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Opinion
Does research help to safeguard
protected areas?
William F. Laurance
Centre for Tropical Environmental and Sustainability Science and School of Marine and Tropical Biology, James Cook University,
Cairns, QLD 4878, Australia
Although many protected areas are foci for scientific scenery. Beyond this, field researchers might also benefit
research, they also face growing threats from illegal en- parks and biodiversity, both actively and passively. Here, I
croachment and overharvesting. Does the presence of make a first effort to evaluate the impact of researchers on
field researchers help to limit such threats? Although protected areas and their biodiversity, and argue that this
evidence is largely anecdotal, researchers do appear to is a prime issue for further investigation.
provide some protective effects, both actively (such as by
deterring poachers) and passively (such as by benefiting Apparent advantages of researcher presence
local communities economically and thereby generating If protected areas benefit from a science-safeguarding
support for protected areas). However, much remains effect, an ancillary and sometimes hidden benefit of re-
unknown about the generality and impacts of such ben- search may be promoting nature conservation. What is the
efits. A key priority is to develop a better understanding of evidence? In the most direct sense, several ‘conservation
the advantages and limitations of field research for aiding heroes’ have battled to establish or sustain protected areas
protected areas and their biodiversity. (Table 1). Obvious examples include Dian Fossey in
Rwanda [10], Daniel Janzen in Costa Rica, Patricia Wright
Are protected areas protected? in Madagascar, and Sir Ghillean Prance in Argentina [11].
In a world beset by environmental challenges, protected Scientists employed by conservation organizations have
areas are seen as a cornerstone of efforts to sustain the also played key roles. For decades, the Wildlife Conserva-
biodiversity and natural ecosystem processes of the Earth. tion Society (WCS), under the leadership of William Con-
The good news is that we have more protected areas than way, emplaced talented scientists in the field as
ever: since 1985, the total land area with at least some legal conservation watchdogs, including Alan Rabinowitz in
protection has more than tripled, now totaling 13% of the Belize, George Schaller in the Himalayas, Terese and John
global terrestrial surface [1]. Hart in Zaire, and Lee White in Gabon. These dynamic
The bad news, however, is that many protected areas individuals were prime movers in the creation of many new
are under threat (Figure 1) [2–5]. Some areas are plagued protected areas (J. Terborgh, personal communication).
by illegal encroachment, logging, and burning, whereas Field researchers can also benefit protected areas by
wildlife poaching and overharvesting of fuel wood are actively deterring poachers and encroachers (Table 1, Box
serious threats for other reserves, especially in developing 2). The best-documented evidence for this is at Tai Nation-
nations [3]. As land-use and population pressures increase, al Park in Coˆte d’Ivoire, Africa, where active research sites
protected areas are increasingly being surrounded by hos- have higher wildlife abundances and less evidence of
tile modified landscapes [3,4]. In many areas, illegal gold poaching, compared with areas with little research activity
mining has expanded apace [5] (Box 1 i). As a consequence [12–15]. Suppression of poaching and illegal logging has
of these and other perils, defending the integrity of pro- also been noted in areas frequented by scientists or bird-
tected areas and their biodiversity is a growing challenge, watchers at Nouable´-Ndoki Reserve in Congo [16], Lope
in part because many reserves are inadequately resourced Reserve in Gabon (F. Maisels, personal communication),
and safeguarded [2,3,6,7]. The recent slaughter of ele- Gunung Palung National Park in Borneo (A.J. Marshall,
phants in Cameroon (Box 1 ii), murders of numerous park personal communication) and Soberania National Park in
guards (Box 1 iii,iv) and massive human encroachment in Panama (S.J. Wright, personal communication). Some
some protected areas (Box 1 v) testify to the challenges at scientists are audacious. In a central Amazonian reserve
hand. where I work, a plucky Brazilian graduate student once
Ecotourism is known to promote nature conservation by faced down a truckload of armed poachers [17], whereas
providing revenues for protected areas [8], especially in foreign scientists at Gunung Palung spiked trees to deter
areas with large, charismatic wildlife [9] and spectacular rampant illegal logging (Table 1).
If scientists do often function as de facto park guards,
Corresponding author: Laurance, W.F. ([email protected]).
then the benefits for biodiversity might be considerable.
Keywords: biodiversity conservation; illegal mining; poaching; park management;
Several studies suggest that detecting and apprehending
protected areas; scientific research.
poachers in the field is generally a more effective deterrent
0169-5347/$ – see front matter
ß 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tree.2013.01.017 than is imposing more severe punishments, such as higher
Trends in Ecology & Evolution, May 2013, Vol. 28, No. 5 261
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Opinion Trends in Ecology & Evolution May 2013, Vol. 28, No. 5
(a) (b) (c) (d)
(e) (f)
TRENDS in Ecology & Evolution
Figure 1. Research activity can reduce a variety of environmental threats in protected areas, such as: (a) illegal logging in Sumatra; (b) wildcat gold mining in Suriname; (c)
poached gorilla in Equatorial Guinea; (d) fires near Xingu´ National Park and associated Kayapo indigenous lands in Brazil; (e) elephant killed by gunshot in Gabon; and (f)
apparent poachers detected by an automatic camera in Peninsular Malaysia. Reproduced, with permission, from W.F. Laurance (a,b), J. Fa (c), NASA Modis satellite
(d), R. Buij (e), G.R. Clements (f).
fines [18–20]. Although the proportion of scientists that habitats (M. Peck, personal communication). This effort
engage in active safeguarding is unknown, veteran re- links local communities to scientists, conservation orga-
searcher Jeffrey Sayer suggests that it ‘might be the rule nizations, and local and national governments (http://
rather than the exception’ (personal communication). www.primenet.org.uk/).
Field researchers can also advance conservation of Finally, one cannot ignore the prominent role that
parks less directly. In the northern Republic of Congo, scientists have in publicizing parks and their biodiversity.
scientists from the WCS have promoted ecotourism and For instance, during the 1970s, researchers at Manu Na-
motivated park guards to redouble their enforcement tional Park in Peru attracted world-class photojournalists
efforts (J. Sayer, personal communication). Some scientists whose films, documentaries, and books made the park
build local support for protected areas with education famous and attracted many tourists. Almost every other
programs for nearby communities and by hiring locals river in the region has been logged and hunted out, but
as field assistants or para-taxonomists (S.L. Pimm, M. with boatloads of tourists entering the park each day, ‘no
Peck, and A.J. Marshall, personal communication). In poacher or logger would dare show his face’ (J. Terborgh,
Gabon, the field assistants that my colleagues and I employ personal communication). The busy tourism industry helps
are former hunters with impressive knowledge of local to protect the park directly and also has a strong vested
wildlife [21], and several have become keenly interested interest, which it freely expresses publicly, in maintaining
in nature conservation. Similarly, researchers and ecotour- the integrity of the park. In this manner, science promotes
ists at Ranomafana National Park in Madagascar are the tourism and tourism in turn promotes nature conservation
largest source of income for impoverished nearby villages, [9,23–25].
providing some US$2 million in revenues and assistance
annually that helps to build local support for the park [22]. Limitations of science safeguarding
Scientists are also advancing conservation by helping to Despite such apparent successes, the science-safeguarding
empower local residents in a complex and rapidly changing effect seems partial at best. In response to burgeoning
world (Table 1). In Papua New Guinea, field researchers Asian demands for ivory and rhino horn, Africa is the
have helped indigenous communities respond to logging midst of an epic elephant [26] and black rhino [27] slaugh-
and mining companies seeking access to their lands, so ter by armed poachers, rebels, and even the military that
that the communities can judge the promises of financial scientists and park managers have largely been unable to
gain more realistically (V. Novotny, personal communica- stop. At Los Amigos Biological Station in Peru, illegal gold
tion). In northwestern Ecuador, researchers are promoting miners threatened to burn down the research station when
forest conservation by training community ‘para-biologists’ scientists tried to halt their operations, and then continued
who collect data on primates and report risks to their mining and clearing forest (N.C.A. Pitman, personal
262
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Opinion Trends in Ecology & Evolution May 2013, Vol. 28, No. 5
Box 1. Website articles referred to in this paper
communication). An assessment of 109 protected areas
(i) Butler, R. (2012) Environmental impact of mining in the across Africa concluded that research and tourism were
rainforest. Mongabay.com 27 July 2012 (http://rainforests. less important than was effective enforcement by park
mongabay.com/0808.htm)
guards and the involvement of local or international con-
(ii) Grossman, S. (2012) Hundreds of elephants slaughtered in
servation groups in promoting ape conservation [28]. One
Cameroon as ivory demand skyrockets. Time Newsfeed 16 March
2012 (http://newsfeed.time.com/2012/03/16/hundreds-of- must conclude that, although scientists often have positive
elephants-slaughtered-in-cameroon-as-ivory-demand-skyrockets/) effects in promoting local conservation, there clearly is
(iii) Hance, J. (2010) Poachers kidnap and murder ranger in India.
scope for increasing these benefits.
Mongabay.com 14 June 2010 (http://news.mongabay.com/
A further point of concern about science safeguarding is
2010/0614-hance_ranger.html)
that, in attempting to promote nature conservation, cru-
(iv) Anon. (2012) Rebels kill 3 rangers in Congo’s Virunga National
Park. Mongabay.com 27 October 2012 (http://news.mongabay. sading researchers might inadvertently upset local sensi-
com/2012/1027-virunga-attack.html) tivities. For instance, my efforts to encourage tropical
(v) Hance, J. (2012) Over 100,000 farmers squatting in Sumatran park
biologists to ‘adopt a forest’ [11] prompted worries that
to grow coffee. Mongabay.com 6 November 2012 (http://news.
some scientists might not be familiar enough with local
mongabay.com/2012/1106-hance-squatters-bukit-barisan.html)
social, cultural, and political contexts to advance conser-
(vi) Holbrook, J.B. and Frodeman, R. (2012) Science: for science’s
or society’s sake? Science Progress 1 March 2012 (http:// vation effectively [29]. Such issues are debated frequently
scienceprogress.org/2012/03/owning-the-national-science- in academic circles and are strongly influenced by one’s
foundation%E2%80%99s-broader-impacts-criterion/)
training and world view (e.g., [30–32]).
(vii) WWF (2012) Timeline of recent instances of poaching and
Finally, under certain circumstances, field research
illegal wildlife trade in Central Africa (http://www.google.
com.au/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd= might be harmful for nature conservation. It has been
6&ved=0CFIQFjAF&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.divshare. suggested, for instance, that radiotelemetry studies con-
com%2Fdirect%2F19315157-0f8.pdf&ei=y3CtUOz4Asjvm tributed to local extinctions of African wild dogs [33] and
AXlooCgBg&usg=AFQjCNFvKu1db5l3Hb_mrFFhuf2AFz7qCQ)
tigers [34], putatively by stressing the dogs and making the
(viii) WWF (2012) Cameroon arrests one of Central Africa’s most
tigers more vulnerable to hunters. More generally, mark–
notorious wildlife poachers. 5 October 2012 (http://wwf.panda.
org/?206372/Cameroon-arrests-one-of-Central-Africas- recapture studies and biological collecting, if not conducted
most-notorious-poachers) carefully, have the potential to harm fauna and flora
Table 1. Examples of how researchers have contributed to the establishment and safeguarding of protected areas
Protected area and region Description Information source
Volcanoes National Park, Rwanda Dian Fossey fought to protect mountain gorillas from poaching [10]
Parks in northern Congo-Brazzaville WCS scientists promoted research and ecotourism to reduce Jeffrey Sayer
and Central Africa Republic wildlife overhunting (Figure 1c,e, main text)
Gabon WCS scientists played a key role in convincing the government to Lee White and Michael Fay
establish a national protected area network
Gunung Palung National Park, With central government backing, foreign scientists drove off Chuck Cannon and
Indonesian Borneo poachers and spiked trees in an effort to stop massive illegal Andrew Marshall
logging (Figure 1a, main text) in the park
Kenyir Wildlife Corridor, Peninsular Scientists report poachers caught on camera traps (Figure 1f, main http://myrimba.org
a
Malaysia text) to enforcement authorities and have lobbied to freeze
development along a highway bisecting the wildlife corridor
b
Lazovsky Nature Reserve and Zov Tigra Researchers use hidden camera traps to identify poachers
National Park, Russian Siberia targeting rare Amur tigers and to focus efforts of antipoaching
patrols
Biological Dynamics of Forest Fragments Researchers chased off poachers and opposed government efforts [17]
Project, Brazilian Amazonia to allow colonization of the study area
c
Brownsberg National Park, Suriname Scientists decry illegal gold mining (Figure 1b, main text) in the
park and lobby the Government to increase enforcement efforts
Ranomafana National Park, Madagascar Patricia Wright’s discovery of the golden bamboo lemur in 1986 led [22]
to the establishment of the park, and visiting researchers and
ecotourists now provide key income for local communities
Nouable-Ndoki, Republic of Congo Less wildlife poaching in areas with researcher presence [16]
Serengeti National Park and nearby Serengeti Wildlife Research Centre has provided an active Jeffrey Sayer
protected areas, Tanzania researcher presence for over 50 years
Kayapo Indigenous Reserve, Brazilian Long-term researchers encouraged the Kayapo to reject contracts [46]
Amazonia with mahogany loggers and have funded aerial patrols to detect
encroachment along reserve boundaries (Figure 1d, main text)
Soberania National Park, Panama Hunted mammals have increased near popular bird-watching S. Joseph Wright
routes, evidently because of reduced poaching in the area
a
Hance, J. (2012) Development halted in crucial wildlife corridor in Malaysia. Mongabay.com 7 November 2012 (http://news.mongabay.com/2012/1107-hance-kenyir- corridor.html).
b
Zoological Society of London (2012) ‘Forest eyes’ are watching you. 7 November 2012 (http://www.zsl.org/conservation/news/forest-eyes-are-watching- you,1020,NS.html).
c
Anon. (2008) Scientists call for mining ban, new protected areas in Suriname. Mongabay.com 21 June 2008 (http://news.mongabay.com/2008/0618-suriname_ mining.html).
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Opinion Trends in Ecology & Evolution May 2013, Vol. 28, No. 5
Box 2. Conservation in the trenches
For every high-profile scientist crusading for biodiversity, scores more In 2011, one of the eco-guards that Zacharie advised was killed and
are working behind the scenes to promote nature conservation. One another wounded by poachers (Box 1 vii). Since then, Zacharie has
example is Zacharie N’Zooh from Cameroon (Figure I). A plant persuaded the Cameroon Army to deploy contingents from its Rapid
ecologist by training, Zacharie was recruited by WWF-Cameroon in Intervention Battalion, who have beefed up park protection. Guided by
2002 to conduct biodiversity surveys in the Sangha Tri-National Zacharie, they have so far confiscated 16 Kalashnikov rifles and
Conservation Complex in the northwestern Congo Basin. Since then, arrested several poachers. Cameroon law-enforcement authorities
he has hiked thousands of kilometers and developed an unparalleled have also begun targeting ‘white-collar poachers’, who are the
knowledge of the flora, fauna, and people of the area. He has also political and business elites who bankroll the poachers and handle
become highly engaged in protecting the area, especially from illegal the products of their illicit trade. As a result, some major players in the
poaching and gold mining (J. Sayer, personal communication). illegal bushmeat business are now behind bars (Box 1 vii,viii). (a) (b)
TRENDS in Ecology & Evolution
Figure I. Zacharie N’Zooh (a) in Cameroon and one of the species he is fighting to protect (b). Reproduced, with permission from M. Dandjouma (a) and F. Carre (b).
[35–37], and would be a special concern for rare or locally black bears, and bald eagles, also retreat or alter their
endemic species or insular populations in parks. In behavior in response to human activity [39–41], even to
addition, certain disturbance-sensitive wildlife might quiet hiking and nature observation [42]. An additional
avoid areas with high researcher or tourist activity concern is that humans can inadvertently transmit in-
[38–42], such as the vicinity of research centers, trails, fectious diseases to wildlife, including primates [43], bats
and long-term field sites. A camera-trapping study in [44], and amphibians [45]. For such reasons, I hypothe-
Sumatra, for instance, suggested that larger mammals, size that the impact of research on park and biodiversity
such as barking deer, sambar, and Sumatran rhinoceros, values might be nonlinear, being most positive at inter-
tend to avoid areas frequented by field researchers, mediate values (Figure 2).
whereas sun bears become more nocturnal [38]. Many
temperate species, including moose, bobcats, wolves, Concluding remarks
It is remarkable that the effects of field research on the
conservation values of protected areas have yet to be
assessed systematically. To what degree does research
benefit or harm park values? Can research activity be
optimized in space and time to maximize its benefits for
conservation? Are heavily studied areas, such as the vicin-
ities of popular research centers, biased biologically be-
cause their faunal communities have been altered by
researcher activity? These are but a sampling of important
questions that could and should be addressed (Box 3).
Understanding such relations is important. For in-
stance, if field research generally benefits park values,
Benefit for biodiversity for Benefit
then findings from a recent survey of biodiversity trends
in tropical forest protected areas [3] might be overly opti-
Researcher or ecotourist ac vity mistic. In this study, my colleagues and I assessed trajec-
TRENDS in Ecology & Evolution tories of biodiversity change in 60 relatively well-studied
protected areas across the tropics. Half of these reserves
Figure 2. Hypothetical relation between research activity and its benefits for
showed evidence of declining reserve ‘health’, but our
protected areas and their biodiversity. Photograph reproduced, with permission,
from W.F. Laurance. conclusion might be even starker if the sites we studied,
264
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Opinion Trends in Ecology & Evolution May 2013, Vol. 28, No. 5
Box 3. Studying science-safeguarding effects
A variety of approaches could be used to assess the impact of Such research raises ancillary questions for conservation practice
researchers on protected-area values, including: and training, including:
Testing whether indices of research activity, such as the number of Should researchers be encouraged to study in locations that
publications, correlate with indices of biodiversity health or threats suffer from greater threats [3], even if this might entail
across different parks. more personal risk, to maximize the benefits for conservation
Assessing how researcher activity affects park values, such as (Figure I)?
wildlife abundances and the activity of poachers or encroachers Does protecting a park merely displace its threats to nearby
(e.g., [12–14]), at different sites within a single park. unprotected areas (e.g., [47,48])?
Experimentally manipulating researcher activity at different places Which personal or professional attributes make researchers
or times, to determine whether and how this affects wildlife most engaged and effective as conservation leaders? Such
responses and park encroachment. information (e.g., [11,49]) could help inform the numerous
Using questionnaires to evaluate the effects of field research on graduate programs in conservation leadership currently being
conservation values of parks, by surveying a large, representative offered by universities.
sample of scientists.
TRENDS in Ecology & Evolution
Figure I. Some protected areas are at serious risk. This bullet-ridden road sign, from the Waimiri Atroari Indigenous Reserve in central Amazonia, says ‘Don’t run over
the animals’. Reproduced, with permission, from W.F. Laurance.
by virtue of being well studied, were buffered from some implications of reducing research in our embattled pro-
key environmental threats. tected areas.
Although some scientists are highly engaged in park
conservation, there clearly is scope for others to increase Acknowledgments
I thank John Terborgh, Jeff Sayer, Fiona Maisels, Stuart Pimm,
their role as protectors and advocates. One leading conser-
Patricia Wright, Mika Peck, Nandini Velho, Nigel Pitman, Chuck
vation researcher asserts that ‘It is high time that this
Cannon, Andrew Marshall, Carlos Peres, Joe Wright, Stephen Blake,
came to be a standard obligation for scientists’ (T.E. Love-
Susan Laurance, David Lindenmayer, David Edwards, John Fa, Corey
joy, personal communication). Such activities can also Bradshaw, Vojtech Novotny, and Rhett Butler for many useful
benefit the scientists themselves. For example, the US thoughts. John Terborgh, Tom Lovejoy, Ghillean Prance, David
Edwards, Reuben Clements, and two anonymous referees commented
National Science Foundation increasingly emphasizes
on the manuscript.
broader criteria, such as public outreach and greater soci-
etal benefits, in evaluating research proposals (Box 1 vi),
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