides and bio-fertilizers. The National Plant Protection Centre (NPPC) in close collaboration with NOP carries out all research activities including bio-efficacy testing and quality testing. Further, field activities and field demonstrations are coordinated through Renewable Natural Resources (RNR) Research and Development Centers, Central Programs (NPPC, NSSC) and District Extension Service. The Central Insecticide Laboratory (CIL) was set up in India (Main Laboratory in Faridabad, 2 regional laboratories at Kanpur and Chandigarh) under the Section 16 of the Insecticides Act – 1968 for pre and post verification of the chemical properties, performance, safety and hazards. In addition, there are 68 State Pesticide Testing Laboratories across India in order to quality check up of samples drawn by pesticide inspectors. In Nepal, Production and evaluation of microbial pesticides is one of the mandates of the Regional Plant Protection Laboratories (RPPL) operating under Plant Protection Directorate of Depart of Agriculture. Currently, Central RPPL in Hariharbhawan, Mid-Western RPPL in Khajura and Far-Western RPPL in Sundarpur are given responsibility to produce Metarhizium anisopliae, NPV and Trichoderma respectively. Community level production of microbial pesticides is carried out by different Community Resource Centers (CRC) established under government support. No improved facilities are available in Pakistan as well as in Sri Lanka for assess the quality of microbial pesticides to ensure the conformity with product specifications. Though some state research institutions have expertise and required infrastructures to undertake such quality assessment, there should have a designation organization for regular monitoring of quality parameters of microbial pesticide at different points from production to filed application. Unlike chemical pesticides, microbial pesticides have short shelf life and are highly vulnerable to storage conditions. Therefore, regular monitoring is essential to trace the inferior quality products and to facilitate their efficient use and for increasing agricultural productivity. However, it is evident that all countries except India do not have

20 adequate expertise and facilities for regular monitoring of quality parameters.

Adoption of FAO/OECD guided fast track registration system to harmonization registration across the SAARC countries Most of the countries in South Asia are amending their policies to minimize the use of chemical pesticides and promote the use of microbial pesticides however microbial pesticides are still largely regulated by the system originally designed for chemical pesticides. Thus, FAO has suggested responsible authorities of member countries to consider for a fast-track registration procedure for certain types of low risk pesticides. In such cases, a limited set of data may be sufficient for evaluation and subsequent registration. Evaluation may also be carried out on an accelerated time table. ASEAN has also suggested offering special fast-track services for registration of bio-control agents to promote the use of them. A reduced risk approach linked to a fast track registration is also supported by US-EPA when products are low toxicity, low impact on non-target organisms and very low rate of use. Guidelines have been prepared by OECD countries for industries to provide required information for registration of microbial pesticides in a common format and structure. Thereby it can reduce the need for resource-intensive re-formatting, re-structuring and re-writing for individual countries. Such common format facilitates the preparation of countries’ reports to a similar format and structure allowing better mutual use of reports and burden-sharing among countries and cost savings. No fast tract procedures are available for registration of microbial pesticides in South Asian countries. However, there are fast track registration and importation for chemical pesticides in some SAARC countries. Bangladesh is ready to amend rules to set up fast track registration procedures (FAO, 2013). Pakistan’s mission is to introduce fast track registration and import permission of safe pesticides with minimum requirement according to needs of farmers for ensuring food security and food safety. Out of 3 pesticide registration and import permission of Pakistan, two permissions (Form 16 and Form 17) are given under fast track procedure (FAO, 2013). Microbial pesticides in South Asia are developed by government research institutions and industry is normally run by SMEs with limited financial resources. Further, products are also niche-based with limited commercial use and having narrow target pests. Thus, both registration cost and long time period required for registration process adversely affect the development and commercialization of microbial pesticides. Unlike chemical pesticides, the microbial pesticides have no Maximum

21 Residue Limit (MRL) and are generally regarded as safe (GRAS) for production, formulation and use. Thus, microbial pesticides can be registered via priority procedures. It is stressed on the need of simplified procedures for the registration of microbial pesticides with minimum dada. There is no formal registration procedure for bio-pesticides in India. But bio-pesticide was included into the Insecticides Act in 1999. Considering the rigid registration system which really hurdles to bio- pesticide development, CIB has rationalized the guidelines and data requirements for registration of bio-pesticides in order to expedite the process (Sekar et al., 2016). All toxicity data requirements are harmonized with OECD guidelines. Therefore, Indian system for registration of microbial pesticides considers them as safe products and allows to obtain provincial registration for 2 years to popularize in the market while product undergoing the full registration process. Nepal has proposed to include several points regarding the fast tract registration process in the proposed revised draft of Pesticide Act-1991. Sri Lanka has already made guidelines with simplified data requirements to provide 3 year provincial registration for microbial pesticides. The demonstration of efficacy and safety issues are less concern for registration when the use of wild-type and native microbial strains. The guidelines and data requirements for registration of microbial pesticides should be further simplified. It is required to encourage microbial pesticide regulatory harmonization across the region through grater collaboration and information exchange. With regulatory harmonization, countries would be able to work together more closely, share resources, lower the costs of pesticide registration and coordinate implementation of a number of international conventions related to pesticides.

New research in field of microbial pesticide improvement and development and evidences of multi-stakeholder collaborative approaches for its development Asia Pacific is the region with high potential and is projected to exhibit significant growth rate of bio-pesticide market compare to all regions. By 2025, the Asia Pacific bio-pesticides market is estimated to reach a valuation of USD 2,934 million incrementing the demand at a growth rate of 14.2 percent. Globally, the use of bio-pesticides is increasing steadily by 10 percent every year. Increasing government initiative related to use of eco-friendly agricultural treatment products is the major factor which is anticipated to drive the growth of the market. However, About 90 percent of the microbial bio-pesticides are derived from just one entomopathogenic bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis. Similarly, the South Asian microbial pesticide industry is dominated only by several

22 microbial products including Bacillus thuringiensis, Trichoderma spp and Pseudomonas fluorescens. The bio-pesticides market in India has been significantly projected to grow reaching revenue worth INR 21,300 million by 2018. This growth performance has been primarily anticipated on account of growing environmental awareness and education spreading amongst the Indian farmer community. Though products have not been registered and not commercialized, ample research activities have been conducted in South Asian region. Concern authorities and regulating bodies of member countries should assess the advancement and potentialities of local existing research and development activities and take essentials steps for streamlining them. In view of the above, our research development and findings on microbial pesticides need to be promoted to commercial level which is definitely a stimulatory for development of microbial pesticide industry in South Asia. Afghanistan has made own efforts to develop local strains of Trichoderma and NPV. However, Afghanistan emphasizes the urgent need of regional collaboration to upgrade the research capabilities on microbial pesticides. In Bangladesh, BARI and BAU engage in researching the microbial pesticides. However, more emphasis is needed on development of formulation, quality checking, resistance development and enhance the efficacy of microbes. Microbial pesticide research works in Bhutan is undertaken by Pesticide testing laboratory of National Plant Protection Centre (NPPC) and currently focusing on development of local strain of Trichoderma in addition to evaluation of microbial products imported from India. India is currently discovering of many effective strains of microbial pesticides and has safely deposited at different microbial culture collection across India. There are large number of research institutions both under ICAR and State Agricultural Universities who are intensively working on development of microbial pesticides. India through ICAR, DBT and DST disburses a huge amount of funds for research, development and validation of microbial pesticides. There are classic examples of PPPs and close links for popularizing of microbial pesticides in India. Other organizations such as NGOs (eg MS Swaminathan Research Foundation), International Organizations (eg ICRISAT, IRRI etc) and Associations (eg Bio-pesticide Suppliers’ Association, All India Biotech Association etc) are closely working with government agencies for popularization of microbial pesticides in India. A number of private industries in India are also engaged in microbial pesticide research and development activities in addition to their regular production and market activities. For example, Multiplex Biotech Pvt Ltd (MBT), Bengaluru has been working on microbial R&D since year 2000. The company

23 works on isolation of native strains, bio-assay, liquid fermentation etc. MBT has set up industrial scale solid substrate fermentation (SSF) process for production of very stable propagules of fungal bio-agents. These private industries are working in close collaboration with government research institutions. Though there is a considerable demand for microbial pesticide research in Maldives, no researches are being undertaken due to lack of facilities and expertise. However, MoFA can initiate some research activities with help of university. No much research on bio-pesticides is being carried out in Nepal. However, Regional Plant Protection Laboratories (RPPL) established in different districts is given mandate to work on microbial pesticides also in addition to their regular activities. Successful attempts have been made to popularize microbial pesticide through Community Resource Centers (CRC). Sri Lanka has identified microbial pesticides as one of the priority research agenda. Sri Lanka Council for Agricultural Research policy, National Science Foundation and foreign funding agencies have granted several projects to government universities and government research organizations to carry out microbial pesticide research. Horticultural Crops Research and Development Institute (HORDI) could develop power formulation and liquid formulation of Trichoderma under ANSOFT Project. Research in production, formulation and delivery may greatly assist in commercialization of microbial pesticides. More research is needed towards integrating biological agents into production system, improving capability of South Asian countries to manufacture and use microbial pesticides. The expansion of various technologies increases the scope for more products and the change in the trend to develop microbial products. Research and development of microbial derived pesticides is proceeding rapidly in South Asia especially in India, but the pace of commercialization and industrialization has been slow and the utilization potential of microbial resources has not yet been sufficiently realized. Further, research and development of agricultural microbes should be strengthened including such areas as the utilization of molecular breeding technology for quality enhance. Rising organic food demand followed by increasing research & development activities of major pesticides companies towards the microbial pesticides are the major factors which is anticipated to drive the microbial pesticides market.

24 Indigenous Technology Knowledge (ITK) and consideration of these as microbial pesticides The existing crop protection paradigm relies mostly on chemical pesticides. It has only a marginal impact on the productivity of many poor smallholder farmers who constitute a major segment of agriculture in South Asia. This is primarily because many of them are not able to afford chemical pesticides and social concerns on adverse effects on human health and environment. Though commercial bio-pesticides are becoming increasingly important as an alternative to chemical pesticides, rate of expansion and accessibility is considerably low. Therefore, harnessing locally available microbial resources would be a better solution for small farmers. India has made efforts to document the indigenous technical knowledge (ITK) as an inventory (Das, 2002). Some of these techniques are highly effective in controlling pests. However, systematic validation and is required before recommending formally to farming community. Further, slight modifications can lead to increase the efficacy and sustainability. It has been reported that many plant species possess pest control properties. Botanicals fermented with cow products like cow dung and cow urine enriches micro cultures which provide pest control and plat nutrition. In India, ICAR-Centre for Indian Knowledge Systems and National Innovation Foundation are involved in promoting indigenous pest control measures. Several plant-based traditional pest control methods are being practiced in Maldivian agriculture. However, such methods based on microbial are not reported. Farmers who adopt IPM in Nepal generally use bio-gas slurry and mustard cake for pest control in addition to many botanicals. EPF Beauveria anisopliae and EPN Steinernema have been detected in dead bodies of Helicoverpa and white grubs respectively. Farmers traditionally practice the spraying of slurry made from dead bodies of Helicoverpa and white grubs for control of insect pests and nematodes. Sri Lankan farmers have sound traditional knowledge of using botanicals like neem for pest control. However, there are no evidences of using microbial traditionally for pest control. Indigenous knowledge is dynamic and unique to a given culture or society. Indigenous agricultural and environmental knowledge gained global recognition through the United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity as embodying ways of life relevant for conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity. These methods may sometimes not much effective and fail but have positive impacts. Therefore, systematic exploring into these indigenous knowledge and methods is timely need. It is reported that indigenous bio-pesticides are picked up by scientists

25 and evaluated scientifically in laboratory and fields in order to validate their efficacy. Besides commercial products, there are evidences that microbial pesticides that are directly produced by farmers themselves. This concept has been promoted on a larger scale in countries like Nepal and Sri Lanka. Mother cultures of Trichoderma distributed by research instructions are used for mass culturing of microbial on compost by farmers in Sri Lanka. Similarly in Nepal, Community Resource Centers produce microbial pesticides on locally available substrates.

Current status on human resource capacity for research, development and extension to promote the utilization of microbial pesticides and capacity development gaps The availability of staff with specific skills in area microbial pesticides is however still very limited in South Asia except India. To keep pace with the increasing demand for microbial pesticides and areas to be researched, high priority has been accorded to upgrade quality of infrastructures and human resources. Therefore, training in appropriate technologies and guidelines has a significant impact popularization of microbial pesticides. In South Asia, except a few, many research institutions don’t have production facilities to encourage the use of microbial pesticides As per Afghanistan point of view, farmers are to be educated on advantages of microbial pesticides and hazards of chemical pesticides. The comprehensive study covering persistence, resistance, dispersal potential and non-target organisms on microbial pesticide use is to be undertaken in Bangladesh. In Bhutan, The national Plant Protection Centre (NPPC) whose mandate is to work on microbial pesticides has no adequate expertise to take up research and development activities. No any qualified officer is available on microbiology. It is possible to disseminate the Knowledge on microbial pesticides to farmers through well established field level agricultural extension network with one extension agent for each block. However, capacity development of extension agents is a prerequisite. In India, more than 100 ICAR Intuitions and about 50 State Agricultural Universities play an important role in development and promotion of microbial pesticides as one of their mandates. ICAR-NBAIR is directly involved in development of microbial pesticides and disseminating the knowledge. Microbial pesticides are a major component of all IPM strategies being developed by the National Centre for IPM (ICAR-IPM). Human Resource Development Programs on microbial pesticides in terms of regular trainings, workshops, demonstrations etc are organized

26 by majority of ICAR instructions located across the India. As India is rich in infrastructure and expertise towards microbial pesticide R&D, appropriate sustainable regional capacity development program as a mega regional project can be planned for the benefit of other member countries. Research capacity on microbial pesticide development needs to be strengthened in Maldives. In Nepal, there are about 100 plant protection technicians across the country to look after plant protection activities including microbial pesticide use and popularization. However, they don’t have specific knowledge on microbial pesticides and their skills and knowledge have to be enhanced. Except main / national research institutions, other satellite and regional research centers do not possess the infrastructure and expertise to undertake microbial pesticide research and development works. Lack of experts on microbiology and microbial taxonomy is a major hindrance for development of microbial pesticides. Further, there is no adequate laboratory facility for regular quality monitoring activities. In South Asia, NGOs and other private industries working on organic agriculture promote microbial pesticide use in filed level through demonstrations and awareness programs.

Challenges, constraints and opportunities in microbial pesticide commercialization and use Although there has been widespread enthusiasm for the use of microbial pesticides in South Asia, widespread use of synthetic chemical pesticides continues to dominate agricultural production. The general consensus is that microbial pesticide use is plagued by numerous challenges. Mainly, lack of policy support from individual governments and strict regulation of microbial pesticides under the regulatory guidelines meant for chemical pesticides are hampering the development, adoption diffusion of microbial pesticides. The low usage and patronage of microbial pesticides are hampered by numerous factors. In general, these factors can be broadly categorized into institutional, technological and socio- economic factors. The institutional factors hindering microbial pesticide development, adoption and diffusion are centered on government policies of individual countries. The role of the government is to stimulate, regulate or supervise the development, distribution and utilization of products in the country. As microbial pesticides encompass quite a variety of different products and active agents, they vary considerably in their properties, mode of action, fate, composition and behavior. Therefore, the government needs to set strict health, safety and environmental

27 monitoring regulations before granting approval for the production and handling of microbial pesticides. In turn such strict regulations hamper the use of microbial pesticides. The lack of governmental interest and clear policies on microbial pesticide development, regulation and implementation in most of South Asian Nations has hampered progress. Multi stakeholder approach bring public, private and farming community is lacking in South Asia Lack of regional harmonization in enabling regulations is perhaps the most important barrier to the wider implementation of microbial pest control. In some circumstances like in India and Sri Lanka, ‘gatekeeper’ regulations place barriers in the way of efficient introduction and application of microbial pesticides. Regulations are to be made to encourage the trans-boundary trade in microbial pesticides. Instead of imposing import-tax on microbial pesticides as similar to chemical pesticides, trade with microbial pesticides inside SAARC region could be stimulated irrespective of the origin of the product. In India, 18 percent GST is charged for microbial pesticides but not for chemical pesticides creating big setback for promotion of microbial pesticides. This has hampered investments in knowledge development, marketability and accessibility to microbial pesticides in South Asia. In addition, the lack of government support and advocacy for microbial pesticides has deterred farmers from patronizing microbial pesticides. Policy measures need to be strengthened in order to reduce excessive use of chemical pesticides and promote the use of microbial pesticides. The technological factors hindering microbial pesticide development are centered on the lack of solid research and development infrastructure in many of countries. Inadequate technical expertise and lack of advanced infrastructure are the major constraints in developing microbial pesticide sector in all South Asian countries except India. Duplication of research within the same country as well as across the region seems a matter of concern and needs to be avoided. Most microbial pesticide products on the market today are not derived from standard clinical, laboratory trials or field data. There is a significant danger that continued supply of poor quality products could severely hamper the implementation of biological control. Further, there is a significant risk of such low quality products to human health, safety and environment. Furthermore, the lack of capacity severely hampers data-driven monitoring and quality assessment of microbial pesticides. Hence, cutting edge scientific and industrial infrastructure is required to develop and test microbial pesticides in South Asia. Furthermore, skilled personnel and modern equipment are required to monitor and assess the effects of microbial pesticides on human health, safety and the environment. This will ensure that pertinent issues such as toxicity, shelf

28 life and efficacy of microbial pesticides. Killing effects of microbial pesticides may not be as fast compared to that of the chemical pesticides and shelf life is often shorter. One of the major limitations of microbial pest control is the high variability in the efficacy of one test to another depending on biotic (host species, nutritional status, pathogen) and abiotic (temperature, wetness, relative humidity) factors. Further, Very high specificity against the target disease and pathogen will lead to requirement of multiple microbial pesticides to be used for single crop to control multiple pests. Thus, the potential market for these products may be limited. Their development, registration and production costs cannot be spread over a wide range of pest control sales. Consequently, some products are not widely available or are relatively expensive (several insect viruses, for example). Though development of microbial consortia based on different microbial strains with multi functional; properties would be a better alternative, the quality standards and registration guidelines for microbial consortia are yet to be developed. Among the various groups of microbial pathogens, development of resistance has been most frequently reported in the case of B. thuringiensis. Within the last few years, at least 16 insect species have been identified that exhibit resistance to B. thuringiensis under laboratory conditions and field-evolved resistance has been documented. In order to avoid this resistance problem, genetic engineering was considered as a useful tool where microbial genes from B. thuringiensis were transferred to plants to produce transgenic. However, there is strong resistance from all South Asian countries against genetically modified food crops In order to achieve success in the field with many microbial applications, spraying techniques are of crucial importance. Some farmers regret the withdrawal of older chemical pesticides which were often cheaper than the substituted microbial products. Crude application methods that were adequate for chemicals with a long persistence are often inadequate for many biological products. There has been a convergence in need for more targeted application methods for microbial pesticides. The socioeconomic factors hampering microbial pesticide development and widespread utilization are centered on the cost and social acceptability. As earlier stated, low government promotion and patronage has severely impacted on the availability and acceptability of microbial pesticides. More importantly, the cost of producing and procuring microbial pesticide products remains high due to the lack of industrial production. Majority of microbial pesticide production and marketing are dedicated to SMEs. Large amount of money is involved in generation of toxicological and bio-safety data required for registration of a microbial pesticide. Therefore, registration procedure favors only the multinational big companies. Hence, microbial pesticides cannot favorably compete

29 with chemical pesticides in terms of cost resulting in low market penetration and availability. It stands to reason that the high costs will deter farmers, thereby hampering acceptability of such products in spite of their benefits. In the long term, this reinforces the first-mover advantage enjoyed by synthetic pesticides in pest management industry. However, the lack of technological leadership of microbial pesticides presents numerous opportunities for sustainable agriculture in South Asia. Manufacturers of microbial pesticide inputs often only have scattered distribution networks resulting in a lack of availability of suitable microbial pesticides for farmers. In contrast, manufacturers of chemical pesticides have a well-developed distribution and supply networks and frequently make excessive promises on improvements of yield. Reduced chemical pesticide prices due to flooding of markets with generic pesticide products which are manufactured after patents expire (off-patent compounds) will adversely affect the progress of microbial pesticides. Most of South Asian countries support and encourage importing low cost generic products. In some countries they are owned or supported by Governments. Except Maldives and Sri Lanka, all other member states share their land border with other countries. Therefore, the possibility of active informal trading / smuggling of chemical pesticides across some long, open and porous international boundaries is so called known fact. This may lead to availability of chemical pesticides at cheap rate making microbial pesticide promotion difficult. Small scale microbial pesticide producers cannot compete with the intensive and aggressive promotion strategies employed by chemical pesticide industry. There are huge potential for microbial pesticides. IPM is generally agreed to be an essential factor in sustainable crop production. Government extension services, aided by international programs and often supported by the FAO promoted IPM from the 1990s onwards. IPM becomes mandatory in some member countries such as Bhutan and Nepal. The scope for sustainable, microbial pest management techniques appear to be growing. Organic food products Demand for organic food products is higher than their conventional counterparts. They are generally more expensive. Being microbial pesticide a one of the most important components of organic agriculture, microbial pest control can most easily been turned into money from the consumer by paying more for food when produce has been labeled as organic / green. Bhutan has geared towards 100 percent organic agriculture through gradual phasing out of chemical pesticides.

30 Consumer and environmental pressures on chemical pesticides will lead to change the crop protection landscape with an intensified regulatory environment. This may result the withdrawal of some chemical pesticides currently available and in mandatory application of IPM techniques. Subsequently, it may create more demand for alternative pest control options like microbial pesticides. Microbial pesticides have no hazardous residue problem to humans or other animals and can be applied even when a crop is almost ready for harvest. Therefore social concerns of pesticide residues on food commodities associated with chemical pesticides may be taken out of the context by using microbial pesticides. Pest management in Southeast Asia is confronted with a sharp decline of productivity or efficacy of active ingredients due to various reasons which results in constantly increasing demands for microbial pesticides. Unlike chemical pesticides, there is possibility of producing microbial pesticides directly by farmers themselves. This concept can be promoted on a larger scale within farming community. Cuba is a country that microbial pesticides are mass-produced at farmers’ level. Thailand, Indonesia and the Philippines for instance have developed biological control agent production systems in such a way that farmers are the part of microbial pesticide production at village level. Some issues of chemical pesticides eventually become the potential role of microbial pesticides. Indiscriminate and excessive use of chemical pesticides in crop ecosystems is known to be deleterious by emerging the resurgence of pests. Further, chemical pesticide application techniques have been vitiated in South Asia by high cost, pesticide resistance or poor efficacy. Application of chemical pesticides is limited for crops with high risks of pesticide residues and commodities aimed for export markets. In some cases, the microbial pesticide agents can become established in a pest population or its habitats offering long lasting effects. They also enhance the root and plant growth by way of encouraging the beneficial soil micro flora. By this way they take a part in the increase of the crop yield. If necessary, most microbial insecticides can be used in conjunction with chemical insecticides because in most cases the microbial product is not deactivated or damaged by residues of chemical insecticides. Anyway, label instructions have to be followed.

Any success stories of microbial pesticides use There are number of success stories of utilization of microbial pesticides in South Asia. Afghanistan is successfully demonstrated the efficacy of Trichoderma against soil borne diseases in Takhar and Badakhshan

31 provinces (Sharifi, 2013) and NPV against lepidopteron pests through Famers’ Field School (FFS). In Bangladesh, Trichoderma has been using for control of different soil borne pathogens viz Phythium spp, Sclerotium spp, Rhizoctonia spp etc. Two formulations of Trichoderma harzianum namely “Tricho-compost” prepared with decomposed poultry litter, water hyacinth and molasses and “Tricho-Peat Soil” prepared with peat soil are popular in Bangladesh (Alam, 2013). By growing Bt-brinjal, Bangladesh has joined a group of 29 countries that grow GM crops. Farmers from Rajshahi, Rangpur, Pabna and Gazipur started cultivation the Bt-brinjal for the first time in 2014. Currently, around 6,000 farmers in 36 districts are cultivating four Bt-brinjal verities namely BARI Bt (Uttara), BARI Bt (Kajla), BARI Bt (Nayontar) and ISD006 Bt BARI. Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) based formulations contribute to the 90 percent of the microbial pesticide market in India. There are about 58 Bt products registered and successfully used for effective management of pod borer, fruit borer, diamond black moth, spotted bollworm, semilooper, stem borer, Sopdoptera, Heliothis, Spilosoma, leaf minor, hairy caterpillar etc in variety of crops . Trichoderma harzianum and T. viride have been successfully used for management of soil borne diseases. Further, Beauveria has been used against mango hoppers and coffee pod borer where as NPV against Helicoverpa. A local strain of T. harzinum commercially available as “Grape-guard” is used as post- harvest treatment to retain the freshness of grapes in India. EPN Steinernema spp and Heterorhabditis spp are effectively used for insect pest management. Management of hispid of coconut palms using Metarhizium anisopliae was a success story of utilization of microbial pesticides in Maldives. Nepal is in success of production of microbial pesticides through Community Resource Centers (CRC). Trichoderma, NPV and Metarhizium anisopliae and Steinernema lamjungense are produced in designated CRC across the country. Pakistan has used Beauveria bassiana and Metarhizium anisopliae along with diatomaceous earth (DE) for control of insect pest of stored grains Tribolium castaneum. Similarly, Beauveria bassiana and Bacillus thuringiensis proved effective against H. armigera. Sri Lanka has developed powder and liquid formulations of native strain of Trichoderma spp and successfully used to management corm rot of Collocasia, tomato diseases and leaf spot diseases of green-leaf vegetables.

32 Conclusions and way forward The most common method for pest control in South Asia has been the intensive use of synthetic pesticides. However, they have caused adverse effects on human health and environment. Moreover, reliance on chemical pesticides and their indiscriminate use caused several detrimental effects such as pesticide resistance, pest resurgence and outbreak of secondary pests which reflect the repeated to achieve the expected level of control. Recognizing the adverse effects of chemical pesticides, microbial pesticides offer an alternative to chemical insecticides with environmental safety, target-specificity, efficacy, bio- degradability and suitability in the integrated pest management (IPM) programs. It has gained interest in view of the growing demands for organic food. Majority of the South Asian countries like India, Pakistan and Bangladesh have done much on development of microbial pesticides. However, except India, other countries have not yet commercially exploited the microbial pesticide industry. Naturally, there are limitations in the microbial pesticides. Microbial pesticides are highly specific and target oriented. Effectiveness of microbes is greatly influenced by the environmental conditions like temperature, radiation, moisture and other chemical substances. Optimum conditions for better efficacy of microbial pesticides are not found even within the field. It leads to the inconsistent results of the product affecting the confident of farmers. Consequently, proper timing, application procedures and assurance of certain field conditions are important. Unlike chemical pesticides, special formulation and storage procedures are necessary for microbial pesticides. Because several microbial pesticides are pest- specific, the potential market for these products may be limited. Research must be focused towards the development of microbes which can withstand the adverse conditions. Though a large number of microbes with bio-control ability have been isolated, only a few organisms have been developed and commercialized in South Asia. Product range must be increased targeting the important pests and diseases of major crops in the region in order to sustain the microbial pesticide industry. Increased availability of products for the farmers and effective technology transfer and extension services are essential for raising the awareness of the benefits of microbial pesticides among all stakeholders. The government has to introduce specific policies and provided technical and institutional support to all stakeholders involved in research, extension, regulation, import export, quarantine, marketing, production and etc. Most of the countries have amended their policies to minimize the use of chemical pesticides and promote the use of bio-pesticides. However bio-pesticides are still largely regulated by the system originally designed for chemical pesticides. Harmonization of guidelines and regulation of microbial

33 pesticides in the region and introducing a fast track registration system are to be taken up at regional level. Harmonization of registration requirements would make regulation of microbial pesticides easier, less costly and promote their trade between member countries. The role of the private sector in production, distribution and marketing of microbial pesticides is also emphasized. There should have a policy support to bring private and public sector to work together for facilitation of microbial pesticide use in South Asia. Government intervention to enforce property rights encourage scientists and concerned research institutions towards research and development of microbial pesticides. Establishment of healthy regional network encourages the sharing experiences, technologies, information and products with hassle free while avoiding the duplication of efforts.

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37 Chapter 2 Facilitating Microbial Pesticide Use in Afghanistan

Ghulam Mohammad Saedi Plant Protection and Quarantine Directorate Ministry of Agriculture, Irrigation and Livestock, Afghanistan Email: [email protected]

Abstract Chemical pesticides are extensively used in all countries of the world for pest and disease control. But they are considered as ecologically unacceptable. There are many disadvantages associated with the indiscriminate use of chemical pesticides such as reduction of beneficial natural enemies, induce resistance in pest populations, genetic variation in plant population, issue of human health and environmental risks. Therefore, there is an increased social pressure to find out alternatives to chemical pesticides which are safe to human, plant, soil biodiversity and environment. Bio-pesticides based on microbial biological control agents those are specific to a target pest offer an ecologically sound and effective solution to pest problems. They pose less threat to the environment and human health. Bio-pesticides are obtained from naturally occurring substances, microbes and plants and fall into three major categories such as microbial pesticides, plant incorporated protectants and biochemical pesticides. The potential benefits of bio- pesticides to agriculture and public health programs are considerable. Afghanistan has recently started to produce a few numbers of bio- pesticides such as nuclear polyhedrosis virus (NPV), granulovirus (GV), Trichoderma and Trichograma in laboratory scale level and tested in Farmer Field School (FFS) across the country for crop pest and disease management. Awareness and training programs have been started under the Ministry of Agriculture, Irrigation and Livestock to encourage farmers to use bio-pesticides while emphasizing the adverse effects of discriminate use of chemical pesticides. Key Words: Bio-pesticides, microbial pesticides, NPV and Trichoderma

Introduction Agriculture has been facing the destructive activities of numerous pests like insects, bacteria, fungi, virus and weeds from time immemorial leading to decrease in yields. Pests are constantly being introduced to

38 new areas either naturally or accidentally. In some cases, introduced organisms from other countries can become a major pest. Later on, global trade has resulted in increased numbers of invasive exotic pest species being introduced to new areas. Controlling these invasive species presents an unparalleled challenge worldwide (Salma et al., 2011). With the advent of chemical pesticides, this crisis of pests was resolved to a great extent. But the over dependence on chemical pesticides and eventual uninhibited use of them has necessitated for alternatives mainly for environmental concerns (Gupta and Dikshit, 2010). Use of chemical pesticides and fertilizers have caused negative impact on environment by affecting soil fertility, water hardness, development of insect resistance, genetic variation in plants, increase in toxic residue through food chain and animal feed causing health problems and many more. This has made it essential to introduce measures which can harness foresaid challenges. Use of bio-pesticides and bio-fertilizers can play a major role in dealing with these challenges in a sustainable way (Gupta and Dikshit, 2010). Despite efficacy of conventional chemical pesticides, a number of factors are threatening the effectiveness and sustainable use of these agents including the development of insecticide resistance and resurgence of new pest problem which has resulted into banning of some chemical pesticides due to human health and environmental concerns. Therefore, there is a need to develop bio-pesticides which are effective, biodegradable and do not leave any harmful effect on environment (Salma et al., 2011). Pesticide residues also sometimes raise food safety concerns among domestic consumers and pose trade impediments for agricultural export. Bio-pesticides or biological pesticides specific to a target pest offer an ecologically sound and effective solution to pest problems. The most commonly used bio-pesticides are living organisms which are antagonistic for the pest of interest. They include bio-fungicides (Trichoderma), bio-herbicides (Phytopthora) and bio-insecticides (Bacillus thuringiensis) (Gupta and Dikshit, 2010). The better crop yield is based on the several factors such as improved cultivars, the proper management of pest and disease and use of recommended fertilizer. However, proper pest management is an important factor to obtain high yield to meet food security for the increasing population. The adequate pest management is pivotal need in today to produce maximum food for increasing population (Birch, 2011).

Bio-pesticides and environmental safety Bio-pesticides are biochemical pesticides that are naturally occurring substances that control pests by nontoxic mechanisms. Bio-pesticides are

39 living organisms (natural enemies) or their products (phyto-chemicals, microbial) or byproducts (semio-chemicals) which can be used for the management of pests that are injurious to plants. They pose less threat to the environment and to human health. The most commonly used bio- pesticides are living organisms which are pathogenic for the pest of interest. The potential benefits to agriculture and public health programs through the use of bio-pesticides are considerable. The interest in bio- pesticides is based on the advantages associated with such products which are; 1) Inherently less harmful and less environmental effects 2) Highly specific for targeted pests 3) Effective in very small quantities and often decompose quickly resulting lower exposure and avoiding the pollution problems 4) Important component of Integrated Pest Management (IPM) programs (Balasubramanian et al., 2008).

Types of bio-pesticides Bio-pesticides fall into three major categories such as Microbial Pesticides, Plant incorporated protectants pesticides and Biochemical pesticides (Gupta and Dikshit, 2010).

A. Microbial pesticides Microbial pesticides contain a microorganism (bacteria, fungi, virus and protozoa) as the active ingredients which are pathogenic to several insect pests. Microbial pesticides are relatively specific for the target pest (Starnes, 1993). There are some fungi that control certain weeds, microbial pathogens and specific insects. The most widely known microbial pesticides are based on diffrrent strains of the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis commonly known as Bt which can control lepidopteran insects occurring in cabbage, potato, chickpea and pigeon pea etc. Certain other microbial pesticides act by out-competing pest organisms. Microbial pesticides need to be continuously monitored to ensure that they do not become capable of harming non-target organisms including humans.

Bacterial microbial pesticides Bio-pesticides based on bacteria have been used to control plant diseases, nematodes, insects, and weeds. Bacteria are the most abundant micro-organisms in soil. Many spore forming and non-spore forming bacteria are known to be effective against a wide range of insects and diseases. The most well known and widely used bacterial pesticides are based on Bacillus thuringiensis which has been in continuous commercial use for over 50 years (Gupta and Dikshit, 2010).

40 Viral microbial pesticides Insect-specific viruses can be highly effective against several caterpillar pests. Epizootics can occasionally devastate populations of some pests especially when insect numbers are high. Insect viruses need to be eaten by an insect to cause infection but may also spread from insect to insect during mating or egg laying. For example, Baculoviruses are target specific rod-shaped viruses which can infect and destroy a number of important plant pests. They are particularly effective against the lepidopteron pests occurring on cotton, rice and vegetables (Muhammad et al., 2016).

Fungal microbial pesticides Several entomopathogenic fungi (EPF) including Beauveria, Metarhizium and Paecilomyces are used as microbial control agents for the biological control of several pests. They are most often used against foliar insect pests in greenhouses or other instances where humidity is relatively high. Beauveria bassiana can affect a wide variety of arthropods. However, environmental conditions particularly temperature and humidity are the important factors affecting the success of fungal bio-control treatments (Muhammad et al., 2016).

Protozoan microbial pesticides The protozoan Nosema locustae is available in a few products sold for the control of grasshoppers. Effectiveness of these products for small- scale use in gardens and yards has been demonstrated. The spore causing disease must be ingested to be effective and it is very slow acting. Grasshoppers are strong fliers and can easily move long distances making the effectiveness of these treatments on a small scale are questionable (Muhammad et al., 2016).

B. Plant Incorporated Protectants (PIPs) PIPs are pesticidal substances produced by plants and the genetic material necessary for the plant to produce the substance that is toxic to pest and diseases. For example, bacterial genes of Bt responsible for the Bt insecticidal protein have been incorporated into the plants so that genetically modified plants can express the Bt genes and producing Bt toxin in side plants which can protect plants from specific pest attacks. However, both the protein and its genetic material are regulated by EPA; the plant itself is not regulated (Srijita, 2015 and Thakore, 2006).

C. Biochemical pesticides These are naturally occurring substances such as plant extracts, fatty acids or pheromones that control pests by non-toxic mechanisms.

41 Conventional pesticides, by contrast, are synthetic materials that usually kill or inactivate the pest. Biochemical pesticides include substances that interfere with growth or mating (eg plant growth regulators) and substances that repel or attract pests (eg pheromones). It is sometimes difficult to determine whether a natural pesticide controls the pest by a non-toxic mode of action, Environment Protection Agency (EPA) has established a committee to determine whether a pesticide meets the criteria for a biochemical pesticide (Gupta and Dikshit, 2010).

Positive aspects of microbial pesticides The beneficial characteristics of microbial insecticides are given by Jindal et al. (2013).  Non-toxic and not pathogenic to non-target organisms, communities and humans  Narrow spectrum of toxic action, mostly specific to a single group or species of insect pests and do not directly affect beneficial insects (predators, parasites, parasitoids, pollinators) in treated areas.  Possibility of use in combination with synthetic chemical insecticides because in most cases the microbial product is not deactivated.  Residues have no adverse effects on humans or other animals, therefore microbial insecticides can be used even in near crop harvesting time.  Ability to establish for providing sustainable management from generation to generations or season after seasons.  Ability to improve the root and plant growth by encouraging the beneficial soil micro flora and also increase yield

Overview of agriculture in Afghanistan Significance of agriculture Afghanistan is a land blocked country in South and Central Asia sharing borders with six counties: Pakistan to the south and east, Iran to the west, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan and Tajikistan to the North and China in the far northeast (Favre and Kamal, 2004). It lies between latitudes 29° N and 39° N, and longitudes 60° E and 75° E. It has an area of 652,864 square km (CSO, 2014-15). Afghanistan is an agricultural country where most of the population is dependent on agriculture and related activities for their livelihood. About 12 percent of the country's total land is arable of which 3 percent forest, 46 percent permanent pastures and 39 percent mountain and others (CSO, 2009-10).

42 Agriculture is the primary occupation in Afghanistan and it is estimated that 60 percent of population in the country is depending on agriculture and related activities. Most of these agriculture related activities are within the small scale and self-sufficient production. Further, statistics shows that about 80 percent of population in the work force in Afghanistan is engaged in agriculture sector. These data clearly show that agriculture is the primary driver in Afghanistan involving a large portion of the population. The industrial sector is still in the early stage of the development and slowly emerging (Shinji et al., 2012). Afghanistan is currently recovering from nearly four decade of conflict which has damaged most of the country's infrastructure, institutions and services. Afghanistan is the 47th most populated country in the world with 28.6 million of which 51 percent male and 49 percent female. Poverty is a widespread affecting more than a third of the country's total population and reflected in the country's low per capita GDP of US 643 nevertheless, over the past 15 years, considerable achievements have been made in the areas of education and health. More children than ever are going to school and literacy rates are also increasing with more than half of youth (15-24 years old) who are able to read and write (CSO, 2015-16). The Afghan economy is predominantly agricultural despite of only 12 percent of its land area is arable (Figure 1). Agricultural production is constrained by erratic winter snows, spring rains and primitive irrigation systems for water. Some existing irrigation networks and other agricultural facilities were destroyed in military conflict between the Taliban and opposition forces from 1999. The total arable land area is consist of 18 percent forest and woodland, 23 percent irrigated area, 14 percent rain fed area and 46 percent fallow land as shown in Figure 1 (CSO, 2015-16).

Forest and Wood land 18%

Rain fed Fallow area land 14% 45% Irrigated area 23%

Figure 1: Distribution of arable lands in Afghanistan

43 Extent under major cereal crops and their production is given in Table 1 and Figure 2 respectively.

Table 1: Extent under cereals in Afghanistan (2013-2016) Extent (ha) Crop 2015-16 2014-15 2013-14 Wheat 2,128,104 2,653,746 2,552,922 Rice 164,000 220,000 205,000 Barley 282,000 342,472 278,000 Maize 147,273 127,000 142,000 Millet - 1,515 5,000 Total 2721377 3,344,733 3,182,922 Source: Central Statistical Organization Yearbook 2015-16

7000000

6000000

5000000 2015-16 4000000 2014-15 3000000

2000000 2013-14 Productionmt in 1000000 0 Wheat Rice Barley Maize Total

Figure 2: Cereal crop production in Afghanistan (2013-2016); Source: Central Statistical Organization Yearbook 2015-16

Climate of Afghanistan Afghanistan occupies the northeastern area of the plateau of Iran. The Hindu Kush Mountains stretching from Pakistan and their offsets shape a plateau in the center of the country. Because of these geographical characteristics, much rainfall turns to snow which remains in high mountains then flow into rivers in early spring as the temperature rises. Agriculture in Afghanistan has the form of a typical oasis agriculture seen in Central Asia drawing water from rivers.

44 The rain begins in October reaches its peak in March and ends in May. It hardly rains during the periods from June to October especially in summer when the temperature is high. As a result, the problem of water shortage frequently occurs in the latter part of the sowing period between April and October causing major difficulties in crop cultivation (Shinji et al. 2012).

Characteristics of the planting schedule The crop sowing period is generally between March and October except the winter wheat. According to typical cropping pattern, irrigation is essential for the major crops in April to September. However, the level of groundwater drops rapidly from August to September due to irrigation for crops. Because of deficit water during this period, it is very difficult to pump the water to irrigate the crops (Shinji et al. 2012). As for water sources during the planting period, the snow melts and flows into the rivers and these rivers are the major water sources during the first half of the period from March to early June. For the latter part from June to October, irrigation water is mainly dependent on ground water. Summer is the most challenging season for sowing and cultivating the crops as rainfall cannot be expected and the level of groundwater depletes (FAO/WFP, 1999).

Current status of chemical pesticides in Afghanistan Plant pests and diseases cause heavy yield losses affecting the food security in Afghanistan. To prevent the agricultural products from pests and diseases, farmers are compelled to apply certain chemical pesticides. Nonchemical practices for pest and disease management gaining popularity in spite of using of chemical pesticide are counted as a very important and successful method for plant pests and diseases control. Indiscriminate use of chemicals is dangerous for human health, plants and environment. Unfortunately, during many decades of conflict in Afghanistan, most of agricultural infrastructures including pesticide and fertilizer quality control laboratories, plant protection and agricultural extension offices, quarantine networks at the center and borders have been destroyed. Damage of the above infrastructures paved the way for entrance of some non-indigenous plant pests, diseases and also entering of many kinds of pesticides without registration. Ministry of Agriculture, Irrigation and Livestock in January 2016 started to build a complex laboratory in Kabul Province. This laboratory consists of three parts; 1. Pesticide and fertilizer quality control, pesticide residue analysis in soil and plants

45 2. Agricultural product quality control (Diagnosis of microbes, heavy metals and Aflatoxins) 3. Diagnosis of plant pest and diseases.

The laboratory construction has been completed and the equipment will be installed shortly. In addition, The Ministry has already started the construction of the plant quarantine stations in Kabul international Airport, Kabul custom and 6 provinces which have joint borders with our neighboring countries (Herat Islam Qala BQS, Balkh Hairatan BQS, Kundoz Shirkhan Bander BQS, Khost Glam Khan BQS, Kandahar Spin Boldak BQS, Herat Torghondi BQS and Turkham BQS) to prevent the entrance of non-indigenous pests and diseases to the country.

Substandard quality products Afghanistan is suffering from infiltration of substandard quality pesticides with respect to low quantity of active ingredients, lack of specific active ingredients in commercially available products. However, due to lack of equipped laboratory facilities and skilled human resources, pesticide quality control is not properly executed to deliver proper plant protection services across the country.

Policy and legislation of pesticide in Afghanistan Ministry of Agriculture, Irrigation and Livestock has the responsibility to implement the commandments/ordinance of pesticide legislation through Plant Protection and Quarantine Directorate to regulate the production, import, transfer, storage, distribution and use of pesticides in the country. Afghanistan does neither produce nor formulate any kind of pesticides. Pesticides which are available in Afghani markets are totally imported from other countries. Though there are legislations and regulations are in place from 1989, they are not enforced systematically or ignored due to lack of resources. After Taliban regime in Afghanistan, the first pesticide legislation was passed in October 2015. It was revised and reformed in October 2016 with the following objectives; 1. To regulate the production, import, export, transfer, storage, distribution and use of pesticides 2. To prevent plants, animals and human health from hazards of pesticides 3. To prevent plants and environment from misuse and hazards of pesticides 4. To prevent crop productions from damage by use of non-hazard methods (Agricultural Pesticide Act, 2016).

46 In addition, plant quarantine legislation was also passed in 2016 to prevent the introduction of new and non-indigenous pest and diseases to Afghanistan.

Pesticide registration procedure Registration of the pesticide is compulsory before any pesticide is imported, transferred, sold, stocked or advertised (except for research purpose). The applicant should offer a request for registration to the Ministry of Agriculture, Irrigation and Livestock with all necessary supporting documents which is subsequently sent to the Plant Protection and Quarantine Directorate and Agro-Chemical Department along with samples for test and analysis. Plant Protection and Quarantine Directorate is responsible for checking the quality of imported pesticides on behalf of the Ministry of Agriculture, Irrigation and Livestock prior to importing. The test results are submitted to the Pesticide Technical Advisory Committee (PTAC) for approval. The licensing requirements for all aspects of pesticide (handling, production, import, storage, labeling and safety) will be considered for approval.

Production and use of bio-pesticides in Afghanistan Agriculture and food production in Afghanistan is constrained by a large number of factors such as recurrent droughts and other natural disasters, long lasting conflict, land degradation, poor technology, lack of inputs, destroyed and poor infrastructure, poor knowledge, deficient agricultural support services and many others. Strategic Action Plan aimed for increasing agricultural production and productivity comprise the whole spectrum of measures to address such constraints and to promote crop and livestock production (research, extension, training, input supply, agricultural marketing and services etc). Therefore, due to lack of facilities and knowledge on bio-pesticides in Afghanistan, there is not much progress on bio-pesticide research in many parts of the country. Ministry of Agriculture, Irrigation and Livestock in 2015 inaugurated a Biological Control Laboratory in Kabul province at Plant Protection and Quarantine Directorate. This laboratory has taken up research on bio control agents under laboratory conditions. The Ministry of Agriculture annually imports selected bio-pesticide from other countries to use in Farmers’ Field School (FFS) across the country in order to make aware of farmers on bio-pesticides and their benefits to farmers and encourage farmers to use bio-pesticides for the management of pest and diseases so that reduce the use of chemical pesticides. The research on bio-pesticides is expected to increase in other parts of the country in six zones (North, Northeastern, Northwestern, South, East and Central zone). The basic infrastructures like laboratory buildings are

47 constructed and required equipments have already been procured. The programs will be commenced shortly once the staff is trained on bio- pesticide laboratory techniques. The efforts have been made to develop following bio-pesticides by Ministry of Agriculture, Irrigation and Livestock for insects and diseases control. 1) Trichoderma: Trichoderma is a bio-fungicide effective against soil borne diseases such as root rot. It is particularly recommended for dry land crops such as groundnut, black gram, green gram and chickpea which are highly susceptible to root diseases. Production of Trichoderma bio-pesticide is cheap and requires only basic knowledge of microbiology (Islam et al. 2010). 2) Nuclear Polyhedrosis Virus (NPV): Nuclear Polyhedrosis Virus belongs to the family Baculoviruses which can infect lepidopteron insects. NPV is known for high epizootic levels and is naturally occurring, self-perpetuating and safe to natural enemies due to host specificity and environmental friendly. Since, NPV is an obligate parasite. It multiplies only in living larvae. So, mass production of NPV is tedious job and requires skilled workers (McIntosh, 1987).

Figure 3: Scientists working on development of microbial pesticides

48 3) Trichogramma: Trichogramma is minute wasps which are exclusively egg parasites. They lay eggs in the eggs of various lepidopteron pests. After hatching, the Trichogramma larvae feed on and destroy the host eggs. Trichogramma is particularly effective against pests like sugarcane internodes borer, pink bollworm and scooted bollworm in cotton and stem borer in rice. They are also used against insect pests occurring on vegetable and fruit crops. Trichogramma is the most popular bio-control agent because it kills the pest in the egg stage ensuring that the parasite is destroyed before any damage is made to the crop. Trichogramma eggs have to be used within a short period (before the eggs hatch) (Scholte et al. 2007). This limits their production and marketing on a large scale.

Figure 4: Formulated bio-control products in Afghanistan

49 Table 2: Different bio control products used for the management of pests and diseases in Afghanistan during 2017 No Name of Products Target Pest and Disease 1 NPV Caterpillars on vegetable crops 2 GV Codling moth Trichoderma Soil born diseases (Root rot, Damping off, 3 Seedling blight, Kernel bunt, Loose smut) in several crops 4 Trichograma Lepidopteron pests 5 Medix plus (GV) Codling moth Isomate C Plus S Disrupt the mating of the codling moth in apple 6 orchard.

Figure 5: Field application of Trichogramma cards

50 Conclusion and recommendations Agriculture is the main source of livelihood and subsistence for 80 percent of the population that lives in rural areas and it is an important sector for national food security and economic growth. In order to supply the food demand of the increasing population, advanced agricultural practices and agricultural inputs are necessary. The highest agricultural production is based on improved variety, adequate use of fertilizers and appropriate management of pest and diseases. Proper pest and disease management is an important factor for healthy and high yielding crop that can provide food to the population. The multiple approaches that would be suitable in organic farming reduce the human and environmental exposure to chemical pesticides. Further, it reduces the overall costs of pesticide applications. Although the chemical pesticides play a vital role in pest and disease management, but land water and air pollution is matter of concern in the current agriculture. Similarly, chemical pesticides have been the main cause of insect resistance as well as adverse impacts on natural enemies and humans. In order to minimize the adverse effects of chemical pesticides, alternative pest control methods like bio-control need to be introduced. Afghanistan therefore makes recommendations as follows. 1) Regional collaborative program need to be initiated for introducing and exchanging effective microbial pesticides among member states 2) Regional collaboration between members of SAARC countries must be done on research and development of bio-pesticides through institutes and manufacturers to boost up the production and application of bio-pesticides 3) An extensive promotional program should be undertaken by government across the country to produce and rapidly disseminate the developed bio-pesticides to the farmers and consumers. 4) Private sectors must be encouraged by government to invest on production and dissemination of bio-pesticides at overall the country 5) Government should facilitate the registration of bio-pesticides which are imported by traders and companies to the country. Therefore, the traders and companies also must commit for import of bio-pesticides from credible manufacturer. Instead the restriction on chemical pesticides registration and import should be undertaken 6) Intensive awareness campaign must be undertaken among the farmers and consumer on advantage of bio-pesticides and hazards of chemical pesticides on human health, animals, plants and environment

51 References Agricultural Pesticides Act. 2016. Afghanistan, Issued on 11/10/2016, No.1229. Balasubramanian, A.V., Arumugasamy, S., Vijayalakshmi, K. and Subhashini Sridhar. 2008. Plant Products as bio-pesticides: building on traditional knowledge of vrkshayurveda: traditional Indian plant science in proceedings of 16th IFOAM Organic World Congress, Modena, Italy, 16- 20 pp. Birch, A.N.E. 2011. How agro-ecological research helps to address food security issues under new IPM and pesticide reduction policies for global crop production systems. Journal of Experimental Botany, 62: 3251-3261 CSO - Afghanistan Statistical Yearbook. (2009-10). Central Statistics Organization, Afghanistan CSO - Afghanistan Statistical Yearbook. (2014-15). Central Statistics Organization, Afghanistan CSO - Afghanistan Statistical Yearbook. (2015-16). Central Statistics Organization, Afghanistan. http://cso.gov.af/en/page/1500/4722/2015- 2016. Dutta Srijita. 2015. Bio-pesticides: an ecofriendly approach for pest control, 4(6): 250-265 FAO/WFP. 1999. Crop and food supply assessment mission of Afghanistan". Ministry of Agriculture Irrigation and Livestock (MAIL), Afghanistan Favre and Kamal. 2004. Watershed Atlas of Afghanistan. Ministry of Agriculture Irrigation and Livestock, Afghanistan Gupta, S. and Dikshit, A.K. 2010. Bio-pesticides: An ecofriendly approach for pest control. Journal of Bio-pesticides, 3(1: 186-188 Islam, M.T., Castle, S.J. and Ren, S. 2010. Compatibility of the insect pathogenic fungus Beauveria bassiana with neem against sweetpotato whitefly Bemisia tabaci on eggplant. Entomologia Experimentalis et Applicata, 134: 28–34 Jindal, V., Dhaliwal, G.S. and Koul O. 2013. Pest Management in 21st century: Roadmap for future. Biopesticide International, 9(1):1-22 Kawasaki Shinji, Watanabe Fumio, Suzuki Shinji, Nishimaki Ryuzo and Takahashi Satoru. 2012. Current Situation and Issues on Agriculture of Afghanistan, 345-348 pp Mazid Salma, Kalita Jogen. Ch. Rajkhowa. Ratul. Ch. 2011. A review on the use of biopesticides in insect pest management. International Journal of Science and Advanced Technology. 169‐ 178 McIntosh, A.H., Rice, W.C. and Ignoffo, C.M. 1987. Genotypic variants in wild type populations of Baculovirus. In: Maramorsoch K. (Eds), Biotechnology in Invertebrate pathology and cell culture, Academic Press, New York, 305-325 Nawaz Muhammad, Mabubu Juma Ibrahim, Hua Hongxia. 2016. Current status and advancement of bio-pesticides: Microbial and botanical pesticides. Journal of Entomology and Zoology Studies, 4(2): 241-246

52 Scholte, E.J., Takken, W. and Knols, G.J. 2007. Infection of adult Aedes aegypti and Aealbopictus mosquitoes with the entomopathogenic fungus Metarhizium anisopliae. Acta Tropica, 102: 151–158 Starnes, R.L., Liu, C.L. and Marrone, P.G. 1993. History and future of microbial insecticides, American Entomologist, 38: 83-91 Thakore, Y. 2006. The biopesticide market for global agricultural use. Industrial Biotechnology, 194- 208

53 Chapter 3 Facilitating Microbial Pesticide Use in Bangladesh

Kbd Amitava Das Plant Protection Wing, Department of Agricultural Extension (DAE) Farmgate, Dhaka 1215, Bangladesh Email: [email protected]

Abstract Microbial pesticides are one of the important bio-pesticides considered to be the best alternative to synthetic pesticides. Microbial pesticides are highly effective, target specific and reduce environmental risks. These factors led to its application in a pest management program instead of chemical pesticides throughout the world. Microbial pesticides are derived from natural materials such as fungi, bacteria, viruses and protozoa. The advance research and development in the field of bio- pesticide applications greatly reduce the environmental pollution caused by the chemical synthetic insecticide residues and promotes sustainable development of agriculture. The development of microbial pesticide has prompted to replace the chemical pesticide in pest management. The current status and advancement of microbial pesticides focusing mainly on improving action spectra, replacing of chemical pesticides, its role in integrated pest management, proper application has been discussed here. Key words: Microbial pesticides, pesticide registration, commercialization

Introduction Bangladesh is one of the over populated developing countries. In order to fulfill the food demand of growing population, higher and advance productive agricultural materials are required. The highest yield of crops is based on the improved variety, the appropriate pest and disease management and recommended fertilization. Proper pest management is an important factor for healthy and high yielding crop that can provide food for the increasing population. The adequate pest management is pivotal need for today to produce maximum food for an increasing population from fewer resources. The multiple approaches that would be suitable in organic farming reduce the human and environmental exposure to synthetic chemical pesticides and may also reduce the overall costs of pesticide applications. To date, only 15 percent of natural enemies of insect pests have been identified. In all successful bio control programs, most important parasitoids belong to the order Hymenoptera and predators comes under Neuroptera, Hemiptera and Coleoptera.

54 Globally, more than 125 species of natural enemies are commercially available for biological control programs such as Trichogramma spp., Encarsia formosa and Phytoseiulus persimilis etc. Although, chemical pesticides play a vital role in insect pest management, they have accelerated land, air and water contamination. Similarly, they have been the main cause of insect resistance as well as adverse impacts on natural enemies and humans. Due to these factors, farmers adopted microbial pesticides which are environmentally friendly and reduced frequent application of synthetic insecticides for pest management. Nowadays, a lot of microbial pesticides have been developed from bacteria, fungi and viruses etc and used worldwide for insect pest management. The current development and improvement of all aspects related to bio-pesticides in insect pest management including spectra improvement, challenges and role of microbial pesticides in integrated pest management are summarized here.

Microbial bio-pesticides So far, in the global agriculture system, the most widely used pesticides have synthetic origin such as halogenated carbamate and organophosphorus compounds. Excessive use led to the development of new strains of pests which are resistant to certain synthetic insecticides. The resistance development often related to receptor modification that involves in the mechanisms and targets of action. To cope up with emergence of resistance, researchers have synthesized many new organic molecules with similar target of actions. Acute or chronic poisoning caused by pesticides is a problem in many developing countries like Bangladesh. Bio-pesticides derived from fungi, bacteria, algae, viruses, nematodes and protozoa and also some other compounds produced directly from these microbes such as metabolites are main microbial pest control agents. Up to now, there are more than 3000 kinds of microbes that cause diseases in insects. However, a lot of research should be conducted to find out remaining undiscovered or unidentified microorganisms that are useful in insect pest management. Over 100 bacteria have been identified as insect pathogens among which Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) has got the maximum importance as microbial insecticide. So far, more than 1000 insect virus species have been isolated and use. Among these, nuclear polyhedrosis virus (NPV) infests 525 insects worldwide. Similarly, over 800 species of entomopathogenic fungi and 1000 species of pathogenic protozoa have been described and identified. In case of entomopathogenic nematodes concerned, Steinernema (95 species) and Heterorhabditis (16 species) are now accepted as microbial pesticides.

55 Positive aspects of microbial pesticides The beneficial characteristics of microbial pesticides are given below.  The bioactive agents are basically non-toxic and non- pathogenic to non-target organisms, communities and human  They are only toxic to a single group or species of insect pests and do not directly affect beneficial insects (predators, parasites, parasitoids, pollinators) in treated areas  They can be used in combination with synthetic chemical pesticides as in most cases the microbial product is not deactivated in mixing with chemical pesticides  Their residues have no adverse effects on humans or other animals. Thus, PHI is not a critical issue  Sometime, the microbial agents can establish in a pest population or its habitat and provide sustainable pest control season after seasons  Some microbial agents possess plant growth promoting activity and eventually increase the yield

Microbial pesticide registration The special biological properties of these natural control agents should be taken into account in the registration process for microbial pesticides. Registration for bio-pesticides presently includes within its scope wild type microbial pesticides (bacteria, viruses, fungi and protozoa). In future, genetically modified (GM) microbial products may be included with the availability. These GM products may be considered as novel ecological entities in to the farm environment of the respective countries. Thus, any GM entomopathogen will be given a more precautionary approach than with non-GM microbes. Botanical pesticides are sometimes registered as bio-pesticides despite of their nature. They are perhaps more appropriate for standard chemical models of registration with due account given to their often long history of prior use in agriculture. However, registration usually excludes endemic beneficial arthropods predators, parasitoids and nematodes. The registration of bio-pesticides often poses a particular challenge to regulatory authorities as their evaluation requires different expertise from that for the chemical pesticides. Registration authorities are typically staffed by scientists whose primary expertise is in chemistry and chemical toxicology. When dealing with issues associated with microbial pesticides, some expertise in microbial ecology, bacteriology, virology and protozoology is needed in order to understand the biology of the particular agents and evaluate key issues of safety and

56 environmental impact. While dealing with these new agents, it is often advisable for registration authorities to co-opt scientists with established expertise in these new areas in order to facilitate registration. For the registration of chemical pesticides, a fairly standard package of efficacy and safety data have to be generated and evaluated. A full registration data dossier is a substantial document often requiring extensive and expensive toxicology, ecotoxicology and environmental safety data. This high cost could represent a serious constraint for small bio-pesticide companies aiming to develop a range of niche products to registering new products. The cost of registration is a key issue. The rigid registration procedures which are used for the chemical pesticides are forced to follow for microbial pesticides are considered to be an unnecessary impediment to microbial pesticide development. This will effectively deny farmers access to a potentially valuable natural pest control resources. Bio- pesticides are typically developed by small to medium enterprises that lack the financial resources as compared to multinational companies. Bio-pesticides are often niche products with highly specific host targets, unlike most chemical pesticides where a single new molecule can be developed for controlling multiple pests. Thus, burdening microbial pesticides with the same registration costs as their more profitable chemical counterparts can be a severe constraint to their commercialization. Inappropriate and unnecessarily expensive regulation will also act to impede the registration process of microbial pesticides. Access to bio- pesticides is becoming an increasingly important concern in agriculture as maximum residue levels (MRLs) legislation limits or bans the use of many chemical pesticides. Microbial pesticides for which there are no MRLs will necessarily become an important tool in producing fresh produce that meets strict MRLs for production and export to EU and OECD (Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development) countries. Therefore, there is a clear comparative advantage of easy accommodation of new bio-pesticides with the trouble free registration system over the countries whose registration systems discourage product registration. The role of regulation and registration is that of protection. A primary goal is to protect the humans’ health and the environment. In addition, registration is aimed at protecting lawful trade and commerce by ensuring that useful commercial products are available while ensuring regulations are justified and procedures transparent. Therefore, a certain dynamic tension needs to ensure safety and at the same time promote the adoption of new safer technologies. However this can be resolved by an

57 appropriate and enabling approach to registration. The FAO/OECD has in particular taken a lead in developing fast track registration utilizing tier testing and dossier waiver to reduce the time and cost of microbial pesticide registration.

Current registration protocol for microbial pesticides in Bangladesh  The documents are initially submitted to the Plant Protection Wing (PPW) of Department of Agricultural Extension (DAE) of Ministry of Agriculture (MoA) for scrutinizing the documents by the registration authority  Chemical test of the product carried out in the PPW laboratory. In case of microbial pesticides, biological tests are carried out either in BAU, DU or BARI laboratory  The application will be submitted before the Sub-PTAC meeting for the approval of field trials  The sample (formulated product) together with technical documents will be sent to the concern research organizations for conducting bio-efficacy trial of the product as per decision of the Sub-PTAC meeting  Research Institutes will conduct field trials in two seasons and in two different locations. In case of new molecule of chemical pesticides, the product must be sent to the Bangladesh Fisheries Research Institute (BFRI) for fish toxicity report  After successful completion of field trials, the results will be sent to the PPW of DAE for onward submission to PTAC meeting for the recommendation for registration  Finally, the application will be submitted to the Pesticide Technical Advisory Committee (PTAC) meeting for the final approval of registration  After getting the registration certificate, the product need to get Import license, Repacking license, Wholesale license, Advertisement License and Formulation license (if necessary) prior to the marketing in the country

The Way forward An appropriate national policy can create an enabling environment to encourage the development of microbial pesticide products. The effective candidate commercial products are allowed to be developed to an advanced stage after proper evaluation of the technical and commercial viability and before any expensive registration procedure is

58 involved. In judging the safety of NPVs, both countries have followed the scientific consensus on non-toxic or non-pathogenic nature of the product towards non-target organisms. A key focus for regulation is to ensure that all commercial products meet acceptable performance and quality standards. There are proposed standards for a number of such microbial pesticides including Bt, fungi and viruses. In determining appropriate protocols for field efficacy tests, consensus has been given for acceptable practices for field trials. However, recommended guidelines are yet to be published for most bio- pesticides. In production and facilitating the use of microbial pesticides, need active dialogues among the producers, scientists and regulators to balance the contradictory issues and needs of regulation and commerce.

Development of regulation system It is clear that Bangladesh can build systems of regulation that enable them to exploit the wealth of natural microbial for agricultural development without putting people and environment at risk. Key factors in the development of such a system are the acceptance of a flexible but scientifically rigorous approach for registration. The process can be speeded up and the cost lowered in a number of ways including:  Acceptance of published data where appropriate.  Use of waivers for registration dossiers where adequate data are already available: Wavering is exempting the need to do key toxicity and ecological impact tests where sufficient published or existing data already exist and is crucial to reducing the registration costs of microbial pesticides by reducing unnecessary testing  Adoption of fast tracking for microbial pesticides whose safety is generally accepted  Adoption of tier toxicity testing: Tier toxicity means instead of rigid demand for a full range of toxicity tests for microbial pesticides, data on a minimal batch of acute toxicity tests are mandatory (acute dermal, acute mammalian, acute inhalation). Only if a substance fails, more extensive, expensive chronic and reproductive toxicity tests will be mandatory  Regional harmonization of registration procedures: Regional harmonization is important for creating large markets and registration of new products is encouraged

59 Main challenges to microbial pesticides The rapid bio-pesticide success is due to its effectiveness and safety as compared to chemical insecticides. However, there are a lot of challenges in popularizing microbial pesticides in place of chemical pesticides in the future.  The utilization of microbial pesticides in IPM model requires high scientific study such as systematic surveys on properties, mode of action, pathogenicity etc.  Ecological studies are necessary on the dynamics of diseases in insect populations because the environmental factors play a vital role in disease outbreaks to control the pests. In order to improve mass production technologies, contamination should be reduced with the improvement of formulation potency and increasing shelf-life of microbial bio-pesticide  Dry formulations should commercially be focused than the liquid formulations with the improvement of slow speed with which microbial pathogens kill their host. Genetic and biotechnological tools would lead to the production of strains with improved pathogenesis and virulence  Narrow specificity generally leads to application of microbial pesticides along with conventional chemical pesticides. However, this practice can also lead to incompatibility problems and non-target effects  The comprehensive study should be undertaken especially on persistence, resistance, dispersal potential, the range of non-target organisms affected directly and/or indirectly in order to solve the concerns in regulatory and registration process

Table 1: Some important microbial pesticides and their target pests Category of Microbial pesticide Target pests microbial pesticide Entomopathogenic Corn earworm NPV Helicoverpa zea: corn viruses earworm, tomato fruitworm, tobacco budworm, Heliothes virescens Cotton bollworm NPV Helicoverpa armigera, cotton bollworm, pod borer Diamond back moth GV Plutella xylostella Velvetbean caterpillar, Anticarsia gemmatalis NPV

60 Category of Microbial pesticide Target pests microbial pesticide Alfalfa looper NPV Noctuidae Tea moth (BuzuNPV) Buzura suppressaria Entomopathogenic Bacillus thuringiensis Lepidoptera bacteria sub- species kurstakia B. thuringiensis sub- Lepidoptera species aizawaia B. thuringiensis sub- Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae species japonensis Paenibacillus popilliae Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae, Popillia japonica Entomopathogenic Aschersonia aleyrodis Hemiptera fungi Beauveria brongniartii Coleoptera (Scarabaeidae) Conidiobolus Hemiptera, Thysanoptera thromboides Acari Lecanicillium Hemiptera longisporum Metarhizium anisopliae Coleoptera, Diptera, sensu lato Hemiptera, Isoptera Nomuraea rileyi Lepidoptera

Table 2: Bio-pesticides registered in Bangladesh Category Bio-pesticides No. of No of products products under registered registration Biochemical Semiochemicals (Phromone) 08 03 pesticides Botanicals (Azadirachtin) 06 - Microbial Trichoderma spp 01 01 pesticides Pseudomonas spp - 01 NPV(Nuclear Polyhedrosis - 01 Virus) Bacillus spp. (Beneficial - 01 Bacteria) Entomopathogenic - 01 fungi(Isariafumosorosea, Lecanicilliumspp.) Beneficial nematodes - 01

61 Category Bio-pesticides No. of No of products products under registered registration attacking insect (Steinernemafeltiae) Entomopathogenicviruses - 01 (Cydiapomonellagranulovir us) Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) - 01 K. powder for mosquito larvae control

Table 3: Current registration status of microbial pesticides in Bangladesh as of 2017

S Name of microbial Registration Remarks No pesticides in Bangladesh status 1 Spodoptera Nuclear Approved in Control common Polyhydrosis Virus (SNPV) last PTAC cutworm, 2017 for Spodoptera litura registration 2 Helicoverpa Nuclear Applied for Control fruit worm, Polyhydrosis Virus registration Helicovera (HNPV) armigera 3 Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) Applied for Control different powder registration lepidopteran pest larvae 4 Beauveria bassiana Applied for Control different (Entomopathogenic fungus) registration sucking pests like jassid, white fly etc 5 Metarhizium Applied for Control different spp.(Entomopathogenic registration soil pests pupae and fungus) different sucking and borer pests

Replacement of chemical pesticides by bio-pesticides Chemical pesticides play an important role in the green revolution which can realize high yield varieties and the most effective pest management tool. Synthetic pesticides are very effective, affordable and rapid in action in the case of the pest populations reached to economic threshold levels (ETLs). Problems such as pest resistance development, resurgence, pesticide residues in the food commodities and

62 environmental effects to non-target organisms and direct hazards to human beings have evolved due to excessive use of chemical pesticides. Many species of pests have developed resistance to different groups of pesticides. Bio-pesticide is an environmentally friendly alternative to the chemical pesticides. Negative effects of chemical pesticides lead to the development and improvement of bio-pesticides. More than 3000 MT of bio-pesticide is produced in the worldwide annually which contributes the 2.5 percent of total pesticide market share. The rapid increasing rate of bio-pesticides is due to its target specificity and ecologically friendly.

Role of microbial pesticides in IPM Crop protection has relied basically on synthetic chemical pesticides in past. But their availability is now declining as a result of new laws and legislations and the evolution in the process of pest resistance. Therefore, it is necessary to replace the conventional chemical pest management strategies with suitable alternatives like bio-pesticides which are derived from micro-organisms or natural products. It is the best alternative to synthetic chemical pesticides. Bio-pesticide includes a broad array of microbial pesticides, biochemical derived from microorganisms and other natural sources and processes involving the genetic modification of plants to express genes encoding insecticidal toxins. Microbial pesticides have demonstrated the potential of pest management and used worldwide. The use of microbial pesticides and bio-agents has become as an important component of IPM due to their economic viability and eco-friendly nature instead of chemical synthetic pesticides. Bio- pesticide application as a component of IPM programs can play important role in overcoming disadvantage of chemical insecticides that have some important characteristics such as self- perpetuating, less harmful to beneficial insects, host specific and quick bio-degradation in environment. Baculovirus bio-pesticides are an alternative to chemical pesticides in integrated pest management. However, they have a wide range of difficulties for commercial uses such as slow killing, short life time, high production costs and current rules and regulations for registration. To overcome many problems of wild-type baculoviruses, many strategies have been developed to improve their killing action by recombinant DNA technology including the insertion of genes encoding insect hormones or enzymes or insect-specific toxins.

Improvement in action spectra of bio-pesticides Microbial pesticide is commercially available for a single main pest that reduces their market value due short spectrum of activity. For example, Mycotrol® the fungus Beauveria bassiana is recommended only against cereal aphids. Highly target-specificity of some microbial pesticides is generally considered as a disadvantage as market access of those

63 microbial pesticides are comparatively difficult than those products with broad spectrum activity. Further, some microbial pesticides are only effective in specific stages of pests. However, microbial pesticides have important advantages of having new behavioral modes of action which enable them to overcome the resistance development compared to conventional chemical pesticides. It must also be pay attention to a number of biological pesticide has relatively wide range of activities (such as Bacillus thuringiensis and active bio-extracts from natural products such as azadirachtin) which encourages their widespread application and increased market share. In the development of biological pesticide, it is important to overcome the problem of improper preparation or formulations, low shelf life, slow pest control and the highest market costs as well as registration and regulation related issues.

References Copping, L. 1998. The Biopesticide Mannual, British Crop Protection Council, Farnham, UK, 333 pp Dulmage, H.D. and collaborators. 1981. Insecticidal activity of isolates of Bacillus thuringiensis and their potential for pest control. pp. 193–222. In: Microbial Control of Pests and Plant Diseases, 1970–80. H.D. Burges (Eds). Academic Press, London, UK Jarvis, P. (2001). Bio-pesticides Trends and Opportunities. Agrow Reports DS224. PJB Publications Ltd., London. 97 pp Jayanth, K.P. and Manjunath, T.M. 2000. Commercial production of biocontrol agents. 201–211 pp. In: Augmentative Biocontrol. Proceedings of ICAR– CABI Workshop Singh, S.P., Murphy, S.T. and Ballal, C.R. (Eds). 2001. CABI Bioscience UK and Project Directorate Biocontrol (ICAR) India Jenkins, N.E. and Grzywacz, D. 2000. Quality control of fungal and viral biocontrol agents – Assurance of product performance in Biocontrol Science and Technology 10: 753–777 Jones, K.A., Zalazny, B., Ketunuti, U., Cherry, A. and Grzywacz, D.A. 1998. World survey: South East Asia and western Pacific. pp. 244-257. In: Insect Viruses and Pest Management. F.R. Hunter-Fuijita, P.F. Entwistle H.F. Evans and N.E. Crook (Eds). Wiley, Chichester, UK Kennedy, J.S., Rabindra, R.J., Sathiah, N. and Grzywacz, D. (1999). The role of standardization and quality control in the successful promotion of NPV insecticides. 170–174 pp. In: Bio-pesticides and Insect Pest Management. S. Ignacimuthu and Alok Sen (Eds). 262 pp Lacey, L.A. and Kaya, H.K. (Eds). 2000. Field Manual of Techniques in Invertebrate Pathology. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, the Netherlands. 911 pp

64 Laird, M., Lacey, L.A. and Davidson, E.W. 1990. Safety of Microbial Insecticides. CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida, USA OECD. 2002. Consensus document on information used in assessment of environmental applications involving baculoviruses. Series on Harmonisation of Regulatory Oversight in Biotechnology No. 20. ENV/JM/MONO(2002)1 OECD. Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, Paris, France Ogutu, W.O., Ogol., C.K.P.O., Oduor, G.I., Parnell, M., Miano, D.W. and Grzywacz, D. 2002. Evaluation of a naturally occurring baculovirus for the management of diamondback moth, Plutella xylostella L. in Kenya. Paper presented at International Symposium for Improving Biocontrol of Plutella xylostella. 21–24 October 2002, Montpellier, France. 8 pp Pawar, A.D. 2001. Procedures for registration of bio-pesticides – an Indian perspective. pp. 191–200. In: Augmentative Biocontrol. Proceedings of ICAR–CABI Workshop Singh, S.P., Murphy, S.T. and Ballal, C.R. (Eds). 2010. CABI Bioscience UK and Project Directorate Biocontrol (ICAR) India, Srivastava KP, Dhaliwal GS. A Textbook of Applied Entomology. Concepts in Pest Management. Kalyani Publishers, New Delhi Puri, S.N., Murthy, K.S. and Sharma, O.P. 1997. Resource Inventory for IPM - I, National Centre for Integrated Pest Management, ICAR, New Delh World Population Prospects: The 2010 Revision, United Nations, New York, 2011 US EPA. 1996. Microbial Pesticides Test Guidelines OPTTS 885.001. Overview for microbial control agents. EPA 712-C-96-280. United States Environmental Protection Agency, Washington DC Warburton, H., Ketunuti, U. and Grzywacz, D. 2002. A survey of the supply, production and use of microbial pesticides in Thailand. NRI Report 2723. Natural Resources Institute, University of Greenwich, Chatham, UK. 100 pp Birch, A.N.E. 2011. How agro-ecological research helps to address food security issues under new IPM and pesticide reduction policies for global crop production systems. Journal of Experimental Botany, 62: 3251-3261 Srivastava, K.P. and Dhaliwal, G.S. 2010. A text book of applied entomology- Concepts of pest management, Kalyani Publishers, New Delhi, India Al-Zaidi, A.A., Elhag, E.A., Al-Otaibi, S.H. and Baig, M.B. 2011. Negative effects of pesticides on the environment and the farmer’s awareness in Saudi Arabia: a case study. Journal of Animal and Plant Science, 21(3): 605-611 Bailey, A., Chandler, D., Grant, W.P., Greaves, J., Prince, G. and Tatchell, M. 2010. Bio-pesticides: Pest management and regulation. CABI, UK Mazhabi, M., Nemati, H., Rouhani, H., Tehranifar, A., Moghadam, E.M. and Kaveh, H. 2011. The effect of Trichoderma on poliathes qualitative and quantitative properties. The Journal of Animal and Plant Sciences, 21(3): 617-621

65 Chapter 4 Facilitating Microbial Pesticide Use in Bhutan

Pema Tobgay National Plant Protection Centre, Department of Agriculture Ministry of Agriculture and Forests Royal Government of Bhutan Email: [email protected]

Abstract Bhutan is a small landlocked country in the southern slopes of Eastern Himalayas with total geographical area of 38,394 sq km. The farming system in Bhutan is subsistence and low input system where the use of agrochemical per unit land area is very less. Bhutan has a national aspiration to become 100 percent organic and accordingly government has undertaken various initiatives to phase out the use of agrochemicals some of which includes the withdrawal of subsidy on pesticides, centralized system of procurement and distribution of pesticides and institution of National Organic Program (NOP). Ever since the start of NOP, the use of bio-pesticides has been promoted through extension system of Ministry of Agriculture and Forests (MoAF). National Plant Protection Centre (NPPC) in collaboration with NOP approves list of bio-pesticides for the Country and then it is submitted to Bhutan Agriculture and Food Regulatory Authority (BAFRA) for registration. Approved bio-pesticides are centrally procured and distributed solely by NPPC. Currently, the focus of NPPC and NOP is to isolate the native strains of Trichoderma spp from the soil for use as microbial pesticide against soil borne pathogens in chilli and ginger such as Phythopthora capcisi, Fusarium spp, Rhizoctonia spp and Pythium spp. Cultures of Trichoderma spp. will be used for mass production and its efficacy will be evaluated for promotion and distribution to farmers.

Introduction The Kingdom of Bhutan is a small landlocked country in the southern slope of Eastern Himalayas. The country lies between latitudes 26o45’N and 28o10’N and longitudes 88o45’E and 92o10’E with geographical area of 38,394 sq km. It is a developing country with total population of 745,600. 70.46 percent of the total geographical area is under forest cover and only 7.9 percent is arable. But only 2.9 percent of the total geographical areas are cultivated and about 69 percent of the total population is directly dependent on agriculture for their livelihood. The farming system in Bhutan is subsistence farming and the staple crops are

66 rice, maize, wheat and millets. Apple, oranges and potato are the main cash crops of Bhutan. Although the use of agrochemicals in Bhutanese farming system is very less, the use of it in staple crops and cash crops is increasing. However, as result of various initiatives of government such as withdrawal of subsidy on pesticides since 1990, phasing out of toxic pesticides of WHO Class 1 and 2a, introduction of cash and carry system and awareness programs on adverse effects of pesticides, the use of agrochemicals has been decreasing.

Table 1: Land use and land cover in Bhutan Land Cover Class Total Area Total Area Total Area (ha) (Km2) (%) Forests 2,705,291.2 27,052.91 70.46 Shrubs 400,526.40 4,005.26 10.43 Meadows 157,568.51 1,575.69 4.10 Cultivated agric. land 112,556.21 1,125.55 2.93 Built up 6,150.87 61.51 0.16 Non-built up 330.10 3.30 0.01 Snow cover 285,479.22 2,854.79 7.44 Bare areas 122,973.9 1,229.74 3.20 Water bodies 27,568.78 275.69 0.72 Marshy land 319.47 3.19 0.01 Degraded areas 20,635.44 206.36 0.54 Total 3,839,400.06 38,394.00 100.00 Source: LCMP, 2010

In view of sustainable use of natural resources and food security, the nation aspires to be 100 percent organic by gradually phasing out the use of synthetic agrochemicals. This vision is also supported by the Constitution of the Kingdom of Bhutan which mandates that 60 percent of the total area should remain under forest cover in all times to come. Accordingly to realize the aspiration, the government has initiated various strategies such as formation of National Organic Program (NOP) under Department of Agriculture. The NOP is mandated to facilitate and coordinate research and development activities in organic agriculture, supply of bio-pesticides and bio-fertilizers. The NOP works in close collaboration with National Plant Protection Centre (NPPC) and National Soil Service Centre (NSSC) to carry out R&D activities of bio-pesticides and bio-fertilizers.

67 The NOP is currently operating as a commodity program under the Department of Agriculture. The program has been mandated to promote and develop the organic farming in Bhutan. The NOP coordinates to link agencies within the MoAF and stakeholders outside the MoAF for planning, implementation and monitoring of organic programmes to ensure that organic farming is understood and practiced by all concerned agencies, stakeholders and grass root communities. Field activities are coordinated through the RNR Research and Development Centers, Central Programs (NPPC and NSSC) and the Dzongkhag (district) Extension. The current Five Year Plan (FYP) of the Ministry of Agriculture and Forests (MoAF) has overriding objectives to achieve self- reliance through inclusive of green socio-economic development. Thus, under the ABSD crop production of the 11th FYP, the National Organic Program focuses on two selected commodities ie Asparagus and Buckwheat production along with the employment generation and area increase under the organic cultivation. The National Organic Program implements the organic program in the country with the following approach. Category 1: Naturally organic will be implemented in remote areas, areas within national parks and high-altitude areas with the objective of conserving watershed, household food and nutrition security and developing integrated self-reliant farming systems. Category 2: This will focus on selected areas on selected products linked to potential markets. Production farmer groups will be organized to supply local markets with local organic guarantee with Bhutan Organic logo for domestic market. Category 3: Any area suitable for production, any products indentified as suitable for production for assuring market with certification and for exports.

Current status and trends in use of microbial pesticide The farming system practiced in Bhutan is subsistence and low input system. So, the use of agrochemicals per unit land is very less. But, there is an increasing trend of herbicide use in paddy and potato mainly due to farm labor constraints. However, with the effort of NPPC in advocating the farmers about the adverse effect of synthetic agrochemicals and the Nation’s aspiration to become 100 percent organic, the use of synthetic pesticides has decreased drastically. One of the major focuses of NPPC and NOP has been to replace the widely used synthetic pesticides with bio-pesticides. Accordingly, many bio-pesticides were imported, evaluated and promoted. Some of these bio-pesticides are given in the Table 2.

68 Table 2: List of bio-pesticides used for pest and disease management in Bhutan Bio- Quantity Target Target Application Application pesticide crop pest/disease mode rate products Mycomite 10 l Tea, Red spider Foliar spray 1 ml/l of plantation/ mites, other water for Agro- pests such as knapsack ecosystem thrips, aphids, sprayer or leaf roller, 1.25 ml/ l of flush worm, water for tortrix and power other sprayer caterpillars Niprot 80 kg No No Seed 5g/l of (Antagonis specificati specifications treatment, water/m2 area tic fungus) ons Nursery bed treatment, Cutting and seedling dip, Soil treatment Bio-power 20 kg Cotton Bollworm, Foliar spray Dissolve 2 kg whitefly of Bio-power in 500 g of jaggery with 400 l of water Biorakshak 4 l No All kinds of Foliar spray 0.8 ml/l (320 specificati loppers & ml/ha) ons caterpillars, Grubs, Red slug caterpillar, Bunch caterpillar, Heliothis, Spodoptera, Diamondback moth, Tea twig caterpillar etc Metarhiziu 25 kg Vegetables Soil borne Foliar spray 3 g/l of water m , grub, white at 10 days ornamenta fly, aphids, interval l plants, mealy-bugs, nurseries eggs of

69 Bio- Quantity Target Target Application Application pesticide crop pest/disease mode rate products lepidopteron pests, adults and larvae of many kinds of pests Baba 25 kg Agricultur Whitefly, Foliar spray 3 g/l of water e / aphids, thrips, Horticultur mealy bugs e Neem ban 170 l Cotton, Caterpillars,p Foliar spray 2-3 ml/l of (50000 Cauliflowe mites, red water ppm) r, Okra, spider mites, Tomato thrips, aphids, whitefly, leaf hopper, pod borer/ stem borer/ fruit borer Lastraw 20 l No Spider mites, Foliar spray Spray 2-3 specificati aphids, thrips, times at ons hoppers, mealy weekly bugs and white intervals at flies 5ml/l of water. Su-mona 40 kg No No Seed Nursery bed (Antagonis specificati specifications treatment, treatment: 50 tic ons Nursery bed g/l of water bacteria) treatment, for 1 m2 area Cutting and Soil treatment

However, according to Implementation Framework and Guideline for supply of bio-inputs in the country, only following bio-pesticides are approved in 2015 for import and use in the country.

70 Table 3: Approved bio-pesticide for use in Bhutan Bio-agents Utilization Other Specifications Tent WP (2% These beneficial fungi have General label, Trichoderma asperellum different modes of actions and OMRI-listed. EPA and 2% Trichoderma are active over different Reg. No. 80289-9. gamsii) temperature and environmental Isagro USA; conditions. They are effective distributed by for diseases caused by Dpicam Advan Phythophthora capsici, Rhizoctonia, pythium and Verticillium Trilogy (70% clarified Labeled generally for several OMRI-Listed. EPA hydrophobic extract of insects and diseases including Reg. No. 70051-2. neem oil) Alternaria, anthracnose, downy Certis USA, LLC. mildew, leaf spot and powdery mildew in cucurbits Serenade Soil (1.034% This bacterium colonizes roots OMR-listed. EPA Bacillus subtilis strain and produces compounds that Reg.No. 69592-12. QST 713) affect pathogens directly and Agra Quest Inc. trigger metabolic pathways to activate the plants natural defenses and modulate growth. Labeled for diseases caused by Rhizoctonia, Pythium, Fusarium, Verticillium and Phythophthora. Cease (1.34% Bacillus Broadly labeled for use in OMR-listed. EPA subtilis strain QST 713) greenhouse vegetables. Labeled Reg.No. 69592-19. for angular leaf spot, BioWorkst Inc. anthracnose, bacterial fruit blotch, downy mildew, gummy steam blight and powdery mildew in cucurbits. Trichogramma spp (egg Used for control of shoot borer, - parasite) bollworms, stem borer NP Virus of Helocoverpa Used against bollworms and pod - armigera and Spodoptera borers Neem oil and cake (Neem Wide range of insect pests - ban 50000 ppm) Bt (Bacillus thuringiensis DBM and other lepidopteron - preparation) pests including army worm Entomopathogenic Fungi To control some insect pests by - (EPF) preparations using some fungal strains Entomopathogenic To control some insect pests - Nematodes (EPN) using nematodes

71 Table 4: The new list of bio-pesticide to be submitted to BAFRA for registration Company Product Target pest Status of the product T-Stanes Nimbecidine EC Whitefly, Aphids, Thrips, IMO India and (0.03% Mealy bugs, Caterpillars and certified Company Azadirachtin) Leafhoppers and also army Limited worm in a wide range of crops. Bio-Cure-B Pathogens causing root rot, root IMO India (Pseudomonas wilt, seedling rot and color-rot certified fluorescens) diseases in crops. Sting (Bacillus Pathogens, which cause root IMO India subtilis) rot, root wilt, seedling rot, early certified blight, late blight, leaf spot, stem rot and mildew diseases in crops. Bio-Nematon Root knot nematodes, IMO India (Paecilomyces burrowing nematodes etc certified lilacinus) among wide range of crops. Kurax (herbal Viral diseases in agricultural IMO India based anti-viral crops certified emulsfiable concentrate) EID NeemAzal Whitefly, Aphids, Thrips, IMO –IFOM PARRY (different Mealy bugs, Caterpillars and certified (India) formulation of Leafhoppers and also army Limited Azadirachtin) worm in a wide range of crops. Peak Pheromone lures Use to control population of - Chemical and traps, yellow Heliothis, aphids, army worm Industries sticky traps, adults Ltd. sticky trap PEAK TRICO Against pathogens causing root IMO/EC/NOP (Trichoderma rot, root wilt, seedling rot and /CIB/NPOB viride) color-rot diseases in crops certified PEAK TRICO H (Trichoderma harzianum) Peak Biostick Adjuvant and spreader required IMO/EC/NOP during rainy season /CIB/NPOB certified company

72 Institutional arrangements and legal framework The National Organic Program (NOP) under department of agriculture is mandated to coordinate the overall research of organic inputs. The program also carries out the certification along with Bhutan Agriculture and Food Regulatory Authority (BAFRA). The National Plant Protection Centre carries out all the research related to bio-pesticides including efficacy trials of different bio-pesticides provided by NOP. The Centre along with NOP approves the list of bio-pesticides for use in Bhutan. The National Soil Service Centre (NSSC) carries out all the research activities related to biofertilizers. The Centre evaluates different methods of composting, preparing manures, nitrogen fixation etc. The Centre also helps the entrepreneurs interested in commercial production of vermi- compost and other manures. The Centre along with NOP approves the list of bio-fertilizers for use in Bhutan. BAFRA is the sole authority responsible for monitoring and carrying out the inspection at the port of entry while importing synthetic and bio- pesticides to ensure compliance of import procedures. BAFRA registers the list of bio-pesticides and biofertilizers for use in Bhutan and it ensures the use of only approved bio-pesticides through constant inspection at various levels. The pesticides rules and regulation of Bhutan allows the manufacture of only bio-pesticides. The same rule does not allow the manufacture of any synthetic agrochemicals in the country. So, the country does not have many agrochemicals manufacturing company. There are also no company manufacturing bio- pesticides although one company has shown interest to initiate the manufacture of it. There are only two individuals who are producing bio- fertilizers at commercials scale. For the import and supply of bio-pesticide to the farmers, the Ministry of Agriculture and Forests has come up with an Implementation Framework and Guideline for supply of bio-inputs in the country, 2015. In the guideline, it is stated that like any other agrochemicals, the procurement and distribution of bio-pesticides are also controlled by a centralized system where only the NPPC imports the bio-pesticide and distribute to farmers.

Implementation guideline (Extract from Implementation Framework and Guideline for Supply of Bio-inputs) 1. Bio-pesticide products need to be identified by the National Plant Protection Centre (NPPC) and registered with the Bhutan Agriculture and Food Regulatory Authority (BAFRA). Only ISO certified and Organic Materials Review Institute (OMRI) listed organic certified products accredited by Indian Fertilizer Authority,

73 India Plant Protection Registry will be allowed to be imported. The import can also be made from other regional/international agencies accredited by internationally recognized body. 2. The currently submitted bio-pesticide list should be updated in the future as and when required. 3. To begin with, the procurement through import will be done by directly ordering and purchasing from the manufacturer/authorized dealer for few years. 4. Bio-pesticide offered by interested companies for promotional purposes will be tested and promoted in the country for the initial years provided that promoting companies are willing to bear the costs. A prior approval from the DoA will be required and these bio- pesticides also need to be registered with BAFRA. 5. The supply of bio pesticides either imported or sourced within the country needs to be cleared/endorsed by the NPPC with approval from the DoA. These bio-pesticides need to be submitted for registration with the BAFRA prior to its import. 6. The NPPC will solely facilitate the procurement and distribution of bio-pesticides in the country unless the changes in directives form the MoAF. 7. No private companies/individuals will be allowed to procure and distribute the bio-pesticide in the country. They need to indent and buy form the NPPC for personal usage. 8. Existing indent and distribution systems will be applied and followed for bio-pesticides. The NPPC in collaboration with the NOP should carry out the required awareness program on bio-pesticides. 9. The NOP will facilitate any changes required to the implementation framework and guideline in consultation with the technical authorities. 10. In order to start the process the Dzongkhags and relevant shareholders should indent their requirements with the NPPC.

Management of bio-pesticides Separate store for bio-pesticide should be maintained in the NPPC, Semtokha.

Monitoring standards and quality parameter The pesticides rules and regulation of Bhutan states the standards and quality parameter of all the pesticides including microbial pesticides will be done by the National Plant Protection Centre at pesticides testing laboratory.

74 Establishment of the pesticide laboratory (Extract from Pesticides rules and regulation of Bhutan, 2017)  The Board shall establish the Pesticide Laboratory to carry out such functions as prescribed in this rules.  The Pesticide Laboratory shall be housed under the Department of Agriculture which shall be headed by a Pesticides Analyst.  The Ministry of Agriculture and Forests in consultation with the board shall appoint Pesticide Analyst.  Any analyst conducting the test analysis shall declare conflict of interest in the prescribed Powers and Functions of the Pesticides Laboratory  The functions of the Pesticide Laboratory shall be as follows: 1) Analyze samples of synthetic or bio-pesticides submitted by Authorization Agency 2) Shall submit certificates of analysis to the Pesticides Technical Working Group and Authorization Agency within three month 3) Analyze samples of materials for synthetic and bio-pesticide residues under the provisions of the Act and its Rules for a) Declaring sale and use of products for consumption by human beings and animals keeping in view of the tolerances advised by the Board b) Declaring them fit or otherwise for import and export keeping in view of prescribed national and international standard of tolerance levels c) Establishing waiting periods for harvest of crops 4) Carry out such investigations as may be necessary for the purpose of ensuring the conditions for a) Authorization of synthetic and bio-pesticides b) Its chemical composition c) Bio-efficacy d) Phytotoxicity e) Other adverse toxicological effects, shelf-life of primary packaging and labeling including leaflet and to verify other claims submitted by the applicants for authorization of synthetic and bio-pesticides.

Carry out such other functions as may be entrusted to it by the board in consultation with the Ministry of Agriculture and Forests.

75 New research in the field of microbial pesticide In the past few years, the NOP in close collaboration with two technical agencies; NPPC and NSSC, there has been research and promotion of various botanical extraction such as marigold extract, garlic brew, neem soil spray, cattle urine spray, garlic decoction and etc. The NOP as a coordinating agency, various microbial pesticides such as Trichoderma and Pseudomonas imported from India were evaluated for their efficacy. The current focus is to isolate different strains of Trichodrma spp from the native soils and use them as microbial pesticide against different soil borne pathogens in ginger and vegetables. This will include establishing effective laboratory and capacity building of the staffs. Ginger (Zingiber officinale) is one of the cash crops and the most common problem in the ginger is rhizome rot which is caused by various soil borne pathogens such as Fussrium spp, Rhizotocnia spp and Pythium spp. So, to tackle this problem, new research was undertaken to utilize the microbial pesticides for the effective management of ginger rhizome rot. In chilli (Capsicum annuum), the most common disease is blight caused by soil borne pathogen Phythophthora capsici. Chilli is widely cultivated and consumed by Bhutanese. It is one of the main ingredients in any Bhutanese cuisine. Therefore, it is economically very important crop. In the present fiscal year, rigorous research work would be carried out to manage the chilli blight disease through use of Trichoderma as microbial pesticide.

Current status on human resource capacity (HRD) The National Plant Protection Centre (NPPC) is lack of qualified manpower who could take up the research and development work on microbial pesticides. There is nobody in the centre with qualification of microbiology and nobody in the centre is trained in microbiology. There is only two PhD holders, four MSc holders, two graduates and the rest are Diploma or certificate holders. There is no laboratory officer although it is run by one lab assistant and a lab attendant. Therefore, there is need to build the capacity of the staffs in the centre. If we develop human resource capacity of the centre and starts the research and production of microbial pesticide, the Ministry of Agriculture and Forests (MoAF) has established and very good extension system whereby there is one agriculture extension agents in every Geog (Block) of the country. Through this extension system, educational awareness could be easily created and the utilization of microbial pesticide could be also promoted very well through demonstration and distribution of the products.

76 Challenges, constraints and opportunities Lack of manpower, resource capacity, laboratory facilities, awareness and entrepreneurial aptitude among the people are the main challenges and constraints. Despite the challenges and constraints, the nation has a huge opportunity to use and commercialize the microbial pesticide. The Pesticide Rules of Bhutan 2017 do not allow the manufacture of any synthetic pesticides but only bio-pesticide. So, there is huge demand in the market. Further, the nation is gearing towards 100 percent organic agriculture through gradual phasing out of use of synthetic agrochemicals in agriculture. So, microbial pesticide has a huge scope for commercialization in Bhutan. In the long run only bio-pesticides can be used in Bhutanese farming system. Microbial pesticide will play a huge role in realizing the nation’s goals of becoming 100 percent organic.

Conclusion and recommendations Since the nation has a clear vision and strategic policies, there is a need to focus on building up the technical capacities of human resource. There is utmost need to train the existing staffs on microbial technology and also people with relevant qualification need to be recruited. The production of native microbial pesticides can be achieved only if trained people with relevant qualification such as soil microbiology, plant pathology, plant entomology and nematology etc. are recruited. The present scenario is such that the qualification of most of the technical staffs is just general agriculture. In order to facilitate the production of native microbial pesticides such as Trichoderma, Bacillus, Pseudomonas etc, there is need to emphasis on establishing fully functioning laboratory with good equipments and well qualified lab officers and technicians. Currently, the laboratory at NPPC is not fully equipped and there is also no lab officer. There is only one lab technician who also needs to be trained on latest lab technologies. As the nation has the vision to become 100 percent organic, there is an urgent need to replace the synthetic agrochemicals with bio-inputs. Farmers need to be supplied with many alternative microbial pesticides for plant protection management. Since there is no microbial pesticides produced locally, other bio-pesticides needs to be sourced from outside and it needs to be evaluated and promoted for use accordingly. Simultaneously research and development work on microbial pesticide should be stressed. Since the nation has good strategies, legal framework and the aspiration, if the above constraints are addressed through implementing the recommendations mentioned above the nation would smoothly replace synthetic pesticides by microbial pesticides.

77 Reference Implementation frame work and guidelines for the supply of Bio-pesticide and Bio-Fertilizers in the country. 2007. Department of Agriculture, MoAF, Bhutan Pesticide Act of Bhutan. 2000. MoAF, Bhutan Pesticide rules and regulation of Bhutan. 2017. MoAF, Bhutan Annual Report. 2014-2015. National Plant Protection Centre, Bhutan Annual Report. 2015-2016. National Soil Service Centre, Bhutan Training Manual: Organic Production Technologies in Bhutan. 2017. National Organic Program, DoA, MoAF

78 Chapter 5 Development and Use of Microbial Bio-pesticides in India

Rajan*, Mohan1, Jagadeesh Patil1, Mahesh S. Yandigeri1 and Aravindaram Kandan1 *ICAR, Krishi Bhawan, New Delhi, India Email: [email protected] 1ICAR-National Bureau of Agricultural Insect Resources, Hebbal Bengaluru-560024, India

Abstract The increasing demand for clean and sustainable crop production in India has established the importance of microbial bio-pesticides for the management of insect pests, plant pathogenic microbes and nematodes. There are many other reasons for the recent increased interest in microbial bio-pesticides including the development of resistance to conventional synthetic pesticides, a decline in the rate of discovery of novel insecticides, increased public perception of the dangers associated with synthetic pesticides, host-specificity of microbial pesticides and improvement in the production and formulation technology of microbial bio-pesticides. Currently, a total of 15 microbial control agents are registered for use in India under the Insecticide Act-1968. Their market share is around 4.2 percent of the overall pesticide market in India. However, it is predicted to increase at an annual growth rate of 10 percent. There are 970 registered microbial bio-pesticide formulations in Indian market manufactured by 466 private organizations. It shows the awareness among farmers as well as policy support by government of India to use bio-pesticides in a large scale. Key words: Microbial pesticides, registration, regulation

Introduction There are an estimated 67,000 agricultural pest species that damage crops (Ross and Lembi, 1985) responsible for around 40 percent loss of potential global crop yields. Of which approximately 9,000 species are insects and mites causing an average of 15 percent of crop loss. Farmers in the tropics lose up to 50 percent of their crops to insect pests and plant pathogens (Maxmen, 2013). The current pest management strategy relies heavily on chemical pesticides that caused irreversible damage to the eco-system. Repeated use of chemical pesticides caused resistance, resurgence and secondary

79 pest outbreak and destroyed many natural enemies of crop pests. The hazardous pesticide residues were accumulated in the soil, water and on agricultural produce, which cause cancer and other life style related non- contiguous illness in human beings. The pesticides also killed many other non-target fauna. The discovery of Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) in the beginning of the 20th century attracted the concentration of researchers and industrialists equally and soon the first commercial Bt based bio-pesticide Thuricide® was registered in the USA in 1961. Since then, different subspecies, varieties, and strains of Bt have been identified that are effective against a variety of insects. In a span of a very few years, Bt has covered up to 90 percent of the whole bio- pesticide market and several Bt strains are now registered as bio- pesticides throughout the world. In 1965, the first fungal product Boverin® based on Beauveria bassiana was developed in the former Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR). In 1973, Heliothis Nuclear Polyhedrosis Virus (NPV) was first declared as a viral bio-pesticide. The worldwide status of bio-pesticide registration and use against various pests are reviewed recently (Mishra et al., 2015). Currently there are about 1400 bio-pesticide products (about 1,000 active ingredients) sold annually worldwide representing approximately 2.5 percent of the total pesticide market (Balog et al., 2017). Figure 1(a) depicts the number of different species/strains of microbial agents used as various formulations of microbial bio-pesticides in the markets around the globe.

Figure 1(a): Microbial control agents commercialized around the world and 1(b): Types of microbial bio-pesticides used worldwide

The microbial bio-pesticide market in the USA dominates the number of species of microbes followed by Europe, China, India and Japan. The products based on these microbes are commercially successful and widely available as liquid concentrates, wettable powders and ready-to-

80 use dusts and granules. Among them, bacterial products are more frequently used (Figure 1(b)) especially those from Bt (Mishra et al., 2015).

Figure 2: Types of formulations of microbial bio-pesticides dominated the market

Production of Bt always remained on priority in bio-pesticide industry and currently it is the main bacterium being used in agricultural pest control. Its firm position in bio-pesticide industry indicates by the fact that about 200 Bt-based products (CABI, 2010) occupy more than 53 percent of the world bio-pesticide market. The largest market shares in bio-pesticide belonged to North America with 44 percent followed by Europe with 20 percent, Asia (13 percent), Oceania (11 percent), Latin America (9 percent) and lowest for Africa (3 percent) (Mishra et al., 2015). The damage on crop plants by insect pests, plant parasitic fungi, bacteria, viruses and nematodes in India is enormous. In India alone, 30 percent of the crop yield potential is lost to these pests corresponding to 30 million MT of food grain every year (Mohan et al., 2015). The research and development of microbial bio-pesticide in India for the management of insect pests and diseases started during 1960’s. However, the widespread failure to control the insect pests during 1980’s due to development of insecticide resistance in Helicoverpa armigera, Spodoptera litura and other pests in cotton (Kranthi et al., 2002) accelerated the development of bio-pesticides as an alternative to the synthetic insecticides. Meanwhile, the concept of Integrated Pest Management including bio- pesticides as one of the components of IPM also gained momentum. Additional drivers for bio-pesticide production research include increasing reports of high levels of chemical pesticide residues in fruit, vegetables, mother’s milk, groundwater and the disappearance of honey bees and other fauna (Chandrasekaran et al. 2008). Subsequently,

81 research into microbial pesticides in India has been substantial and formulations of a wide range of entomopathogenic and plant disease antagonistic microorganisms has been developed and evaluated in a variety of cropping systems (Rabindra, 2005 and Kabaluk et al., 2010). Over the past two decades, a great deal of knowledge has been gathered in India on the use of microbial biological control agents like Bacillus thuringiensis, Beauveria bassiana, Metarhizium anisopliae, Nomurea rileyi, Verticillium lecanii, Paecilomyces spp., nuclear polyhedrosis and granulosis viruses and a few species of entomopathogenic nematodes belonging to Steinernema and Heterorhabditis have been found useful in managing economically important insect pests especially white grubs in sugarcane crop (Patil et al., 2016) affecting agricultural and horticultural crops. Similarly, the plant disease antagonistic and growth promoting rhizobacteria like Pseudomonas fluorescens and anatagonistic fungi Trichoderma spp have been widely used for plant disease management. Currently, the bio agriculture is the third largest sector of the Indian biotech industry. In addition to genetically modified (GM) seeds, bio- fertilizers and bio-pesticides are also contributing to the growth of the Indian agri-biotech market. The Indian bio-pesticide market stands at over US$ 127 million (7-8 percent of the global market) and is expected to triple by 2020. Rising demand for chemical free crop protection products which have minimum or no negative impact on environment and possess better safety features is key driver for the recent surge in production and use of more than dozen species of microbial pathogens. Widening demand-supply gap of food crops, increasing demand of organic food and the government focus on conserving the environment is expected to drive the growth of bio-pesticides industry in India. In the last few years, although several new bio-pesticides have been registered and served as better alternatives to synthetic pesticides, they still lack far behind the chemicals. Bio-pesticides have emerged as alternatives to chemical pesticides and we also know their importance and benefits, but in reality to date, the goals have not been attained and chemicals still rule throughout the globe. The aim of the review is to highlight the present scenario of microbial bio-pesticides including its development, registration, commercialization and usage against the pest of agricultural importance.

Current status of the legal framework for commercialization of bio- pesticides to facilitating trade among the member countries hence promoting private sector The EPA (USA), JMAFF (Japan) and EC (European Union) regulations toward bio-pesticide are developed in such a way that it requires less data when compared to chemical products and reduced the time to process the

82 registration applications. In this context, the International Organization for Biological Control of Noxious Animals and Plants (Kabaluk et al., 2010) carried out a global level review on the use of bio-pesticides and regulatory measures. It stressed on the need of simplified procedure for the registration of bio-pesticides with minimum data. At present, Bacillus thuringensis, Beauveria bassiana, Metarhizium anisopliae, Nuclear Polyhedrosis Virus (NPV), Trichoderma spp, Pseudomonas spp and neem based botanical formulations are included in the schedule of Insecticides Act-1968 in India. This ensures the quality of bio-pesticides at farmers’ level. The standard parameters, protocols for data generation and guidelines for registration are prepared and circulated to prospective entrepreneurs by MoA. Now as such, any person dealing with bio-pesticides without registration is illegal. Manufacturers can register their products under either 9(3) B (temporary registration) or 9(3) (regular registration) with Central Insecticide Board (CIB), Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare, Government of India. Under regular registration the producer has to submit data on product characterization, safety, bio-efficacy, labeling and packaging at the time of registration. Under provisional registration, the registration protocols are made easier and accept generic data for any new microbial products based on already registered organism or may be new species / sub species / strain. The provisional registration is valid only for two years and the producer has to generate complete data within two years of provisional registration. However, the producer is allowed to sell the product immediately after obtaining provisional registration. This shows the interest of the Indian government in promoting safer products. In order to regulate the commercial production and use of these microbial products, the Government of India established four different bodies to regulate the microbial products. The Central Insecticides Board (CIB) is involved in developing appropriate policies, and the registration Committee (RC) is responsible for product registration whereas the Central Insecticide Laboratory (CIL) is in charge of monitoring the quality of the products available in the market. Finally, the State Department of Agriculture (SDA) issues the manufacturing license and performs quality check. The data requirement for registration under 9(3) B is less stringent than for 9(3). For example, efficacy data on specified crops are required from two agro-climatic locations over two seasons for 9(3) B while the same is required from three agro-climatic locations for registration under 9(3). Data on product characterization, efficacy, safety, toxicology and labeling must be submitted while applying for registration.

83 Establishment of referral laboratories for monitoring standards and quality parameter of bio-pesticides In India, the Central Insecticide laboratory (CIB) was set up under Section 16 of the Insecticides Act-1968 with the major objectives of pre and post registration verification of the chemical properties, performance, safety and hazards of pesticides and the proposed use claimed by the respective pesticide manufacturers. The CIB has four divisions namely Bioassay Division, Chemistry Division, Division of Medical and Packaging and Processing Division. The main laboratory is situated at Faridabad and there are two regional pesticide testing laboratories one each at Kanpur and Chandigarh. In addition, there are 68 State pesticide testing laboratories spread across the country. The pesticide inspectors at state level draw the bio-pesticide samples and send to the referral laboratories for their quality check. A long-standing issue is the poor quality and unreliability of some of the unregistered / spurious bio-pesticide products which has had a negative impact on farmer confidence. A system of referral laboratories accredited by the DBT for quality testing has been established. But enforcement of standards remains an issue. The pre-registration verification of all the technical material and the formulations of various microbial bio-pesticides submitted for registration are done at Central Insecticide Laboratory, Faridabad as per the guidelines issued by CIB. The CIB’s established quality standards must be met with reference to content, virulence of the organism in terms of LC50, moisture content, shelf life and secondary non-pathogenic microbial load. Protocols for assessing these quality parameters have been prescribed at CIB web site (www.ppgs.gov.in).

Adoption of FAO/OECD guided fast track registration system to harmonization registration across the SAARC countries The microorganisms from where the bio-pesticides derived are natural part of the crop ecosystem but artificial mass multiplication and application are required if they are to perform effectively as crop protection agents. In this way, they are strikingly different from chemical pesticides which are toxic and generally hazardous to environment. Presence of these chemicals in the ecosystem is alien and which require careful scrutiny to ensure their use is not inviting unacceptable environmental health consequences. In India, any microorganisms used for the pest and disease management requires registration for both production and sale with the Central Insecticide Board (CIB) of the Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare as per the Insecticide Act- 1968 of Government of India (GOI) and Insecticide Rules, 1971 which may be soon replaced by the Pesticide Management Bill introduced in 2008.

84 There was no formal registration of bio-pesticides. But in 1999, the law was changed to specifically include bio-pesticides within the insecticide act. However, the rigid registration system to bio-pesticides is considered as the real impediment to bio-pesticide development. Bio-pesticides are generally developed by small and medium enterprises that lack the financial resources of the multinational chemical companies. Bio- pesticides are often niche based, unlike most chemical pesticides where a single molecule can control multiple pests. Thus, burdening the bio- pesticides with same registration costs as their lucrative chemical counterparts severely impedes development and commercialization of bio-pesticides. The maximum residue level (MRL) legislation limits the uses of many chemical pesticides. Bio-pesticides have no MRLs and registered under Insecticide Act of India are considered as “generally regarded as safe” (GRAS) for their production, formulation and use. It provides the benefit of priority in registration. Thus, the producers can register the product either under section 9(3) of insecticide act (regular or permanent registration) or under section 9(3) B as provisional registration. Hence, efforts were taken to harmonize the insecticide act of 1968 with the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) on the methods and approaches for fast track registration of bio- pesticides. On this basis, CIB has rationalized the guidelines and data requirements for registration (NAAS, 2013 and Sekar et al., 2016). All toxicity studies related to bio-pesticides are conducted as per OECD guidelines (www.cibrc.nic.in/toxguide2014.pdf). Thus, the Indian system of registration of bio-pesticides allows commercial producers of those microbial pesticides evaluated as generally safe to obtain provisional registration and continue to develop a market while the product is undergoing full registration thus reduces commercial barriers to product development and market capture. However, the guidelines for registration requirements and quality check parameters for microbial bio-pesticides further need to be simplified to facilitate access to a wider range of microbial pathogens by making it easier for companies to submit registration applications to many SAARC countries and for regulatory agencies to benefit from each other’s reviews.

New research in field of bio-pesticide improvement and development and evidences of multi-stakeholder collaboration in its development Indian bio-pesticide production is currently dominated by Bacillus thuringiensis, Trichoderma spp. and Pseudomonas fluorescens. But the production of nucleo-polyhedrosis viruses (NPV), granuloviruses (GV)

85 and entomopathogenic fungi are also established and expanding (Rabindra et al., 2005). A major goal has been to develop local sourcing of bio-pesticides as a means of ensuring availability at a low cost to benefit poorer farmers and as a base for expanding Indian bio-pesticide industry. Currently, there is a vast expansion in registration of new strains under already commercialized microbes. The microbial strains are safely deposited at different microbial culture collections such as ICAR- NBAIM, Uttar Pradesh; Microbial Type Culture Collection (MTCC), Chandigarh; Fungal Type Culture Collection at ICAR-IARI, New Delhi and Microbial type culture collection at NCCS, Pune. There are nine Bt strains and their formulations currently under various stages of development at both at ICAR Institutes (NBAIR, IIOR, IARI, IIHR and SBI) and State Agricultural Universities (TNAU, UAS-R, KAU). Similarly, various strains of Trichoderma spp, Pseudomonas spp., Bacillus subtilis, NPV etc are being developed by ICAR institutes (NBAIR, IIHR, SBI, IARI, IIPR, IIVR, CTCRI, CPCRI, IIOR, NCIPM, IISR) and SAUs (TNAU, KAU, UAS-R, APAU, AAU, GBPUAT, YSPUHF). Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) under the Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare, the Department of Biotechnology (DBT) and the Department of Science and Technology (DST) under the Ministry of Science and Technology, Government of India are extending substantial funding for the research, development and validation of microbial pesticides with more than 300 projects funded since 1990’s. This has encouraged the development of new technology and academic industrial links. In limited cases, financial support is extended for the generation of toxicological data to promote registration of microbial. Bioefficacy, bio-safety, labeling and packaging data generation have been completed for all the 15 currently registered microbial bio- pesticides and their strains under Insecticide act. The state governments play the main role in implementing IPM. Their IPM programmes for purchasing and distributing bio-pesticides to farmers have been vital to creating a market for and encouraging private commercial production of microbial pesticides. States such as Tamil Nadu, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra and Karnataka have been particularly active in promoting microbial pesticide use. The State Universities of Agriculture have played important roles in bio-pesticide research and in a few cases are also producing bio-pesticides themselves and are advising companies in production. Indian companies have formed a bio-pesticide suppliers’ association, the All India Biotech Association to co-ordinate the commercial sector’s voice in developing government policy. Other organizations actively promoting bio-pesticides include non-governmental organizations

86 (NGOs) such as the M.S. Swaminathan Research Foundation and international research centers based in India such as the International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT) and the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI). ICAR along with all these organizations in India has made significant progress in promoting the local production, formulation and registration of various microbial bio- pesticides using indigenous microorganisms.

Current status on validation of indigenous technology knowledge and consideration of these as bio-pesticides Indian agriculture is of age old. Over millennia, farmers developed innumerable practices to successfully grow crops and raise animals in the highly diversified agro ecological regions of the Indian subcontinent. The development of indigenous technical knowledge (ITK) has been a matter of survival to the people who generated these systems long back. Most ITKs were based on the local availability of material and human resources. Efforts were made in the recent past in documentation of the ITKs in publications like “Inventory of Indigenous Technical Knowledge in Agriculture” (Das, 2002). Most of the documented ITKs need validation before they could be recommended to the farming community. The Vrukshayurvedic texts also provide information on various traditional pest management practices using locally available resources. A plethora of literature is available on the role of cow urine against various insect pests. It has been demonstrated that botanicals fermented in cow products like cow dung and cow urine could enrich microbial cultures which helped in providing plant nutrients in addition to acting as pest repellents. Further, it is indicated that utilization of organic wastes based on the methods recommended in Vrikshayurveda offers tremendous opportunity to develop novel, eco-friendly methods of manuring and plant protection. In general the ITKs related to pest management are based on three categories viz., (a) Cultural practices, (b) Physical and mechanical methods and (c) Use of materials from biological origin such as botanicals, cow dung, cow urine, fermented microbial cultures etc. The fermented buttermilk and panchagavya (made of cow urine, dung, milk, curd and ghee) are the best examples of involvement of microbes in pest management and soil nutrition enrichment. Scientific validation on efficacy and safety of ITK based biocontrol measures should be given priority so that farmers use these as an alternative to the registered pesticides that might help in reducing the pest incidence, restoring the biodiversity of natural enemies and maintaining soil health.

87 As many as 2,121 plant species are documented to possess pest management properties, 1,005 species of plants exhibiting insecticide properties, 384 with anti-feedant properties, 297 with repellant properties, 27 with attractant properties and 31 with growth inhabiting properties have been identified. Some plants like Azadirachta, Cymbopogon have already been exploited for commercial production of bio-pesticides. Hundreds of such plants like Mahua, Tagetes, and Chenopodium etc await serious attention. Institutes like ICAR, Centre for Indian Knowledge Systems, National Innovation Foundation and others are involved in exploring and promoting pesticides based on traditional knowledge of farmers.

Current status on capacity building and availability of content to promote knowledge on utilization of bio-pesticides amongst extension workers The national agricultural research system (NARS) of India comprising of more than 100 ICAR institutes as well as more than 50 state agricultural universities plays a leading role in promoting bio-pesticides. The ICAR- NBAIR (Formerly Project Directorate of Biological Control) is involved in testing the quality of bio-pesticides and training the officers of the state department of agriculture and horticulture. The National Centre for IPM (ICAR-NCIPM) routinely incorporates the use of bio-pesticides in its IPM validation programmes and demonstrations as do the IPM centers of the Directorate of Plant Protection, Quarantine, and Storage. Commodity research boards have also played a role in researching and developing bio-pesticides for pest control in key crops such as cotton, coffee, tea, and cardamom. Regular training under human resource development program of ICAR are being organized at various ICAR Institutes (NBAIR, IIHR, SBI, IARI, IIPR, IIVR, CTCRI, CPCRI, IIOR, NCIPM, IISR), SAU’s (TNAU, KAU, UAS-R, APAU, AAU, GBPUAT, YSPUHF) and National Institute of Plant Health Management (NIPHM) to train scientist, KVK functionaries and extension workers from state Horticulture and Agriculture departments. Technology folders, field guides, manual and pamphlets on various microbial control agents are prepared and circulated to the extension functionaries for the promotion of microbial bio-pesticides. ICAR-NBAIR for instance is regularly organizing training on mass production and utilization of bio-pesticide and bioagents for the extension workers from state and central government departments. The National Institute of Plant Health Management (NIPHM) under the Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare is the nodal institute for creating awareness and knowledge among farmers on plant health

88 management. Biological control through parasitoids, predators and microbial constitutes a significant component in holistic management of insect pests and diseases as well as abiotic stresses. NIPHM in collaboration with ICAR Institutes, SAUs, state departments, KVKs, commodity boards and NGOs are popularizing these concepts and is committed to create a pool of master trainers who in turn are expected to popularize safer pest management practices among farmers.

Recent trend and integration of technology in creating awareness on the utilization of bio-pesticides amongst farmers and other stakeholders Field demonstration and training on bio-efficacy, mass production and formulation of various bioagents and bio-pesticides are being organized by Institutes of ICAR and State Agricultural Universities in coordination with KVKs and other line departments of Agriculture, Horticulture and Sericulture at farmers’ field and at KVK farm. Farmers are now realizing the benefits of bio-pesticides and slowly replacing the hazardous synthetic chemicals with bio formulations. Cottage industries and small scale indigenous companies are also coming forward for the purchase of bio-pesticide technology from government organizations.

Status on commercialization and availability / constraints of bio- pesticides and linking them to market for accessibility In India, the formulations of 15 microbial species /subspecies for the control of insect pests, plant diseases and nematodes were registered as of November 2016 under the insecticide act 1968 (Table 1) (www.cibrc.nic.in). Their market share is around 4.2 percent of the overall pesticide market in India. However, it is predicted to increase at an annual growth rate of 10 percent (Sekar et al., 2016). There are 970 registered bio-pesticide formulations in Indian market manufactured by 466 companies. The demand for various bio-pesticides together for the year 2015-16 was 9,133.4 MT of technical grade material (Table 1). It shows the awareness among farmers as well as policy support by government of India to use safer pesticides. At Indian Institute of Horticultural Research, Bengaluru, talc-based formulation of bio-control fungus T. harzianum, P. lilacinus (1% WP), P. chlamydposporia (1% WP) and bacteria P. fluorescens (1% WP) for the management of nematodes were developed where as at National Bureau of Agricultural Insect Resources, Bengaluru, wettable powder formulations of P. chlamydosporia was developed and commercialized for management of plant parasitic nematodes. Data on the current production of bio-pesticides is difficult to assess accurately. Three larger private companies reported the following total

89 production values: 187 MT of Trichoderma harzianum, 23 MT of Trichoderma viride, 62 MT of Pseudomonas florescens, 28 MT of Beauveria bassiana, 30 MT of Verticillium lecanii and 25 MT of Metarhizium anisopliae.

Table 1: Registered formulations of microbial bio-pesticides in India Microbial Strain/ Serotype Formulation pathogens Bt kurstakiv) HD-1 i) Stra i) DOR Bt-1 (serotype H 0.5%WP, 3a, 3b, 3c) 50%WP, 5%WP, ii) Strain HD-1 (serotype H 3a, 5%AS, 7.5%WP 3b, 3C) Bt kurstaki HD-73 Strain A-97 (serotype H 3a, 3b) 3% EC Strain Z-52 (serotype H 3a, 3b) Bt galleriae HD-8 Strain R 1593M (serotype H 5a, 2.5%AS 5b ) Bt israelensis HD- Strain 164 (serotype H-14) 12%AS, 5- 14 ii) Strain VCRC B-17 (serotype 8%WP, 2.5%DT, H-14) 5%AS, iii) Strain 164 (serotype H-14) 1.15%WP iv) Strain H14 (serotype H-14) v) Strain ABIL (serotype H-14) Lysinibacillus i) Strain 1593M 1.3%FC sphaericus HearNPV i) i) Strain NBRI 8821 2% AS, 0.43% ii) ii) Strain IBH-17268 AS, 0.5% AS iii) iii) Strain BIL/HV-9 iv) iv) Strain IBL-17268 v) v)Strain BIL/HV-9 vi) vi) Strain (unnamed) vii) vii) Strain (unnamed) SpliNPV i) Strain (unnamed) 0.5% AS Beauveria i) Strain BB-ICAR-RJP 1.15% WP, 1% bassiana ii) Strain ICARNEH NAIMCC-F- WP 03045 iii) Strain BCRL iv) Strain NBARI 9947 v) Strain IPL/BB/MI/01 vi) Strain SVBPU/CSP/Bb-10 Metarhizium i) Strain MTCC 5173 1.15% WP, 1% anisopliae ii) Strain IPL/KC/44 WP Verticillium lecanii i) Strain AS MEGH-VL 1.15% WP

90 Microbial Strain/ Serotype Formulation pathogens Verticillium i) Strain IIHR-VC-3 1%WP chlamidosporium Pseudomonas i) Strain TNAU (MTCC 5176 1.75%WP, florescens ii) Strain TNAU (ITCC BE 0005) 1%WP, iii) Strain BIL-331 1.5%WP, 0.5%WP iv) Strain IPL/PS-01

v) Strain IIHR-PF-2 Trichoderma i) Strain IIHR-TH-2 0.5%WP, harzianum ii) Strain (unnamed) 1%WP, 2%WP iii) Strain unnamed Trichoderma viride i) Strain TNAU (ITCC 6914) 5%WP, 2%WP, ii) Strain T-14 1.5% WP, iii) Strain IIHR-TV-5 1%WP iv) Strain TNAU ITCC 6914 v) Strain (unnamed)

Ampelomyces i) Strain MTCC 5683 2%WP quisqualis Bacillus subtilis - 2%AS Hirsutella - 2%AS thompsonii Paecilomyces - 1%WP lilacinus

Table 2: Demand for bio-pesticides in India Biopesticide 2015-16 (technical Projected for 2016-17 grade in MT) (technical grade in MT) Bacillus thuringiensis 136 152 HearNPV 124 47 SpliNPV 0.43 174 Beauveria bassiana 848 953 Metarhizium anisopliae 118 120 Verticillium lecanii 714 695 Pseudomonas florescens 738 998 Trichoderma harzianum 14 22 Trichoderma viride 4235 1700 Trichoderma spp 1255 22

91 Biopesticide 2015-16 (technical Projected for 2016-17 grade in MT) (technical grade in MT) Paecilomyces lilacinus 55 95 Azadirachtin 302 128 Neem formulation 594 1032 Total 9133.4 6138.0

Apart from these microbes, wettable powder formulations of H. indica was developed by National Bureau of Agricultural Insect Resources, Bengaluru and commercialized for management of white grubs and other soil insect pests. At Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi, a gel-based formulation of an indigenous heat-tolerant EPN species Steinernema thermophilum (Pusa NemaGel) was developed and commercialized for management of insect pests. These technologies have been licensed to both government and private organization. Indian bio-pesticide production is currently dominated by plant disease antagonistic fungi (Trichoderma spp) plant disease antagonistic bacterium (Pseudomonas fluorescens) and the insecticidal bacterium (Bacillus thuringiensis) (Table 1 and 2). The production of nucleopolyhedrosis viruses (NPV), entomopathogenic fungi (EPF) and nematode (EPN) antagonistc fungi are also established and expanding (www.cibrc.nic.in). A major goal has been to develop local sourcing of bio-pesticides as a means of ensuring availability at a low cost to benefit poorer farmers and as a base for expanding an Indian biotechnology industry. The commercial production of bio-pesticides began in the 1980s. But expansion became rapid in the late 1990s stimulated by national and state programmes for IPM promotion. Other bio-pesticides currently under development include Amsacta albistriga NPV against peanut red hairy caterpillar, Spilarctia obliqua NPV against soybean hairy caterpillar, Nomurea rileyi. Nearly 466 companies including many small and medium enterprises are active in production and formulation of microbial bio-pesticides in India. There are 35 Central IPM Centers (CIPMC) located in 25 states also involved in production and supply of bio-pesticides (www.dppqs.gov.in). The state departments of agriculture and horticulture in the states of Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Gujarat have established biocontrol laboratories for producing selected microbial biocontrol agents. A few state agricultural universities and Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) institutions also produce microbial pesticides for supplying to the farmers at free of cost. With the current level of production, these units are able to meet the demand of only less than 1 percent of cropped area. There exists a wide gap which can only be bridged by setting up of more and more units for production of bio-pesticides. This requires large scale investment and private participation.

92 Constraints There are few constraints at the developmental, registration and production levels. I. Though the Central Insecticide Board (CIB) has rationalized the guidelines and data requirements for registration and commercialization of bio-pesticides by harmonizing with FAO/OECD guided fast track system as per the notification dated 26 March 1999 of the Central Insecticide Board, Ministry of Agriculture, bio-pesticides were put under the Insecticide Act 1968 and hence the generation of toxicological and biosafety data became mandatory for the registration of bio-pesticides too. The generation of biosafety data involves huge money and favors only multinational companies. Despite number of patents on microbial bio-pesticides, the number of commercial application has not been as dramatic as expected due to high cost involved in generation of biosafety data especially by the government organizations and small private firms in India. II. The quality standards and registration guidelines for microbial consortia based on different insect pathogens / plant disease antagonists or biofertilizer or PGPR and their combinations are yet to be developed. Farmers and market agencies prefer microbial consortia due to practical easiness to use, economic reasons and multifunctional properties. III. In some cases, the microbial strains isolated from one particular ecology/region are not effective in other places. Sometimes, they are less effective on the kind of plants it was applied. This has to be evaluated properly under multi location trial for more than one season across the country. IV. The widespread use of bio-pesticides has been restricted owing to various other reasons. Assessment of the use of microorganisms in pest management suggests that advances have been incremental rather than transformative. This is apparently the result of higher production costs in comparison with conventional chemical pesticides, narrow target-species ranges and inefficient delivery systems. Furthermore, increased adoption of microbial bio-pesticides has come under threat from the development of new biorational pesticides (including pest control agents and chemical analogues of naturally occurring biochemicals such as pheromones and insect growth regulators etc). Comparative analyses of conventional insecticides with microbial bio-pesticides suggest that there is still a lack of knowledge regarding the interactions of microbial bio-pesticides with pests, natural enemies and the wider ecosystem.

93 V. Huge sum of money (INR 2.0-4.0 million) is involved in generation of toxicological and biosafety data that is required for registration of the strain / formulation under Insecticide Act. However, the public funding for generation of these data are not available. So the registration procedure favors only the multinational companies and not the public Institutions or startup SME companies. VI. A hectic charge of GST at the rate of 18 percent for bio- pesticides and not for chemical insecticides might create big setback for the promotion of bio-pesticides post GST implementation.

A success story of bio-pesticides The National Farmer Policy 2007 has strongly recommended the promotion of bio-pesticides for increasing agricultural production sustaining the health of farmers and environment. It also includes the clause that bio-pesticides would be treated at par with chemical pesticides in terms of support and promotion. Some success stories about utilization of bio-pesticides and biocontrol agents in India have been described below. A. Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) In India, the bio-pesticide market represents less than 4 percent of the overall pesticide market in India and Bt based formulations makeup to 90 percent of bio-pesticide market. The consumption of Bt bio-pesticide in India is approximately 152 MT for the year 2015-16 (http://ppqs.gov.in/Ipmpest_main.html). As of January 2017, more than 50 registered formulations (Table 4) under four Bt subspecies (Table 3) were registered for use in India against the pest of agriculture and public health importance.

Table 3: Bt strains registered under Insecticide Act in India Bt subspecies Strain/ Serotype Bt kurstaki HD-1 i) Strain DOR Bt-1 (serotype H 3a, 3b, 3c) iii) Strain HD-1 (serotype H 3a, 3b, 3C) Bt kurstaki HD-73 Strain A-97 (serotype H 3a, 3b) Strain Z-52 (serotype H 3a, 3b) Bt galleriae HD-8 Strain R 1593M (serotype H 5a, 5b ) Bt israelensis HD-14 i) Strain 164 (serotype H-14) ii) Strain VCRC B-17 (serotype H-14) iii) Strain 164 (serotype H-14) iv) Strain H14 (serotype H-14) v) Strain ABIL (serotype H-14)

94 Table 4: Registered formulations of B. thuringiensis under insecticide act in India No Bt subsp. / strain Company Formulation Section (CIB) 1 B. thuringiensis subsp. M/s Sandoz (I) Ltd., Dipel BL 9(3B) kurstaki HD-73(H 3a, Bombay 3b) 2 B. thuringiensis subsp. M/s Indore Biotech Bactin 0.5 % 9(3B) kurstaki HD-73 (H 3a, Inputs & Research Pvt WP 3b) Ltd. 3 Bacillus thuringiensis M/s Lupin Agrochemical Delfin WG 9(3B) subsp. kurstaki HD-73 India Ltd., Bombay (H 3a, 3b) 4 B. thuringiensis subsp. M/s Lupin Dipel 9(3B) kurstaki HD-1(H 3a, Agrochemicals (I) Ltd., 3b, 3c) Bombay From M/s Abbott Laboratories, USA & Australia 5 B. thuringiensis subsp. M/s HIL, New Delhi Hil-Btk 9(3B) kurstaki HPWP 6 B. thuringiensis subsp. M/s Rallis India Ltd., Biobit 50WP 9(3B) kurstaki HD -1 (H3a, Bangalore 3b, 3c) 7 Bacillus thuringiensis M/s Rallis India Ltd., Biobit HPWP 9(3B) subsp. kurstaki HPWP Bangalore from M/s Nova Nordisk, Denmark 8 B. thuringiensis subsp. M/s Sandoz (i) Ltd., Deflin WG 9(3) kurstaki Mumbai 9 Bacillus thuringiensis M/s Wockhardt (P) Ltd., 5% WP 9(B) subsp. kurstaki HD-1 Mumbai (H 3a, 3b, 3c) 10 B. thuringiensis subsp. M/s Ajay Biotech (India) 7.5% WP 9(3b) kurstaki HD-1 (H 3a, Ltd. Pune 3b, 3c) 11 B. thuringiensis subsp. M/s Tuticorin Alkali Tech & 2.5% 9(3B) kurstaki HD-1 Chem & Fertilizers , Aueous Chennai Suspension 12 B. thuringiensis subsp. Ajay Biotech Lited Biodart 7.5% 9(3B) kurstaki HD-1 WP 13 B. thuringiensis subsp. M/s R.K. Biotech Pvt. 5% WP 9(3B) israelensis HD-14 Ltd 14 B. thuringiensis subsp. M/s Wockhardt Life WP 9(3)

95 No Bt subsp. / strain Company Formulation Section (CIB) israelensis HD-14 Science Ltd. 15 Bacillus thuringiensis ICAR-IIOR, Hyderabad Knock 0.5% 9(3B) subsp. kurstaki HD-1 WP (H 3a, 3b, 3c) 16 B. thuringiensis subsp. M/s Multiplex Bio-tech 5% WP 9(3B) kurstaki HD-1 Pvt. Ltd., Bangalore 17 B. thuringiensis subsp. M/s Sri Biotech, 0.5 % WP 9(3B) kurstaki HD-1 strain: Hyderabad DOR Bt-1 (H 3a, 3b 3c) 18 B. thuringiensis subsp. M/s Microplex Biotech & 0.5% WP 9(3B) kurstaki strain: DOR Agrochem Pvt. Ltd., Bt-1 (H 3a, 3b 3c) Wardha 19 B. thuringiensis subsp. M/s Varsha Bioscience & 0.5%WP 9(3B) kurstaki strain: DOR Technology, Hyderabad Bt-1 (H 3a, 3b 3c) 20 B. thuringiensis subsp. M/s Kan Biosys Pvt. 0.5% WP 9(3B) kurstaki strain: DOR Ltd., Pune Bt-1 (H 3a, 3b 3c) 21 B. thuringiensis subsp. M/s Shree Shiva Bio 0.5% WP 9(3B) kurstaki strain: DOR Tech. Bt-1 (H 3a, 3b 3c) 22 B. thuringiensis subsp. M/s Neelagriva 0.5% WP 9(3B) kurstaki strain: DOR Biosciences Pvt. Ltd., Bt-1 (H 3a, 3b 3c) Hyderabad 23 B. thuringiensis subsp. M/s Shri Ram Solvent 0.5% WP 9(3B) kurstaki strain: DOR Extractions Pvt. Ltd., Bt-1 (H 3a, 3b 3c) Jaspur 24 B. thuringiensis subsp. M/s Surya Bio Products, 0.5% WP 9(3B) kurstaki strain: DOR Eluru (AP) Bt-1 (H 3a, 3b 3c) 25 B. thuringiensis subsp. M/s. Neesa Agritech Pvt. 0.5% WP 9(3B) kurstaki strain: DOR Ltd., Bt-1 (H 3a, 3b 3c) 26 B. thuringiensis subsp. M/s. Gujarat Eco 0.5% WP 9(3B) kurstaki strain: DOR Microbial Technologies Bt-1 (H 3a, 3b 3c) 27 B. thuringiensis subsp. M/s. Prathibha Biotech, 0.5% WP 9(3B) kurstaki strain: DOR Hyderabad Bt-1 (H 3a, 3b 3c)

96 No Bt subsp. / strain Company Formulation Section (CIB) 28 B. thuringiensis subsp. M/s Amit Biotech Pvt. 0.5% WP 9(3B) kurstaki strain: DOR Ltd., Kolkata Bt-1 (H 3a, 3b 3c) 29 B. thuringiensis subsp. M/s Junna LifeSciences 0.5% WP 9(3B) kurstaki strain: DOR Pvt. Ltd., Hyderabad Bt-1 (H 3a, 3b 3c) 30 B. thuringiensis subsp. M/s Bio-Control 0.5% WP 9(3B) kurstaki strain: DOR Laboratory, Varanasi Bt-1 (H 3a, 3b 3c) 31 B. thuringiensis subsp. M/s Poshak Bio research 0.5% WP 9(3B) kurstaki strain: DOR (P) Ltd., Gujarat bt-1 (H 3a, 3b 3c) 32 B. thuringiensis subsp. M/s Agro Biotech 0.5% WP 9(3B) kurstaki strain: DOR Research Centre, bt-1 (H 3a, 3b 3c) Kottoyam 33 B. thuringiensis subsp. M/s Ruchi Biochemicals, 0.5% WP 9(3B) kurstaki strain: DOR Goregaon, Mumbai bt-1 (H 3a, 3b 3c) 34 B. thuringiensis var M/s Hindustan Bioenergy 0.5% WP 9(3B) kustaki (Strain: DOR Ltd., Lucknow Bt-1) 35 B. thuringiensis subsp. M/s Nitapol Industries, 0.5% WP 9(3B) kurstaki strain: DOR Kolkata Bt-1 (H 3a, 3b 3c) 36 B. thuringiensis subsp. M/s Bharat Biocon Pvt. 0.5% WP 9(3B) kurstaki strain: DOR Ltd., New Delhi Bt-1 (H 3a, 3b 3c) 37 B. thuringiensis subsp. M/s Viswa Mitra Bio 0.5% WP 9(3B) kurstaki strain: DOR Agro (P) Ltd., Guntur Bt-1 (H 3a, 3b 3c) 38 B. thuringiensis subsp. M/s Devi Biotech Pvt. 0.5% WP 9(3B) kurstaki strain: DOR Ltd., Madurai Bt-1 (H 3a, 3b 3c) 39 B. thuringiensis subsp. M/s Kaveri Seed 0.5% WP 9(3B) kurstaki strain: DOR Company Ltd., Bt-1 (H 3a, 3b 3c) Secunderabad 40 B. thuringiensis subsp. M/s Krishi bio Product & 0.5% WP 9(3B) kurstaki strain: DOR Research Pvt. Ltd., Bt-1 (H 3a, 3b 3c) Indore 41 B. thuringiensis subsp. M/s Gujarat Chemicals & 0.5% WP 9(3B) kurstaki strain: DOR Fertilizers Trading Bt-1 (H 3a, 3b 3c) Company

97 No Bt subsp. / strain Company Formulation Section (CIB) 42 B. thuringiensis subsp. M/s Ajay Bio-Tech 0.5% WP 9(3B) kurstaki strain: DOR (India) Ltd., Pune Bt-1 (H 3a, 3b 3c) 43 B. thuringiensis subsp. M/s International 0.5% WP 9(3B) kurstaki strain: DOR Panacea Ltd., New Delhi Bt-1 (H 3a, 3b 3c) 44 B. thuringiensis subsp. M/s Tuticorin alkali Spicbio 2.5% 9(3) galleriae HD-8 (H 5a, chemicals & fertilizers AS 5b) Ltd., Chennai 45 B. thuringiensis subsp. M/s HIL., New Delhi - 9(3B) israelensis HD-14 46 B. thuringiensis subsp. M/s. Amit Biotech (P) 5% AS 9(3B) israelensis HD-14 Ltd., Kolkota 47 B.thuringiensis subsp. M/s. Neelgriva 5.0% AS 9(3B) israelensis HD-14 Bioscience, Hyderabd 48 B. thuringiensis subsp. M/s Agr Evo Ltd., VectoBac 9(3B) israelensis H-14 Mumbai 12%AS 49 B. thuringinesis subsp. Biotech International Bacticide 9(3) israelensis H-14 strain Ltd., New Delhi 2.5% DT, 164 Bacticide 5- 8%WP, Bacticide 5% AS 50 B. thuringinesis subsp. Biotech International Bacticide 5% 9(3) israelensis H-14 strain Ltd., New Delhi AS VCRC B17 51 B. thuringiensis subsp. M/s Tuticorin Alkali 8%WP, 9(3B) () israelensis HD-14 Chemicals & Fertilisers 5%WP strain ABIL Ltd., Chennai 52 B. thuringiensis subsp. M/s Bayer Crop Science Vectobac 12 9(3) israelensis H-14 Ltd., AS strain: VCRC B-17 53 B. thuringiensis subsp. M/s Bacto Power India Bacto Power 9(3B) isralensis HD-14 Pvt. Ltd 5%AS 54 B. thuringiensis subsp. M/s Kilpest India Ltd., Larvect 5.0% 9(3B) israelensis HD-14 Bhopal AS strain: VCRC B-17 55 B. thuringiensis subsp. M/s Ajay Biotech (India) 5% WP 9(3) israelensis HD-14 Ltd., Pune strain: VCRC B-17

98 No Bt subsp. / strain Company Formulation Section (CIB) 56 B. thuringiensis subsp. M/s Agri Life, Hyderabd Vectobac 5% 9(3) israelensis HD-14 WP strain: VCRC B-17 57 Bacillus thuringeinsis M/s Biotech International Tech & WP 9(3B) subsp. israelensis HD- Ltd., New Delhi 14 58 B. thuringiensis subsp. M/s Biotech International Tech (I) 9(3) israelensis HD-14 Ltd. 1.15% WP

In public sector, the process for mass multiplication of DOR Bt-1 (Bacillus thuringiensis subsp. kurstaki H3a3b3c), its formulation (0.5 % WP) along with data on toxicology, shelf life, bio-efficacy both under lab and field were generated by ICAR-IIOR, Hyderabad. The strain is effective against semilooper on castor, pod borer in pigeon pea, stem borer and leaf folder in rice. This technology has been licensed to 37 bio- pesticides entrepreneurs resulting in substantial resource generation to the institution. Three Bt liquid formulations based on indigenous Bt subspecies kurstaki developed by ICAR-NBAIR at Bengaluru were licensed to five private firms with revenue generation of INR 1.6 million. The firms are now developing toxicological and biosafety data for their registration under insecticide act. The major uses of Bt against insect pests of agriculture is listed (Table 5)

Table 5: Major uses of Bt against insect pest of crops Crop Insect pest Dosage Dilution in (l/ha) water (l) Bacillus thuringiensis subsp. Galleriae (Strain 1593M) (serotype H 5a, 5b), 1.3% flowable concentrate, Potency 1500 IU/mg) Cabbage & Cauliflower Diamond back moth 0.6-1.0 500

Tomato Fruit borer 1.0-1.5 500 Bhindi Fruit borer (Earias spp) 1.0-1.5 500

Chilli Fruit borer (Spodoptera 1.5-2.0 1000 litura) Bacillus thuringiensis subsp. Kurstaki (Serotype H 3a, 3b, 3c; 5% WP, Potency 55000 su, 5x107 spore/mg) Cotton American Bollworm 0.5-1.0 500-1000 Spotted bollworm 0.75-1.0 500-1000

99 Crop Insect pest Dosage Dilution in (l/ha) water (l) Red gram Pod borer 1.0-1.25 500-1000 Cabbage Diamondback moth 0.5-1.0 500-1000 Bacillus thuringiensis subsp. Kurstaki (Strain DOR Bt-1) (Serotype H 3a, 3b, 3c; 0.5% WP, Potency 9000 IU/mg) Castor Semilooper 0.25-0.375 250-300 Bacillus thuringiensis subsp. Kurstaki (Serotype H 3a, 3b, 3c; 0.5% WP, Potency 9000 IU/mg) Chickpea Pod borer 2.0 500 Bacillus thuringiensis subsp. Kurstaki (Serotype H 3a, 3b, 3c; 2.5% AS (Spicbio-Btk) Chickpea Pod borer 1.0-1.5 500 Bacillus thuringiensis subsp. Kurstaki (Strain Z-52) (Serotype H 3a, 3b; Potency: 3000 IU/mg min – on Gypsy moth, 32000 IU/mg min – Trichoplusia ni, 50000 IU/mg min – H. armigera, 55000 IU/mg min – Spodptera exiqua Cotton Bollworms, Spodoptera 0.75-1.0 500-750 litura Rice Stem borer, leaffolder 1.5 500-750 Gram Pod borer 0.75 500-750 Pigeon Pea Heliothis 0.75 kg. 500-750 Soybean Spodoptera, Heliothis, 0.75 kg. 500-750 Spilosoma, Semilooper, Leaf miner Tobacco Spodoptera, Heliothis 1.50-2.00 500-750 kg. Castor Hairy caterpillar, Ahea 1.00 kg. 500-750 janata Teak Dfoliater (Hyblaea 0.25-0.50 As required pured), Skeletonizer (Eutectona machaeralis Bacillus thuringiensis subsp. Kurstaki (Serotype H 3a, 3b; 3.5% ES for Import & repack, Potency17600 IU/mg) Cotton Bollworm 750-1000 750-1000 Bacillus thuringiensis subsp. Kurstaki (Serotype 3a, 3b, SA II WG, Potency 53000 SU/mg, 32000 IU/mg) Cabbage, Cauliflower Diamond back moth 0.5 kg/ha 500-700 ha Bacillus thuringiensis subsp. Israelensis WP. Water bodies Anopheles and Culex 2 – 5 kg/ha -

100 Crop Insect pest Dosage Dilution in (l/ha) water (l) larvae Bacillus thuringiensis subsp. Israelensis strain VCRC B-17 (Serotype H-14; Vectobac 12 AS, Potency 1200 ITU / mg) Drains, Cesspits Culex 5.0 l 1 l in 100 l of Casuarina pits, disused water wells Paddy fields, ponds, Anopheles 10.0 l 1 l in 50 l of pools water Tree holes, disused tyres Aedes 10.0 l 1 l in 50 l of water Drains, cesspits Culex 5.0 l 1 l in 100 l of Casuarina pits, disused water wells Bacillus thuringiensis subsp. Israelensis (Serotype H-14; Vectobac 12 AS, potency 1200 ITU/mg) Clean water, cement Anopheles 1-2 l - tanks Polluted water, Casspits, Culex 2-4 l - Cement tank, Stagnant and flowing drains Bacillus thuringiensis subsp. Israelensis (Serotype H-14; 5% WP, Potency 2000 ITU/mg) Dose (g/m2) Application Frequency River bed pool 0.5 g/m2 Weekly Cement tanks 0.5 g/m2 Fortnightly Pokhars small kaccha or cement tanks with low 0.5 g/m2 Weekly walls Pits and ditches 0.5 g/m2 Weekly Paddy fields 0.5 g/m2 Weekly Semi polluted pits 0.5 g/m2 Weekly Ornamental fountains 0.5 g/m2 Fortnightly Septic tanks 1.0 g/m2 Weekly / Fortnightly Flood prone polluted cesspits and ditches 0.5 g/m2 Weekly Drains with polluted stagnant or flowing very 0.5 g/m2 Weekly / slowly Fortnightly

101 Crop Insect pest Dosage Dilution in (l/ha) water (l) Bacillus thuringiensis subsp. israelensis (Strain ABIL) (Serotyp H-14, 5% WP, Potency 7000 ITU/mg Clean water, (cement Anopheles / Culex / 0.75 gm/m2 200 tanks, coolers, drains, Aedes or 7.5kg/ha pools and pits) Highly Polluted water- Anopheles / Culex / 1.00 gm/m2 200 (Underground tanks, Aedes or 10.00 container, drums & tyros) kg/ha River bed pool Anopheles / Culex / 0.5 g/m2 Weekly Aedes Cement tanks Anopheles / Culex / 0.5 g/m2 Fortnightly Aedes Pokhars small kaccha or Anopheles / Culex / 0.5 g/m2 Weekly cement tanks with low Aedes walls Pits and ditches Anopheles / Culex / 0.5 g/m2 Weekly Aedes Paddy fields Anopheles / Culex / 0.5 g/m2 Weekly Aedes Semi polluted pits Anopheles / Culex / 0.5 g/m2 Weekly Aedes Ornamental fountains Anopheles / Culex / 0.5 g/m2 Fortnightly Aedes Septic tanks Anopheles / Culex / 1.0 g/m2 Weekly / Aedes Fortnightly Flood prone polluted Anopheles / Culex / 0.5 g/m2 Weekly cesspits and ditches Aedes Drains with polluted Anopheles / Culex / 0.5 g/m2 Weekly / stagnant or flowing very Aedes Fortnightly slowly Bacillus thuringiensis subsp. Israelensis (Serotype H-14; Vectobac 12% AS) Clean water, cement Anopheles 1-2 ltrs. - tanks Polluted water, cesspits, Culex 2-4 ltrs - cement tanks, stagnant and flowing drains

In most cases, the Bt technology used was indigenous and the scientific aspects of production were standardized by ICAR Research Institutes

102 and State Agricultural Universities. Machineries and laboratory equipments are available from various local manufacturers.

B. Trichoderma spp Trichoderma based bio-pesticides are produced on a small or large scale. Small scale production is undertaken at village or community level cooperatives / self-help groups. As the production technology is relatively simple, the local farmers / SHGs are trained to undertake the production. Medium and large-scale production is undertaken by firms, sugar mills cooperatives engaged in the manufacture and distribution of agro-chemicals. For example, pesticide companies which already possess sufficient in-house technological expertise and marketing resources are ideally suited for producing bio-pesticides on a large scale. Similarly, seed companies are particularly well placed for undertaking the production and marketing of Trichoderma harzianum and T. viride. Trichoderma spp plays a major role as biocontrol agents owing to their capabilities of ameliorating crop yields by multiple roles such as bio- pesticide and plant growth promotion. Among the different bio- pesticides, Trichoderma is most exploited and have many success stories. India is a leading grape exporter. The main concern in grape export is pesticide residues, sulphur dioxide injury and berry decay. To overcome these problems, ICAR-National Research Centre for Grapes, Pune has identified a natural strain of Trichoderma harzianum commercially available as ‘Grape-guard’. Experiments and pack house studies have revealed that the grapes treated with Trichoderma retain their freshness for longer duration as compared to fungicide treated grapes. The technical guidance for the large-scale production of Trichoderma harzianum was given to “Mahagrapes” a leading apex grape co-operative society in Maharashtra. Mahagrapes is producing approximately 10 MT of Trichoderma annually and distributing it to the member farmers (http://nrcgrapes.nic.in/success_stories.htm).

C. Entomopathogenic nematodes (EPN) Entomopathogenic nematodes (EPN) have several important attributes that make them excellent candidates for biological control of soil insects. These nematodes can be produced by in vivo by baiting technique on insects and commercially by in vitro solid/liquid culturing. Numerous insect pests including root weevils, flea beetles, white grubs, caterpillars on many different crops are being controlled by these insect parasitic nematodes. Utilization of EPN has raised intense interest and has been a growing concern globally mainly because of its potential efficiency, exemption from registration and other impressive attributes for utilizing against the control of soil dwelling pests in India. EPNs in the genera

103 Steinernema spp and Heterorhabditis spp are found to be potential agents for control of insect pests mainly belonging to order Diptera, Coleoptera, Lepidoptera and Orthoptera.

Recommendations and conclusions Microbial bio-pesticides are naturally occurring that are much safer than the hazardous chemical pesticides. It is widely agreed that getting microbial pesticides to market more quickly and in greater numbers would result in economic, environmental and health benefits. Some microbial bio-pesticides are easy to produce and develop and can be manufactured using simple and inexpensive technologies. The baculoviruses and EPN can be produced in vivo in insects and fungal bioagents such as Beauveria bassiana, Metarhizium anisopliae, and Trichoderma spp are produced on any grains. Such simple technologies are useful where a substantial demand exists for local production and distribution at the farmers' level among all the SAARC countries. Registration and commercialization are the final and most difficult steps in the development of a microbial formulation. The most critical factors are developmental cost and time to market. Costs amount to INR 20-45 lakhs for a new entrepreneur and the time to market including registration is no less than 5-7 years. In order to further promote the microbial bio-pesticides for the management of insect pests, plant diseases and plant parasitic nematodes in India and other SAARC countries, a clear road map should be established addressing all the constraints which hamper isolation of efficient microbial strain, mass production, quality control, distribution and their field application. Some of the important issues as per the Indian experience are given below.

Research and development i. Molecular method based identification of virulent microbial strains ii. Development of stable formulation with extended field persistence using nano technology iii. Development and promotion of microbial consortia iv. Development of efficient storage, packaging and transport methods to avoid loss of virulence during storage and transport v. Systematic surveys are required in different agro ecological zones to identify naturally occurring pathogens. Detailed studies are necessary on the properties, mode-of-action and pathogenicity of such organisms. Ecological studies on the dynamics of diseases in insect populations and antagonistic

104 potential of plant disease antagonistic microbes are necessary because the environmental factors play a significant role in disease outbreaks and ultimate control of the pests

Public-private partnership in commercial scale mass production and formulation i. Establishing low cost in vitro mass production system for various microbial bio agents ii. Development of indigenous liquid fermentation technology for local isolates

Quality assurance i. Establishment of quality standards for microbial consortia ii. Establishment of quality standards supported with molecular and biological data iii. Establishment of public and private sector quality control labs with trained technicians iv. Training of entrepreneurs and public sector quality control personnel

Promotion of microbial bio-pesticides i. More aggressive government policy and generous funding to promote microbial bio-pesticides ii. Tax concession to entrepreneurs involved in bio-pesticide production iii. Encouraging village level local production of microbial bio- pesticides by farm women or self-help group for local consumption

Registration i. Further simplification of registration protocols and less stringent data requirement ii. Liberal funding mechanism from public sector for data generation for bio-pesticide registration

References Balog, A., Hartel, T., Loxdale, H., Wilson, K. 2017. Differences in the progress of the biopesticide revolution between the EU and other major crop- growing regions. Pest Management Science, DOI: 10.1002, 4596 pp CABI. 2010. The 2010 Worldwide Bio-pesticides: Market Summary. CPL Business Consultants, London, 40 pp

105 Chandrasekaran, S., Rajathi, D.S., Saravanam, P.A. and Kuttalam S. 2008. Pesticide residue maximum residue limit (MRL) and safety to environment. Insect Pest Management and Environment Safety, 4: 45-54 Das, P. 2002. Inventory of Indigenous Technical Knowledge in Agriculture: Mission Mode Project on Collection. Documentation and Validation of Indigenous Technical Knowledge, ICAR, New Delhi, 411pp Kabaluk J. Todd, Antonet M. Svircev, Mark S. Goettel and Stephanie G. Woo. 2010. The Use and Regulation of Microbial Pesticides in Representative Jurisdictions Worldwide. IOBC Global. 99 pp, www.IOBC-Global.org Kranthi, K.R., Jadav, D.R., Kranthi, S., Wajari, D.R., Ali, S.S. and Russell, D.R. 2002. Insecticide resistance in five major insect pests of cotton in India. Crop Protection. 21: 449-460 Maxmen, A. 2013. Crop pests: under attack. Nature, 501: S15-S17 Mishra, J., Tewari, S., Singh, S. and Arora, N.K. 2015. Bio-pesticides: Where We Stand? In: N.K. Arora (Ed.), Plant Microbes Symbiosis: Applied Facets, Springer, India, 37-75 pp Mohan, M., Venkatesan, T., Sivakumar, G., Mahesh, Y. and Verghese, A. 2015. Fighting Pesticide Resistance in Arthropods, Westville Publishers, New Delhi, 223 pp NAAS. 2013. Bio-pesticides-Quality Assurance. Policy Paper No.62, New Delhi Patil, J., Rangasamy, V. and Verghese, A., 2016. Efficacy of indigenous Steinernema abbasi and Heterorhabditis indica isolates as potential biocontrol agent against Holotrichia consanguinea Blanch. (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae). Nematology 18: 1045-1052 Rabindra, R.J. 2005. Current status of production and use of microbial pesticides in India and the way forward. 1-12 p, In: Rabindra, R.J., Hussaini, S.S. and Ramanujam, B. (Eds), Microbial Biopesticde Formulations and Application. Technical Document No.55, Project Directorate of Biological Control Ross, M.A. and Lembi, C.A. 1985. Applied weed science, Burgess Publishing Co., Minneapolis, USA Sekar, J., Rengalakshmi, R. and Prabavathy, V.R. 2016. Microbial Consortia products for sustainable agriculture: Commercialization and regulatory issues in India. Singh, H.B. et al. (Eds). Agriculturally Important Microorganisms, Springer, Singapore

106 Chapter 6 Facilitating Microbial Pesticide Use in Maldives

Hussain Farah Plant and Animal Health Management Division Ministry of Fisheries and Agriculture Male, Maldives Email: [email protected]

Abstract Pesticide importation to the Maldives began around 1980s and by 1990s individuals and companies had started the resale of these imported products. Maldivian agricultural sector is still largely reliant on the use of chemical pesticides for pest and disease management by farmers who are oblivious of the detrimental effects of chemical pesticides. Ministry of Fisheries and Agriculture (MoFA) conducts regular awareness programs and trainings which have led to a minimal change in trend of chemical pesticide use. It is currently observed that the number of farmers choosing bio controls including microbial pesticides is gradually increasing. However, microbial pesticides are mostly being used at commercial agricultural islands where there are satisfactory investments taking place. It is still uncommon for small-scale farmers to utilize the microbial pesticides. MoFA takes initiative to introduce new technology including microbial pesticides to test their effectiveness in the Maldives. There is currently no rigid legal framework or institutional arrangement that would allow microbial pesticide use, research and development in the Maldives. Several challenges are faced in the Maldives with respect to commercialising and usage of microbial pesticides which include insufficient financial resources, lack of technical staff, gap in the dissemination of knowledge, unavailability of the required technology and large dependence on importation which renders microbial pesticides expensive. There had been several success stories of microbial pesticide usage in the Maldives including the use of Bacillus thuringiensis israelensis (Bti) for the control of mosquito vectors by Health Protection Agency (HPA) and the use of Metarhizium anisopliae for hispid beetle (Brontispa longissima) by MoFA. In order to allow farmers to utilise microbial pesticides, a large capacity building program needs to be initiated followed by dissemination of knowledge via a broad range of media. Research capacity also needs to be strengthened which includes the establishment of infrastructure, competent personnel, technology and funding. Key words: microbial pesticides, regulation, commercialization

107 Introduction The Republic of Maldives consists of 1,192 geographically dispersed coral islands set in an area of 90,000 km2 in the Indian Ocean. The islands are grouped into units known as atolls for administrative purposes and there are twenty six atolls. The average ground level elevation is 1.5 meters above sea level and there is a population of roughly 393,500 inhabitants. Although the contribution of Agriculture to the GDP in Maldives is low, it is an extremely vital field with respect to its significance in the improvement of livelihood and providing employment opportunities. Currently, the cost of agricultural production is high in the Maldives due to the major dependency on imported inputs for farming. Home gardening, sedentary farming in small farms and bush fallow shifting cultivations are the farming systems practiced in the Maldives. Large scale farming also practiced widely in some commercial agricultural islands. Major crops cultivated in the Maldives include coconut, breadfruit, mango, banana, papaya, melons, chilli, eggplant, pumpkin, cucumber, green leaves etc. Since the importation of pesticides to the Maldives began around 1980s with the opening of Male Nursery, a large dependency on agrochemicals for farming has led to land degradation, groundwater contamination and several public health concerns. By 1990s, individuals and private companies had started importation and selling chemical pesticides to the consumers. Import of chemical pesticides to the Maldives is mainly from India, Sri Lanka, Thailand and Singapore. Importation of pesticides from Malaysia, Australia, USA, UK and Netherlands is also observed quite frequently. MoFA issues a permit to import pesticides to the country which is regulated under the Ministry of Defence and National Security. Under the current regulation, MoFA does not allow import of WHO Class I and partial ban of Class II and any other chemical classified as damaging to marine environment. During 2016, 277 permits were issued for the importation of pesticides comprising a total of 202,818 l and 99,329 kg of (Ministry of Fisheries and Agriculture, 2016). The import of chemical fertilizers and pesticides in 2000 amounted to MVR 8.5 million and there was an increase of up to MVR 17.3 million by 2008. (ENDEVOR – Maldives, 2014). These figures indicate the large dependency of the Maldivian agriculture sector on the use of agrochemicals. The concerns over the use of chemical pesticides are undeniable and hence the obstacles faced with introducing alternative technology needs to be tackled. Due to several awareness programs carried out by the Ministry, there has been a slight increase in the use of bio-pesticides

108 including microbial pesticides. However, this is still in infancy and requires a lot participation to become prevalent.

Current status and trends in use of microbial pesticides Chemical pesticides have received a major boost and farmers have started opting for these chemicals without any training or knowledge. Currently, no actual data on the pesticide usage is available due to several limitations. The permits are issued by MoFA for the import of pesticides and quantity being imported is recorded at Maldives Custom Services. However, no proper survey has been conducted to determine how the farmers apply chemical pesticides.

Figure 1: Pesticide importation during 2010-2014; Source: Ministry of Environment and Energy, 2016

Although chemical pesticides are still the preferred method of pest control, a several trainings and awareness programs have been conducted for popularization of bio-pesticide use. MoFA as part of its work plan conducts several IPM and bio-pesticide awareness programmes throughout the Maldives. In addition to this, MoFA takes initiative to introduce new technology to the Maldives and get more people involved in such new technology. This has resulted in slight change in the pest management methods and more farmers are opting for biocontrol techniques including microbial pesticides. Although this is only a recently emerging trend and the proportion of this is still rather small (less than 5 percent) and it is still very promising. Microbial pesticides are currently mostly being used at commercial large scale agricultural islands with large capital investments. The most commonly used microbial pesticides at these commercial islands include Bacillus thuringiensis and Trichoderma harzianum. It is still very uncommon for individual farmers to choose microbial pesticide for pest management. It is observed that this is due to the lack of knowledge of

109 the harmfulness of chemical pesticides and not being aware of the benefits of microbial pesticides. The import data at MoFA reveals an increase in the import of microbial pesticides in recent past. There has been an increasing trend to import Bacillus thuringiensis, Trichoderma harzianium and Metarhizium anisopliae by both commercial agricultural islands and companies. As private companies have started to import microbial pesticides for sale, it has been observed that farmers are getting more exposure and wider benefits. Although Ministry had taken initiative to include several microbial pesticides in the pest management in the past, the unavailability of such products in the Maldives was a major obstacle. Hence, a change in this trend means a wider availability of these products and the prospect of it is very promising. As mentioned before, MoFA has taken several initiatives to introduce new technology including microbial pesticides to tackle the issues faced with the overuse of chemical pesticides. As a way to fight the infestation caused by rhinoceros beetle (Oryctes rhinoceros) and hispid beetle (Brontispa longissima) to the coconut, biocontrol agents Oryctes virus and Metarhizium anisopliae have been introduced and recommended for the management of these beetles respectively. Due to the success of this initiative, the public has become widely aware of efficacy of products and is currently being used for management of both rhinoceros and hispid beetle infestation in most of the islands. In year 2017, Ministry has taken initiative to introduce a few more microbial pesticides including Beauveria bassiana, Trichoderma harzianium, Lecanicillium muscarium and Heterorhabditis bacetriophora. These microbial pesticides along with few other bio pesticides procured recently and will be tested at various selected islands.

Institutional arrangements and legal framework There is currently no rigid legal framework that would allow the regulation of pesticides in the Maldives. Currently, pesticide import is regulated under the Prohibited Items Act of Ministry of Defence and National Security. Under this act, MoFA maintains a regularly updated list of banned and approved pesticide list for import to the Maldives. MoFA also issues a no objection letter for pesticides that have been determined to be suitable for use in the Maldivian environment and this letter is compulsory for the import of any pesticide into the Maldives. Maldives is a country that is heavily reliant on import and this restricts the utilization of microbial pesticides, as people want the most economically reasonable choice. Currently, only a few research works is being carried out in the Maldives on efficacy of microbial pesticides

110 procured by MoFA. These imported pesticides will be used in selected islands and the data on the effectiveness will be evaluated. MoFA will then make these pesticides available to the public and these will be included in the recommended choice of pesticides by MoFA. A Pesticide bill has been drafted to regulate the import, production, commercialisation, registration, use, sale and disposal of pesticides. However, this bill has not been enacted. Once enacted, this bill could initiate research, production, registration and commercialisation of microbial pesticides which would enable them to become more widely available and a desired form of pest management. In addition to the lack of legal framework, Maldives also lacks institutional arrangements to research and produce microbial pesticides. Currently no pesticides are being produced in the Maldives for commercial purposes and no research is being done. This is an area that is still to be explored in the Maldives and will benefit the wider population. This will minimise the use of chemical pesticides, increase profit, employment, enhance the economy and reduce the environment pollutions.

Establishment of infrastructure for monitoring standards and quality parameter The area of microbial pesticide is still in infancy in the Maldives and is quite a new technology to be introduced in the Maldives. Hence, not much research is ongoing and the capacity for this needs to be strengthened. Once this is achieved establishment of infrastructure for monitoring standards and quality would be required. At this moment this is not applicable in the Maldives.

Adoption of FAO/OECD guided fast track registration system Harmonized registration will help combat illegal import and export throughout the SAARC region. However, as previously mentioned this is not applicable to Maldives at the moment.

New research in field of microbial pesticide improvement and development and evidences of multi-stakeholder collaborative approaches for its development The Maldives currently lack facilities to carry out novel research in the field of microbial pesticide. However, such researches are in demand and could be initiated by the MoFA with the help of University. Also, a multi-stakeholder approach is required to facilitate the use of microbial pesticides in the Maldives. This is required since a major limitation currently faced is the inability to implement rules as the

111 responsibility to implement this falls on several organisations. Hence, if they do not work together, implementation is not possible and this is an aspect that requires to be reinforced further.

Indigenous Technology Knowledge Although several cultural and plant-based pest control methods have been practiced in farming in the Maldives, microbial pesticides have not been known to be used. However, further research is required to determine the locally available strains and their potential as microbial pesticides and need to identify whether any form of microbes is currently used as pesticides in farmer practice for their further evaluation.

Current status on human resource development and capacity building Although there is currently a leap in the availability of skilled people in the Maldives, it is still not enough to address the pressing issue of the unavailability of enough expertise to kick start research into microbial pesticides. There is currently not enough staff with relevant qualifications and practical experience. Maldives is yet to start proper research in the fields of science and technology and is currently dependent on importation rather than production. Due to the above mentioned factors, even though highly trained, knowledgeable individuals are available they are not being properly exploited. Moreover, no career prospects in the field of research leads to prevent more people coming into research profession. For both development and extension work, we require a larger human work force which is currently unavailable. The geography of the Maldives demands a large human resource capacity to reach a wider audience in scattered islands. Currently lack of funding and scholarships are two of the limitations faced with respect to capacity building.

Challenges, constraints and opportunities in microbial pesticide commercialization and use The use of microbial pesticides for pest control is a recent trend in the Maldives. Maldivian agricultural sector has been heavily reliant on chemical pesticides for the past decade. To combat the harmful effects of these pesticides, MoFA has been raising awareness throughout the Maldives to opt for bio pesticides including microbial pesticides. Even though several microbial pesticides have been introduced and identified better strains, but their commercialization is still a challenge.

112 The main challenge faced is the insufficient financial resources made available to the agriculture sector. The funding made available to agriculture sector is currently at less than 1 percent of the total government budget. This is not enough to initiate projects to commercialise and increase the usage of microbial pesticides. Also, there is poor coordination between the major stakeholders which restricts the implementation of regulations. In addition to this, political instability in the country means that it is a challenge when it comes to introducing novel projects in the Maldives. MoFA is also challenged by the illegal trade of counterfeit chemical pesticides into the country. Products imported from some neighbouring countries have been found to be forged with altered labels etc. Another important factor includes the lack of technical staff and insufficiency in the number. This needs to be overcome through specialised short-terms trainings as well as long-term degree courses. Lack of human resources and also poor technical knowledge among the staff is a major hindrance in achieving goals. The technology to research and develop microbial pesticides is also currently unavailable in the Maldives. Maldives is in the dire need of necessary technological and laboratory facilities to achieve more sustainable pest and disease management. This again requires capital investment which is currently unavailable through the government allocated budget for agriculture. There is still lack of awareness among farmers and they expect instant results from the pest control methods. If the microbial pesticides fail to produce the instant result that they seek, they believe that these are not suitable to be used as pesticides. Hence, there is a large gap in the dissemination of knowledge to the farmers, most of them have no technical background. Moreover, Importation is currently the only route of availability of microbial pesticides in the Maldives, they are usually deemed more expensive than chemical pesticides. This prevents a common farmer from purchasing these products, as they do not involve in large-scale agricultural farming. The subsistence home garden farming is the most common farming system in Maldives rather than massive commercial farming.

Success stories of microbial pesticides use Several attempts have been made by government stakeholders to introduce microbial pesticides in the Maldives. One such project was commenced by the Health Protection Agency to control mosquito vectors by Bacillus thuringiensis israelensis (Bti). Bti granules were procured

113 and given to several islands for vector control purposes. These Bti granules were then used to control the mosquito larvae and were found a very successful attempt to control mosquitoes which is major threat in islands of the Maldives. Another successful project was to use of Metarhizium anisopliae for the management of hispid on coconut palms. This pest was first noticed on Sun Island resort in December 1999 (Shafia, 2005). Evaluations and investigations revealed that it was introduced via ornamental palms imported from nurseries in Malaysia and Indonesia as this pest is believed to be endemic to Indonesian and Papua New Guinean region. Followed by its first introduction to Sun Island Resort, it has spread to 10 atolls within a few years. Moreover, due to the importance of coconut in the economy of the Maldives as it provides food, income and is part of the aesthetics of the tourist resorts, a sustainable control measure of this pest was required. Due to the uncontrolled rate at which Brontispa was spreading an immediate intervention was needed, as it had become an international concern as well given the coconut palm density in both India and Sri Lanka. This initiated several projects to tackle this issue including the FAO project: Integrated Pest Management of Coconut Hispid Beetle: Brontispa longissima and China Hispid Beetle project. These projects involved the rearing and introduction of parasitoids. However, due to several limitations, project did not achieve the desired objective. Along with the parasitoids introduction, MoFA distributed Metarhizium anisopliae to the hispid infested islands to manage it. This proved to be an extremely effective control method for this pest. The hispid beetle was greatly controlled in a lot of inhabited islands and tourist resorts by the use of it. The result can be greatly seen from Lh. Felivaru where the hispid infestation has now been almost completely controlled. This success also led to the proposal for establishing of Metarhizium anisopliae mass production plant in Maldives.

Recommendations and conclusions In order to facilitate the use of microbial pesticides several aspects need to be considered. Firstly, it is critical to raise awareness among the farmers along with increasing the technical capacity of the staff. A large capacity building program needs to be initiated followed by dissemination of this knowledge to the public via different public media. Due to the geographical composition of Maldives, it is difficult for the extension staffs to arrange trainings all over Maldives. But, with the help of ITC, information can be disseminated rapidly across the country. Importing more microbial products and introducing them to the existing pesticide traders can make these items available in the Maldives market.

114 Improve regulatory framework is to allow microbial pesticides to Maldives. Research capacity needs to be strengthened in the Maldives, which includes infrastructure, human resources, technology and funding. This is extremely important to research and develop microbial pesticides that can produce effective results in the Maldivian environment. Moreover, it is always important to carry out new research into microbial pesticides. This can be achieved by collaborating with universities, manufactures etc and funding needs to be obtained for such projects. Plantwise network can be introduced in Maldives so that extension staffs can easily access the updated data. It is important to become self-sufficient in producing microbial pesticides rather than importing them and make them available at economically reasonable rate for small scale farmers. Technical expertise are sought from other countries to develop own microbial products. To reduce the import of bio-pesticides, establishment of own production facility is important. This would be materialized in collaboration with SAARC countries who are technically sound.

References ENDEVOR – Maldives. 2014. NEHAP – Maldives 2015- 2020, Towards an Environmentally Friendly and Healthy Maldives. Ministry of Environment and Energy. 2016. State of the Environment. Male Ministry of Fisheries and Agriculture. 2016. Annual Report 2016. Male Shafia, D. A. 2005. Integrated control of coconut hispid beetle Brontispa longissima (Gestro) in the Maldives.

115 Chapter 7 Facilitating Microbial Pesticide Use in Nepal

Dinesh Babu Tiwari Plant Protection Directorate, Department of Agriculture Kathmandu, Nepal Email: [email protected]

Abstract Nepal is a country with a characteristic biodiversity. There is a greater scope for bio-pesticide promotion but currently it is nominally used. Farmers by their traditional practices are using botanical pesticides is an effective measures for pest control. However, the active ingredients analysis, registration and procedures of usage are not scientifically analyzed and adopted. Pesticide act 1991 is silent for bio-pesticide promotion. There is no any discrimination in the registration of pesticides in Nepal. Very minimum work is performed in bio-pesticides promotion, but potential microbial and botanical pesticides have been identified. Regional plant protection laboratories are mandated with one specific bio-pesticide development work. Community resource center for bio-pesticide promotion is a novel option adopted by the country. Different policies are adopted but they are scattered, many works have been initiated but they are interrupted. Interest is higher, but investment is not that level. Consolidation of the work and scientific back up with adequate investment can leap the bio-pesticide entrepreneurship development. Key words: Microbial pesticides, pesticide regulation, pesticide promotion

Introduction Nepal has diverse geography and climate. The Himalayan ranges and snowy mountains are better sources of water. It deserves the greater biodiversity. The sloppy land and mountain terraces are highly prone to soil erosion. The mid hills and southern plains are better places for agricultural production. The crops and vegetations of tropical to temperate climate are found in the country. About 118 types of ecosystems are estimated to be found. However, the available natural resources are not properly explored and utilized. Significant area of land is not under cultivation (Table 1). Available bio-resources are not adequately studied and conserved. If the available botanical and microbial resources are rightly explored and developed, that could be potential assets for the enhancement of the agriculture of the region.

116 Nepal is an agricultural country. The production and productivity of land and labor is comparatively lower (ADS, 2015). Crop pests are major threat in crop production. In Nepal, pre and post-harvest yield losses of crops is estimated about 20-35 percent by insect pests and diseases (Plant Protection Directorate, 2017). Majority of subsistence farmers either do not use any control measures or adopt traditional practices to manage the pests. In the commercial cultivation of crops, farmers mostly use chemical pesticides for the control of pests. Most of the pesticides are supplied through importation. Distribution of pesticides in Nepal is conducted only in the form of finished products. Average use of chemical pesticide in Nepal is 396 g ai per ha (Pesticide Registration and Management Division, 2016) which is lower than world average of 500 g ai per ha. However, several consequences of chemical pesticides are noticed. The concern of people over food safety is emerging that arouses the interest of people to go for in alternative to chemical method of pest control. Nepal has made institutional arrangement in pest management and pesticide transactions.

Table1: Cultivated land distribution in Nepal Physical Area in km2 % of % of cultivated region Total Cultivated cultivated area of the area of Nepal region Himalayan 51,313 1,436 4.0 2.8 Hills 61,816 9,337 26.0 15.0 Terai 33,851 25,138 76.5 17.0 Total 147,181 35,912 100.0 24.0

Institutional arrangement Institutional arrangement for plant protection services is set up (Figure1). Nepal has enacted Pesticide Act 1991 to make provisions on import, export, production, purchase, sale and use of pesticides. Nepal has designated Plant Protection Directorate (PPD) as National Plant Protection Organization (NPPO) of Nepal (Nepal Gazette Part 5, Section 63 and No 44). Pesticide Registration and Management Division (PRMD) under PPD has the major responsibility of pesticide registration. Integrated Pest Management (IPM) program has been adopted as major strategy in pest management since 1997. Agriculture Policy 2004, periodic plans and Agriculture Development Strategy 2015-2035 have given due importance to the IPM program in the field of plant protection where emphasis is given to the promotion of bio and botanical pesticides in place of chemical pesticides. Highly hazardous pesticides (Chlordane, D. D. T., Dialdrin, Endrin, Aldrin, Heptachlor, Mirex, Toxaphane, BHC,

117 Lindane, Phosphamidon, Mythyl Parathion, Organomurcury fungicide, Monocrotophos, Endosulfan) are banned. Government support for the establishment of bio and botanical pesticides entrepreneurs is provisioned. Different directives and guidelines for promotion of microbial and botanical pesticides are developed and given in the form of national policies (Table 2). IPM is implemented in Farmers' Field School (FFS) module since its introduction with FAO support in 1997. The National IPM Programme has graduated over 16,000 farmers. Among them, about 1,600 are trained as farmers’ facilitators. Plant Protection Directorate under its wings of Regional Plant Protection Laboratories at five different regions of the country and District Agriculture Development Offices under Department of Agriculture are providing the plant protection services to the farmers as depicted in the Figure 1. It includes pesticides management and microbial and botanical pesticides promotion activities. Technical back up for plant protection services are provided through Nepal Agricultural Research Council (NARC). Plant Protection Directorate has made an agreement with CABI South Asia in 2013 to support the plant protection activities in the country. CABI has facilitated to develop plant doctors to the NPPO. Regular plant clinics are run in different parts of the country and prescription are provided to the farmers in managing plant protection issues where safety measure is one of the considerations while recommending pesticides. The pest data are generated based on the plant clinic report. It is a better platform to make pest surveillance and find out natural enemies as well. However, pest natural enemy surveillance and preservation activities are not included in the CABI supported program.

Figure 1: Plant Protection Service flow system in Nepal

118 Table 2: National policies in pesticide management in Nepal S. No. Policies Remarks 1 Pesticide Act – 1991 2 Pesticide Regulation – 1994 3 Environment Protection Act – 1996 4 Environment Protection Regulation – 1997 5 National Agriculture Policy – 2004 6 Agriculture Biodiversity Policy – 2006 7 Plant Protection Act – 2007 8 Plant Protection Regulation – 2009 9 National Implementation Plan (NIP) 2007 10 NIP identified safe disposal of obsolete POPs pesticides and PCBs as the top priority of the country 11 Agriculture Development Strategy (2015-2035) 12 Bio and botanical pesticide promotion directives In the process 2017 of approval 13 Periodic Plans

Legal provision in pesticide management Pesticide Act 1991 and Pesticide Rules 1994 are major legal instruments in management of pesticide in Nepal. Pesticide Act 1991 has made provisions on the import, export, production, purchase, sale and use of the pesticides in Nepal. Section 9 of the Act explains about license to be obtained by having registration of pesticides. Nepal should have notified the registered pesticides (Section 10). There is prohibition of non- notified pesticides transaction. Licensing procedure is described. However, there is no any discrimination of pesticide registration process for chemical and microbial pesticides. It shows when pesticide act was enacted there was no facilitation for microbial pesticide development. Most pesticides used in Nepal are imported from India, some from China and Japan and other countries on the basis of registration. Pesticide Rules 1994 has clarified registration and transaction procedures and its requirements. In the recent years, the cry over food safety, environment protection is found to be increased. Policy framework is directed towards development of eco-friendly measures of pest management.

119 Chemical pesticides vs microbial pesticides The definitions of pesticides are found to be differently defined by countries and agencies. Cambridge Advanced Learner’s Dictionary defines pesticide as “a chemical substance used to kill harmful insects, small animals, wild plants and other unwanted organisms”. Pesticide Act 1991 of Nepal defines pesticides as "Pesticides means the pesticides to be used to destroy fatal pests in seeds, plants, trees, animals, birds etc". It has not given any definition to bio pesticide or microbial pesticide. The International Code of Conduct on the Distribution and Use of Pesticides defines pesticide as “Any substance or mixture of substances intended for preventing, destroying or controlling any pest, including vectors of human or animal disease, unwanted species of plants or animals causing harm during or otherwise interfering with the production, processing, storage, transport or marketing of food, agricultural commodities, wood and wood products or animal feedstuffs or substances which may be administered to animals for the control of insects, arachnids or other pests in or on their bodies.” The term includes substances intended for use as a plant growth regulator, defoliant, desiccant or agent for thinning fruit or preventing the premature fall of fruit and substances applied to crops either before or after harvest to protect the commodity from deterioration during storage and transport” (FAO, 2002). Pesticide means any substance, or mixture of substances of chemical or biological ingredients intended for repelling, destroying or controlling any pest or regulating plant growth (WTO, 2014). The Wikipedia defines bio-pesticide as a contraction of biological pesticides including several types of pest management intervention through predatory, parasitic or chemical relationships. The term has been associated historically with biological control, implication and the manipulation of living organisms. In the EU, bio-pesticides have been defined as "a form of pesticide based on micro-organisms or natural products”. The USA EPA states that they include “naturally occurring substances that control pests (biochemical pesticides), microorganisms that control (microbial pesticides) and pesticide substances produced by plants containing added genetic material. Bio-pesticides can be categorized into several groups such as 1) Microbial pesticides, 2) Botanical Pesticides, 3) Plant-Incorporated-Protectants (PIPs) and 4) Biochemical pesticides (IGR, Pheromones etc) Microbial pesticides consist of bacteria, entomopathogenic fungi or viruses (and sometimes include the metabolites of bacteria or fungi) Entomopathogenic nematodes are also often classed as microbial pesticides even though they are multi-cellular.

120 In the ground of these definitions, it can be concluded that things derived from the naturally occurring microbes or plants and plant products (animals, plants, bacteria and certain minerals) with pesticide value are microbial pesticide. Microorganisms like a bacterium, fungus, virus or protozoan are the active ingredients. They are pathogenic microorganisms which are toxic to a particular bacterium, insect or other pests. Microorganisms which can kill, inhibit or out compete pests including insects or other microorganisms are microbial pesticides. Microbial pesticides can control many different kinds of pests. They are found to be substantially used in ecofriendly pest management practices. These facts show the revision need of Pesticide Act 1991 to make it comprehensive.

Table 3: Volume and value of pesticides imported and formulated in Nepal in the year 2015/16 S. Value (NPR Pesticides Quantity (MT) No. million) 1 Insecticide 955.46 332.63 2 Fungicide 358.61 216.18 3 Bactericide 0.13 0.55 4 Herbicide 293.21 130.56 5 Rodenticide 24.48 12.66 6 Bio pesticide 8.42 2.23 Total 1,640.31 694.81 Source: Pesticide Registration and Management Division, 2016

Registered pesticides in Nepal Nepal is dependent on import for the pesticides supply. It imports pesticides from six different countries with local production in small quantities. 176 importers are registered. Further, 5 local formulators and 19 pesticide spray personals are also registered in Pesticide Registration and Management Division (PRMD, 2016). Insecticide is the major pesticide followed by fungicides import and used in Nepal. 2,275 trade names of pesticides are registered under 124 common names. The share of bio-pesticides in pest management is very nominal in the country (Table 3, 4 and 5) which is less than 1 percent in terms of quantity and price as well.

121 Table 4: Registered pesticides in Nepal S. No. Category of Pesticide Common name Trade name 1 Insecticide 51 1276 2 Acaricide 6 23 3 Fungicide 38 564 4 Bactericide 1 13 5 Herbicide 21 286 6 Rodenticide 2 29 7 Molluscicide 1 2 8 Biopesticide 11 78 9 Herbal 3 4 Total 124 2275 Source: Pesticide Registration and Management Division, 2016

Trend of bio-pesticides use in Nepal The negative impacts of synthetic pyrithroids and increasing pesticide resistance have increased the interest in alternative control methods with emphasis being placed on botanical pesticides and biological control (PPD, 1998). Microbial Pesticides promotion activities are initiated with the adoption of IPM programme as major plant protection strategy in the last decades of past century. Pathogenic microorganisms which are toxic to a particular bacterium, insect or other pests were registered, introduced and tested. These are mostly imported bio-pesticides. Likewise, botanical extracts/formulated products or crude materials derived from plant products are found effective against plant pests. Because of low mammalian toxicity and environmental hazards bio and botanical pesticides are getting popularity. The bio and botanical pesticides still play minor role in insect pest management and crop protection in Nepal. Microbial pesticides like Beauveria, Metarhizium and entomopathogenic nematodes are used in soil pests like white grub management. Bacteria based pesticides specially the Bacillus thuringensis (Bt) are used to manage lepidopteron pests. The popularity of Trichoderma is increased to manage the soil borne disease like rhizome rot of ginger. The efficacy of Trichoderma is reported as effective to manage aerial diseases like leaf blight in rice. NPV is the major virus-based bio-pesticide used to control Helicoverpa and few other lepidopteron pests in Nepal. No bio- pesticide use is found in weed control.

122 In Nepal, Bio-pesticides have been imported in quantifiable amounts since 2004. Up to now, Seventy eight microbial pesticides products of 11 microbial gents have been registered in pesticide management and registration division (Table 5). All the registered bio-pesticides are imported. Six companies are found to be involved in major importation of bio-pesticides viz. NBC enterprises, Pulchowk, Lalitpur; Crop Tech Nepal, Bansbari, Kathmandu; Ermita Trading Concern, Bhadrapur, Jhapa; Prerana Traders, Bhadrapur, Jhapa; Jay Kisan Seed Center, Kathmandu and Ranjan Interprizes Birgunj, Parsa. In the year 2015/16 about NPR 2.23 million was spent for bio-pesticide importation. However, a significant quantity of raw botanical products is applied in village area to manage crop. Such statistics are neither systematically recorded nor officially published as scientific documents. Farmers and even pesticide resellers prefer to deal with trade name of bio-pesticides. Bio-pesticide which are available in the Kathmandu market are Helimar, Baba, Goratan, Puma, PQshan, BT, Victovirus, HB 101, Rajamal, Plant guard, Borer Guard, Biozyme, Superzime, EM, Sanjivani, Bio Fungi, Keeper, Leaf Keeper, Agriguard and Trichoderma. People think they do not harm to human health, soil and water and environment (Sabitri and Das, 2010).

Table 5: Registered bio-pesticides in Nepal S. No. Common name / Bio-pesticide No of products 1 Azadirachtin 24 2 Bacillus subtilis 1 3 Bacillus thuringiensis 2 4 Beauveria bassiana 10 5 Metarihizium anisopliae 7 6 Nuclear polyhedrosis virus 3 7 Paecilomyces lilacinus 1 8 Pseudomonas fluroscens 11 9 Trichoderma harzianum 2 10 Trichoderma viride 12 11 Verticillium lecanii 5 Total 78 Source: PRMD, 2016

Bio- pesticide registration procedure There is no any discrimination in registration process of chemical pesticides and bio-pesticides in Nepal. Registration is required for each

123 formulation and even brand of a single technical compound. The pesticides are registered in the name of Trade Product for 5 years with or without provision / condition. Therefore, in order to ensure quality assurance of pesticides to the users (farmers), the Pesticide Registration and Management Division (PRMD) keep following documents mandatory for the registration of pesticides.  Evidence(s) of foreign registration certificate  Three copies of original label of pesticide(s) to be registered.  Authorized dealership  Efficacy data (foreign and local trial)  Residue analysis  Eco-toxicological data  Summary of intended use pattern and need in Nepal  Label and leaflets in Nepali language (Domestic producer and formulator only)  Leaflets in Nepali language (importer only)

Indigenous technology, knowledge and consideration on microbial pesticides Farmers’ indigenous knowledge and traditional practices make valuable contributions to domestic food production in Nepal. Field studies in different IPM farmers suggest that extracts of locally available plants are effective as crop protectants in vegetables. Tomato root-knot nematode treatment with bio-gas slurry, mustard cake, Solanum sisymbriifolium (wild eggplant) was found effective (Baidhya et al., 2009). The most widely used microbial pesticides are subspecies and strains of Bacillus thuringiensis. The field study revealed that farmers used botanical pesticides; Azadirachtin (Neem), Justica adhatoda (Ashuro), Eupatorium adenophoram (Banmara), Acorus calamus (Bhojo), Artemisia sp (Tite pati), Xanthoxylum armatum (Timur) and Melia azedarach (Bakaino) and biological control using NPV, Bt. (Sabitri and Das, 2010). Farmers in the field school used locally available bitter, pungent, stringent, fowl smelling botanicals as a trial either in fresh chopped or fermented liquid in pest management. Certain bioactive substances are supposed to be emitted in particular locality and plants as explained by experienced farmers. In the field school, they share such experiences, test in the trial plots and evaluate the results. The botanicals Azadirachtin, Acorus, Xanthoxylum are found highly effective against store grain

124 pests. Likewise, the fermented liquids of botanical extracts are reported as effective as synthetic pyrethroids in controlling soft bodied pests (PPD, 1998). Nepal's biodiversity and climatic differences favors the natural habitat for many microbes in the agro-ecosystem. Farmers are utilizing them knowingly or unknowingly in their daily practices. However, its validation and documentation are needed for sustainable development. Few local isolates of microbial pesticides are detected and found effective against crop pests in Nepal. Research stations, Regional Plant Protection Laboratories, private companies like Agricare Nepal and community resource centers have been able to find and test such properties in certain instances. In July 2014, a bio-pesticide workshop organized in Chitwan district, Central Nepal identified two isolates, Beauveria bassiana and Metarhizium anisopliae from soil. Likewise, entomopathogenic fungi (Beauveria bassiana) and pathogenic nematodes (Steinernema spp) have been detected and isolated from body of infected soil inhabitant white grubs (Bahadur, 2009). Farmers’ practices of spraying the paste of diseased Helicoverpa in the infested field is a good example of pest control practice in Mid-Western Nepal (Regional Plant Protection Laboratory, 2012). However, identification, isolation, purification and maintenance of pure culture have not been properly organized in the county. Likewise drying, harvesting, storage and formulation of pure fungal spores has not been adequately continued which is the most for mass production of fungal bioagents and their commercialization.

Initiatives towards bio-pesticide promotion Production of different bio-pesticides is one of the mandates of Regional Plant Protection Laboratories (RPPL) of Nepal. These laboratories are to produce different prioritized bio-pesticides as mentioned below. 1. Eastern RPPL, Biratnagar is to produce botanical pesticides 2. Central RPPL, Hariharbhawan is to produce Entomopathogenic nematodes, Metarhizium anisopliae 3. Western RPPL, Pokhara is to produce parasitic wasp Trichogramma chilonis 4. Mid-Western RPPL, Khajura is to produce NPV 5. Far Western RPPL, Sundarpur is to produce Trichoderma spp

Community level resource centers The importance of locally available bio-pesticide is highly emphasized in promotion of bio-pesticides in Nepal. Therefore, five community

125 resource centers (CRC) were established under a project from 2008-2013 in order to support to National IPM program. The mandate of these community centers is diverse. Later few more demand for community resource centers from different sector has risen. Plant Protection Directorate has facilitated to establish two more community resource centers in 2017. However, their technical backup, quality monitoring and outside support is felt necessary for better establishment. PPD effort is directed towards directive development and technical backstopping for their performance.

Community Resource Centers and their priority product 1. CRC, Kavre – Producing entompathogenic nematodes and Trichoderma viride 2. CRC, Chitwan – Producing Trichoderma 3. CRC, Kapilbastu – Producing Trichoderma and botanical liquid 4. CRC, Nepalgunj – Producing NPV and Trichoderma 5. CRC, Kailali – Producing Trichoderma 6. CRC, Jhapa – Producing Trichoderma 7. CRC, Tanahun – Producing Trichoderma Work on entomopathogenic nematode identification and production Few species of entomopathogenic nematodes were identified in Nepal. They are successfully grown in RPPL, Hariharbhawan and being used by farmers. They can be cultured in small scale in Galleria mellonella, Bombyx mori, Corcera and other easily available lepidopteron larva. It can be used alone or in combination with other biological chemicals. Farmers associated with Community Resource Center, Kavre are producing Steinernema lamjungense in white grubs. They used the products against white grubs within the community and satisfied with their effectiveness and persistence in the field.

Entomopathogenic nematodes isolated in Nepal  Heterorhabditis indica  Steinernema siamkayai  S. feltiae  S. abbasi  S. cholashanense  S. lamjungense  S. everestense  S. surkhetense  S. nepalense

126 Table 6: Some experiences on different microbial pesticides

Group of microbial Experiences and remarks pesticide Fungus - Obligate as well as facultative pathogens - Major strains: Metarhizium anisopliae, Beauveria brongniartii - Potential candidates against insects in cryptic habitats ( eg white grubs) - Trichoderma spp is effective against many diseases including rhizome rot of ginger Viruses - Suitable mainly for aerial feeding insects - Difficult to apply insects in cryptic habitats which limits application against white grubs - No works initiated in Nepal targeting soil insects - Commercial formulations of NPV and local strains are effective against Helicoverpa and similar caterpillar insects - Work on going in RPPL, Nepalgunj Nematodes - Effective against insects like white grabs and other soil insects in cryptic habitats - Steinernematids and Heterorhabditis are most predominant species reported in Nepal and lab works underway - Potentiality of applying against white grubs in potato field - Work is going on community resource center, Kavre

Opportunities for bio-pesticides promotion in Nepal  Biocontrol is commonly known and traditional technique of Nepali farmers  There is an increased shift of paradigm from chemical-based pesticides to safety based in pest management measures  There are more than 300 species of plants in Nepal with pesticide property  Availability of diverse indigenous bio-agents  Government policy for environmental protection  Government has declared IPM as major plant protection strategy

127  Increasing public awareness towards the negative impacts of chemical pesticide  Opportunity for bio-pesticide industry

Establishment of infrastructure for monitoring standards and quality parameter of microbial pesticides Pesticide Act 1991 is the major basis for registration and monitoring of pesticides in Nepal. Section 18 of Pesticide Rules 1994 has made responsible for Pesticide Inspector to monitor the quality of pesticide and activities of pesticide resellers. In each administrative district, pesticide inspectors are designated. Plant Protection Directorate, Pesticide Registration and Management Division and District Agriculture Development Offices (Figure 1) are the developed infrastructure to monitor the pesticide. The Act has not made any special provision for monitoring microbial pesticides. Simple CFU counting, sporulation and growth parameters are observed in Regional Plant Protection Labs established in five regions. Some back up support is perhaps sought from Nepal Agricultural Research Council (NARC). However, an equipped laboratory and trained manpower are needed to maintain and monitor the quality parameter of microbial pesticides.

Adoption of FAO/OECD guided fast track registration system to harmonization registration across the SAARC countries As explained earlier, no other standards are followed as fast track registration of microbial pesticides. In the proposed revision draft of Pesticide Act 1991, a few points such as fast track registration process is attempted to incorporate. However, better review and experience sharing is needed.

Current status of human resources capacity for research, development and expectation to promote the utilization of microbial pesticides and capacity development gaps There are about 100 plant protection technicians in officer level who are involved in those activities. However, they are with general plant protection background. In specific problems, their knowledge may not be adequate. Therefore, lab operation skills need to be enhanced.

Challenges, constraints and opportunities in microbial pesticide commercialization and use Constraints Irrespective of opportunities, people expectation and government policy support, bio-pesticides entrepreneurship has not been appropriately

128 flourished in Nepal. Inadequate technical knowledge and lab facilities are the major constraint in developing microbial pesticides. Poor investment and inconsistent progress in project activities is another hindrance in commercialization of bio-pesticides. It is very difficult to submit efficacy data, residue analysis and eco-toxicological data presentation in registration of locally isolated and selected bio-pesticides in Nepal. Pesticide Act 1991 has not given consideration in promoting bio- pesticides in Nepal. Microbial pesticides registration process has another difficulty in entrepreneurship development in Nepal. People interest on knock down result could not be achieved in bio-pesticide application. The difficulties can be listed as:  Lack of farmers’ awareness  Unavailability of microbial pesticides in required quantities  Less efficacy and effective against limited number of pests (narrow spectrum)  Shelf life is often shorter. High vulnerable to quality loss in improper storage, transportation and use  Not compatible with majority of chemical pesticides  Lack of clear and soft registration procedures  Policy scattered rather consolidated  Minimum research and study in relation to bio-pesticides  Ineffective control and monitoring mechanism.  Inefficient transfer of technology and poor information dissemination  Trans-boundary issues (smuggled pesticides) due to the long, open and porous border with India  Dealers/retailers of chemical pesticides take up intensive and aggressive marketing strategies  Often variable efficacy due to the influences of various biotic and abiotic factors (since some bio-pesticides are living organisms which bring about pest/pathogen control by multiplying within or nearby the target pest/pathogen)  Farmers interest towards quick result and knock down effect  Lack of government laboratory facilities for pesticide quality/residue analysis and toxicological analysis.  Unpredictable efficacy

129 Opportunities  They are biodegradable, no harmful residues produced  Cheaper than chemical pesticides when locally produced  Availability of more than 300 species of plants with pesticide property  More effective than synthetic pesticides in the long-term  Long lasting effect if properly established  Supportive in maintaining food safety  Availability of diverse indigenous bio-agents  Government policy for environment protection

Suggestions The scope of microbial pesticides could not be under estimated. However, identification, isolation, purification and maintenance of pure culture have not been properly organized in the county. Likewise drying, harvesting, storage and formulation of pure fungal spores has not been adequately continued for mass production of fungal bioagents and their commercialization. In the bio-pesticide solutions, it needs better knowledge not only the producers and the users but ultimately to the mass consumers. At this stage public awareness at mass level is felt necessary to the different stakeholders. Comprehensive and collective effort is needed. In short they can be pointed out as:  Consolidation of the work  Continuation in previous good initiation  Research support  Awareness to the farmers and bio-pesticide campaign  Simplification in microbial pesticides registration process  Subsidized credit and insurance facility to bio-pesticide traders and users  Training to the resellers  Subsidy and tax exemption to the bio-pesticide import and sell  Promotion of organic farming  Readily available in all time

130 References ADS. 2015. Agriculture Development Strategy (ADS) - 2015 to 2035, Government of Nepal, Ministry of Agricultural Development, Singhdurbar, Kathmandu Bahadur, K.C.H. 2009. Potential use of Entomopathogenic nematodes (EPN) to pest control in Nepal. Paper Presented in the National workshop organized by Plant Protection Society Nepal, June 2009, Harihar Bhawan Baidhya, S., Timila, R.D., Manandhar, H.K., Manandhar, C. and Timalsina, C.K. 2009. Efficacy testing of different practices against root-knot nematodes (Meloidogyne spp) on tomato grown in plastic tunnel. Paper Presented in the National workshop organized by Plant Protection Society Nepal, June 2009, Harihar Bhawan FAO. 2002. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations - International Code of Conduct on the Distribution and Use of Pesticides, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biopesticide International Standardards for Phytosanitary Measures No 5. Glossary of phytosanitary terms (2012) Nepal Gazette Part 5, Section 63, No 44 Pesticide Registration and Management Section (PRMD). (2016). Pesticide Consumption Statistics in Nepal. Hahiharbhawan Lalitpur www.PRMD.gov.np Plant Protection Directorate (PPD). 2017. Annual book Plant Protection Directorate (PPD). 1998. Annual book Sabitri, B. and Das, R.R. 2010. Survey Report on Bio-pesticides in Kathmandu Valley. Paper presented in National workshop organized by Pesticide Registration and Management Division. Harihar Bhawan WTO. 2014. The International Code of Conduct on Pesticide Management. Regulatory and technical requirements – Article 6

131 Chapter 8 Current Status of Microbial Pesticide Use in Sri Lanka

U.S.K. Abeysinghe Office of the Registrar of Pesticides, No. 1056, Gatambe Peradeniya - 20400, Sri Lanka Email: [email protected]

Abstract A considerable part of the agricultural products are destroyed in Sri Lanka by various pests such as insects, weeds, fungi, nematodes, viruses and bacteria. Application of chemical pesticides has improved agricultural productivity but they have also caused adverse effects on the environment and human health. Bio pesticides are distinguished from synthetic pesticides by their unique features, safety, limited host range or target specificity, absence of toxic residues on crops etc. Due to the increasing trend of occurrence of non-communicable diseases such as cancer, kidney failures which are suspected to be correlated with indiscriminate use of chemical pesticides and fertilizers in agriculture, the public demand for safer food is increasing. Further, safer products are needed to produce agricultural commodities for the export markets. Under these circumstances, the government of Sri Lanka has launched three year national program commonly known as Wasa Visa Nethi Ratak (a country free of poisonous substances) to eliminate the use of synthetic pesticides and synthetic fertilizers in agriculture. Thus, necessity of environmentally friendly pest management techniques is well recognized in Sri Lanka. There is a huge scope for development of novel, cost effective and environmentally friendly bio pesticides as a better alternative to chemical pesticides. Microbial pest control research towards screening, formulation and testing them under green houses as well as in field conditions are being conducted. However, very limited bio control agents are found successful under field conditions. In Sri Lanka, pesticides are regulated by the Control of Pesticides Act No. 33 of 1980. The Registrar of Pesticides is the national authority for implementing the laws and regulations under the Act. As the current pesticides regulation does not provide provisions for the registration of bio pesticides, guidelines for bio-pesticide registration are prepared. There are various challengers to popularize of bio-pesticides in the Sri Lankan market. These challenges need to be addressed collectively private sector, academia, state and central government agencies, public and private researchers and funding agencies, marketing professionals etc. Further, multi-sectoral involvement is required for facilitating the use of microbial pesticides in Sri Lanka and commercialization of the effective products.

132 Key words: Microbial pesticides, pesticides control act, registration guideline

Introduction Intensive agriculture in Sri Lanka is highly based on the usage of agricultural inputs such as synthetic fertilizers and pesticides. Both domestic and plantations depends on imported fertilizers and pesticides. The biggest portion of the production cost on agricultural plantation crops goes to fertilizer and pesticide. Since these agro-inputs are imported, the fluctuating US dollar exchange value will burden both the sectors and increase production cost. An injudicious usage of these two inputs in agricultural sectors has created many environment and health issues such as development of resistance. Use of certain microorganisms to provide protection against pest or crops would be a possible solution to avoid this type of crisis. These beneficial microorganism-based products are known as bio-fertilizers and bio-pesticides (Keswani et al., 2013; Bisen et al., 2015; Mishra et al., 2015) According to the (US-EPA) classification, the term bio pesticides are types of pesticides derived from animals, plants, bacteria, fungi, virus and certain minerals. Three prominent categories of bio pesticides have been identified. 1. Living organisms: include invertebrates, natural enemies (parasitoids, predatory insects, nematodes and microorganisms) 2. Naturally occurring substances: include plants extracts which pose adverse effects on pests (analogues of insect hormones, toxicant, anti-feedents, repellents and semiochemicals) 3. Plant-Incorporated Protectants (PIP): genetically modified plants that express introduced genes can confer protection against pests or diseases Bio-pesticides are distinguished from synthetic pesticides by their unique features, safety, limited host range or target specificity, absence of toxic residues on fruit and vegetables (easily degradable in nature), environment friendly and easily applicable through conventional spray equipment. Bio-pesticides offer diverse modes of actions. Hence, resistance development in pest is slower. Therefore, there is immense scope in identifying, developing and use of bio pesticides as alternative pest management strategies. The importance of bio-pesticides and the necessity for research and development of novel, cost effective, environmentally friendly pesticides are well recognized in Sri Lanka. The major constraints of bio pesticides development are poor awareness of decision makers about opportunities and comparative advantages of bio-pesticides, lack of multi-disciplinary expertise in the crucial later stages of development and quality control. In addition, there is a

133 difficulty in conducting toxicological tests and long testing period before registration, logistic difficulties in registration hampers and delay the commercialization process. The high cost of production and lack of awareness among farmers exert limitations to popularize the industry in Sri Lanka.

Agriculture in Sri Lanka: current status in pesticide usage The economy of Sri Lanka is mainly agriculture based. It has two sectors namely domestic and plantation sector. The domestic agriculture sector which forms the dominant part of agriculture and both sectors jointly contribute 4.2 percent to Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and 27.1 percent to employment (Anonymous, 2016). Population density of Sri Lanka is about 334 persons per km2. Out of total land area of 6.5 million ha, only about 5.5 million ha are arable. Thus, it is vital that the production efficiency in agriculture sector should be improved both in production and post-harvest aspects. The plantation sector approach is more organized whereas the domestic sector is more complicated due to large number of farmers, crops and the pests.

Trends in pesticide use and trade In Sri Lanka, the pest control is mostly dependent on the use of synthetic pesticides. Pesticides are imported to the country as ready-to-use products in retail packs, bulk formulations and technical materials for local formulations. In 2016, the CIF value of the country's pesticide requirement was US$ 27 million and of this US$ 0.13 million was spent for the import of technical material for local formulation and US$ 26.99 million was for direct import of formulated products (Table 1).

Table 1: Foreign exchange spent for import of pesticides in 2016 Item Volume in MT Value in US$ ('000) Technical grade material for local formulation Insecticides 3.08 7.60 Weedicides 107.00 6.06 Fungicides 0.00 0.00 Formulated pesticides Insecticides 1,151.30 8,601.00 Weedicides 2,088.15 13,614.00 Fungicides 903.90 4,778.00 Total 4,259.43 27,006.66 Source: Pesticide Statistics for the Year 2016, Office of the Registrar of Pesticides, Sri Lanka

134 At present, over 462 brands agro pesticide products are registered (approximately 49 insecticide active ingredients, 46 fungicide active ingredients and 32 weedicide active ingredients) which are marketed and/or handled by more than 49 private sector organizations in Sri Lanka.

Current status and trends in use of microbial pesticides against pest management Many studies have been devoted in Sri Lanka to identify the microorganism and botanicals with anti-microbial activities during past two decades. It is important to develop indigenous biocontrol products as restrictions and many quarantine procedures are to be followed for importation of exotic bio-control agents from most of the countries. On the other hand, Bio control agents (BCA) are very specific in action and many factors are influence in their mode of actions. Therefore, BCA developed for a plant pathogen interaction in a country may not be suitable or ineffective in another country. Currently, most research work and experiences on bio-control agents are confined to either laboratory or mini plots. Large scale field testing under different agro-ecological zones, mass production, formulations, product quality check and storage of bio pesticides must be initiated and research leading for these aspects should be given more priorities. Botanicals are the most popular and exploited category of bio pesticides in Sri Lanka when compared to the use of microbial pesticides which is very limited. In case of botanicals, Sri Lanka has a rich traditional knowledge as it has been using for many years for pest control.

Bacteria Though a number of bacteria have been reported as entomophathogenic, Bacillus thuringiensis is the only bacterial entomopathogen which has been registered as a microbial pesticide in Sri Lanka since 1990. However, their potential has not been fully exploited by farmers due to high cost and rapid breakdown of these bacteria under adverse local conditions. At present, commercial formulations of Bacillus thuringiensis are not available and not registered for the use in agriculture sector. But, a few formulations are registered as larvicides to control mosquitoes. These formulations are not marketed at retail level and exclusively used by the Ministry of Health in Sri Lanka.

135 Table 2: Registered Bacillus thuringiensis formulations in Sri Lanka Common Name Trade Name Registrant Intended Use Bacillus thuringiensis Mosquito Kayak Surgi As a mosquito subsp. israelensis Dunks® Pharma Pvt Ltd larvicide serotype H-14 Bacillus thuringiensis BactoBti® Bio Power Lanka As a mosquito subsp. israelensis Pvt Ltd larvicide serotype H-14 Bacillus thuringiensis Bactivec® Omex Health As a mosquito subsp. israelensis Care larvicide serotype H-14 Pvt5 Ltd

Fungi Mortality of insects can be due to fungal attack in nature. But, they have not yet utilized as a microbial pesticide in commercial level (Rajapaksha et al., 2016). Recently, the Tea Research Institute of Sri Lanka showed promising results of locally isolated Beauveria bassiana under laboratory conditions against shot hole borer in tea (Pavithrani et al., 2009). Metarhizium anisopliae has a potential to use for the management of coconut black beetle, Oryctes rhinoceros (Fernando et al., 1995). The Coconut Research Institute (CRI) of Sri Lanka has recommended Metarhizium anisopliae to manage same beetle in local conditions. Metarhizium anisopliae and entomopathogenic nematodes (Steinemema spp and Heterorhabditidae spp) were tested against kalotermitidae termites of tea by Tea Research Institute of Sri Lanka. A fungus Trichoderma viride normally colonises near the rhizosphere and parasitize on pathogenic fungi such as Phythium, Rhizoctonia, and Fusarium. Commercial formulations of T. viride provided control over root rot and wilt diseases of many crops. This is available in the locally as “Bio Vaccine” a product containing T. Viride manufactured by Bio Power Lanka Pvt Ltd. It has been submitted as a proposal to Registrar of Pesticides for the registration.

Insect viruses Insect viruses have long been considered as advantageous agents for management of insect pests of agriculturally important crops. Among them, baculoviruses play a vital role in pest management in the world. The CRI, Sri Lanka has been successful in using baculoviruses against the coconut black beetle (Oryctes rhinoceros). Thus, it is recommended against coconut black beetle in Sri Lanka.

136 Bio-pesticides and plant diseases in Sri Lanka There are several bio pesticides tested in different laboratories in Sri Lanka against a number of important soil borne pathogens, foliar pathogens and post-harvest diseases in different crops. Trichoderma, Bacillus and Pseudomonas spp have been found effective against Rhizoctonia, Sclerotium and Fusarium spp on rice and chili. Soe and Costa (2012) reported that Bacillus megaterium and Bacillus subtilis and Aspergillus niger isolated from the rice sheath were antagonistic to Rhizoctinia solani, the causal agent of sheath blight disease of rice. The talc-based formulations of these antagonists were effective as bio pesticides on sheath blight pathogen. Abeysinghe (2009a) showed the efficacy of Bacillus subtilis against Sclerotium rolfsii on chili. Further, Psedomonas spp introduced to root system of bean was able to induce systemic resistance against Uromyces appendiculatus causing bean rust (Abeysinghe, 2009b). Trichoderma hazianum has also been identified as a bio control agent against bean rust through the mode of action of Induced Systemic Resistance (ISR) (Abeysinghe, 2009c). With regards to post harvest diseases, Wijesinghe et al. (2011) has shown that Trichoderma asperellium was effective against black rot pathogen Thielaviopsis paradoxa on pine apple. Jayasooriya and Tennakoon (2007) reported that Rigidoporus microporus an important soil borne fungal pathogen of rubber could be control by Trichoderma spp. Sivakkumar et al. (2000) reported that Trichorderma hazianum was effective for controlling Botryodiploida, colletotrcum and Gliocephalotricum on Nephelium lappaceum. Adkaram et al. (2002) reported that Aureobasidium pullulansis effective against Botrytis cinera of straw berry fruits and ISR has been identified as the mode of action. Gunasinghe and Karunaratne (2009) reported that Flavobacterium spp and Pontoea agglomerans have been identified for controlling Colletotrichum musae and Lasiodiplodia theobromae, the post-harvest pathogens of banana. As mentioned above, research on screening, formulation and bioefficacy testing both in green houses and in fields of biological control is being conducted. However, a very limited number of bio control agents are found to be successful under field conditions. A better formulation is the key to the commercial success of bio control agents. It is known many physical and biological parameters could influence the efficacy of the product. Economic viability of any biocontrol agent mainly depends on the bioefficacy, effectiveness of mass-culturing, considerable shelf life and consistent performance of the formulation in the field. Research on safety and environment fate of biocontrol agents is lacking at present. Therefore, regulatory criteria that are essential for safety have to be worked out. Additional funding is needed for bio control research in

137 order to progress this sector in Sri Lanka. Further, importance of private- public partnerships and their close collaboration with academia should be highlighted.

Institutional arrangements and legal framework for research, production, registration, use, import, export commercialization of microbial pesticides in Sri Lanka In Sri Lanka pesticides are regulated by the Control of Pesticides Act No. 33 of 1980. It makes provisions to regulate the import, formulation, packing, labeling, storage, transport, sale and use of pesticides. Thus, it is evident that the law applies to all pesticides in spite of products are used for agriculture, public health and veterinary or the industry. The Registrar of Pesticides is the national authority for implementing the laws and regulations under the Control of Pesticides Act No. 33 of 1980. As the current pesticides regulation does not provide provisions for the registration of bio pesticides, initiatives have been taken for necessary amendments. Further, a Special Technical Advisory Committee has been appointed in 2015 to prepare the guidelines for bio pesticide registration in Sri Lanka. Presently guidelines are prepared for registration of locally produced botanical products, entomopathogenic fungi, entomopathogenic bacteria, antagonistic fungi, antagonistic bacteria and baculoviruses. In the guidelines, general description, biological characteristics, chemistry, bio-efficacy, toxicity, packaging and labeling are taken into account. In the registration process, manufacturers have to submit a brief proposal to the Agro-Pesticides Sub Committee which comprised of 18 eminent scientists from all disciplines concerned. The Sub Committee evaluates proposals systematically in order to grant approval for conducting bio- efficacy trials at national crop research institutes under the supervision of subject discipline coordinators. As per the protocol, bio-efficacy trials comprising of laboratory bio-assays, green house trials and field trials at research station and two seasonal multi-location pilot scale trials at farmer field have to be completed. Considering the practical difficulties faced by the local bio pesticides manufacturers, committee can grant a provisional registration for locally manufactured bio pesticides (native strains of microbes) with commonly used active ingredients/ technical material for maximum of three years if the products have been proven to be effective after testing by the relevant institute. This provision is granted only for products manufactured locally where the production process is accessible to Registrar of Pesticides for inspection and monitoring. However, the manufacturer should be able to submit the full dossier fulfilling the data requirement specified in the proposed guideline to obtain the full registration. A several exemptions and waivers have

138 been recommended by the committee to liberalize the registration barriers faced by local manufactures. It includes the acceptance of published data where appropriate, waivers for registration dossiers where adequate data are already available and adoption of fast registration system for registration of highly effective bio-pesticides.

Establishment of infrastructure for monitoring standards and quality parameters of microbial pesticides Quality control is important in production of microbial pesticides. Quality control checks are undertaken at several points during the production process from initial stock to the final product to ensure conformity with product specifications (Chery et al., 1999). Several key factors were identified to prevent contamination risk during the production process: integrity of the mother culture, water quality, steam generation, sterilization, air quality, cleanliness of the working area, handling of material, equipment and personnel hygiene. The control of these factors is essential for standardized production. The manufacturers have to pay more attention on maintaining the quality of their products to end up with a better commercial product. Samples should be drawn from the market from time to time to confirm whether the specifications of the product are met during the self life. No infrastructure facilities are much improved to assure the quality of product though product specifications are highlighted in the guidelines.

Adoption of FAO / OECD guided fast tract registration system to harmonization of registration across the SAARC Countries The required information for the pesticide registration includes the source references (Addresses and contact details of manufacturer, formulator and supplier), chemical physical properties of technical grade and formulation, toxicological data, data on environment behavior and information of registration elsewhere. The Table 3 summarizes the detailed requirements for different categories of bio pesticide registration.

Table 3: Data requirements for registration of entomopahogenic fungi No Categories Requirement A General Systemic name, Common name, Source of origin, requirements Natural occurrence of the organism and morphological description, Composition of the product, CFU/g of the product, % content of the biocontrol organism in the formulation and nature of biomass, % carrier/filler, wetting/dispending agent, stabilizers/emulsifiers, contaminates/impurities etc, Moisture content,

139 No Categories Requirement Manufacturing process, pathogenicity test on insect, Bio assay procedure Qualitative analysis – CFU on selective medium, Contaminants, Shelf life claims B Bio efficacy Field tests on bio-effectiveness, Data on non target organisms C Toxicity For mother culture: single dose (oral, pulmonary, dermal, intra-peritoneal), Human safety records Formulation: Data on mother culture, Single dose (oral, pulmonary), Primary (skin irritation, eye irritation), Human safety records Formulated product to be directly manufactured: single dose (oral, pulmonary, dermal, intra- peritoneal), primary (skin irritation, eye irritation0, Human safety records, Environmental safety records, detrimental effects on non target vertebrates and non target invertebrates D Packaging and Manufacturing process: Raw material, Plant and labeling Machinery, Unit process operation/Unit process, Out- put (Finished product and generation of waste) Packaging: Classification, Unit Pack size, Specification, Compatibility of primary pack with the product, Labels and leaflets Data requirement for registration of antagonistic fungi and antagonistic bacteria is almost similar to the data required for registration of entomopathogenic fungi except in test method. Table 4: Data requirement for registration of entomopathogenic bacteria as microbial pesticides No Categories Requirement A General Common name, Systemic name, Insecticidal toxins requirements classification, Physical specification, Form and appearance, Moisture content, pH, Particle size, Suspensibility, Miscibility, Detailed composition, Endotoxin content, Adjuvants, Human pathogens, Other microorganisms, Presence or absent of chemical and botanical pesticide contaminants, Natural Occurrence of the organism, Identification: Morphology, Biochemistry, Serology or molecular method, Potency of product, Shelf life/stability, Sample for test (100g) B Bio efficacy Laboratory test: LC50/LD50 values for each insect species Field test: Data on bio-effectiveness and plant pathogenicity, Data on non-target organisms

140 No Categories Requirement C Toxicity Single exposure studies (Oral, Dermal, Inhalation) toxicity, Skin and eye irritation, Allergy/Sensitization/Immuno suppression, Eco toxicity D Packaging and Manner of packing and labeling, Specifications for labeling (primary, secondary and transport), Container content compatibility, Labels and leaflets Table 5: Data requirement for nuclear polyhedrosis virus (NPV) and granulosis virus (GV) as bio-pesticides No Categories Requirement A General Identification of virus, Systematic name, Strain requirements name, Common name, Source of origin, Specification of the product, Composition of the product, Viral unit: POB / Capsule count per ml/g of the product, Percent content of the bio-control organism in the formulation and nature of biomass, Percent of carrier/filler, Wetting/dispersing agent, Stabilizers/Emulsifiers, Contaminants/impurities etc. Moisture content, Manufacturing process, Test procedure and criteria used for identification by DNA test(Restriction enzymes analysis test), Method of Analysis-viral unit NPVs 1× 109 POB/Ml or g. minimum GVs: 5×109 capsules/ minimum, Biological assay to determine the LC 50/ LD50 of the formulation. Contaminants: Pathogenic contaminants, Other microbial contaminants, Chemical and botanical pesticide contaminants, Shelf life claim, Data on storage stability, Sample for verification B Bio-efficacy Field studies, Laboratory studies- Data on LC 50 values for each target insect species C Toxicity For mother culture: Single dose (Oral, Pulmonary, Intravenous), Cell culture, Human safety records, For formulation: Data on mother culture, Single dose (Oral, pulmonary), Primary( Skin irritation, Eye irritation), Human safety records, Formulated product to be directly manufactured: single dose (oral, pulmonary, dermal, intravenous) primary (skin irritation, eye irritation, Cell culture Human safety records, Environmental safety records; Non target vertebrates, Non target invertebrates D Processing, Similar to the requirements of Entomopathogenic packaging and Fungi labeling

141 New research in field of microbial pesticide improvement and development and evidences of multi-Stakeholder collaborative approaches for its development Horticultural Crop Research and Development Institute of Sri Lanka have carried out several trials to evaluate effectiveness of Trichoderma spp against selected fungal pathogens and production of Trichoderma inoculum suitable for organic farming under ANSOFT project for promoting traditional sustainable organic agriculture in Asia. In-vitro studies were conducted to test the bio efficacy of Trichoderma against plant pathogens including Colletotrichum gloeosporioides, Fusarium oxysporum fsp cubense, Aspergillus flavus, Penicillium spp, Alternaria porri, Alternaia spp and Rhizoctonia solani. Both Trichoderma viride and Trichoderma hazianum were found effective against all plant pathogens tested. However, Trichoderma haziznum showed comparatively more antagonistic activity than Trichodema viride isolates. Trichoderma hazianum tested against nursery diseases of tomato and onion showed promising results on management of damping off caused by Fusarium spp Phythium spp and Rhizoctonia solani. Further, corm rot of Collocasia (locally known as Kiriala) caused by Rhizoctonia solani was successfully managed by the application of Trichoderma spp under field conditions. The results were also validated in farmer fields. Attempts were made to develop suitable formulations of promising native isolates of Trichoderma spp. Saw dust substrate was found suitable for the mass multiplication of antagonistic fungal pathogens compared to compost, rice straw and cow dung. Trichoderma spp grown on saw dust substrate in polypropylene bags (300 gauge) were distributed among famers as initial inoculum which needs to be further multiplied on compost. Then compost amended with Trichoderma is subsequently ameliorated in to main fields. The talc based formulations of Trichoderma spp were developed. The shelf life and survival of Trichoderma on talc was periodically evaluated for 12 months. The results showed that Trichoderma spp could survive even up to 12 month of storage in air tight triple layer aluminum bags. Talc based Trichoderma inoculum was manufactured in small scale under laboratory conditions. The packets containing 100 g were exhibited as commercial formulations.

Indigenous technology, knowledge and consideration as microbial pesticides Botanicals are the most popular type of bio-pesticides in Sri Lanka. Sri Lankan famers have sound knowledge about the indigenous practices of utilization of plant products for pest management. Many plant species

142 with pest control properties were identified and used at village level in small scale. Neem based products are highly utilized for pest management. However, no information or historical evidences is available on use of microbes as bio-pesticides.

Current status on human resource capacity for research, development and extension to promote the utilization of microbial pesticides and capacity development gaps In most of cases, bio pesticide research is mainly undertaken by the government institutes including Department of Agriculture, Plantation Crop Research Institutions and universities. Except main institutions, other satellite centers and stations do not possess the required infrastructure for carrying out of basic research on microbial pesticides. Further, lack of expertise and trained professionals on microbiology and allied disciplines for R&D is also a major hindrance for development of microbial pesticides. There is a lack of opportunities for interaction and networking with national and international research organizations and their experts. Moreover, research on microbial pesticides is scattered and not properly coordinated in term of institutions and scientists. There is no proper mechanism to ensure that research is not duplicated. Moreover, there is no government policy support for private public partnership for R&D, product development and marketing of bio-pesticides in the country. The scope for microbial pesticide research has not been properly utilized. There is urgent need of improved infrastructure, trained human resources and government policy support to facilitate the use of microbial pesticides.

Funds Bio-pesticides have been identified as an important area for pest management. Thus, national funding agencies (National Science Foundation -NSF, Council for Agricultural Research Policy-CARP and National Research Council-NRC) have given priorities in channelizing funds to universities and research institutions for bio-pesticide research.

Extension Agriculture extension in Sri Lanka is a mandate of provincial governments. Thus, it has a deficient linkage with research sector which is a mandate of national government. In mid 1980s, agriculture extension was devolved from national responsibility to a provincial function. There

143 is the provincial extension system under a provincial Director of Extension and an-inter provincial extension system operated centrally by the Extension and Communication division of the DOA. Even DOA has strong extension network, significant effort still not delegated to popularize the microbial pesticides due to unavailability of registered products for agriculture use. The government program on food safety aims at training agriculture officers to adopt the concepts of IPM and Good Agriculture Practices (GAP) where there is huge potential of accommodating microbial pesticides. Agriculture extension system can facilitate the use of microbial pesticides through 1) Training of extension officers of DOA, 2) Training of farmers through demonstration plots 3) Distributing samples of bio-pesticides to interest farmers and 4) Quality assurance by periodic check of the product from the shelf of agro- dealers.

Challenges, constraints and opportunities for microbial pesticide commercialization and use There are various challenges towards the popularization of bio-pesticides in Sri Lanka. These challenges must be addressed mainly by private sector with research and development, registration and regulation back up from government sector. Further, funding agencies, NGOs, marketing agencies and civil society has responsibility of popularization of microbial pesticides. All the sectors and stakeholders must join hands together to get the issues solved and to commercialize the bio-pesticides for going towards green agriculture

Challenges for government 1. Lack of central national institute to coordinate the bio pesticides In Sri Lanka, most of the microbial pesticide research is conducted solely by national crop research institutes, universities and even by private entrepreneurs. In most of cases, research findings are not discussed at common forum. Sharing knowledge among relevant parties is also limited. Due to this institutional barrier it is a drawback for emerging the expert on relevant field. On the other hand pest and disease management is still based on the synthetic pesticides and most of the research institutes do not have separate locations to conduct the efficacy trials. It is really hard to carry out microbial pesticide trials without contamination of chemical pesticides as no dedicated field facilities only for bio-pesticide testing.

144 2. Plant protection of Sri Lanka Regulation 13 in part (I) of Plant Protection Act reveals that no person shall import to Sri Lanka any living insect, birds or other animal in any stage of their development or any virus, bacteria or fungus cultures except under the authority of an import permit issued by the Director General of Agriculture and accordance with the conditions laid down in the permit. In case of commercialization of bio-pesticides, it acts as a barrier to introduce microbial pesticides even particular strain of microbe is locally available. For example, Trichoderma introductions cannot be done even particular strain is locally isolated and therefore need amendments to waivers for Plant Protection Act. 3. Scientific and technical constraints The science and technological aspects of bio pesticide development is generally restricted to isolation and identification, pilot scale production and laboratory and field validation. The scientific and technical aspects also encompass formulation and storage. But in general entomologists and pathologists have not mastered this, because science involved does not fall within the chemical and physical sciences. Therefore, there is a need to involve scientists from these domains and multidisciplinary knowledge is required to take a product from its initial discovery to that of sale. Insufficient knowledge on formulation and commercial process hinder their introduction to market. Moreover lack of competent laboratories is one of major constraint, hence entrepreneurs have to develop their test data requirement in foreign laboratories and this increases the cost for them. 4. Donor and funding constraints Donors generally funded project in 3-5 year cycles which is in most instances enough only to isolate and identify, produce on a small scale, validate in the laboratory and perhaps in small experimental field plots, However it takes more time to develop complete product ready to market

Challenges for entrepreneurs 1. Huge investment and lack of profit Bio-pesticides are high technology products which are developed and maintained under completely sterile conditions. A huge capital investment has to be made not only in initial development stages but also during its packaging storage and distribution. Screening of suitable strains and research and development issues added to the budget. Large scale screening of strains with biological activity is still required (Bashan

145 1998). In general firms with larger production facilities are expected to invest more on networks to understand and access the market. In recent past some small and medium scale entrepreneurs have showed interest in this sector but most of them have been still uncertain to invest in the venture because of niche market and expensive registration process. 2. Time taken for the registration and high cost involved in registration Microbial pesticides registration process is almost similar to the registration process of conventional chemical pesticides. Consequently, the registration of new bio pesticides would cost a sizable amount of money,

Challenges for farmers 1. Novel technology This is a new technology for farmers. Prior to application of bio- pesticides, pest life cycle should be well understood for effective management of pests using these microbial pesticides. Further, narrow spectrum of efficacy of microbial pesticides may crate complexities in multiple pest occurrences which is more prevalent in practical situations. Thus, farmers should have proper trainings on microbial pesticide applications and their limitations. 2. Cultural tendency to use synthetic pesticides More than 40 year, Sri Lankan agriculture has been relying on excessive use of inputs including chemical pesticides and chemical fertilizers. Fast acting broad spectrum nature, wide availably and reasonable prices of conventional pesticides have been attracted the farmers and strong behavioral change is needed to change farmers preference towards new means of pest control.

Challengers for general public 1. Health and ecological risks Common attitude of the general public on microbial pesticides is that they do not have any hazardous effect on human health and environment. But it is not true always. Microbial pesticides may pose some adverse health effect if these are not used according to the guidelines mentioned on the labels of commercial products. Bio pesticides containing Bacillus thuringiensis as active ingredient are not reported to show any major adverse effects on human health but some cases, occupational exposure has confirmed health risk (Doekes et al., 2004). Studies on fungal bio pesticides reported that spore of entomopathogenic fungi such as Trichoderma, Metarhizium anisopliae, Beauveria bassiana may cause allergies in immune-compromised patients (Lida et al., 1994).

146 Conclusion Microbial pest control research towards screening, formulation and testing them under green houses as well as in field conditions are being conducted in Sri Lanka. However, very limited bio control agents are evaluated to make a successful transition from laboratory to field. The successful adoption of bio-pesticides relies on the complete cooperation of all stakeholders including society, farmers, NGOs, government authorities, pesticides companies, retailers and distributors. The recommendations are given here as per the findings on current status of microbial pesticides in Sri Lanka. 1. Development of international linkage of local scientists to facilitate the exchange their knowledge 2. Establishment of National Institute to coordinate bio pesticide research and their utilization 3. Improvement of infrastructure facilities with special reference to the analytical facilities of laboratories for quality assurance, registration and regulation 4. Amend the Pest Control Act No 33 of 1980 for providing provisions for the hassle free registration of bio pesticides 5. Development of central data base which can be freely accessible for all concerned stakeholders 6. Strengthening the links between the private sector and government research institutes

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148 Sivakumar, D., Wijerathnam, R.S.W., Wijesundara, R.L.C., Marikar, F.M.T. and Abeysekara, M. 2000. Antagonism effect of Trichoderma hazianum on post-harvest pathogens of Rambutan (Nephelium lappaceum). Phytoparasitica, 28(3): 240-247 Soe, K.T. and de Costa, D.M. 2012. Development of a spore based formulation of microbial pesticides for control of rice sheath blight. Biocontrol Science and Technology, 22(6): 633-657 Wijesinghe, C.J., Wijerathnam, R.S.W., Samarasekara, J.K.R.R. and Wijesundara, R.L.C. 2011. Development of a formulation of Trichoderma asperellum to control black rot disease on pineapple caused by Thielaviopsis paradoxa. Crop Protection, 30:300-306

149 INVITED PAPERS Microbial Pesticides: Introspection and Prospects

T.M. Manjunath Consultant in Integrated Pest Management and Agri-biotechnology Bengaluru, India Email: [email protected]

Abstract The introspection on the development and use of microbial pesticides in the last 4 to 5 decades reveals that the share of these in the global pesticide market has remained less than 5 percent and certainly calls for significant improvement. In this context, the importance of increasing the product range of microbial pesticides, developing climate resilient and performance-oriented microbes for dependable results, avoiding duplication of research and production technologies, exploring collaborative research between public-public and also public-private organizations, ensuring favourable Intellectual Property Rights for scientists and research institutions, improving the packing, storage, application techniques etc are stressed.

Introduction Dr Chandish Ballal, Dr W.A.R.T. Wickramaarachchi, Dr Ravi Khetarpal, Dr Malvika Chaudhary, Dr Abraham Verghese, delegates from SAARC member countries, scientists from NBAIR and other institutions. I am very glad that this workshop is conducted at Bengaluru and I consider it a great opportunity to be with you. I thank Dr. Malvika Chaudhary and Dr. Chandish Ballal for inviting me on this occasion. I also thank them for their nice words while introducing me to this group. It is a very progressive decision that all the 8 countries in South Asia have joined together and formed this South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC). It is stated that the objective of SAARC is to work together towards economic, technological, social and cultural development emphasizing collective responsibilities leading towards self-reliance. I came to know that seven of the 8 countries are participating in this workshop. These include Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, the Maldives, Nepal and Sri Lanka. I find from the agenda that there are lead speakers from each of these countries who will be highlighting the work carried out on microbial pesticides in their respective countries. In addition, there are two keynote speakers. In view of these, I would like to restrict myself to speak only on the theme of this workshop and making a few general observations as otherwise it would tantamount to pre-empt their lectures.

150 Introspection and Prospects If we look back, we realize that some of the microbial pesticides have been around for 70 to 80 years. For example, Bacillus thuringiensis was discovered way back in 1901 and it has been used as a bio-pesticide globally since 1938. Similarly, Metarrizium, Beaveria and Trichoderma have been in use for several decades. The initial results obtained with these under controlled conditions or when conditions were favorable to them were so impressive that bio-pesticides were touted as a serious contender to replace or at least drastically reduce the applications of chemical pesticides. Such an impression existed several decades ago and it continues to remain the same even today. Against this background, we need to introspect and carry out a reality check with regard to the performance and progress of bio-pesticides. Perhaps, the results may not be very encouraging. The share of bio-pesticides including microbial in the global pesticide market is only around 5 percent. Thus, we have a long way to go and must try to understand the factors responsible for limiting their expansion. This workshop provides a platform for such an analysis. One of the major limitations for the success of microbial pesticides is that their performance is heavily dependent on environmental conditions. We know that such conditions do not remain the same in all the areas and even within an area. They tend to highly fluctuate. If the conditions are not favorable, we get very inconsistent or erratic results with microbial pesticides. Such uncertainty seriously affects the confidence of the farmers. We need to overcome this challenge. Since we cannot have control over the climatic conditions in our field crops which are predominantly grown outdoor in SAARC countries, perhaps a possible option is to develop microbial that can withstand adverse environmental conditions. Thus, climate resilient microbial pesticides should be our target. This workshop may discuss this aspect. Of course, some work on genetic improvements to increase the rate of reproduction, speed of transmission, infective ability, efficacy of toxins etc has been done, but certainly there is scope for more penetrating research. If we look at the microbial products, they remained more or less the same for the last several decades. We continue to discuss about the same old Bacillus thuringiensis, Pseudomonas, Beaveria, Metarrhizium, Trichoderma, Steinernema and Heterorhabditis. All our research, commercial production, field applications, publications etc are heavily focused on only a few of these organisms for over 7 to 8 decades. Our menu card on microbial remained almost the same for too long. It is like the fixed menu card of old traditional restaurants. There is a need to increase the product range. This workshop can ponder over it.

151 Tremendous progress has been made in the area of commercial production of the above mentioned microbial pesticides in several countries. Production and availability is not an issue in most cases. Due credit must be given to those who have developed such efficient mass- production technologies. However, there is scope for improving the storage to enhance shelf-life, packaging, delivery and application. More efforts are needed in the area of extension to create proper awareness because microbial pesticides are to be promoted or marketed along with the technology. Some of the other challenges include regulatory hurdles, registration formalities, Intellectual Property Rights, export / import, political interference and several others. IPR should receive due attention. It is like an asset for scientists and institutions. They invest so much of time and resources in developing a new technology or product. Their contributions should be acknowledged, protected and incentivized / monetized. Otherwise, it will be very discouraging. It is like, you invest all your savings to construct a house and rent it out for financial security, but the tenant enjoys all the facilities, but refuses to pay rent. The governments have to consider the IPR issues more seriously in favor of the scientists so as to motivate them to do quality research. Another area of concern is that there is a lot of duplication of research within the same country and also across the countries. It is so with regard to production technology also. This should be avoided. There should be more concentration on doing “out-of-the-box” research and exploring new avenues. One of the outstanding examples for such a research in recent years is the genetic engineering of Cry genes from Bacillus thuringiensis into crops like cotton for control of cotton bollworms and corn for control of the European corn borer. It proved to be a revolutionary breakthrough in plant protection. The scope for exploiting biotechnological approach as well as any other new approaches should be fully explored to enhance the utility of microbial pesticides. Such breakthroughs can be achieved more efficiently and quickly through collaborative research. Collaborations could be between the institutions in the same country or different countries; between the scientists in the same organization or outside; between private and public institutions; or even between private and private organizations. The final objective is to develop innovative and useful products. The SAARC countries may think of such collaborative research. On major projects with long-term objectives, it is better to carry out institutional research with a team of scientists rather than unduly depending on any individual. Such scientists should not work in isolation. They should interact, share and complement each other in the interest of the project. This will also ensure continuity of research even if a scientist discontinues for some reason. There is nothing like team work.

152 There is no geographical boundary for research. You have all come together from different countries. It is a wonderful opportunity for you to exchange your ideas and views and see how best you can collaborate. Scientists and research can do wonders in this world. I hope this workshop will help you to demystify several things connected with microbial pesticides and develop some innovative products for the benefit of farmers and the society. I close my speech on this optimistic note and wish every one of you the very best.

153 Plantwise: A Potential Extension Approach Fostering Uptake of Bio-pesticides in SAARC Countries

Malvika Chaudhary* and Manju Thakur CABI South Asia, 2nd Floor, 7-B Pusa Road, Rajendra Park New Delhi, India *Email: [email protected]

Abstract The rising need of use of bio-pesticide as an alternate to chemicals has been burgeoning with time. Moreover, the increasing interest of regulatory authorities to motivate the farmers to adopt such technologies to avoid export rejects and also hazards to human health and environment. The interest amongst different stakeholders to promote the use of bio-pesticides differs according to their role in plant health system. Regardless of this difference, the rise in growth of bio-pesticide market from current status up to 2023 is more than 20 percent. Plantwise is a global program implemented in 34 countries across the 3 regions viz Asia, Africa and Latin America fostering environment friendly technologies largely biocontrol. Clinic data from Africa and Asia were taken into account to assess the frequency by which plant doctors recommend bio-pesticides. Bio-pesticide has been main focus while producing extension material (27-61 percent). In spite of these efforts chemicals form the major portion of recommendations provided by the extension workers (plant doctors) to farmers. The utilisation is also dependent on availability of registered products which are observed in selected countries ranging from as low as 2 and up to 19 percent for insect pests. Apart from this, training manuals which are activity-based would enhance capacity building which would further scale up for creating awareness and utilisation of bio-pesticide are produced. Bio- pesticides are also largely preferred for the containment of invasive. Inter-governmental organisations are playing important role in giving technical support for identifying, conducting bioassay trials, risk assessment and registration of these beneficial organisms. Key words: Microbial pesticides, regulation, extension approach

Introduction The awareness of adversaries of chemical pesticide on agriculture and human health had led the stakeholders of plant health system in an exploratory phase. For decades, amongst many options of less or no toxic

154 alternates, microbial pesticides have emerged as a strong candidate. Large amount of resources across the nations have invested their time and effort in researching a potential bio control entity that can substitute the much hazardous chemical practices. The uptake of bio-pesticides has been inadequate in almost all the South Asian countries. The reason for this is largely due to non awareness of the utilization and product availability. Although the later can be addressed through technological advances, the awareness on utilisation is solely the role of extension system. At the farm level, biological control is used in two main ways: conservation biological control through measures that aim at increasing indigenous natural enemy populations and augmentative biological control by the deliberate release of cultured Biocontrol agents (BCAs) (Bale et al., 2008; Hoeschle-Zeledon et al., 2013). Since the 1990’s the use of BCAs in augmentative biological control has been increasing particularly in developed countries (Thakore, 2006). To support this, over 200 registered microbial products to control arthropod pests of crops, based on about 40 species or sub-species, have been inventoried (Hoeschle-Zeledon et al., 2013; Koul 2011; van Lenteren et al., 2017). Rural advisory services have been in demand in recent times not only through government machinery but also by other organisations with similar mandate. However, still many agricultural extension services in developing countries are weak (Haug, 1999) and are often under resourced (Anderson and Feder, 2004). Knowing that there is a huge gap in extension and farmer ratio, various strategies to reach out farmers with actionable knowledge has been in progress by different agencies. The farmers are tuned to plan their plant protection on the advices of agro dealers who are with limited knowledge of safe pesticides. There is a strong disconnect between the stakeholders of plant health system. Thus the research and extension majorly does not get mutual feedback to give a fruitful service to the final beneficiary ie the farmer. In Afghanistan, there are just three bio-pesticides introduced by some company during last 2- 3 years because of so many reasons like lack of extension, knowledge of farmer about bio-pesticide usage (Sharifi, 2013). In Bangladesh, extension officers came to the rescue of the farmers in 2013 when there was an outbreak of armyworms in the country in many of the districts in crops that were in seedling stage. Information alerts by extension officers and right guidance provided to farmers saved their losses in Bumthang and Gasa districts (Alam, 2013). Plantwise is a global program launched by CAB International operating in 33 countries presently out of which six are SAARC countries viz.

155 Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Nepal, India, Sri Lanka and Pakistan. Plantwise works with national partners usually state-run extension services to establish networks of local plant clinics run by trained extension staff (referred as plant doctors) where farmers can obtain a pest diagnosis and practical plant health advice on written ‘prescription forms’ (Danielsen and Matsiko, 2016; Anonymous, 2016). The National Extesnion Partners (NEPs) generally Plant Protection Wing / Department of Ministr of Agriculture of respective countries is the National Responsible organisation to implement this program at village level. The national coordinator of the program is the NPPO of the respective country. It is seen from the data collected from these NEP through Plantwise approach that the rate of recommendation of biocontrol agent is highest in India (18.2%) and Knowledge, availability and price were identified as the main factors affecting the uptake of BCAs by NEPs. (Dogoud et al., 2017). In this paper, the description of the approach is detailed which is suitable for spreading awareness and promote utilisation of biocontrol in a country.

Plantwise approach Plantwise is a global programme led by CABI to increase food security and improve rural livelihoods by reducing crop losses. Working in close partnership with relevant actors, Plantwise strengthens national plant health systems from within, enabling countries to provide farmers with the knowledge they need to lose less and feed more. This is achieved by establishing networks of locally owned plant clinics, run by extension staff trained as plant doctors, where farmers can find practical plant health advice. The Plant doctors are extension officers who are trained with Plantwise training modules to build their skills on diagnosis and deliver the recommendation effectively. More emphasis is given due to the fact that these advices are timely therefore eco friendly technologies like bio-pesticides are promoted through the plant clinics. These advices are reinforced by the Plantwise knowledge bank, a gateway to online and offline actionable plant health information including diagnostic resources, pest management advice and basic pest data for effective global pest surveillance (Leach et al., 2013). Recently Plantwise has supported National Plant Protection Organizations to detect, identify and/or monitor the spread of at least 5 new pest problems in 9 countries through local plant clinics and the UK- based Plantwise Diagnostic and Advisory Service. Only in 2016 Plantwise has established 433 new plant clinics adding to the cumulative number of 2,292 clinics reaching out 9.8 million farmers in total with over 6,500 plant doctors. It was seen that 61 percent of farmers attending plant clinics had an increase in crop yield and 70 percent had an increase

156 in crop-related income out of which 87 percent had an improvement in quality of life and 97 percent of clinic users were willing to share the plant clinic advice with nonusers. Hence Plantwise approach can be well utilized to promote less known technologies as bio-pesticides.

Figure 1: The Plantwise approach used for maximum outreach for one to one advice to farmer to promote technologies

Currently, Plantwise is also assessing the interest of private sector entities in supporting plant clinic operations to enhance scalability without compromising on quality of services to farmers. There is a strong belief that linking all the stakeholders of plant health system would promote transfer of technologies and also promote utilization of the same.

Status of bio-pesticide in clinic advisory and extension materials of Plantwise The Plantwise Knowledge Bank created originally as a global resource for anyone interested in plant health has become an essential tool for many professionals working each day to protect farmers against pests. This is an online and offline gateway to actionable plant health information and services. It combines global and local open access data from leading experts working around the world in a dynamic and easily searchable way, so answers can become actions. There are more than

157 10,000 factsheets also known as Pest Management Decision Guides (PMDG) produced by top global institutions and partners which promotes proven technologies. As bio-pesticide requires recommendations at appropriate time for optimum results, farmers advised appropriately have more chances of getting good results assessing this information either through plant clinics or directly through knowledge banks. Factsheets are also available as a mobile application (app) in local languages. In order to show the relative importance of different factors in restricting BCA recommendations, plant clinics data was compiled for the top ten arthropod pests in three SAARC countries (Pakistan, Nepal and India), the availability of nationally produced PMDGs, the proportion of prescription records with a BCA recommended by plant doctors, the proportion of prescription records for which nationally produced PMDGs have a BCA recommendation, the proportion of prescription records for which a suitable BCA is presumably available in the country and the proportion of prescription records for which a BCA is available in another country. BCAs were considered to be available at a national level when they were registered in the country or, in the case of microbial, when they were recommended in PMDGs. BCAs were frequently included in nationally produced arthropod PMDGs in India (61.1%) and Nepal (57.1%) (Dougoud et al., 2016). This variation in advisory can be contributed to availability of products in the country. BCAs were most frequently recommended by plant doctors in India (18.2%) followed by Nepal (6.2%) and almost absent in Pakistan (0.7%). The gap clearly demonstrates the scope of scaling up of plant clinics approach along with making more bio-pesticide products available in the country.

Figure 2: Management recommendations for insect pests given by extension officers (plant doctors) at plant clinics; Source: Dougoud et al., 2016

Another approach to promote the use of bio-pesticides is to check the use of banned chemicals. Plantwise supports this to a very large extent. The content given in the box below demonstrates this statement well.

158

Box 1: Misuse of pesticides; Source: Plantwise Annual Report, 2016

Market scenario and scope of Plantwise approach The market of bio-pesticide is an upcoming as evident from market research report in India. It is currently accounting 970 products for domestic as well as for international market. The market has grown at 20 percent compound annual growth rate (CAGR) since 2010 and estimation for next ten years shows growth at the rate of 10 percent annually. With such scope, it is important that the extension approaches are also revised and implemented for bringing technologies from lab to land. In the current workshop, it was deliberated that Plantwise should be considered as a potential extension approach in SAARC countries to promote bio-pesticides.

Other approaches for promoting the utilisation of bio-pesticides Along with giving advices on use of biocontrol technologies, it will also be useful to build the capacity of the extension workers on other aspect of biocontrol products like testing quality of the products in the market to ensure that the farmers are using good quality and viable products. The various follow on public officers (FPOs) and small and medium entrepreneurs (SMEs) would require technical guidance on production/formulation and forming strategies to meet the market

159 demand of the bio-pesticide. In a nutshell, some activity based training manuals are the need of the hour to extend various aspect of this technology well in diverse stakeholders. CABI has developed such manuals and is now scoping to collaborate with partners in country to implement these for capacity building in country. There is also a need of harmonisation of the registration laws across the SAARC region in order to import or export the bio-pesticide across the borders. It is a well recognised fact that the absence of harmonized data requirements, the increasing costs and delays in registrations deter the development of new bio-pesticides in Europe (Neale, 1997).

Way forward It is evident that extension and development can foster the uptake and utilization of bio-pesticides by following ways;  Capacity building: Organize trainings on awareness on bio-pesticide formulation and products  Awareness building: Publicity and advocacy ( Awareness through print media and electronic media like television and radio, poster programmes, curriculum at school and college level)  Establish networking among the SAARC countries for knowledge and technology sharing  Documentation, promotion and sharing of traditional knowledge on pest management at local level with proper acknowledgement with compliance to regional and international treaties  Assist private sector in exclusive bio-pesticide business

Plantwise approach is already integrating all the above ways through its evolving innovative approaches. As also perceived from the country’s representations during this regional consultation in Bengaluru in August 2018, the scope of bio-pesticide is immense as it is seen that except for India the utilisation of these products are not well conversant in rest of the countries. Hence, initially to create awareness amongst the users and also to have a strong feedback system back to research labs and decision makers, the Plantwise approach is well suited. The recommendation from the workshop to the government of the SAARC region to support and scale up this program in their countries was well founded and need of the hour. Also, greater emphasis on bio-pesticide usage supported by strengthened extension systems and as part of agricultural policy will open ways to new innovations in the way the bio-pesticides are regulated, allowing wider availability and making the technology more accessible to farmers. Continuing to work for its mission of providing

160 safe food and losing less, Plantwise programme also aims to seek collaborations with different stakeholders and projects working on similar lines.

References Alam Syed Nurul. 2013. Extent and potential use of bio-pesticides for crop protection in Bangladesh. In: Regional Consultation meeting -Extent and potential use of bio-pesticides for crop protection in SAARC countries. Pema Karpo Hotel, Wangdue, Bhutan, 23-25th December, 2013 15- 45p.Gurung, T.R. and Azad, A.K. (Eds), 164 pp Anderson, J. R. and Feder, G. 2004. Agricultural extension: Good intentions and hard realities. The World Bank Research Observer, 19(1): 41–60 Anonymous. 2016. Plantwise annual report 2016. CABI. https://www. plantwise.org/Uploads/Plantwise/Plantwise%20Annual%20Report%2020 15.pdf Bale, J.S., Van Lenteren J.C. and Bigler, F. 2008. Biological control and sustainable food production. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Science. 363 (1492): 761–776 Danielsen, S. and Matsiko, F.B. 2016. Food Science. 8: 345, https://doi.org/10.1007/s12571-015-0546-6 Dougoud, J., Cock, M.J.W., Edgington, S. et al,. 2018. Bio Control, 63: 117. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10526-017-9823-y Haug, R. 1999. Some leading issues in international agricultural extension, a literature review. The Journal of Agricultural Education and Extension, 5(4): 263–274 Hoeschle-Zeledon, I., Neuenschwander, P. and Kumar, L. 2013 Regulatory challenges for biological control. SP-IPM Secretariat, International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), Ibadan Koul, O. 2011. Microbial biopesticides: opportunities and challenges. CAB Rev 6:1–26 Leach, M.C. and Hobbs, S.L.A. 2013. “Plantwise Knowledge Bank: Delivering Plant Health Information to Developing Country Users.” Learned Publishing. 26:180–185 Neale, M.C. 1997. Biopesticides-harmonization of registration requirements within EU Directive 91/414 - an industry view. EPPO Bulletin, 27: 89– 93. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2338.1997.tb00621.x Sharifi, M.Z. 2013. Extent and potential use of bio-pesticides for crop protection in Bangladesh. In: Extent and potential use of bio-pesticides for crop protection in SAARC countries. Pema Karpo Hotel, Wangdue, Bhutan during 23-25th December 2013, 7-13p.Gurung, T.R. and Azad, A.K. (Eds), 164pp

161 Thakore, Y. 2006. The biopesticide market for global agricultural use. Indian Biotechnology 2(3):194–208 Van Lenteren, J.C., Bolckmans, K., Kohl, J., Ravensberg, W.J. and Urbaneja, A. 2017. Biological control using invertebrates and microorganisms: plenty of new opportunities. Biological Control, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10526- 017-9801-4

162 Bio-pesticide Markets - Growing Awareness of the Value Chain, Challenges and Opportunities

Ramana Murthy PCI Pest Control Pvt Ltd, Bengaluru- 560058, India Email: [email protected]

Foreword Today with the advances in technology and changes in lifestyle, younger generation from rural areas are re-locating to urban areas in search of better opportunities. Agriculture is not a preferred occupation for the younger generation. This movement of masses to the urban areas fuelled by the rapid industrialization acquires the fertile lands available for growing food, fodder, clothing and timber. On the other hand, constantly increasing population is creating an increased demand for food besides the increasing aspirations and awareness among the middle class has suddenly created a niche for value addition in food crops. This increased pressure to produce more food for the rising masses and the affordability of high value foods is going to drive the farmers to adopt eco-sensitive ways of crop cultivation methods. “Global food production in the next 40 - 50 years will be equal to the amount of food produced in the last 10,000 years” is a quote from Dr Jack Bobo, former Senior Advisor for Biotechnology, US State Department. Downstream industry engaged in the business of agricultural produce is trying to address this by signing up for contract farming - adopting large area single crop cultivation which has virtually created another problem of pest resistance. During the past decade, Indian farmer is struggling to keep his agricultural crop production which has continuously been hampered by the un-predictability of climate, erratic demand-supply equations and lastly resurgence of pests. In the entire chain of processes the farmer is always at the receiving end who has to bear the brunt with his investment stuck for the season and nowhere to go. Large areas of land pose another problem of large capital requirements. This leaves him vulnerable to the fluctuating demands of the market forces. Nevertheless, response of the farmer to adopt new techniques of farming, crop protection and harvesting has been commendable indicating an eagerness to adopt to newer techniques which will reduce drudgery, dependency on human effort and outcome measurable crop input solutions. Parallely, we see resurgence of some of the dreaded pests of

163 the past decades, invasion of exotic pests, pests and pathogens have developed resistance to the popularly used insecticides and conventional crop protection methods triggering the need for alternative solutions beyond conventional means. Crop protection industry's engagement with alternative green technologies started almost three decades back. Over the last decade; increasing market pull, categorization and segmentation has evolved to clearly define the end use of these alternative green crop protection tools.

Biological crop protection market Estimated market for various biological crop protection inputs in the Asia Pacific region is about USD 800 million in the overall global market of about USD 2,800 million and by year 2025 it is expected to cross USD 11,000 million (USD 11 billion). This Industry is poised to grow at 16-17 percent CAGR faster than the chemical pesticide industry. The Indian market which is the largest in the SAARC region is estimated to be at about USD 55 million of which major share is by botanicals followed by microbial pesticides. The estimated market in SAARC countries is expected to be around USD 100 -150 million. Figures of the global markets and the growth rates have been quoted in an article by Dr. Dunham Trimmer, independent consultant in The Global Biocontrol and Bio-stimulants e-newsletter. Indian market figures are taken based on the individual experience being a lead player in the Indian market space. Biological crop protection inputs can broadly be categorized into 1) Microbial bio-pesticides, 2) Pheromones/semio-chemicals/bio- stimulants, 3) Botanicals/plant extracts and 4) Repellants/organic salts. Microbe-based bio-pesticides are the second highest selling category. Among the various products of this category, the major one is the bio- fungicide, Trichoderma spp. This product is effective against various plant pathogens and is safe to use, besides the product itself has the necessary robustness associated with large scale adoption. Seed treatment to prevent germination losses of young seedlings is the most acceptable method of usage of the product. Recent popularization of high value crops being cultivated in protected condition and the change in irrigation methods to use drip and sprinkler irrigation has seen the market acceptance of liquid based bio-pesticide formulations. The bio-chemicals/bio-stimulants are the range of pheromones/semio chemicals which are used for monitoring, mass trapping and mating disruption. Due to a lack of understanding and limitations of the range, majority of the pheromones are still being used only for monitoring.

164 However, recommendations for mass trapping have the wider scope for market adoption considering ease of deployment and cost of the system. Botanicals have been the early accepted category led by neem-based formulations. However most of the products available in the market have done very little in terms of fine tuning their end use beyond claiming to be anti-feedants and asphyxiating agents due to the bitter compounds present. They are usually recommended against sucking pests and early instars of lepidopteron larvae. Other product category is the organic salts which exhibit desiccation and asphyxiation to achieve results and are targeted against the sucking pests. This product is very versatile in its application and can form part of any crop protection recommendation even up to the last day just before harvesting. It also complements well with the traditional products targeted against the sucking pests and hence forms part of the crop protection schedules where the end produce is sensitive to toxic agro chemical residues. "Shopping for Health" published by Rodale Inc and Food Marketing Institute in 2016 reported the consumers health considerations which impact the food purchase decisions. Every 2 out of 3 shoppers agree food choices are an important factor impacting their health. 82 percent of consumers put some effort for healthy eating while 34 percent put in significant effort and these consumers often shop at specialty stores like natural / organic stores and farmer market etc. Over 50 percent consumers purchase at least one organic food per month and they state the reason is to avoid pesticide residues. Young adults born during 1981- 1995 are more likely to buy organic and older shoppers. Over 70 percent consumers have purchased locally grown food in the last year and 1 out of 3 of these revealed that the reason is to avoid pesticide residues.

Concerns of emerging market of safe foods 1) Lack of authentic data and information 2) Lack of resources in private industry involved in the sector for exploration, expansion and market access 3) The government's policies towards registration are also not providing any respite to this nascent bio-pesticides industry. There are no clear guidelines for registering the bio-stimulants in most countries despite OECD guidelines being laid down 4) Understanding of the limitations of various products and working with the products strengths to achieve a desirable outcome. Today, the larger agro chemical industry needs to view the bio-pesticide industry as a supplementary crop protection input in rendering a long

165 term and sustainable tool for crop protection that is more safer and environment friendly 5) Gaps of consistency of results and most products still talk of blanket / broad based applications 6) Limited interventions are available for post infestation stage specially with the fungal diseases

Urgent requirements for the bio-pesticide industry 1) A clear and proven package of practices 2) Working together with farmers and addressing the issued in entire value chain 3) Encourage investments with long term vision

Challenges in bio-pesticide marketing process 1) Lack of awareness among farmers, distributors and retailers 2) Lack of product diversity and availability in the market. Therefore, effective marketing and distribution strategies have to be implemented with constant pushing by the suppliers 3) Farmers' inertia to change their conventional methods of crop cultivation using chemical pesticides 4) Microbial pesticides are not available for the entire spectrum of crop protection issues and are not effective against a number of pests or disease due to their high specificity 5) In general, small and medium scale companies are involved in the bio-pesticide industry. They do not have enough financial capabilities for explore new possibilities, researching, product development and to face tough registration procedures

The proposed business model for South Asia  Encourage young, new and budding entrepreneurs as distributors  Closely work with the distributor to aid his market understanding, demand creation and his capability enhancement  Performance of regular farmer awareness programs and other stakeholder education program in close collaboration with preferred distributor  Work for economically important plant protection issues of selective crops which have a scope for greater acceptance of microbial pesticide solutions

166  Minimizing stock returns due to stocks lying unsold at the distributors manufacturer's end thereby creating a trust with the distributor and ensuring quality of products right up to the end user

Conclusion There is a huge potential for bio-pesticide industry in India as well as in South Asia. Development of a microbial pesticide takes only 3-4 years with USD 25 million compared to 10 years with USD 250 million for a synthetic pesticide. Chemical and bio-pesticides work well together and bio-pesticides are excellent resistance breakers due to their complex mode of action.

167 Successful Development and Commercialization of Microbial Pesticides as Crop Protectant – An Industrial Perspective from Lab to Farm

S.K. Ghosh*, S. Kumar and Mahesh G. Shetty Multiplex Biotech Private Limited, Bengaluru -560058. Karnataka, India *Email: [email protected]

Abstract Any successful strategy aimed at enhancing crop productivity with microbial products ultimately relies on the ability to scale up the technology from regional to global levels. Microorganisms that show promise in the lab may lack key characteristics for widespread adoption in sustainable and productive agricultural systems. Present paper provides an overview of critical considerations involved in successful development of microbial pesticides from lab to farm. In addition, an enriched industrial scale experience have been shared in identifying the major challenges involved in industrial scale production and commercialization of microbial products for widespread agricultural application by addressing the issues related to what farmers desire in potential microbial products, how mode of action informs decisions on product applications, the influence of variation in laboratory and field study data, challenges with scaling up for mass production, and the importance of consistent efficacy, product stability and quality. In order to make a significant impact on global sustainable agriculture, the successful development and implementation of effective microbial products will require a more seamless transition between laboratory and farm application. Early attention to these challenges will strengthen further of microbial products to improve crop yields, decrease disease severity and help to feed an increasingly hungry planet.

Introduction The alarm cry of impeding global food shortage is not new. Over the past 50 years the human population of our planet has doubled and the need for increased food production was met by the application of new technologies in plant breeding, fertilization, crop protection and agronomic management. Although these technologies contributed to staving widespread famine and saving billions of lives, but novel and complementary solutions are also needed to continue to improve the crop yield in cost effective manner.

168 By the year 2050, the global population is expected to reach 9.6 billion that has been estimated as our planet’s maximum capacity (Wilson, 2003). This increase in population will require at least making double our current agricultural production despite the challenges with current resource requirements and a decline in arable land (Bruinsma, 2009). Similar to the green revolution, in order to ensure global food security for the growing population we need to devise enhanced cropping systems that maximize productivity while minimizing the resources required. In most agricultural lands, maximizing yield requires additional inputs to maintain productivity and crop yields. These additions include both phosphorus and nitrogen as fertilizer as well as pesticides to control invasive weeds, pathogens and insects. Farmers could benefit from new sustainable products to boost or maintain yields often under increasing environmental stresses (Baulcombe et al., 2009). While chemistries and trait development remain critical in developing stress tolerance and pathogen resistance programs of agriculture, the application of microbial products is now considered a valuable addition to precision agriculture (Bhattacharyya and Jha, 2012). Microbial products have been used commercially in global agriculture for over 120 years (Deaker et al., 2004), but have recently received increased attention. There are currently over 149 registered microbial strains for agricultural products (Copping, 2009). A recent special publication by the American Society for Microbiology suggested that microbes may be, at least in part, a sustainable solution in increasing agricultural production and outlined current shortcomings of microbes in helping to feed the world (Reid and Greene, 2013). The market for commercial bio fertility inoculants and biocontrol products in 2012 was valued at over USD 1 billion and is expected to exceed USD 7 billion by 2019, increasing at a double digit compound annual growth rate (CAGR) between 2013 and 2019 (Transparency Market Research, 2014). The bio-pesticides market in Asia-Pacific is reported to be a CAGR of 17.94 percent during 2016-2021, it is the fastest growing region on a global basis. The market is valued at USD 1.26 billion in the year 2016 and expected to reach USD 2.58 billion by 2021. Asia-Pacific holds the second largest market share after Latin America. The market is driven by remarkable advancement in biotechnology which has witnessed a new growth paradigm. In terms of consumption and demand for bio pesticides Asia pacific would remain the largest during the forecast period 2015-2021. Asia Pacific is one the potential markets for growth of bio pesticides. In India, bio-pesticide market has grown at a CAGR of 20.2 percent since 2010- 2020. Scope of current market of bio-pesticide is estimated USD 23.92 million which is representing only 4.2 percent of the overall

169 pesticide market in India. More than 150 companies are producing different bio-pesticides in India and 15 types of bio pesticides have been registered in India. Highest demand for bio pesticides was observed from West India- Maharashtra followed by South India and mainly driven by microbial pesticides like Trichoderma spp., Pseudomonas fluorescens and Bacillus thuringiensis (India Bio-pesticide Market Outlook-2020; Ken research Report 2015). Raising healthcare awareness is resulting into increase in consumption of organic food which becomes one of the key reasons for the growth of bio pesticides market. Microbes will certainly play a role in revolutionizing agriculture over the next several decades to help to meet the demands of a growing population. Promising agricultural products include organisms that increase crop yield through enhanced nutrient update by plants (bio- fertilizer) and organisms that reduce crop loss due to pests (bio-control). Multiplex Biotech Private Limited (MBT) is a Bio-Agri. venture of Multiplex Group of companies, dedicated over four decades in developing and promoting various innovative products in enhancing crop productivity in Indian agriculture. MBT is a recognized laboratory by Department of Scientific and Industrial Research (DSIR), Government of India for carrying out research and development on bio-products and could successfully commercialized different agri-inputs to promote organic agriculture in India including effective bio-fertilizer, bio- fungicides, bio-nematicides, bio-insecticides and bio-chemicals. Present review provides an industrial perspective on the current status of successful commercialization of different microbial products by an Indian biocontrol industry Multiplex biotech private Limited (MBT) who made an effort over two decades to maximize the number of microbial products to impart a practical impact on Indian agriculture.

Biocontrol organisms Plant diseases and pests are among the largest contributors to crop losses worldwide with an estimated 27-42 percent in production systems and potential losses of 48–83 percent in the absence of crop protection (Oerke and Dehne, 2004). The use of biological organisms to control plant disease (bio-control) could potentially augment the use of synthetic pesticides (eg. residue and resistance management). Despite clear enthusiasm around the potential for biocontrol microbes, challenges still exist in efficacy, field performance and cost. Present paper will focus on the role of biocontrol in plant pest management from an industry perspective highlighting both the scientific and production strategies necessary to bring out biocontrol organisms as a successful product in the market.

170 Broad adoption of biocontrol products into mainstream agriculture requires advances in technology, increased understanding of the biology and ecology of active organisms and finally a cost- effective production process to produce effective products. Industry concerns generally focus on production, formulation and delivery when commercializing a biocontrol product. In addition to these attributes, industry needs to consider the aspects of product registration, intellectual property rights, and an understanding of grower needs. Finally, aspects of efficacy, persistence and mode of action (biology) must be considered when developing an effective biocontrol product.

Biology of biocontrol organisms Biocontrol agents are broadly classified as preparations either derived from or containing living microorganisms that can prevent or suppress pests like pathogens, insects and weeds. Biocontrol agents can include living microbes (bacteria, fungi, nematodes, viruses and protozoa) or bioactive compounds such as secondary metabolites (eg. Spinosad and Avamectin) or naturally derived material such as plant extracts. Pest damage prevention by biocontrol agents is based on several mechanisms that may involve antibiosis, competition for space and nutrients, mycoparasitism, enzymatic activity and induced resistance. These modes of action are certainly not exclusive and biocontrol agents likely enlist a combination of activities when counteracting disease. As previously mentioned, industrial application of biocontrol microbes will require a deeper understanding of the biology of the microbe, the targeted pest or pathogen and interactions with host plants, other microbes, and the environment. Drivers of microbe communities in the rhizosphere like soil type and plant genotype whereas the phyllosphere microbiome is influenced by plant genotype and environmental factors like humidity, ultraviolet light and geographic location (Vorholt, 2012). Understanding these ecological differences is critical when making decisions about product development and commercial application. Understanding how biocontrol microorganisms interact with one another represents another biological challenge for product development. However, combined biocontrol application also had a more pronounced impact on the microbial community structure at large (Grosch et al., 2012). To commercialize effective biocontrol microbes as products, industries need to invest in fundamental and early development research surrounding these biological questions. This will require deeper partnerships within industry as well as greater communication with academic (public and private) and government research organizations.

171 Overview of MBT contribution in microbial pesticide development A way back of 2000, multiplex Group of companies had established Multiplex Biotech Private Limited (MBT) in Bengaluru as a small laboratory to promote bio-pesticide concept along with their other agri- inputs like micronutrients, chemical fertilizer, and chemical pesticides as there was an initiative in the understanding on the importance of microbes in alternative agriculture in India. MBT has followed a systematic and structural roadmap to develop a new biocontrol product rather a general procedure and this might be the driving force for the success in commercializing bio-pesticide in India. The critical steps and factors which have focused by MBT in successful development of bio- pesticide are discussed here. Strain selection Commercialization of a successful biocontrol product mainly depends on the availability or isolation of suitable microbes. The screening process involves isolation from a particular environment and early trials to characterize a microbe’s biocontrol capability. Since no single screening method is optimal for all biocontrol endeavours, a logical strategy is the effective approach in selection of suitable microbial candidate based on the target interest. Successful candidate identification starts with a suitable population of microbes that is required for better evaluation. MBT collects soil sample across the country, analyzes the microbial profile, collects the microbial cultures and stores them in in-house culture bank for R&D activities. The selected isolates are then subjected to a series of standardized bioassays to establish biocontrol efficacy and field performance capability. It is worth noting here that biocontrol efficacy in a field setting is key for adoption and implementation of microbial products and keeping this in mind Multiplex has established an in-house field R&D facilities of 30 acre of organic farm dedicated exclusively for carrying out field performance of any microbial product before linking them in commercialization . While many biocontrol agents were identified and/or validated through in vitro screens, caution should be taken about the assumptions on correlation between in vitro inhibition and field performance. Screening strategies can follow varied approaches, but the desired outcome is the same in identifying efficacious, environmentally safe and cost-effectiveness of the biocontrol agents. Production process Way back 2000, MBT had initiated the production process of different microbial bio agents in a small lab with standard lab scale facilities and slowly moved towards developing some indigenous method to scale up the production process in pilot- scale capacity. The pilot-scale system

172 was an indigenous design of the bioreactor, made of plastic carboy with requisite facilities like ex-situ sterilization, inoculation and agitation by means of filtered aeration, which was an ideal system for liquid fermentation. However, it was found to be an effective method for microbial production but due to some limitation to scale up the production capacity further to meet the growing market demand, MBT had to move to fine-tune the production process further. During 2015, Multiplex had established a state-of-art facility of fully controlled fermentation process, which is almost parallel to pharma facility dedicated for the production of agriculturally important microbes. Presently MBT has standardized the fermentation process of agriculturally important microbes up to 1,000 l capacity of bioreactor with high purity (> 1x 10 12 microbes / ml) and less incubation time and this made possible to enhance their production capacity in 3-5 fold to address the growing market need in time with quality product. In addition, MBT has set up an industrial scale Solid Substrate Fermentation (SSF) process for the production of all fungal bioagent in a very stable form of fungal propagules (conidia or chlamydospores) having capacity to withstand abiotic stress better than liquid fermented fungal propagules like blastospores and mycelia. To deliver quality product, MBT has adopted the best liquid fermented process to produce all bacterial microbes and SSF for fungal bio agents that all are getting used as active ingredient to develop final product like aqueous and wettable powder formulation along with required additives of respective formulation. In addition, MBT has placed a sound system to monitor the quality of both process and product at various critical steps like purity and virulence of mother culture, inoculum load vs media quantity and incubation period, contamination level during up scaling of fermentation process and finally the quality of culture before and after formulation.

Figure 1: Percent market share of different types of bio-pesticides in India

173 MBT has established an in-house facility to rear insect hosts culture like Helicoverpa armigera, Spodoptera litura and Galleria mellonela to commence the large scale production of Nuclear polyhedrosis visus (NPV- Heli and NPV-Spodo) and Entomopathogenic nematodes (Heterorhabditis and Steinernema). Existing facility can provide one lakh host larva per day for the production of NPV and the yield per larva is being achieved 1.0 LE (1 X 109 POB) for Helicoverpa armigera and 0.1 LE for Spodoptera litura. MBT has adopted an in-vivo method to produce entomophilic nematodes and to meet the growing market demand. MBT has scaled up the Galleria production process in such an extent that can provide more about one lakh healthy Galleria larva to expose for EPN production on daily basis. It is necessary to mention here that MBT has transferred the EPN technology from an ICAR institute (National Bureau of Agriculturally Important Insects (NBAII), Bangalore) to a lab scale production during 2009. In course of time, MBT could scale up the production capacity from 1-25 MT per annual. This became possible only by the continuous in-house R&D in developing very simple and cost-effective technique to produce high quality EPN product and subsequently this created an enormous impact in building confidence on using of bio product by farmers and resulted into raising market demand in India. In a span of 15 years, MBT could successfully commercialize a dozen of effective bio products (Table 1) in India. In term of turnover of MBT, the highest market share was recorded for bio fungicides (41.0%) followed by bio bactericides (36.0%), bio insecticides (17.0%) and bio nematicides (6.0%) as shown in the Figure 1.

Figure 2: Volume of microbial pesticides

174 As there is a growing awareness amongst scientist as well as farmers’ is that microbial products need to introduce in the rhizosphere in a consortium manner to make them more effective. The microbial consortium is a group of species of microorganisms that act together as a community in a complex and synergistic way. Combinations of biocontrol strains are expected to result in a higher level of potential to suppress multiple plant diseases. Commonly, biocontrol is based on the use of single microbial agents but the strategy must be changed because, from the ecological point of view, the disease is part of a complex agro ecosystem. As reported by Fravel (2007), a holistic view of this system can help to take correct decisions about disease management. Microbial consortia are much more efficient than single strains of organisms with diverse metabolic capabilities. Through in-house R&D effort, Multiplex could design some consortium of microbial products like SAFEROOT (a combination of Trichoderma harzianum and Paecilomyces lilacinus) and BIO-JODI (a combination of Pseudomonas fluorescens and Bacillus subtillis) and such consortium products were found to have better acceptance by the users for cost-effective efficacy as well as ease of application. In a span of 17 years, Multiplex could create a market of different bio product in India with a growth rate of 20.05 percent CGAR from 2012-1017.

Table 1: List of bio products commercialized by Multiplex Biotech Pvt Ltd Microbial Trade name Productio Available Category Registration bioagent n process formulation status (CIB & RC) Fungal bioagent Trichoderma NISARGA-TV SSF 5.0 % AS & Bio- 9-3 (under viride 1.5% WP fungicides process) Trichoderma NISARGA-TH SSF 1.0 % WP Bio- 9-3 harzianum fungicides Paecilomyces NIYANTHRAN SSF 1.0% WP Bio- 9-3B ( under lilacinus fungicides process) Beauveria BABA SSF 5.0% AS Bio- 9-3 ( under bassiana insecticides process) Metarhizium METARHIZIU SSF 5.0% AS & Bio- 9-3B (under anisopliae M 1.0% WP insecticides process ) Verticillium VERSHA SSF 1.0% WP Bio- 9-3B (under lecanii insecticides process ) Paecilomyces MYCOMITE SSF 1.0% WP Bio- 9-3B (under fumoroceous insecticides process ) T. harzianum SAFE ROOT SSF 1.0% WP Consortium NA + P.lilacinus Bio- fungicides +

175 Microbial Trade name Productio Available Category Registration bioagent n process formulation status (CIB & RC) Bio- nematicides) Bacterial bioagent Pseudomonas SPARSHA LF 1.0% WP & Bio- 9- 3 ( under fluorescens 5.0% AS bactericides process) & 9- 3B ( under process) Bacillus MINCHU SSF 1.0% WP Bio- 9- 3 ( under thuringiensis insecticides process) var. kurstakii Bacillus BIO-JODI LF WP Consortium NA subtillis + P. ( Bio- fluorescens fungicides +Bio- bactericides ) Viral bioagent Nuclear HELIMAR In-vivo 1.0 % AS Bio- 9-3 (Under polyhedrosis insecticides process) virus -Heli Nuclear SPODOMAR In-vivo 1.0 % AS Bio- 9-3B under polyhedrosis insecticides process) virus -Spodo EPN Heterorhabdid SOILDIER In-vivo WP Bio- NA is indica insecticides Steinernema BOUNCER In-vivo WP Bio- NA carpocapsae insecticides

Product efficacy The most important factor for a successful product is the ability to increase or protect the yield. However, efficacy in the laboratory and/or greenhouse does not always translate to field success. The key to achieving successful, reproducible biological control is the gradual appreciation that knowledge of the ecological interactions taking place in soil and root environment is required to predict the conditions under which biocontrol can be achieved. The success gap between lab and field efficacy plays a significant role in commercializing biocontrol products and it needs prioritization by MBT to develop a sound system of testing product quality at diffident level from lab to farm level before it reaches to end users. In addition to in-house product testing facility, Multiplex has also established an organic farm of 60 acre that is

176 exclusively used for continuous testing and evaluation of different bio formulation on regular basis.

Versatility Microbial strains are often highly target oriented and specific species of pests. Therefore, farmers may need to apply different products to control multiple pest species. Relevant narrowed spectrum, short-lasting, slowing-kill, microbial-based products are big hurdles for successful product commercialization and this commercial obstacles are getting managed by MBT by adopting an strategy of developing sound package of practices suitable for crop vs region and finally effective demonstration and evaluation of product efficacy on continuous basis by field extension team before their actual commercialization.

Practicality Another important factor in the success of a biocontrol product is practicality for both the producer and the consumer. The product must ideally have a low barrier to adoption and be compatible with the farmer’s equipment and production practices. Mass production of the microbe responsible for improving crop yield is one of the prime requirements for commercialization. Many farmers perceive inoculants and biocontrol microbial products as more costly and less effective than traditional agrochemicals. For example, microbial biocontrol strains are not always a quick acting option. They often work by suppressing pest populations through slower processes rather than killing on contact which may allow crop damage to continue for some amount of time. In some cases, to use biocontrol strains effectively, growers need to identify and know a great deal about the lifecycle of the pest or pathogen they are trying to control and understand the timing and appropriate conditions for application of the product. Keeping this aspect in mind Multiplex has set up a sound development team across the country with an objective to educate the end users on effective farming. This team is mainly working to bridge the gap between industrial or technical specialists and the agricultural community to help the growers accustomed to broad- spectrum agrochemicals to integrate inoculants and biocontrol microbial products into their cropping systems.

Delivery Appropriate formulation is required for a high quality of product. Since microbial products are often stored under less than optimum conditions (eg high temperature, light exposure, high humidity), they must have an extended shelf life and the microorganism needs to be either robust or well protected to be able to survive under harsh conditions. Good

177 formulation will also provide optimal conditions to enhance microorganism life on roots or on leaves to obtain optimal benefits after application to the target plants. To be widely adopted by farmers, an inoculant or biocontrol product must be cost effective and easy to apply, ensuring that the microorganisms are delivered to the target plant in the most appropriate manner. Multiplex has aimed to deliver a quality product to the end users by improving the production process of microbial propagules and further a stable formulation process. However, there is still scope for further improvement on formulations of bio- products and MBT is continuing a R&D effort to create and commercialize new microbial products that will be more effective, stable and higher quality to meet farmers’ needs. To enhance the bio-product availability across the country, Multiplex has set up a sound distribution channel that enables them to deliver the bio-products in short time.

Commercial viability High cost associated with production is another obstacle for success of developing a biological product. In production of microbial products in shake flask method with small capacity, it always tends to face some difficulties such as uniformity of spores from batch to batch, production space requirements and quality variation. In addition, high production costs, low return on investment for farmers, uncertain economic aspects of agricultural microbial products including market size and value are also obstacles. More than a decade involvement in commercializing biocontrol products with lab scale facilities, MBT has understood all these hurdles deeply and finally had set up fully controlled bioreactor facility as similar to biotech industry that is enabling MBT to produce the microbial products in high quality and to commercialize them in a cost effective manner.

Regulations Regulatory frameworks and product registrations are used worldwide to guide the commercial development of microbial products. When developing new microbial products, the requisite regulatory framework varies by country, the product’s characteristics and its intended usage. These national and international regulations must be taken into account during every part of the product development cycle, including its earliest stages, as certain regulations also outline where natural microbes can and cannot be harvested. Interestingly, the regulations pertaining to inoculants and biocontrol strains, while similar, may differ in certain parts of the world. Nevertheless, regulatory cycles for the development of new bio inoculants and biocontrol products are generally streamlined and well-articulated. As a result, microbial products are an appealing and

178 cost-effective choice when taking an integrated, systems-level approach toward crop productivity and agricultural pest management. Multiplex have also adopted similar path to get CIB & RC approval for their successful commercialization in India. In addition, Multiplex has also obtained IMO certification of all the biocontrol products which certify them as an input for organic cultivation to promote organic movement in the country.

Recommendation There is no guaranteed route for success in commercializing bio- pesticide. However, lessons from the past should be learnt seriously for continuous improvement to meet the need of end users. As recommendations few do’s and don’ts are provided below that will stimulate and help for successful development and commercialization of bio-products.  Ensure that the project fits the company’s strategy and capabilities  Draw up a proper business plan with accurate information and market data  Be conservative in the estimation of the market potential  Set clear objectives and allocate resources  Obtain genuine commitment from all decision-makers in the company  Install a systematic idea-to-launch-to-sale-volume process  Develop a rating system for quantifiable and objective decisions  Define success criteria and “go/no go”-decision moments up front  Involve all functional fields in the decision team: R & D, M & S, finance and corporate management  Continuously evaluate progress, expenses and expected revenues  Take proper action for the registration of the product before commercialization

Conclusion For a company to be successful in commercializing bio-pesticide, it is necessary to have a vision, the required knowledge, skills and resources in order to develop an appropriate business plan. If any of these requirements are insufficient or lacking, the project may end in confusion, anxiety or frustration and eventually commercial failure. When a company wants to develop new products and grows, it must have a critical look inside and consider whether the current organization is fit

179 for its outlook. Continuous improvements on all aspects are necessary to stay competitive. Costs must be vigilantly observed and progress strictly monitored, new markets developed as speedily as possible to increase income. Profitability is required. So new projects can be started and new products developed and registered. Only profitability can ensure new investments and new projects for the future and that a company can remain competitive, innovative and sustainable. This is a great challenge for all those involved, and at the same time highly motivating and fascinating. This should drive entrepreneurs to continue in the field of bio-pesticide and to make it a successful and sustainable business.

Way forward Increased legislation on the use of pesticides combined with reduced availability of synthetic pesticides, demands for sustainable agriculture and low-residues have become reality and offer great opportunities for bio-pesticide. The social need for biological products is however something very different from actual customer demand. The putative desire from society for sustainable products still leaves the important task to manufacturers to decide which product they will develop. Political and societal trends can be strong promotional factors. However, they should not be determinative. Specific market driven demand must remain the target for a company. Bio-pesticide will however become a substantial part of the use of all crop protection products and come closer to meet their potential. There is a prediction of a steady and continued growth for the next decades. Biological products developed today will form a substantial part of the crop protection means of the future. Bio-pesticide companies need to grasp this chance and remain committed to the development of high quality cost-effective products. The future of microbial biological control agents is bright but depends on technological advancements and market opportunities. Commercial interest and user acceptance of biological control agents as pest management tools is dependent on the development of low-cost, stable products that provide consistent efficacy. Solutions to key technical problems and implementation of optimization and design strategies will require research contributions from a variety of disciplines, including weed science, plant pathology, entomology, insect pathology, microbiology, biochemical engineering, biochemistry and formulation science. International academic, industrial, and government scientists must all work together so that significant advances in the commercialization of biological control agents can be realized.

180 References Baulcombe, D., Crute, I., Davies, B., Dunwell, J., Gale, M., Jones, J. and et al. 2009. Reaping the Benefits: Science and the Sustainable Intensification of Global Agriculture. The Royal Society Report. London: The Royal Society Bhattacharyya, P.N., and Jha, D.K. 2012. Plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR): emergence in agriculture. World Journal of Microbiology and Biotechnology, 28: 1327– 1350 Bruinsma, J. 2009. The resource outlook to 2050: by how much do land, water and crop yields need to increase by 2050? In Proceedings of the FAO Expert Meeting on How to Feed the World in 2050 (Rome: FAO), 1–33 Copping, L.G. 2009. Manual of Biocontrol Agents, 4th Edn. Alton: British Crop Protection Council, 1350 Deaker, R., Roughly, R J. and Kennedy, I R. 2004. Legume seed inoculation technology - a review. Soil Biology and Biochemistry. 36: 1275–1288 Panina, Y., Fravel, D.R., Baker, C.J. and Shcherbakova, L.A. 2007. Biocontrol and Plant Pathogenic Fusarium oxysporum-Induced Changes in Phenolic Compounds in Tomato Leaves and Roots. Journal of Phytopathology, 155: 475–481 Grosch, R., Dealtry, S., Schreiter, S., Berg, G., Mendonça-Hagler, L., and Smalla, K. 2012. Biocontrol of Rhizoctonia solani: complex interaction of biocontrol strains, pathogen and indigenous microbial community in the rhizosphere of lettuce shown by molecular methods. Plant Soil. 361: 343– 357 Oerke, E., and Dehne, H. 2004. Safeguarding production - losses in major crops and the role of crop protection. Crop Protection. 23: 275–285 Reid, A., and Greene, S.E. 2013. How Microbes Can Help Feed the World. Washington, DC: American Academy of Microbiology Vorholt, J.A. 2012. Microbial life in the phyllosphere. Nature Reviews Microbiology. 10: 828–840 Wilson, E.O. 2003. The Future of Life. New York, NY: Vintage Books

181 ABSTRACTS OF INVITED PRESENTATIONS Ensuring Agricultural Biosecurity Engagements and Use of Bio-pesticides for Meeting Sustainable Development Goals in SAARC Region

R.K. Khetarpal, Namrata Singh*, Manju Thakur* Vinod Pandit* and Malvika Chaudharry* Asia Pacific Association of Agricultural Research Institutions (APAARI) Bangkok, Thailand Email: [email protected] *CABI - South Asia, Pusa, New Delhi-110012, India

The rapid growth of agriculture in the SAARC countries to meet the food security has created serious problems in the production systems during last two decades. The increasing imports of agricultural commodities being made under WTO’s philosophy of liberalization has led to enhanced danger of introducing exotic pests and diseases of plants and animals. The geographical location of SAARC countries and the diverse agricultural scenario also predisposes it to new/exotic/emerging pests and diseases. A number of pests and diseases have the potential of inflicting huge losses to the crop, animal husbandry and fishery sectors by crippling the production and trade. This calls for intense engagements towards ensuring biosecurity which is composed of three sectors, namely food safety, plant life and health, and animal life and health. Ensuring an integrated biosecurity system in the agricultural environment can indeed contribute a lot for facilitating trade and conserving biodiversity. The holistic approach to ensure integrated agricultural biosecurity seeks to use the synergies of various existing sectors at national level, without necessarily creating new structures. Besides, in order to combat the threats from pests, chemical pesticides are still being increasingly used in certain countries and this eventually aggravates the negative effects of efforts made for mitigation. Globally, primary producers are under increasing pressure from consumers and governments to sustainably and ethically produce safe foods and food ingredients. Developing national sustainable development strategies by engaging towards biosecurity through use of bio pesticides is a first and crucial step to fully realize the ambitious targets set out in the landmark agreement of the Sustainable Development Goals of United Nations.

182 Biocontrol Technology and its Future

Chandish R Ballal ICAR-National Bureau of Agricultural Insect Resources Bengaluru, India Email: [email protected]

Biological control is a key component of a ‘systems approach’ to integrated pest management, to counteract insecticide-resistant pests, withdrawal of or minimize the usage of chemical pesticides. An arthropod pest or weed exists in nature along with a pool of natural enemies which can comprise of vertebrates, invertebrates, and microorganisms. Plant disease antagonists also exist in nature, which can be used for control of fungal or bacterial diseases. The fundamental focus in applied biological control should be to select an appropriate species or combination of species from this pool and to work on a strategy to bring out the desired level of pest suppression with minimal impact on non- target species. More than one-and-half million insect species occur in this world, out of which only about 1.0 percent have attained the status of pests. Many species have pestilent potential, yet remain at low levels because of the perpetual regulatory action exerted on them by their natural enemies. This in itself reflects the great potential of biological control which can be exploited for management of some of our major pests, diseases and weeds by restoring the natural balance through purposeful human interventions In India, innumerable attempts have been made to augment the populations of promising indigenous natural enemies against many insect pests and diseases infesting/infecting different crops. To support such bio-control programmes, mass- production of natural enemies / bio pesticides followed by a strategy for field utilization are necessary. ICAR-National Bureau of Agricultural Insects Resources, Bangalore has standardized several promising technologies, which can be used for bio-control based management of crop pests and diseases. Biological control has gained maximum acceptance in India through use of some of the potential microbial (Trichogramma spp Cryptolaemus montrouzieri, Goniozus nephantidis etc) and microbial (Trichoderma, Pseudomonas, Bt, NPV, entomofungal pathogens and entomopathogenic nematodes). The shelf life of biocontrol agents, availability of quality agents/ products and formulation technologies for some of the promising isolates of microbial are some of the major problems faced while adopting a biocontrol strategy. ICAR-NBAIR has focused on research to resolve these issues. Stress tolerant, salinity tolerant and carbendazim tolerant Trichoderma harzianum have been identified that can be employed in chemical free farming. Liquid and oil formulations for promising antagonists, T.

183 harzianum (Th-3) and B. megaterium (EXB-5) with shelf-life of 6-9 months were found to be promising for biological control of chilli anthracnose disease. Recent research has indicated that some of the isolates of entomofungal pathogens have the ability to establish as endophytes in crop plants like maize, sorghum, cabbage and cauliflower and attempts are on to exploit their endophytism as a novel delivery mechanism for managing the insect pests. Utilization of EPNs to manage white grub incidence has proved to be successful and NBAIR has developed wettable powder formulations for EPNs with a shelf-life of 8- 10 months. These technologies were validated in white-grub endemic areca farms in Sulya, Bandkal, Shringeri areas and transferred to eight DSIR- recognized companies across the country on non-exclusive basis. Through front line demonstrations, more than 3,000 acres of white grub- infested area, cardamom and sugarcane fields in Karnataka and Kerala were covered. Solid-state and diphasic fermentation and post-production technologies for contamination-free antagonistic fungi for the management of root-knot and cyst nematodes have also been standardised and patented. Liquid formulation of Bacillus thuringiensis has been standardized and lepidopteron and coleopteran specific Bt isolates have been identified. The NBAIR technologies have been validated in farmers’ fields and hence in great demand by commercial entrepreneurs. With an array of technologies on hand for non-chemical mode of pest management, NBAIR has put up twenty two novel technologies for commercialization and around 20 companies have procured the technologies. These successes have imbued in us the optimism to garner and develop more farmer and environment friendly technologies to manage several of the pests and diseases.ICAR-NBAIR will continue its quest for new and useful insects and their resources aiming at documenting our vast insect biodiversity and development of farmer friendly technologies to foster safe farming for residue-free agricultural products compatible with “green IPM” efforts in India.

184 Current Status of Research and Development on Microbial Biocontrol Agents for Insect and Nematode Pest Management in India

Jagadeesh Patil*, M. Nagesh and R. Vijayakumar National Bureau of Agricultural Insect Resources, H.A. Farm Post Bellary Road, Hebbal, Bengaluru-560024, India *Email: [email protected]

Nematodes are most abundant and diverse group of multicellular animals play a major role in ecosystem. They are usually classified as plant parasitic nematodes (PPN) and entomopathogenic nematodes (EPN) based on feeding types according to their main sources of nutrition. EPNs are microbial control agents which have become important in biological control or integrated pest management of insect pests as bio pesticides whereas, PPNs are one of the major biotic constraints in agri- horticultural crops causing a yield loss of 12-15 percent under field conditions which can exceed up to 45-50 percent under protected conditions. Several institutes of Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR), Department of Agriculture Cooperation and farmers’ welfare at the national level and State Agricultural Universities at the state/regional level are engaged in Research and Development of microbial biocontrol agents for plant parasitic nematodes and EPN based products for the insect pests’ management in India. Successful use of fungal and bacterial antagonists for control of PPNs like root-knot nematodes, reniform nematodes, cyst nematodes, burrowing nematodes etc. in vegetables, ornamental crops, fruit crops and plantation crops etc. have been developed and commercialized in the country. In India, many private companies have been licensed by Central Insecticide Board and Registration Committee (CIBRC) for commercial production and sale of antagonistic organisms, Trichoderma harzianum, Pseudomonas fluorescens, Bacillus subtilis and Paecilomyces lilacinus, Pochonia chlamydposporia for nematode pest management. Entomopathogenic nematodes are metazoans and predatory in nature against insect pests which qualify them as biologically safe to non-target organisms, aquatic, soil, plant, avian and animal forms of life. Environmental Protection Act of USA has exempted EPN from biosafety and toxicology requirements for registration purposes. Therefore, the EPN and their formulations are not listed in Central Insecticide Board & Registration Committee, India which makes EPN biologically safe for field applications. At Indian Institute of Horticultural Research, Bengaluru, talc based formulation of bio control fungus T. harzianum, P. lilacinus (1% WP), P. chlamydposporia (1% WP) and bacteria P. fluorescens (1% WP) for the

185 management of nematodes. At National Bureau of Agricultural Insect Resources, Bengaluru, wettable powder formulations of P. chlamydosporia was developed and commercialized for management of plant parasitic nematodes. As per as the EPN products concerned, scope is very wide in India to develop a cost-effective indigenous EPN strains for large-scale production for control of insect pests. At Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi, a gel-based formulation of an indigenous heat-tolerant EPN species Steinernema thermophilum (Pusa NemaGel) was developed and commercialized for management of insect pests and at National Bureau of Agricultural Insect Resources, Bengaluru, wettable powder formulations of H. indica was developed and commercialized for management of white grubs & other soil insect pests.

186 Current Status of Research and Development of Microbial Biocontrol Agents for Crop Pest and Disease Management in India

B. Ramanujam*, R. Rangeshwaran G. Sivakumar and B. Poornesha National Bureau of Agricultural Insect Resources, H.A. Farm Post Bellary Road, Hebbal, Bengaluru-560024, India *Email: [email protected]

Several institutes of Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR), Department of Biotechnology (DBT) at the national level and State Agricultural Universities at the state/regional level are engaged in Research and Development of products based on Microbial Biocontrol Agents (MBA) for crop pest and disease management in India. Successful use of fungal and bacterial antagonists for control of soil/seed borne diseases (root rots & wilts) caused by pathogens like, Fusarium, Pythium, Phytophthora Rhizoctonia, Sclerotium in pulses, vegetables, oil seeds, plantation crops, rice etc have been developed and commercialized in the country. In India, nine hundred and sixty private companies have been licensed by Central Insecticide Board and Registration Committee (CIBRC) for commercial production and sale of five antagonistic organisms, Trichoderma viride, T. harzianum, Pseudomonas fluorescens, Bacillus subtilis and Ampelomyces quisqualis for crop disease management and eight insect pathogens, Bacillus thuringiensis (kurstaki), HaNPV, SlNPV, Beauveria bassiana, Metarhizium anisopliae, Verticillum lecanii and Hirsutella thompsonii for insect pest management. Several Bt products based on imported strain of kurstaki marketed in India are expensive and a need to develop cost- effective indigenous Bt strains for large-scale local production and supply was felt for management of lepidopteron pests. At Indian Institute of Oilseeds Research, Hyderabad, an indigenous Bt formulation (DOR Bt-1, 0.5% WP) was developed and commercialized for management of castor semilooper (Achaea janata), pigeon pea pod borer (Helicoverpa armigera) and rice stem borer and leaf folder. At National Bureau of Agricultural Insect Resources, Bengaluru, liquid formulations of Bt using indigenous strains (NBAIR-BtG4 & PDBC-Bt1) were developed and commercialized for management of pigeon pea pod borer, cabbage DBM (Plutella xylostella) and tomato pinworm (Tuta absoluta). Nuclear polyhedrosis viruses (NPV) used in India for insect pest management include Helicoverpa armigera (HaNPV) in pulses, vegetable crops and Spodoptera litura (SlNPV) in tobacco, S. exigua (SsNPV)in tomato, Amsacta albistriga (AaNPV) in groundnut, A. moorei (AmNPV) in pulses, Agrotis ipsilon, A. segatum (Ai/As NPV) in potato, Trichoplusia

187 ni (TnNPV) in potato, Spilosoma obliqua (SoNPV) in pulses, potato and mulberry, Achaea janata (AaNPV) in castor. Entomopathogenic fungi (EPF) like Beauveria bassiana, Metarhizium anisopliae, Verticillium lecanii (Lecanicillium lecanii), Hirsutella thompsonii and Nomuraea rileyi are gaining importance in the crop pest control in recent years due to the simple, easy and cheap mass production techniques. Successful use of EPF for management of rice hispa (Dicladispa armigera), coffee berry borer (Hypothenemus hampei), root grubs in sugarcane, potato, groundnut, vegetable crops (Holotrichia spp.), coconut rhinoceros beetle (Oryctes rhinoceros), aphids of cowpea (Aphis craccivora), cabbage (Myzus persicae), mustard (Lipaphis erysimi) have been demonstrated.

188 Recent Advances in Training to Enhance Use of Microbial Pesticides Abraham Verghese*, Senthilkumar and Radhakrishnan GPS Institute of Agricultural Management, A Nodal Training Institute under MANAGE, Bengaluru, India *Email: [email protected]

Microbial pesticides (MP) have the distinct advantage of ‘mimicking’ chemical pesticides in its use, storability and marketing. Thus, learning to apply, a recommended MP is easier. Training the human resources in the field of microbial pesticide production, quality control and extension services is the need of the hour to enhance the use in the farm. However, the trainees (be it students/farmer/ professionals) need to get acquainted with the concepts sequentially with clarity. We at GPS Institute of Agricultural Management, a nodal training institute under MANAGE, Government of India have developed a pedagogy, specifically to impart skills in the commercialization and use of biocontrol agents in youths (with bias to rural) and potential graduate entrepreneurs. The focus first is the familiarization of all potential microbial pesticides and confidence- building in the efficacy and safety (both by theory and practical) with case studies and microbial practical. The next step is to actually take them through the sequential process of isolation, culturing, multiplication, mass-up scaling, formulation and storing in a state of the art biotechnology laboratory through real-time hands-on industrial exposure under expert guidance. The third step is to design field evaluation with MP as one of the treatments and making the trainees, go through the process of application, data collection and evaluation. The trainees are made to prepare calendar of events with corresponding stocking of all anticipated microbial interventions. A separate session on quality control is also offered. Grading and feedback tests, followed by skill certification (Government of India) are the culmination of the training, in about 180 days. The trainees are then either placed as interns in appropriate centers for transfer of technology or encouraged to take up agri-entrepreneurship, with incubation support. The overall training pedagogy and syllabus is approved by expert committee in bio-pesticide formulations and Training GPS Institute, Agricultural Skill council of India, University of Mysore and FAO. Though it is a module for six months fast track training modules are developed for various target groups. In order to enhance the utility of bio-pesticides at the farmers’ level we often rely on information cascades: train a few key entry points, and then allow the technology to diffuse via ambient social learning. Candidates who are going to be involved directly in the agricultural field operations and extension system are being identified and separate

189 training modules are planned for them. The participants of government sponsored programs like Agri Clinics and Agri Business Center (AC&ABC), ASCI- Agricultural Skill council of India under NSDC, Nehru Yuva Kendra Sangathan, ARYA (Attracting and Retaining Youth in Agriculture), Diploma in Agricultural Extension Services for Input Dealers (DAESI) Program, NABARD farmers Club and National Rural Livelihood Mission (NRLM)/Deendayal Antyodaya Yojana are focused as major targets for better realization of microbial bio-pesticides training in the rural area.

190 SOLDIER, A WDP Formulation of Entomopathogenic Nematode, Heterorhabditis indica strain NBAII Hi1 – A Success Story of Transferring Biocontrol Technology from Institute to Industry

S. Kumar*, S.K. Ghosh and Mahesh G. Shetty Multiplex Biotech private limited, A-420, Peenya Industrial Estate, 1st stage Bangalore -560058. Karnataka, India *Email: [email protected]

Entomopathogenic nematodes (EPNs) are pathogens of insects that occur naturally in the soil. In combination with their symbiotic bacteria, they can be used in an integrated control programme against many insect pests. Such biological control agents have a wide host range and have the ability to actively search for their host, while remaining harmless to other organisms and the environment. There is a dire need for new and innovative methods to control agricultural pests, as numerous pest insects have developed resistance against broad-spectrum insecticides. Together with the environmental impact of these insecticides and the safety aspect regarding humans and animals, the need to develop new technologies, including EPNs for pest management, is very high. Multiplex Biotech private limited (MBT) is a Bio-Agri venture of Multiplex Group of companies, dedicated over four decades in developing and promoting various innovative products in enhancing crop productivity in India agriculture. Considering the growing commercial demand and the breakthrough development of EPN technology by National Bureau of Agriculturally important insect (NBAII) Bangalore, MBT had obtained EPN technology from NBAII during 2012 as a wettable powder formulation of Heterorhabditis indica strain NBAII Hi1 with a production capacity of less than one MT per month and targeting against root grubs and other cryptic insect pests. MBT has successfully scaled up the production capacity more than 10 MT per month within a span of 5 years and delivering in the market with a load of 50-70,000 IJ /g and shelf-life 8-10 month and targeting to achieve 25 MT per month by restructuring the production facility. Through continuous in-house research on cost-effective large-scale production method of Galleria larva as a host to continue in-vivo production of EPN and further improvising on its formulation and delivery methods only made it possible to scale up this technology further. This paper will highlight the importance of Institute – Industry collaboration in successful development of any biocontrol technology and the additional efforts

191 made by industry to fill the technical gaps which an industry need to struggle continuously to make the technology commercially viable. An additional attempt will be made to enlighten an overview of filed performances as a commercial product and strategies made by industry to make it more effective and popular product “SOILDIER” in the management of root-grubs and other soil-borne insect pests in India and neighboring countries.

192 Management of Total Quality Control (TQC) of Microbial Bio-pesticides in Agri-business

M.J. Savitha Bio-control Research Laboratories, A Division of Pest Control (India) Pvt Ltd., 36/2 Sriramanahalli, Arakere Post Bengaluru-562 163, India Email: [email protected]

Efficacy is the essential parameter of good quality microbial bio- pesticides. Efficacy is determined based on field evaluation of the product, whereas quality encompasses all phases in the manufacturing of a product. Quality has to be built into the final product starting from the raw materials to the finished product. This includes control of incoming material, production, formulation, product shelf life and special process studies. Since these controls affect quality, they must be used to influence the quality of the end product. Total quality control (TQC) includes standard operating procedures covering all aspects of production starting from raw materials, equipment, training, work environment, packaging, storage and documentation. In order to achieve consistency and reproducibility of a product according to the quality standards, it is necessary to implement good manufacturing practices in the system to minimise risks. Adoption of these measures, particularly related raw materials used and processes adopted is vital for obtaining organic certification of bio pesticides. TQC develops the soft as well as hard skill of the organization. Nevertheless, it is only through entire workforce dedication that highest quality can be achieved by implementing Total Quality Control. Application of these standard protocols will help companies in developing good quality, efficient products with enhanced field performance and satisfy the end user. In short implementation of TQC ensures maintenance of product quality at minimum cost and enhances credibility of the organization among end users, thereby giving it a competitive edge in domestic as well as global markets.

193 Plantwise: Augmenting Utilization of Bio- Pesticides through Extension Approach

Manju Thakur*, Malvika Chaudhary, Ganeshamoorthy Rajendran and Vinod Pandit CABI-South Asia, New Delhi, India *Email: [email protected]

Since decades, use of synthetic chemical pesticides had been the widely used approach for reducing the estimated 45% gross crop losses due to pests and diseases. Over the years, the misuse and overuse of chemical pesticides lead to resistance, resurgence in pest populations and major contributor to environmental pollution. Due to these increasing concerns, concept and impetus for Integrated Pest Management (IPM) grew out in the 1950s. Bio-pesticides have become an important component of IPM strategies for plant protection due to their capability of maintaining the natural diversity without using any artificial or synthetic residues. The uptake of bio-pesticides has still been inadequate in almost all the South Asian countries due to usage unawareness, product unavailability and registration and regulation issues. Plantwise, a global program led by CABI supports the IPM approach and therefore also the use of biological in agro-advisories and thus maximising the use of IPM approaches. Plantwise is operating in 33 countries worldwide including most of the SAARC countries viz., Afghanistan, Bangladesh, India, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka. More than a thousand trained plant doctors address the concern of farmers in more than 2000 plant clinics across these countries since its inception. They mostly recommend IPM practices which are often effective, cost effective and eco-friendly. Bio-pesticides forms a major part of plant doctor recommendations complemented by other measures recommended-mechanical, cultural, resistant varieties, monitoring measures and chemicals as a last resort. Clinic data collected from these plant clinics shows that out of the 137,332 queries in total that have been documented till date 8 percent are biological agents. India tops in the recommended use of biologicals in plant clinics established. Plant doctors are also backed by PW Pest Management Decision Guides (PMDGs) based on traffic light system to provide right recommendations. The PMDGS provide management control based on IPM approach therefore also recommending use of different bio- products. The concern in utilisation of the recommended biocontrol products with few countries is their availability and various regulation issues. Greater emphasis on bio-pesticide usage as part of agricultural policy will open ways to new innovations in the way the bio-pesticides are regulated, allowing wider availability and making the technology

194 more accessible to farmers. Continuing to work for its mission of providing safe food and losing less, Plantwise aims to seek collaborations with private sector and projects working on similar lines.

195 Digital Extension for Promoting Bio-pesticides Y.B. Srinivasa and H.M. Mahesh* Tene Agricultural Solutions Pvt Ltd, No. 805, 2nd Floor, 13th A Main, Sector-A, Yelahanka New Town, Bengaluru-560 064, India *Email: [email protected] *Department of Entomology, University of Agricultural Sciences, GKVK Campus, Bengaluru 560 065

The use of bio-pesticides in pest management is being strongly advocated by all the faculties of the society, including various governments and the international organizations. Yet, the extent of their use is far from satisfaction; conventional molecules continue to dominate the pesticide domain. The demand/supply conundrum, the chicken-first or egg-first story, a problem in economics, or whatever one might want to call it, has been the bane. We have collectively failed in creating the right demand and in backing it up with timely supply. Till date, the demand and supply have been treated as conjoined kids, left to race with all the normal ones, one being relentlessly burdened by the other, and left far behind the rest. It is time for a surgery, to separate the conjoined, to disconnect demand from supply, to run the race independent of the other. Demand creation has to undoubtedly precede supply backups. Therefore, the challenge at our hands is in understanding the touch points of demand followed by preparing a working strategy. While accepting the weaknesses in bio-pesticides, like slow action, weather dependency etc, it becomes obvious that the touch points for generating demand lies in accurate anticipation and in early diagnosis of the prevailing problems; conventional molecules claim higher stakes when the problems become severe. Unfortunately for bio-pesticides, the complete collapse of the agricultural extension system in India, as like in many other developing nations, has made it impossible for the farmer to get a regular inspection of his crop, so that the pest problems could be nipped-off in their buds using biopesticides. From the above context, it becomes important to understand the concept of the DESEE Force (Digitally Empowered Self Employed Extension Force) which dwells upon creation of a dedicated extension force that is digitally enabled and works on the self- employment model. The DESEE Force are rigorously trained in crop health management and are digitally empowered, so that they are able to independently diagnose the problem, quantify the extent of the problem and provide scientifically proven solutions to the farmer. Early detection and accurate diagnosis is made possible by the DESEE Force, which would definitely create the right demand for bio-pesticides. Following the demand creation, the supply network should be activated and good quality bio-pesticides should reach the farmers at the right time.

196 Registration of Bio-pesticides at Central Insecticides Board and Registration Committee (CIB & RC), India M.S. Rao* and and R. Umamaheswari Division of Entomology and Nematology, ICAR-Indian Institute of Horticultural Research, Hesaraghatta Lake Post Bengaluru-560089, India *Email: [email protected]

Microbial bio-pesticides are the formulations containing viable microbes (bacteria, fungi or viruses). As per the Insecticide Act of 1968, all the Microbial bio-pesticides have to be registered at Central Insecticide Board and Registration Committee (CIB&RC), Ministry of Agriculture, Faridabad. Before submitting the data for registration by CIB&RC, a researcher has to provide relevant data about the bio-agent for inclusion in the Gazette of Ministry of Agriculture. Once it is notified in the Ministry of Agriculture, the bio-agent has to be submitted to ICAR- NBAIM, Mau for deposition and to acquire the accession number. It is advisable to undertake molecular characterization of the effective bio- agent strain. Subsequently one has to go through the guidelines of CIB&RC mentioned in the website www.cibrc.nic.in.After generating bio-efficacy data, shelf life, toxicological data on the primary culture and formulation as per the CIB&RC guidelines, the data can be submitted to CIB&RC for provisional registration 9(3b) initially. Institution can obtain permanent registration by generating health safety records of the persons involved in the mass production of bio-pesticide and additional bio-efficacy and toxicological data.

197 Chapter 9 Proceedings of the SAARC Regional Expert Consultation on “Facilitating Microbial Pesticide Use in South Asia”

SAARC Regional expert consultation on “facilitating microbial pesticide use in south Asia” was jointly organized by SAARC Agriculture Centre (SAC), ICAR-National Bureau of Agricultural Insect Resources (NBAIR) and The Centre for Agriculture and Bioscience International (CABI) during 21-23 August 2017 at ICAR-National Bureau of Agricultural Insect Resources (NBAIR), Bengaluru, India. The consultation was inaugurated by Dr TAM Manjunath, former Director, Monsanto India, Dr Ravi Khetarpal, Executive Secretary, APAARI, Bangkok, Dr Chandish R. Ballal, Director, ICAR-NBAIR, Dr. W.A.R.T. Wickramaarachchi, Senior Program Specialist, Policy Division, SAARC Agriculture Centre (SAC) and Dr Malvika Chaudhary, CABI by lighting a lamp. Dr Chandish R. Ballal, Director, ICAR-NBAIR addressed the gathering and welcomed the SAARC delegates to the consultation. The workshop started with the introductory speech given by Dr W.A.R.T. Wickramaarachchi, Senior Program Specialist, SAC. He gave an overview about the genesis of SAC which was established in 1988 as “SAARC Agricultural Information Centre (SAIC)” and later upgraded in 2007 to the full-fledged SAARC Agricultural Centre (SAC) which is considered as the Centre of Excellence for sustainable Agricultural Development in South Asia. He stressed the importance about the utilization of microbial pesticides in the SAARC countries. Dr T.M. Manjunath who is a stalwart in the field of biological control and IPM shared the mandate of SAARC and pointed out the challenges to be addressed like IPR issues, regulatory hurdles, political interference and duplication of research within and across countries in the region and called for efforts to develop climate resilient biocontrol agents and genetic improvement of biocontrol agents. He also called for institutional research rather than individual centric research. Dr. Ravi Khetarpal, Executive Secretary, APAARI, Bangkok talked about biosecurity engagements and use of bio-pesticides for meeting SDGs in SAARC regions. He stressed the need for partnership to have well-knit information opportunities for SAARC so that environment friendly bio-pesticides can be better utilized. He also opined that innovative funding and partnership strategy are the needs of the hour in this field.

198 Dr Chandish R. Ballal, Director, ICAR-NBAIR gave an outline about the research carried out in the field of microbial pesticides in India. She briefed about the various success stories achieved in the country by the employment of effective of microbial pesticides. Constraints in the field of microbial pesticide research like difficulty in rearing of host larvae, problems in fermentation, shelf life and cumbersome registration requirements were also pointed out. Dr Ballal also suggested new approaches like combination of microbials with arthropod bioagents and symbionts.

Country presentations Professionals from 7 SAARC Member Countries except Pakistan (Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal and Sri Lanka) presented the current status of microbial pesticide utilization in respective countries.

Afghanistan (Mr Ghulam Mohammad Saedi) Agricultural production in Afghanistan is constrained by problem of water shortages. Agricultural infrastructure has been lost due to conflict in the region. Damaged infrastructure paved the way for entrance of non- indigenous plant pests, diseases and many pesticides without registration through porous borders. He emphasized that equipped laboratory is not available to analyze the active ingredient in the agrochemicals. Similarly, no equipped plant quarantine stations are situated especially in borders of the country. A few bioagents are produced in biological control laboratory at Plant Protection and Quarantine Directorate, Kabul. The attempts are made to introduce the use of bio-pesticides through Farmer Field School (FFS) across the country. However, there is no technical expertise on bio- pesticides. All pesticides and fertilizers are imported.

Recommendations  Adoption of standard procedure like ISPM8 for a land locked country like Afghanistan  Pesticides can be sent to referral laboratories in New Delhi or Bangkok for analysis of active ingredients

Bangladesh (Mr Kbd Amitava Das) Four microbial pesticides (Trichoderma spp., Pseudomonas spp Bacillus spp and NPV) are under development in Bangladesh. One product containing Trichoderma spp has been registered. But it needs a license for marketing and commercial introduction to farmers. Lack of training

199 on microbial pesticides analysis of government catalyst (Chemist of PPW of DAE in Bangladesh) is a major drawback for facilitation of use of microbial pesticides. The stakeholders and farmers are lack of awareness about the benefits of using microbial pesticides.

Recommendations  Motivational training should be provided directly to the farmers and related NGOs about the benefits of using microbial pesticides especially about its environmental friendliness  Strengthen the laboratory of PPW of DAE by supplying necessary equipments and organizing proper training of lab personnel on testing of microbial pesticides  Pesticides companies should be encouraged to produce microbial pesticides through motivational seminars and also by public private partnership program

Bhutan (Mr Pema Tobagy) Subsistence and low input farming is predominant in Bhutan and aspiring to be 100 percent organic agriculture. Bhutan has withdrawn the subsidy on chemical pesticides and introduced centralized procurement system to decreases the use of agrochemicals. National organic program has promoted the use of microbial bio-pesticides for crop protection. Pesticide rules of Bhutan 2017 do not allow manufacturing of chemical pesticides but allow only manufacturing of microbial bio-pesticides. Lack of man power, qualified professionals and well-equipped laboratories are major constraints for facilitation of microbial pesticide use.

Recommendations  With the commitment to 100 percent organic agriculture, the focus should be shifted from import of bio-pesticides to strengthen their manufacturing within the country  Indigenous isolates should be explored for production of better microbial agents  Training is needed for farm level and small-scale production of microbial pesticides

India (Dr Rajan) ICAR is one of the largest national agricultural systems with highest manpower in the world. ICAR-NBAIR, NBAIM, NCIPM, CPCRI, IISR, IARI and other research institutes in NARS has intensified the work on

200 antagonists against crop diseases, mass production and formulation technologies. 210 isolates of entomofungal pathogens, 119 isolates of EPNs and 284 isolates of B. thuringiensis are maintained in ICAR- NBAIR. Further, national repository of 5000 microbial collections is maintained in ICAR-NBAIM. States of Uttarakhand and Sikkim have declared their states as organic. Growing demand of organic food might give push for increase in area under organic crop cultivation.

Recommendations  Separate legislation for chemical pesticides and microbial pesticides should be chalked out so that registration can be fast tracked  Department of Biotechnology (DBT) who has once spearheaded the research of bio-pesticides has now stopped funding it. So, efforts should be made from ICAR for revival of funding from DBT for research and development of bio-pesticides  Structured HRD programs for the SAARC countries in the field of microbial bio-pesticides should be funded by the SAARC and ICAR

Maldives (Mr Hussain Farah) Maldives largely depends on chemical pesticides for agricultural pest control. There is no rigid legal framework for pesticide regulation. Moreover, no institutional arrangements or capacity for research and production of microbial pesticides are in place. Lack of staff with relevant qualifications and practical experience is a major constraint in popularization of microbial pesticides. Geographical composition of Maldives calls for a large work force for greater outreach. Microbial pesticides which are imported are expensive. Thus they are out of the reach of small scale farmers.

Recommendations  Indigenous isolates should be explored for production of better microbial agents  Establishment of production facility - less reliance on import

Nepal (Mr Dinesh Babu Tiwari) Agriculture in Nepal is mostly subsistence type. IPM is recognized as National Plant Protection Strategy. About 16,000 farmers are trained through Farmers’ Field School on IPM. Highly complex registration procedure reduces the commercialization of microbial bio-pesticides. Regional Plant Protection Labs mandated with different bio-pesticide promotion. Seven community resource centers are producing bio- pesticides at farmers’ level. Effective indigenous isolates have been

201 identified but not commercialized. Limited human resources on plant protection and microbiology background are a constraint.

Recommendations  As registration is not required for EPN formulations in India, Nepal pesticide act 1991 can be revised accordingly to commercialize EPN in Nepal without registration  Since agriculture in Nepal by default is organic, arrangements have to be made for development of microbial pesticides  Simplification of registration process for microbial bio-pesticides  Experience sharing and effective co-work among the regional and other institutions

Sri Lanka (Ms U.S.K. Abeysinghe) Pest control in Sri Lanka is mostly dependent on the use of synthetic pesticides. There is huge potential of extract beneficial microbes from native environment due to high bio diversity. The government of Sri Lanka has launched three years national programme namely “Wasa Visa Nathi Ratak (A country without posionus substances)” to eliminate the use of synthetic pesticides and synthetic fertilizers in agriculture towards the end of year 2018. Special technical advisory committee was appointed in 2015 to prepare the guidelines for bio-pesticide registration in Sri Lanka. Exemptions and waivers are given for the registration of microbial pesticides in which a provisional registration will be granted for three years for locally manufactured bio pesticides with commonly used active ingredients. Currently, a microbial pesticide has been registered for mosquito control but for agricultural pests. Import of microbial pesticides and other biocontrol agents is not permitted in Sri Lanka.

Recommendations  Microbial pesticides should be utilized in the plantation sector  Develop international linkage for expertise and knowledge

General regional recommendations  Simplification of registration protocols and separation of microbial pesticides from chemical pesticides and inadequate laboratory facilities should be addressed  Economics of production and utilization of microbial bio-pesticides should be worked out and stressed upon

202  Registration procedure should be simplified for microbial bio- pesticides  Need for capacity development for commercial production and marketing of microbial bio-pesticides  More focus should be given on enhancing the shelf life of bio- pesticides  Appropriate documentation on success stories of use of bio- pesticides  Status report of use of bio-pesticides in SAARC countries should be compiled and prepared with suggestions for capacity building, technology transfer and exchange of experts  Bio-pesticide knowledge bank should be present as a portal in SAARC website with inputs on international experts, laboratories, success stories, policy and legislation on similar lines of FAO, Nepal  Importance of conservation cataloguing, mapping and conservation of biodiversity of microbials as national wealth for posterity, benefit sharing and ecological services in SAARC countries  Need for establishment of National repository for microbials as per FAO in all SAARC countries  Regional cooperation and empowerment of commercial production systems so that quality of bio-pesticides can be assured  FAO can be approached for funding for International networking project on microbial bio-pesticides

Recommendations for particular member countries  Afghanistan: Appreciated for the efforts taken but has a long way to go in the utilization of bio-pesticides  India: Need act as a leading country by imparting technology and knowledge across the region  Bhutan: Need to involve more in the research work in the native isolates  Sri Lanka: More focus should be given for encouraging farmers to adopt use of bio-pesticides  Nepal: Appreciated for the mobilization of communities through community resource centers which is a very good initiative in a hilly area like Nepal  Bangladesh: Bureaucratic problems are a major hindrance in popularization of bio-pesticides

203 Invited paper presentations Global Scenario on uptake of biocontrol products by extension services in selected countries from developing world (Dr Malvika Chaudhary, CABI-South Asia, New Delhi, India) There is a favourable environment for uptake of biocontrol products because of pesticide resistance problems. Recent stakeholder interest has led to significant growth in the biocontrol product sector. “Plantwise” is a global program fostering biocontrol in 34 countries within the continent of America, Africa and Asia. Except Bhutan and Maldives, Plantwise is operating in all the other SAARC countries. “Plantwise” program facilitates the establishment of networks of plant clinics where farmers can obtain diagnosis and management advice for plant health problems. Pest Management Decision Guides (PMDGs) is a support tool for extension officers which contain practical advice giving more emphasis on principles of IPM. Analysis of plant clinic data records collected by extension workers for more than one-year period revealed that 61 percent of PMDGs on insect pests in India were having biocontrol recommendations which was highest closely followed by Nepal’s 57 percent. Biocontrol products are rarely being recommended except in India. Biocontrol products are not usually recommended by extension officers due to lack of market accessibility although they are included in PMDGs. Further, registered biocontrol products are also not always included in PMDGs. India and Kenya have adapted their registration process for biocontrol products. As a result, more products are available. CABI has developed a Training Manual for promoting utilization of biocontrol in ASEAN Countries.

Recommendations  Joint ventures between countries to establish local production units for biocontrol products  An inventory of registered, available and affordable biocontrol products is required  Scope of Plantwise can be increased by giving training for multiplication of biocontro agents locally

Current Status of research and development on microbial biocontrol agents for insect and nematode pest management in India (Dr Jagadeesh Patil, ICAR-NBAIR, Bengaluru, India) About 40 native isolates of antagonists of PPN including Paecilomyces lilacinus, Pochonia chlamydosporia and Arthrobotrys oligospora have been evaluated. Talc preparations of antagonsitic fungi with 10-12 months shelf-life have been developed. A simple design and technology

204 for development of amorphous / talc formulations of antagonistic fungi have been developed (Inter Parties Review - Patent filed). New isolates of EPN isolated from diseased grubs and soils collected from sugarcane fields of Maharastra and vegetable fields of Jammu and Kashmir. ICAR- NBAIR website hosts a portal for database on EPN. EPN is exempt from government registration requirements as per Environmental Protection Agency of USA (EPA). EPN and their formulations are not listed in Central Insecticide Board and Registration Committee, India. EPN Technology (wettable powder formulation) with shelf life of 8 months licensed to 14 commercial companies/SAU/NGO. Novel insecticidal wettable powder formulations of Heterorhabditis indica strain NBAII Hi1 with a shelf-life of 8 months was developed for the biological control of white grubs and other insect pests.

Recommendations  Intensive surveys and cataloguing of nematode biodiversity and genetic resources  Strengthen national repository and culture collection facility  Private – public partnerships (PPPs) for developing production and supply chain to niche areas  ICAR-NBAIR should strive for becoming a front runner for mutual collaboration within SAARC countries for better prospects of biocontrol of PPN and utilization

Current status of research and development of microbial biocontrol agents for crop pest and disease management in India (Dr Ramanujam, ICAR-NBAIR, Bengaluru, India) Oil formulations of antagonists are preferred by farmers because of their longer shelf life (12-18 months) and amenability for foliar sprays. Invert- emulsion formulation of Trichoderma harzianum with l2 month shelf life developed at ICAR-NBAIR is suitable for foliar spray. Salinity tolerant and carbendazim tolerant strains of HAR-4B and GJ-16B have been identified against soil borne pathogens in groundnut, tomato and sorghum in several states and commercialized to private agencies. Antibiotic 2,4-diacetylphloroglucinol (2,4-DAPG) producing as well as temperature, salinity and drought tolerant Pseudomonas fluorescens has been developed for groundnut (soil borne diseases) and paddy (foliar diseases) and commercialized to private agencies. BIPM technology for rice pest and disease management has been successfully demonstrated in Kerala (1,500 ha) using with P. fluorescens as substitute for fungicide and insecticides spray. At NBAIR, Bengaluru, there are 300 indigenous strains of Bt which are found to be effective against H. armigera, DBM

205 and Tuta. Recently, liquid formulation of Bt has been developed. Several strains of NPV are available with ICAR- NBAIR including Spodoptera litura NPV, H. armigera NPV, Achaea janata NPV and Spilosoma obliqua NPV. Broad spectrum promising strains of EPF (Bb-5a, Ma-4 and Vl-8) were identified at ICAR-NBAIR against cowpea aphid, cabbage and cauliflower aphid, chilli and brinjal aphid, root grubs and borer pests. Endophytic strain of B. bassiana (NBAIR-Bb-5a) showed efficacy against maize and sorghum stem borer Chilo partellus.

Recommendations  Identification of more number of indigenous effective Bt strains, cost effective production technology, Coleopteran and Dipteran Bt strains  Development of effective formulations of entomopathogenic fungi with good shelf life and field persistency, large scale SSF technology and oil formulations for dry weather conditions  Combination products of EPF with EPN/Bt  Guidelines for consortium should be developed for registration in CIB and RC

Recent advances in training to enhance use of microbial pesticides (Dr Abraham Verghese and Mr Senthilkumar Radhakrishnan, GPS Institute of Agricultural Management, Bengaluru, India) The institute is currently conducting more than 120 modular agri skill based trainings which are based on technology and also on pedagogy/andragogy. Customized training programs are given to the rural oriented people and farmers. Trainees are placed as interns in appropriate centers for transfer of technology and encouraged to take up agri-entrepreneurship with incubation support. All trainings are under taken considering the crop calendar and physiology of the crop. Training for low cost production of NPV has been formulated. Since information on microbial pesticides was lacking in the training syllabus of agri clinics, the MANAGE was got involved to reconsider and to focus more on microbial pesticides.

Recommendations  Ministry of Agriculture can be approached and agri experts in KVK can be deputed to get them exposed to this modern methodology of training  Through ICCR (Indian Council for Cultural Relations) model for cultural exchange, SAARC countries can apply for short term training programme in the institute with reduced tariffs

206 Successful development and commercialization of microbial pesticides as crop protectant – An industrial perspective from lab to farm (Dr S.K. Ghosh, Multiplex Biotech Private Limited, Bengaluru, India) Fungal bioagents are mass-produced by SSF method. Semi-controlled bioreactor for SSF process provides batch uniformity, better quality of propagules, low chance of contamination and easiness in scaling up.

Recommendation  Approve a discussion committee for the registration of consortia to explore the possibility for fast-tracking the registration of consortia

SOLDIER, A WDP formulation of entomopathogenic nematodes, Heterorhabditis indica strain NBAII Hi1 – A success story of transferring biocontrol technology from institute to industry (Mr S. Kumar, Multiplex Biotech Private Limited, Bengaluru, India) Multiplex Soldier is a bio-product which is eco-friendly containing entomopathogenic nematodes (EPN) Heterorhabditis indica. A couple of new formulations such as EPN in gel formulation, EPN entrapped in clay mix, EPN in Alginate Bead Formulation and EPN Cadaver were explained. Indigenously developed method has been modified for trapping and handling of large numbers of cadavers.

Recommendation  ICAR contributions in the product development should be highlighted and appropriately acknowledged by private industry for success of private public partnerships

Management of Total Quality Control (TQC) of microbial bio pesticides in agri-business (Dr M.J. Savitha, Biocontrol Research Laboratories Division, Pest Control (India) Pvt Ltd, India) Highly effective production, formulation, stabilization and storage process control are required to ensure viability and biocontrol efficacy. Data should be gathered during all processes and should be used to improve the production on a continuous basis. Natural variation makes efficacy testing via bio-assays difficult and setting an internal standard is required. Standard operating procedures (SOPs) should be developed for quality control. In India, CIB has established quality standards for assessing the product quality and also for registration. A system of referral laboratories accredited by the DBT for quality testing has been established. The trials should be carried out by officially recognized organizations and to GLP standards.

207 Recommendations  Sufficient data should be generated to ascertain whether passing through the natural host of the microbial agent is a necessity or not.  Sampling procedure for quality control was not covered in the presentation  DNA finger printing and molecular mapping can be explored for ensuring quality of bio-pesticides as per the rules of CIB & RC from January 2016

Plantwise: augmenting utilization of bio-pesticides through extension approach (Dr Manju Thakur, CABI-South Asia, New Delhi, India) “Plantwise” programme operates through the establishment of network of plant clinics and knowledge bank with information and management built on, inter alia, data from PCs. Establishment of “Plantwise” Online Management System (POMS) and country wise progress has been reviewed. Limited number of plant doctors made most of the BCA recommendations while a significant proportion of plant doctors never recommended microbial pesticides.

Recommendations  Promote training to the extension staff in the use of bio-pesticides  Clinic data can be utilised to identify research gaps that need to be addressed and training needs if any  Uptake of technology through interactive communication (linkages among stakeholders)  Scope for training programmes with certificates

Digital extension for promoting bio-pesticides (Dr Y.B. Srinivasa, Tene Agricultural Solutions Pvt Ltd, India) Digitally Empowered, Self Employed Extension (DESEE) Force has been established for identification of crop health problems, estimation of loss and providing appropriate recommendations. DESEE Force will generate authentic and verifiable data on farm situations and can provide personal crop consultancy for farmers and prevent farmers from exploitation. This is a 3C Smart - Digital Service in which IT platform allows an automatic process of timely delivery of personalized advisories to a very large number of farmers, completely localizable and ensures constant farmer engagement. On other hand, this provides employment and empowerment for rural youth.

208 Recommendation  Apprehensions were raised about the required qualification of the people who are recruited to the DESEE Force

Bio-pesticide markets - growing awareness of the value chain, challenges and opportunities. (Dr Ramana Murthy, PCI-Pest Control Pvt Ltd, Bengaluru, India) Bio pesticides should have consistent and replicable performance, scalable production method, reasonable shelf life, profitable and simpler farm adoption techniques in order to success in the market. Baring early entrants that have not much developed are required for the product development. Dosage and frequency of application should sync with set norms of the farmer.

Recommendation  Hands-on working approach with multiple stakeholders for greater understanding in creating the entire value chain

Registration of bio-pesticides at CIB and RC, India (Dr M.S. Rao, IIHR, Bengaluru, India) In India, the use of pesticides is regulated by the CIB&RC. The use of pesticides is mainly governed by the Insecticides Act-1968 and Insecticides Rules-1971. The submission of this application involves several technicalities. Guidelines/data requirements for registration of antagonistic fungi/bacteria are given under section 9(3)B and 9(3) of the Insecticide Act-1968. Bio-nematicide contains IIHR isolate (IIHR Pl-2) of nematophagous fungus-Paecilomyces lilacinus. This is a classic example of transferring a technology from lab to farm via PPPs. The data and technology of mass production of Paecilomyces lilacinus were transferred to 53 beneficiaries in India. ICAR- IIHR is the only institute in the country which provides the following data for registration from Central Insecticide Board and Registration Committee (CIB and RC), Ministry of Agriculture.

Recommendation  Efforts should be taken from the private sector to sensitize CIB & RC for simplification of registration process and formulation of guidelines for the registration of consortia

Plenary Session All participants attended the plenary session conducted on day 3 (23 August 2017) afternoon. The chair Dr T.M. Manjunath welcomed all

209 attendees. This session consisted of discussions, interactions and talks in order to come up with prioritized regional recommendations and propose way forward. After all deliberations, the chair proposed 7 recommendations based on the collective ideas of the consultation which are to be taken care regionally. Other than general recommendations, forum proposed a couple of other recommendations which will be taken up either nationally or regionally. The all recommendations were endorsed by National Focal Point Experts representing the respective member SAAR member countries and other experts.

General recommendations 1) Collaboration between SAAR countries for strengthening the production and use of bio-pesticides wherever needed 2) Policy decisions in each country for import and export of bio- pesticides 3) Separate legislation for registration of chemical pesticides and bio- pesticides and simplification of registration procedure for bio- pesticides 4) Creating awareness about biosafety and biosecurity of microbial pesticides and their proper use 5) Permission for registration of microbial pesticides consortia products 6) Training programme for researchers in the field of microbial pesticides 7) Creation of working group which can meet once in a year to advise and assess the progress

Other recommendations 1) Policies for the encouragement of organic farming and thus adoption of use of microbial pesticides 2) Detailed and time bound project proposals for scaling up of production of biocontrol agents starting from problem identification, assessment of existing biodiversity and possibility of exploration of biocontrol agents in other countries leading to establishment of small scale production unit and finally scaling up with private partnership 3) Each country should prioritize the important pests for which microbial control agents are needed 4) Collaborative regional research for exchange of biocontrol agents 5) SAARC initiative to have a team to sensitize Sri Lankan Government about the benefits of microbial biocontrol agents and the host specificity of the same so that imports can be permitted

210 6) There should be a database on the important pests in a particular region in the SAARC website so that surveillance can be carried out 7) “Plantwise” can re-emphasize for providing transboundary surveillance alerts of insect pests or pathogens 8) Bio-pesticides can be sent to referral laboratories for testing the quality

211

Regional Consultation Workshop on “Facilitating Microbial Pesticide Use in South Asia” Organized by SAARC Agriculture Centre (SAC), Bangladesh, ICAR- National Bureau of Agricultural Insect Resources (ICAR-NBAIR), India and CABI-South Asia 21-23 August 2017 At ICAR-NBAIR, Bengaluru, India

Concept Note

Background In 2013 a regional workshop on bio pesticides clearly came up with recommendations that would support the extent and potential use of bio pesticides in SAARC countries. The experts from six countries- Afghanistan, Nepal, Bhutan, Pakistan, Sri Lanka and Bangladesh had presented that current status of the technology flagging the constraints. There was good amount of information generated on all the possible technologies pertaining to bio-control available in respective countries. Though the recommendations guided the way forward on bringing these technology in hands of farmers, still there is a huge gap in utilization. It is important to understand the modalities that will support the use of at least few major microbial pesticides which are commonly recommended. Hence it is proposed to organize a consultative meeting gauging the current scenario as a precursor of proposing a bigger project that would support the implementation of the workshop held in 2013.

Objectives 1. Revisiting the recommendations from Regional workshop on bio- control in 2013 and assessing the current scenario 2. Enhanced analyses on the requisites to make bio-control successful from lab to farm 3. Flagging constraints and limitation in implementation of the recommendations 4. Improved Linkage between Private companies with Public institutions to facilitate mechanism ensuring utilization of bio- control technology as products in farmer field

212 Scope and methodology The workshop will be interactive and participatory focusing on achieving the above objectives. It consists of country presentations (by Focal Point Experts), thematic presentations (by resource persons), plenary sessions, group exercise and site visits. Each Focal Point Experts nominated by respective Member Country will prepare a comprehensive technical paper stating the country states on use of microbial pesticides (approximately 15-20 pages). The format for the country paper would be as below. 1. Abstract 2. Introduction 3. Current status and trends in use of microbial pesticides against pest, disease and weed management in agriculture 4. Institutional arrangements and legal framework for research, production, registration, use, import, export, commercialization of microbial pesticides 5. Establishment of infrastructure for monitoring standards and quality parameter of microbial pesticide 6. Adoption of FAO/OECD guided fast track registration system to harmonization registration across the SAARC countries 7. New research in field of microbial pesticide improvement and development and evidences of multi-stakeholder collaborative approaches for its development 8. Indigenous Technology Knowledge and consideration of these as microbial pesticides countries 9. Current status on human resource capacity for research, development and extension to promote the utilization of microbial pesticides and Capacity development gaps 10. Challenges, constraints and opportunities in microbial pesticide commercialization and use 11. Any success stories of microbial pesticides use 12. Recommendations and conclusion 13. References Resource persons and invited speakers will submit technical reports and make presentations on selected thematic areas.

213 Expected outputs 1. Documentation on the current scenario of microbial pesticides in SAARC countries 2. Action plan for bringing microbial pesticides research to farm 3. Establishment of partnership between identified stakeholders 4. Development of policy brief for microbial pesticide use 5. A work plan in form of project proposal for successful implementation of recommendation from Regional Consultation Workshop

Workshop agenda Day of Arrival (20 - Arrival of participants at project venue August 2017) (Bangalore, India) Day 1 (21 August - Opening session 2017) - Presentation of resource papers - Presentation of country papers Day 2 (22 August - Field visits organizations /companies/ 2017) farms to learn the success stories and to meet all relevant stakeholders Day 3 (23 August - Group workshop /exercise to workout out 2017) line of work frame / strategy to identify the future support for SAARC member states to make a policy brief - Presentation of group exercise outputs - Program evaluation by participants and resource persons - Summing-up session Day of Departure (25 - Departure of participants August 2017)

Post project actions Workshop proceeding will be prepared based on the country papers submitted by each participant and other theme papers submitted by resource persons and jointly published by SAC, ICAR-NBAIR and CABI.

214 Program SAARC Regional Expert Consultation on “Facilitating Microbial Pesticide Use in Agriculture in South Asia” (21-23 August, 2017 at ICAR-NBAIR, Bengaluru, India)

21 August 09.30am Registration 2017 09.45am (Tuesday) 09.45am Inaugural Session

10.00am Lighting of lamp, invocation, ICAR song and release of book of abstracts Welcome address by Dr Chandish R Ballal, Director ICAR-NBAIR Introductory remarks by Dr WART Wickramaarachchi, SPS (PSPD), SAC 10.00am Inaugural speech by Dr TM Manjunath, IPM & Bio- 10.15am control Specialist 10.15am Key note address by Dr Ravi Khetarpal, Executive 10.45am Secretary, APAARI, Bangkok: Ensuring Agricultural Bio-security Engagements and Use of Bio pesticides for meeting Sustainable Development Goals in SAARC Region 10.45am Key note address by Dr Chandish R Ballal, Director 11.10am ICAR-NBAIR: Bio-control technology and its future 11.10am Vote of thanks by Dr Malvika Chaudhary, CABI- 11.15am South Asia 11.15am -11.30am High Tea Country paper presentation Chairman Dr Ravi Khetarpal, Executive Secretary, APAARI, Bangkok Co- Dr M Nagesh, Principal Scientist, ICAR-NBAIR, Bengaluru Chairman Rapporteurs Dr Ramy, Senior Scientist, ICAR-NBAIR, Bengaluru Dr Kandan, Senior Scientist, ICAR-NBAIR, Bengaluru Speakers 21August 11.30am Country paper on facilitating the use of microbial 2017 12.00pm pesticides by Mr Ghulam Mohammad Saedi, (Monday) Afghanistan

215 12.00pm Country paper on facilitating the use of microbial 2.30pm pesticides and current status of microbial pesticides use in Bangladesh by Mr Kbd Amitava Das, Bangladesh 12.30pm Country paper on facilitating the use of microbial 01.00pm pesticide in Bhutan by Mr Pema Tobgay, Bhutan 01.00pm Country paper on microbial bio-pesticides- Status 01.30pm report: India by Dr Rajan, India Lunch (01.30pm -02.30pm) 02.30pm Country paper on Current Status of Microbial pesticide 03.00pm in Maldives by Mr Hussain Farah, Maldives 03.00pm Country paper on Current Status of microbial 03.30pm pesticides use in Nepal by Mr Dinesh Babu Tiwari, Nepal Session Tea (03.30pm -03.45pm) 03.45pm Country paper on current status of microbial pesticides 04.15pm use in Sri Lanka by Ms USK Abeysinghe, Sri Lanka Workshop Dinner (07:30 -10.30pm) at Royal Senate, Hebbal, Bengaluru 22 August Invited presentations by resource persons 2017 (Tuesday) Chairman Dr. Abraham Verghese, GPSIAM, Bengaluru Co- Dr WART Wickramaarachchi, Senior Program Specialist, Chairman SAARC Agriculture Centre. Rapporteurs Dr Ramy, Senior Scientist, ICAR-NBAIR, Bengaluru Dr Kandan, Senior Scientist, ICAR-NBAIR, Bengaluru Speakers 22 August 10.00am Global Scenario on uptake of bio-control products by 2017 10.30am extension services in selected countries from (Tuesday) developing world (Malvika Chaudhary, CABI) 10.30am Current Status of Research and Development on 11.00am Microbial Bio-control Agents for Insect and Nematode Pest Management in India (Jagadeesh Patil, NBAIR) 11.00am Current Status of Research and Development of 11.30am Microbial Bio-control Agents for Crop Pest and Disease Management in India (Ramanujam, NBAIR)

216 Session tea 11.30am -11.45am 11.45am Recent advances in training to enhance use of 12.15pm microbial pesticides (A. Verghese / Senthil Kumar, GPS Institute of Agricultural Management, Bengaluru, India) 12.15pm Successful development and commercialization of 12.45pm microbial pesticides as crop protectant – An industrial perspective from lab to farm. (Swapan K Ghosh, Multiplex) 12.45pm SOLDIER, A WDP formulation of Entomopathogenic 01.15pm nematodes, Heterorhabditis indica strain NBAII Hi1 – A success story of transferring bio-control technology from Institute to Industry. (Kumar S. Multiplex) Lunch (01.30pm -02.30pm) 02.30pm Management of Total Quality Control (TQC) of 3.00pm microbial bio pesticides in agri-business (M J Savitha, Bio-Control Research Laboratories Division, Pest Control (India) Pvt Ltd) 03.00pm Plantwise: Augmenting Utilisation of Bio-pesticides 3.30pm Through Extension Approach (Manju Thakur, CABI- South Asia) Session tea 03.30pm -03.45pm 03.45pm Digital extension for promoting bio-pesticides (YB 4.15pm Srinivasa, Tene Agricultural Solutions Pvt. Ltd) 04.15pm Bio-pesticide Markets - Growing Awareness of the 4.45pm value chain, Challenges and opportunities. (Ramanmurthy, PCI-Pest Control Pvt Ltd) 04.45pm Registration of bio-pesticides at CIB&RC, India (MS 05.15pm Rao, IIHR, Bengaluru) 23 August 09.00am Visit to commercial microbial pesticide production 2017 01.30pm units and field (Wednesday) - Multiplex Bio-tech Pvt Ltd, Peenya, Bengaluru - GPS Institute of Agricultural Management, Peenya, Bengaluru Lunch (1.30pm -2.30pm) 02.30pm Plenary session 03.30pm 03.30pm Bengaluru City Tour and Shopping 07.00pm

217 List of Participants SAARC Regional Consultation on Facilitating Microbial Pesticide Use in Agriculture in South Asia 21-23 August 2017 at ICAR-NBAIR, Bengaluru, India

No Name and affiliation 1 Mr Ghulam Mohammad Saedi Pesticide Analysis Manager, Ministry of Agriculture, Irrigation and Livestock, Kabul, Afghanistan. Email: [email protected] 2 Mr Kbd Amitava Das Director, Plant Protection Wing, Department of Agriculture Extension (DAE), Farmgate, Dhaka, Bangladesh Email: [email protected] 3 Mr Pema Tobagy Plant Protection officer, National Plant Protection Centre, Department of Agriculture, Ministry of Agriculture and Forests, Bhutan Email: [email protected] 4 Dr Rajan Principal Scientist (Plant Protection), ICAR, Room No, 223A, Krishi Bhawan, New Delhi, India Email: [email protected] 5 Mr Hussain Farah Assistant Plant Protection Officer, Plant and Animal Health Management, Ministry of Fisheries and Agriculture. Velaanage, 7th Floor (20096), Ameer Ahmed Magu, Male, Maldives Email: [email protected] 6 Mr Dinesh Babu Tiwari Senior Plant Protection Officer, Plant Protection Directorate, Department of Agriculture, Kathmandu, Nepal Email: [email protected] 7 Ms USK Abeysinghe Assistant Director of Agriculture (Research), Office of the Registrar of Pesticide, Gatambe, Peradeniya, Sri Lanka. Email: [email protected] 8 Dr T.M. Manjunath Entomologist, Consultant in Integrated Pest Management and Agricultural Biotechnology; Former Director, Monsanto Research Center, Bangaluru, India Email:[email protected]

218 No Name and affiliation 9 Dr Ravi Khetarpal Executive Secretary, APAARI, Bangkok, Thailand Email: [email protected] 10 Dr Chandish R Ballal Director, ICAR-NBAIR, PB No: 2491, H.A. Farm Post, Bellary Road, Hebbal, Bengaluru- 560024, India Email: [email protected] 11 Dr M Nagesh Principal Scientist, ICAR-NBAIR, PB No: 2491, H.A. Farm Post, Bellary Road, Hebbal, Bengaluru- 560024, India Email: [email protected] 12 Dr Abraham Verghese Director, GPS Institute of Agricultural Management. No : 1, Techno Industrial Complex, Peenya Industrial Estate, Peenya 1st Stage, Bengaluru – 560058, India Email: [email protected] 13 Dr WART Wickramaarachchi Senior Program Specialist (Priority Setting and Program Development), SAARC Agriculture Centre (SAC), BARC Complex, Farmgate, Dhaka 1215, Bangladesh Email : [email protected] 14 Dr Malvika Chaudhary Asia Regional Coordinator, Plantwise, CABI-South Asia, 2nd Floor, CG Block, NASC Complex, DP Shastri Marg, New Delhi - 110012, India Email: [email protected] 15 Dr Jagadeesh Patil Scientist, ICAR-NBAIR, PB No: 2491, H.A. Farm Post, Bellary Road, Hebbal, Bengaluru- 560024, India Email: [email protected] 16 Dr Ramanujam Principal Scientist, ICAR-NBAIR, P.B.No. 2491, H.A. Farm Post, Bellary Road, Hebbal, Bengaluru- 560024, India Email: [email protected] 17 Dr Senthil Kr Associate Dean, GPS Institute of Agricultural Management, No: 1, Techno Industrial Complex, Peenya Industrial Estate, Peenya 1st Stage, Bengaluru – 560058, Karnataka Email: [email protected]

219 No Name and affiliation 18 Dr Swapan Ghosh Multiplex Biotech Pvt Ltd, A-420, Peenya Industrial Estate, 1st Stage, Bengaluru -560058, India Email: [email protected] 19 Mr Kumar S Multiplex Biotech Pvt Ltd, A-420, Peenya Industrial Estate, 1st Stage, Bengaluru -560058, India Email: [email protected] 20 Dr MJ Savitha Bio-Control Research Laboratories, A Division of Pest Control (India) Pvt Ltd, 36/2, Sriramanahalli, Arakere Post, Bengaluru- 562 163, India Email: [email protected] 21 Dr Manju Thakur Knowledge Bank Coordinator, Plantwise, CABI-South Asia, 2nd Floor, CG Block, NASC Complex, DP Shastri Marg, New Delhi - 110012, India Email: [email protected] 22 Dr YB Srinivasa Tene Agricultural Solutions Pvt Ltd, No: 805, 2nd Floor, 13th A Main, A Sector, Yelahanka New Town, Bengaluru-560064, India Email: [email protected] 23 Dr S Raman Murthy PCI Pest Control Pvt Ltd, B-385, Industrial Shed, KSSIDC Industrial Estate, Peenya 1st Stage, Bengaluru- 560058, India Email: [email protected] 24 Dr MS Rao Principal Scientist, ICAR-IIHR, Hessaraghatta Lake Post, Bengaluru- 560089, India Email: [email protected]

220 Glimpses of the Consultation

Plate 1: Group picture of the participants to the regional consulation

Plate 2: The book of abstracts of the consultation was released by the dignitaries in the inaugural session

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Plate 3: Dr WART Wickramaarachchi, Senior Program Specialist making his remarks at the inaugural session

Plate 4: Dr TM Manjunath delivered the inaugural speech on Microbial pesticides: introspection and prospects

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Plate 5: Dr Ravi Khetarpal, Executive Secretary, APAARI, Bangkok, Thailand delivered the key note address on Ensuring agricultural bio-security engagements and use of bio-pesticides for meeting SDGs in SAARC region

Plate 6: SAARC regional expert consultation in progress with presentations and discussions

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Plate 7: Participants mingled and shared their experiences and aspirations at the networking dinner

Plate 8: Participants witnessed the total process of commercial microbial pesticide production at Multiplex Bio-tech Pvt Ltd, Bengaluru

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Plate 9: Participants had interactive practical sessions with staff members of Multiplex Bio-tech

Plate 10: Practical demonstration of drawing of samples from fermenters at bio- control production facility at Multiplex Bio-tech Pvt Ltd

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Plate 11: Participants are listening to staff members of the GPS institute of Agricultural Management, Bengaluru

Plate 12: Field efficacy of vegetable pest management using bio-control agents at practical farm land of GPS Institute of Agricultural Management observed by the participants

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