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DECLINE OF A HERITAGE LANGUAGE, PALAUAN: THE INTERPLAY OF LANGUAGE POLICIES, PLANNING, PRACTICES AND OPINIONS IN PALAU A Dissertation Submitted to the Temple University Graduate Board In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Education By Yoko Okayama May 2015 Examining Committee Members David Beglar, Advisory Chair, Teaching and Learning Marshall Childs, Teaching and Learning Eton Churchill, External Member, Kanagawa University Masako Sakamoto, External Member, Bunka Gakuen University Takako Nishino, External Member, Kanda University of International Studies © Copyright 2015 by Yoko Okayama iii ABSTRACT This case study investigates the language policies and planning (LPP) implemented in Palau since the occupation by Japan before and during World War II, and by the United States of America under the United Nation’s Trusteeship after the war. Palau is an island country in the Pacific with a population of 17,500, including 4,600 foreign-born citizens. The society is multilingual as a result of a 150-year occupation by other countries, including Japan and the United States, before its independence in 1994. In this study I also explore the effects of LPP during that time, including the policy regarding a standard writing system, practices at pedagogical institutions, and Palauans’ opinions about languages, especially the two official languages, Palauan and English. Data were gathered through interviews, historical document study, observations of classes, and a questionnaire administered in Palau, by visiting the country more than 20 times, for one- to two-week stays beginning in 2001. Hornberger (2006) stated that the terms language policy and language planning have been used interchangeably or as a single concept in many previous studies. Her suggestion was to use the two terms as a set, as the relationship between them has been ambiguous in the past (p. 25). I agree with Hornberger that the two terms fundamentally form a single concept, and therefore, they are used as a set in this study. The theoretical framework proposed by Taylor (2002) is used to analyze the current LPP in Palau: that is, (1) language planning composed of (1.1) status planning, (1.2) corpus planning, and (1.3) acquisition planning; (2) language-in-education policy; and (3) aspects of language-in-education implementation program that consist of (3.1) curriculum policies, (3.2) personnel policies, (3.3) material policies (methods, content), iv (3.4) community policies, and (3.5) evaluation policies (p. 318). He stated, “[t]he process of devising a new national language policy” affects “language-in-education implementation programs” (p. 318). Major LPP studies were reviewed chronologically based on three phases suggested by Ricento (2000, pp. 10-22). It was helpful to consider the history of LPP “as a dynamic interplay between academic concerns… and political/bureaucratic interests” (Wee, 2011, p. 11). Also, some previous researchers have noted that localized studies of language goals, language use, and language change are needed. According to Kaplan and Baldauf (2003), who studied languages and language-in-education planning in the Pacific Basin, it is rare for Pacific Basin countries to have a language policy: “… [L]anguage planning is frequently undertaken by the education sector in the absence of any such higher-level policy or in the light of such a policy so vaguely articulated as to be quite incapable of implementation” (p. 6). Although their study provided a great deal of valuable information, they did not investigate the language policies of Palau. In this study I describe the government’s policies, and real life situation of the policies. To describe the real life situation of the policies, interviews, and a questionnaire survey were used. I interviewed Palauans, such as those who had experienced the occupation(s) and postwar period to better understand the historical background of the current LPP. I also interviewed incumbent teachers after observing their classes. Most of them described various problems in teaching the compulsory Palauan Studies Course, on Palauan language, history, tradition, and culture. I also interviewed officials of the Ministry of Education, who provided a great deal of v information about the educational system in Palau and the curriculum of the Palauan Studies Course. The 62-item questionnaire provided data concerning people’s language use in various social contexts, as well as the effects of language policies and planning on people’s opinions about languages. The 137 respondents were divided into five groups according to their year of birth, considering the years when important transitions had occurred in the LPP. Their responses were compared, and some of the respondents were interviewed to illuminate the questionnaire results. I interviewed eight Palauans in March and September 2012 and asked why they had selected certain responses to the questionnaire items. The questionnaire results indicated that there is a tendency for the younger generation to use English more than the older generations in various contexts, and that the efforts Palauans have made, such as making the new writing system a compulsory part of the school curriculum, have yielded positive effects on the opinions of the younger generation, who learned the Palauan writing system at school. Overall, the results showed that Palauan is not in danger of extinction at present, but it might lose its status as the primary language in the future. I suggest strategies for preserving Palauan as the primary language. vi ACKNOWLEDGMENTS My sincerest and deepest gratitude goes to Dr. David Beglar, my major advisor and the dissertation committee chair. Without his patience and support, this work would have never been formulated and produced. He assisted me countless times with helpful advice and suggestions and took time out of his busy schedule for reading and editing the manuscript many times. I really do not know how to express my gratitude to him. I would also like to thank the other members of the dissertation committee, Dr. Marshall Childs, Dr. Eton Churchill, Dr. Masako Sakamoto, and Dr. Takako Nishino, who provided detailed and valuable suggestions and comments. I appreciate their time and efforts to improve this work. I was fortunate that Dr. Sandra McKay first suggested the topic of this project to me. Moreover, I appreciate that she took time to read earlier versions of drafts and gave me supportive comments. Dr. Christine Pearson Casanave paved the way for me to write a dissertation; for this, I am very grateful. I also have to acknowledge that this project was born with the support and participation of a number of people in Palau. They welcomed me and took time to help me do research in their country. Mr. Emery Wenty, Ms. Debbie Tkel-Sbal, Mr. Soalablai Sinton, Mr. Reynold Mechol, Ms. Selina Ramon, and other staff members at the Palau Ministry of Education kindly helped me with this project. In particular, Ms. Debbie Tkel-Sbal answered my questions many times. I greatly appreciate her support and cooperation. vii My Palauan friends also helped me complete this project. Mr. and Mrs. Toshio Akitaya, Mr. Masaharu Tmodrang, Ms. Lorenza Pedro, Mrs. Bernie Keldermans, and Ms. Feri Ulechong informed me not only about the Palauan language but also about other important information, such as traditions and customs in Palau. They answered my frequent questions patiently. With their help, I was able to formulate the outline of this project, administer the questionnaires, locate interviewees, and complete the study. I owe a deep debt to all the participants of this study in Palau. I am deeply grateful to the principals and teachers who allowed me to observe their classes. All the interviewees were kind enough to answer my questions and each of them told me very interesting stories. I enjoyed talking with them, and learned many things from conversing with them. The questionnaire respondents took time to respond to all 62- questionnaire items. I appreciate their cooperation and patience. Without the participants, this study would not have been completed. I would like to express my gratitude to the Temple University Japan TESOL program through which I learned so many important things about teaching English. I met many energetic and wonderful doctoral cohort members who encouraged me to conduct research and write. I am also grateful to staff in the TUJ Tokyo office: They were always supportive and helpful. Finally, I would like to thank my late husband, Atsumi, and my children, Hirokazu, Miho, Mitsuhiro, Lisa, and Shota, for their love, support, and encouragement as I went through the doctoral program. They have been a source of energy to keep working on this project. viii This dissertation is dedicated to the people of Palau, Tomie Morimoto, Yoneko and Shinzo Morimoto, Nancy and Wilbur Newstetter, Jr., and Atsumi Okayama. ix TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE ABSTRACT ....................................................................................................................... iv ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ................................................................................................ vii DEDICATION ................................................................................................................... ix LIST OF TABLES .......................................................................................................... xvii LIST OF FIGURES ........................................................................................................