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Volume 3 | Issue 11 | ID 1596 | Nov 24, 2005 The Asia-Pacific Journal |

Language Loss and Revitalization in the

Patrick Heinrich

Language Loss and Revitalization in the The boundaries of and language Ryukyu Islands varieties – a term linguists prefer to since it does not connote the idea of a deviation By Patrick Heinrich from a chosen standard – do not come into existence by themselves. They reflect the interests of those responsible for drawing these Every two weeks one of the world's estimated boundaries. The extension and the names of 6,000 languages dies. It appears inevitable to languages and language varieties are, more many that the number of languages spoken often than not, influenced by nation imagining throughout the world will have drastically ideology. diminished by the end of the 21st century. The , their classification Pessimistic estimations consider that as many and assessment are a case in point. During the as 80% of the languages currently used will by forced of the into then have vanished. The danger of such loss the emerging Japanese nation state between does not go unnoticed. Many speakers of 1872 and 1879, the various language varieties indigenous minority languages around the of the Ryukyu Islands came to be designated as world struggle to retain their mother tongues. . The first such classification This holds also true for the Ryukyu Islands, was made by a bureaucrat. Matsuda Michiyuki, located between Kyushu and . In the a high-ranking official in the Japanese foreign course of the nation building process since the ministry, was the first to linguistic era, a language regime was established correspondences between Japan and the throughout Japan in which the language of Ryukyu Islands in the early 1870s. He claimed came to serve as the means of inter- that the varieties spoken in the Ryukyu Islands regional communication throughout Japan, were part of the . including the Ryukyu Islands. The spread of Standard Japanese led to re-negotiations of the The first study the Ryukyuan languages by a language-identity nexus in the Ryukyu Islands. trained linguist was that of Basil Hall As a matter of fact, so strong proved the idea of Chamberlain in 1895. It successfully one unitary Japanese to be in established evidences of a shared Ryukyuan- Japan that the Ryukyuan languages areJapanese genealogy. That is to say, seriously endangered today and conscious Chamberlain proved that Japanese and the efforts of are necessary Ryukyuan share the same to ensure their future use. This is an account of ancestor language, similar to, say, French, how the Ryukyuan languages came to be Italian and Spanish. Today we know that endangered and of current efforts for their Japanese and the Ryukyuan languages must revitalization. have split not long before the first written evidences of Japanese appeared, that is to say, Modernist language ideology and the at some point before the 7th century. language – question Chamberlain treated Ryukyuan as a set of

1 3 | 11 | 0 APJ | JF languages distinct from Japanese. South Okinawa Yoron There are good reasons for doing so. The chain Okinoerabu East Okinoerabu of is interrupted several West Okinoerabu times in the Ryukyu Islands. The concept of mutual intelligibility serves linguists as an etic North Amami- Amami-Oshima tool, in other , as a politically and Oshima culturally disinterested means for drawing South Amami-Oshima linguistic boundaries. In Japan, for instance, Kikai speakers of a Tohoku language variety and a Kyushu variety might experience severeIn contrast to the present paper, Hokama bases difficulties in understanding each other.his classification on language typology and not However, the chain of mutual intelligibility is on the concept of mutual intelligibility. nowhere interrupted in the Japanese main Nonetheless, reference to his classification is islands as mutual intelligibility to thehelpful here because it emphasizes the vast neighbouring local variety is always possible. differences that exist even within the major varieties spoken on Amami-Oshima, Okinawa, On the basis of mutual unintelligibility, five Miyako and Yaeyama. The biggest typological different varieties of the Ryukyuan language differences are those between , family can be ascertained. These are, from Sakijima and Amami-Okinawa. Typological north to south, the varieties spoken on Amami- differences with regard to , Oshima, Okinawa, Miyako, Yaeyama and and syntax between these three Yonaguni. These varieties form the Ryukyu typological categories can then be further language family. Needless to say, none of these subcategorized into the typological categories varieties allows for mutual intelligibility with Yaeyama, Miyako, North-Okinawa etc. Since any Japanese variety. Following theHokama treats the Ryukyuan varieties within conventions of comprehensive glossaries of the concept of national language (kokugo), he world languages, rather than Japanese national lacks the concept of languages. As a result, we (identity) linguistics (kokugogaku), these find Yonaguni in the left column but Yaeyama, varieties will be treated as languages in the Miyako and Amami-Oshima in the middle following. Since the Amami-Oshima island column. Okinawa as a unified speech group is part of prefecture, the community is absent in his scheme, reflecting, term Ryukyu is preferred over Okinawa. as it does, the fact that there exist marked differences between Northern and Southern The linguistic situation in the Ryukyu Islands is Okinawan as well as the fact that the study of complex. The doyen of Ryukyuan linguistics, these two varieties has been conducted most Hokama Shuzen, proposes the followingcomprehensively. In other words, awareness of division of Ryukyuan varieties (from south to the differences between Northern Okinawan north): and Southern Okinawan is most pronounced. Language variation in the Ryukyu Islands does Yonaguni not stop at the types of langue varieties in Sakijima Yaeyama Ishigaki Hokama’s right column. All of the approximately 50 populated islands have Miyako Miyako distinctive language varieties which very often Irabu allow for many more subdivisions within them. Tamara It is worthy of in this context that the Amami-Okinawa North-Okinawa Okinawa Language Research Centre ( Okinawa

2 3 | 11 | 0 APJ | JF gengo kenkyu senta) has conductedThis deviance from Standard Japanese led to phonological studies into some 800 different the view that these varieties presented an local varieties. obstacle and should best be done away with. The Ryukyu Islands were thus perceived to The differences between the Ryukyuanhave a serious language problem and, varieties and Japanese are extensive. Tokyo consequently, the view emerged that university professor Hattori ShiroRyukyuans had to be relieved of the ‘burden’ of demonstrated in the 1950s that the percentage their languages. This specific view of language, of shared cognates in the basic or language ideology as it is called in between Tokyo and Shuri (Okinawa) stands at linguistics, was not limited to the Ryukyu 66% and at 59% with regard to Miyako. The Islands. It became widespread across the world latter percentage is lower than that between as an effect of the emergence of modern nation German and English. As an illustration of the states. Such nation-imagining language differences in the lexicon and morphology, ideology is responsible for the fact that consider the following sentence taken from a bilingualism in nation states is, more often than contemporary version of the Momotaro tale: not, unstable. Speakers of minority languages are often pressured to express their loyalty to Okinawa : Sigu kadi nndandi ici hoocaasi the state by abandoning their mother tongue. taacinkai sakandi sakutu, naakakaraExactly this happened in the Ryukyu Islands uziraasigisaru ufuwikiganu nziti caabitan. after 1879.

Standard Japanese: Sugu tabete miyo to itte before 1945 hocho de futatsu ni sako to shitara, naka kawairashii otoko no ko dete kimashita. During the first eight years of Japanese rule over the Ryukyu Islands a strict policy of English: When he said that he wanted to eat it preservation of ancient customs was right away and was just about to cut it into two implemented. It was only in 1879 that the first pieces with his knife, a cute boy emerged from two exceptions were made. The Meiji within (the peach). government ordered that this policy should not apply for and industrial development. Mutual unintelligibility notwithstanding, Starting in 1880, the view began to prevail that Japanese linguists of the Meiji period chose to Japanese language dissemination was rely on Matsuda Michiyuki's view according to unavoidable in order to gain control over the which the Ryukyuan varieties were part of the islands and to govern them in the interests of same language. They included both the . Following the reorganization Japanese and the Ryukyuan varieties in the of the Ryukyu Domain into newly created concept of national language in 1879, Vice Minister of Education Tanaka (kokugo). In so doing, they followed the model Fujimaro was dispatched to the archipelago of most Western nation states which claimed with the objective of developing and that all language varieties within the implementing an educational policy for the boundaries of the state were part of one prefecture. In his history of Okinawa George H. language, the national language. While Kerr describes how Tanaka, upon visiting the dialectologists drew a clear line between the prefecture, decided that Ryukyuans had to Ryukyuan varieties and those of the main learn Japanese and therefore ordered that a islands, everyone else came to regard the Conversation Training Centre be established. Ryukyuan varieties simply as yet another Such training facilities had been founded Japanese dialect group. Dialects, however, that throughout Japan prior to the implementation deviated very strongly from Standard Japanese.

3 3 | 11 | 0 APJ | JF of the 1872 educational system in order to unpatriotic act, and children taking part in provide for teacher training. In contrast to debate circles risked being penalized if they teacher training facilities in mainland Japan, failed to speak Japanese. Japanese language the Conversation Training Centre in Okinawa dissemination became increasingly seen as an was also responsible for the compilation of a important instrument for forcing Ryukyuans to bilingual Okinawa-Japanese language textbook adapt to mainland customs and traditions. In titled ‘Okinawa Conversation’ ( Okinawa taiwa). accordance with the National Spiritual It was written by mainland officials from the Mobilization Movement, launched in 1937 after Department of Education in collaboration with the outbreak of the Sino-Japanese War, the some Ryukyuan members of the pre-modern local Department of Education and the ruling class. The textbook was used from 1880 Movement for Enforcement of the Standard onwards in all schools of the prefecture. Language compiled a policy platform called Programme for Education in Okinawa The efforts to render Ryukyuans Japanese Prefecture. The programme placed Japanese through language education became more language dissemination high on its agenda. In comprehensive after the proclamation of the order to forcefully implement language policy Imperial Rescript on Education in 1890. measures, committees responsible for the Attention shifted from mere communicational supervision of language dissemination were set needs to national citizen education andup in all local communities. An ordinance imperial subject education. These attempts proscribed the Ryukyuan languages at grew more intense in Okinawa Prefecture government offices and at various other public following Japan's 1895 victory in the Sino- institutions. People who addressed the staff of Japanese War. Following the integration of post offices or governmental offices in Taiwan into the Japanese empire in the same Ryukyuan had to be refused service and year, the greater differences betweenemployees caught using a Ryukyuan language Taiwanese and Japanese made policymakers risked punishment. and the local population aware of similarities between Ryukyuans and mainland Japanese. In short, Japanese language dissemination at the time relied heavily on negative and coercive Starting in the first decade of the twentieth measures. One of the most notorious forms of century, efforts to spread Japanese increasingly punishment was the so-called dialect tag which employed coercive measures. Ryukyuanhad to be worn around the neck by the last languages were banned from schools in the so- pupil to have used Ryukyuan in class. The pupil called Ordinance to Regulate the Dialect in wearing it was then responsible for passing it 1907. When a Movement for the Enforcement on and therefore had to monitor the language of the was established in use of his fellow students. The use of the 1931, language dissemination activitiesdialect tag increased drastically in the 1920s attained a new quality. Together with the and 1930s, peaking at the time of the general Department of Education, the movement mobilization campaign. The view prevailed that developed schemes for Japanese language the perceived language problems of the Ryukyu dissemination beyond the public domain. Islands were best solved by their eradication, Japanese was promoted through debate or by punitive means where necessary. It is worth presentation circles. In order to secure a of note here that the use of the dialect tag was thorough spread of Japanese, relatives of not exclusively confined to Okinawa Prefecture. school children were invited to participate. It included and the Speaking a Ryukyuan language during such entire Tohoku region, two regions with presentation circles was considered andistinctive local dialects. Nowhere, however,

4 3 | 11 | 0 APJ | JF was the use of the dialect tag more prominent which was embedded in a larger Japanese than in the Ryukyu Islands and it was only context in order to resist the unwelcome US there that attempts were made to ban the local occupation (see below). language varieties in private domains. The dissemination of Standard Japanese and Language ideology, the determination of what the suppression of the Ryukyuan languages had language(s) ought to be, played a crucial role in drastic effects on the language ecology of the the language shift processes in the Ryukyu Ryukyu Islands. Standard Japanese came to be Islands. As an effect of language modernization exclusively used in the public domain. It thus the national language, kokugo, became to be replaced the variety of Shuri (Okinawa), the represented by, if not equated with, itsancient capital of the Ryukyu Kingdom, which standard variety. In addition, the view emerged had previously served as the language of that Standard Japanese was ‘correct’ and that official and inter-island communication. Due to deviations from it were ‘wrong’. The ideology of further consequences of the modernization linguistic nationalism was furthermore based process such as an increasing mobility of the on the belief that all Japanese nationals had population, a growing rate of exogamy and an equal access to the national language and extension of infrastructure, local language hence should be equally proficient in it. varieties also came under pressure and were Therefore, lack of respect for and proficiency in increasingly often replaced by Standard (Standard) Japanese became to be perceived as Japanese in private domains too. Drastically anomalous. The effects of insufficientchanging political circumstances proficiency were embarrassment and the notwithstanding, language shift from the reasons for deviant language attitudes and Ryukyuan languages to Standard Japanese language behaviour were sought at thecontinued unremittingly after 1945. individual level. Language shift after 1945 As an effect of such ideological beliefs, the Ryukyu Islands thus stood out as the region in The only land battle of the Pacific War fought in which (perceived) embarrassing language Japan took place in Okinawa. Before Japan behaviour was most pronounced. There was surrendered to the Allied Powers on resistance against such views and theSeptember15th 1945, more than one quarter of suppression of the Ryukyuan language and the Okinawan population was dead and a culture by local activists and scholars of military government was set up for the Ryukyu Okinawan studies. These included Jahana Islands. US Military authorities exercised Noburo, Iha Fuyu, Higashionna Kanjun and exclusive control over the islands until 1972. Kinjo Choei as well as by mainland scholars of While the San Francisco Treaty of 1951 folklore studies such as Yanagita Kunio,restored Japanese sovereignty, occupation did dialectologists such as Tojo Misao and folk art not end for the Ryukyu Islands in spite of the scholars such as Yanagi Muneyoshi, to mention fact that petitions had been handed in, in which only some of the more prominent. However, the more than two thirds of the Ryukyu electorate endeavours to end the oppression of Ryukyuan asked for a return to Japan in July 1951. languages failed due to the growing pressure on Ryukyuans to adapt to mainland Japan Circumstances for could language and culture during the Sino-Japanese hardly be worse than they were in the Ryukyu and later the Pacific War. After 1945, much of Islands immediately after 1945. With Okinawa the research of the aforementioned scholars Island being completely destroyed and the was used to construct a Ryukyuan identity, population living in temporary camps, language planning was not a priority issue. Provision of

5 3 | 11 | 0 APJ | JF for the population and reestablishment of prior to the Japanese seizure infrastructure proved to be more urgent tasks. of the Ryukyus and the fact that pre-modern In some cases, pupils learned writing by literature had largely been composed in drawing script characters with their fingers in Chinese and Japanese written styles. the sand of nearby beaches. There was, in Furthermore, a fixed did not exist, addition, a drastic shortage of qualifiednor resources and materials on which such teachers due to the fact that many teachers textbooks could be based. As a result, the idea (and pupils) had been killed. Many of the of Ryukyuan textbooks was quickly abandoned. surviving teachers filled administrativeWith interest in language planning positions left vacant by the departure of quickly declining as well, Japanese textbooks mainland personnel, increasing thereby teacher were imported from mainland Japan after 1951. shortage. In contrast to US postwar planning for Japan, Two groups vied to dominate languagedevelopment and strict implementation of a far- planning activities between 1945 and 1972. reaching occupation policy for Okinawa, ‘the American military authorities sought torock’ as GIs derogatively called it, had never encourage the use of the Ryukyuan languages been high on the agenda in the early (and English), while important Ryukyuan occupation years. It took until Communist institutions promoted Standard Japanese. A victory in in 1949 and the outbreak of report compiled in 1944 by anthropologists the Korean War in the following year before a from Yale University for the preparation of a long term policy for the island was framed. By possible stressedthat time, however, a return to the pre-war exploitations of and discrimination against policy of Japanese language spread had taken Ryukyuans by mainland Japanese. On this root. Thus, after a short period of uncertainty basis, the American authorities developed a about language education in school, the policy of encouraging Ryukyuan autonomy. practices established before 1945 were Such policy rested above all on US perceptions continued. The only difference was that of the strategically important location of the Japanese language education was no longer Ryukyu Archipelago. US authorities thus called ‘national language’ (kokugo) but explored the Yale-report as a basis to legitimize ‘ lessons’ (yomikata). A conference of their attempts to split Okinawa from Japan, that school directors in 1950 determined that school is, to preserve it within the orbit of American education should follow exactly the pattern of power as a bulwark with respect to US policies mainland Japan, with Japanese as the language toward China, Taiwan, and . of instruction.

Along the lines of a policy encouragingWhereas the first initiatives in language Ryukyuan independence, mainland Japanese planning were taken by American occupation teaching materials were initially banned and authorities, the focus shifted soon to Ryukyuan American authorities called for the compilation educators. Standard Japanese served of Ryukyuan textbooks. A Textbook Compilation Ryukyuans as a symbol of their struggle for the Office was set up. However, the prevailing view reversion of Okinawa to Japan. Part of the among its members was that the development reason was that the Americans were already of Ryukyuan textbooks was unrealistic.using Ryukyuan languages as a means for Attempts at developing Ryukyuan teaching distancing the Ryukyus from Japan, and materials ran into several problems, such as thereby, implicitly, for a continued affiliation the absence of a modern written Ryukyuan with the US. Ryukyuans were clearly aware style since official records had been written in that the US administration was trying to

6 3 | 11 | 0 APJ | JF prolong the occupation in their own interest by transmission in the Ryukyuan languages was claiming that Ryukyuans were not Japanese. interrupted from the early years of the US While the US was thus trying to undo the occupation. The diverse mosaic of sociocultural effects of linguistic and cultural assimilation of contexts and experiences makes it difficult to the past 50 years, such language and identity generalize a single, monolithic Ryukyuan planning was not supported by Ryukyuans. US language situation. In most cases people born language policy only produced resistance which after 1950 no longer speak Ryukyuan meant, with a view , continued languages, particularly those living on Standard Japanese language spread. Whereas Okinawa, the main island. Speakers of the view that Ryukyuans were a different Ryukyuan tend to include younger people in the nation than the Japanese prevailed among the outlying islands of the group as US authorities and, to a certain degree, also well as in the other island groups. It can be among Ryukyuans in the early years of the noted that there exist differences between local occupation, political activities aiming atcommunities within island groups which seem Ryukyuan independence declined drastically to reflect the various degrees of radicalism with after 1950. The presence of extensive military which Standard Japanese was spread. infrastructure, land confiscation, noiseFurthermore, language shift occurred faster in pollution, crime, prostitution, poverty, all had the cities than in the countryside. As a result, the effect of leading the overwhelming majority the sociolinguistic situation is complex. In of Ryukyuans to favour immediate reversion to addition to the older generation, usually Japan. US American occupation thusproficient in a Ryukyuan language variety, the inadvertently reinforced Ryukyu Islands-middle generation often has passive skills and mainland Japan bonds. Promotion of Standard some of them can even be regarded as semi- Japanese after 1945 thus continued to serve as speakers. The young generation is a means to foster a Japanese identity for the overwhelmingly monolingual Japanese. In Ryukyuan population and a means of resisting addition, contact varieties of Standard Japanese the unwelcome US occupation. and Ryukuyan varieties have emerged. These varieties are summarized under the term Due to the continued efforts to promote Okinawan-Japanese (uchinayamtoguchi). They Standard Japanese after 1945, use of Ryukyuan show strong variation according to region and languages or Ryukyuan interference onage of its speakers. The study into the current Standard Japanese were again condemned as use of these contact varieties is still little bad language. Even the dialect tag saw a developed, due to the fact that they are so revival. Other oppressive measures against widely spread and considered to be of little Ryukyuan in schools included less drastic forms prestige. of punishment and admonition, such as counting the instance of use of Ryukyuan words Attempts at language revitalization by individual pupils. Those found using such words too frequently were requested to use In recognition of the endangerment of local only Standard Japanese in class or had their cultures and languages several attempts have names recorded in the class register. Local been made to revitalize languages at risk in the linguists such as Karimata Shigeihsa and Ryukyu Islands. The early efforts initially Takaesu Yoriko reported to me that they had concentrated in the northern Amami-Oshima experienced such measures in their early island group. The earliest language revival schooldays in the 1960s and 70s. organizations on Okinawa Island is that of Okinawa City (formerly Koza City), established Natural intergenerational languagein 1955 as Koza Society of Culture. By the

7 3 | 11 | 0 APJ | JF mid-1990s more than half of all localof the scheme. Other activities of the Society communities in Okinawa Prefecture hadfor Spreading Okinawan include the design and societies devoted to the maintenance and distribution of an Okinawa language button. promotion of . In 1995, the Wearing the button signals that the bearer Prefectural Society of Okinawan Culture was wishes to be addressed in Okinawan. founded as an association of these societies. It Furthermore, the Society organized the first organizes the popular annual Ryukyuan public Island Language Day which was held at the speech event called Let's Speak the Island community centre on September 18th Languages Meeting. The threat of language this year. An estimated 100 endorsed a loss has led to numerous popular publications declaration asking for the recognition of about Ryukyuan languages and variousOkinawan, Miyako, Yaeyama and Yonaguni as language textbooks. News in Okinawan is independent speech communities. (Note that broadcast daily on local radio. In recent years, the language varieties of Amami-Oshima, which presentation circles and plays in Ryukyuan are located in Kagoshima Prefecture, are languages have been incorporated in the school absent). The language declaration claims the curriculum as part of local culture classes. rights to use these languages in private and There are also a few language classes as part of public domains, to receive language instruction extracurricular activities. Furthermore,in order to develop language proficiency, and Ryukyuan language classes are offered in the right to receive public services in these tertiary education as part of general education languages. where they enjoy huge popularity. Since all five universities in the Ryukyus are located on There are other research and speech circles in Okinawa Island, the variety taught there is that the Ryukyu Islands. On Okinawa Island alone, I of Okinawa, more specifically Shuri/Naha. could trace such circles at community centres in Shuri, Naha, Urasoe, Tomigusuke, Haebaru, The most important institution for the revival of Kochinda, Nishihara, Tamagusuke, Okinawa a Ryukyuan language is the Society forCity, Ginowan, Chatan, Kadena and Ginoza. Spreading Okinawan (Uchinaguchi fukyu With the exception of Chatan, where children kyogikai). At its constituting meeting, the are being taught Okinawan, these circles are society formulated as its objectives theusually visited by people over 50 who primarily establishment of dialect classes at elementary look for opportunities to use Okinawan. and middle schools, the organization ofParticipants do not actively endeavour to Okinawan teacher training, and thespread the language to new speakers and development of an Okinawan standarddomains of usage. These circles can therefore orthography. not be seen as language revival institutions in the strict sense. While a standard orthography has now been established for the language varieties of the The future of the Ryukyuan languages Okinawa Island group and teacher training is being held, Okinawan has not been introduced The most important measure of language in schools. In other words, education in both revitalization is that of passing the retreating public and private schools is conductedlanguage on to younger generations. This is of exclusively in Japanese and it is not possible to course easier said than done. The current study Ryukyuan as a in the popularity of things Ryukyuan throughout schools. Introducing classes in Okinawan Japan however offers opportunities for requires the approval of the Okinawa Education language revitalization since it includes Council, which has so far not been supportive appreciation of the local languages. Two

8 3 | 11 | 0 APJ | JF examples illustrate both renewed interest in Ryukyuan local varieties meet thereby with Okinawan languages and the difficulties in particular interest. In the music industry, the passing the languages to new generations. In case of Isamu Shimoji (35) is worth of note. its issue of April 11th 2001, the Okinawa Times Originally from Miyako, Shimoji was a company reported on a student from who started employee on Okinawa until a few years ago. studying Okinawan after starting his studies at When he threw in some Miyako language into a the University of the Ryukyus. He states that it rendition of an Eric Clapton song, struck him that there were language varieties friends convinced him to give a concert of in Japan which he could not understand at all. Miyako songs at a local community centre. In a letter to the editor, published in Okinawa Soon self-produced tapes made it to the Times on September 7th 2005, a 17 year old airwaves of the local radio station FM Okinawa. high school student from City on Shimoji went on to produce a CD of Okinawa criticizes elderly speakers for not contemporary popular music titled ‘Kaitakusha’ using the local language when talking to her (Pioneer) which is almost completely in the and urges them to pass the languages down to Miyako variety. The CD is selling very well younger generations. In concluding, she writes: throughout Japan. ‘I, who was born in Okinawa, feel ashamed for not even understanding jokes in the language The recent Japanese Okinawa boom of Okinawa. Will the dialect really vanish just notwithstanding, resistance against attempts to like this? Don't you have the impression that a revitalize local languages are far from being great quality of Okinawa will be lost?’ unknown. For example, in a letter to the editor, published in Okinawa Times on December 3rd The situation is difficult, but there is hope. In 2004, a government official opposed the idea of particular the current dialect boom in Japan reviving the Ryukyuan languages and having might be useful for Ryukyuan languagethem taught in school. She writes: ‘I have come revitalization. With Standard Japanese being across the misunderstanding that the Okinawa thoroughly spread among the youngdialects are believed to constitute language generation, varieties other than Standard systems of their own because terms such as Japanese are experiencing a revaluation. It can Okinawan or island language and the like exist. be noted that in trend-spots such as Shibuya As a matter of fact, they are merely instances young women, always quickest to set and of corrupt accents and words respond to linguistic trends, are inserting as which have not vanished but continue to be much dialectal elements as possible in their used in Okinawa. (…) Although there have speech. As an effect, the formerly ubiquitous recently been voices calling for teaching the shouts of ‘totemo !’ (totally cute) are in dialects as languages to children, such a the process of being replaced by theirpractice would be dreadful. What is the idea of equivalents from local varieties such asteaching corrupt accents? If pupils are not ‘namara!’ ( ) or ‘sekarashika!’ and taught to speak proper Japanese they will face ‘chikappomenkoi!’ (Kyushyu). humiliation when grown up because of the language barrier.’ The dialect boom has been reinforced and picked up by Japanese mass media. One of the In addition to resistance, many attempts at current linguistic bestsellers revivingis the Ryukyuan languages simply fail. ‘Chikappomenkoi hogen renshucho’ (Totally For instance, a course on the language variety cute dialect exercise book). Many popular TV of Yoron Island started in 2004 only to be shows have dialect corners and the number of cancelled after a few sessions because it failed web-sites on local varieties is constantly rising. to attract participants. As a rule, activists

9 3 | 11 | 0 APJ | JF aiming at language revival are left to rely on sociolinguistic research. As an effect of such their own wits and funds. It seems that this is neglect, both issues of the UNESCO Red Book not enough to achieve a broad-based revival. of Endangered Languages completely fail to mention the Ryukyu languages (and have There exists no language policygrossly optimistic views on the comprehensively addressing the linguistic situation). While concentrated efforts are being situation in the Ryukyu Islands. There is also a made to document Ryukyuan language lack of professionally trained linguists. Several varieties, the greatest need seems to be for branches of linguistics such as sociolinguistics language planning rather than on or linguistic anthropology are absent. Much of documentation. In particular, acquisition the linguistic research in the Ryukyu Islands is planning, that is to say, the planning for new conducted by amateurs, who find support from speakers, is an issue that can ill afford any linguistics professors at the local universities. A further delay. research grant of the Japanese Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science andTo be sure, the survival of the Ryukyuan Technology for a project called "Endangered languages hinges on language choices to be Languages of the Pacific Rim" which ran from made by the inhabitants of the Ryukyu Islands. 1999 to 2003 provided a much needed impetus Only they can choose to maintain and transmit for professionally conducted research. In spite their languages. But while grassroots of the fact that the Ainu and the Ryukyuan movements have sprung up and a wide-spread languages were recognized as endangered appreciation of local culture and language can Japanese languages, however, research focused be noted, there is not such sentiment evident in exclusively on language documentation. official institutions. As it stands, the most urgent task in language revitalization is to While endangered languages require efforts secure support from local education boards, the with regard to description and language prefectural governments at Okinawa and planning, the latter point has so far been Kagoshima as well as the Japanese state. completely neglected. Literally no research has Having the Ryukyuan languages supported by yet been conducted on how the Ryukyuan these institutions would have a huge symbolic languages can be revitalized. As it stands, there meaning, increasing their value and is no reliable information on questions as encouraging their future study and use. They fundamental as how many speakers of the could also provide the material and institutional different language varieties exist, how old they support for a wider language acquisition are, where they are located, and what level of program. proficiency they have. Furthermore, nothing is known about local awareness concerning the Thus far, however, it appears that the extent of possible loss of their languages in the speech language endangerment and its consequences communities themselves, the attitudes of the have not been fully realized by the Okinawan speech communities toward languagegovernment, or, if realized, is not perceived as endangerment, and, to be based on such a problem. There is also little awareness of the fundamental information, realistic goals for danger of language loss even among those language revitalization have not yet been set. supportive of the local languages. When I interviewed the local photographer and It is a sad fact that the local universities and documentary filmmaker Higa Toyomitsu, who the International Clearing House ofhas made audiovisual recordings in Okinawan Endangered Languages at the University of of more than 500 survivors of the Battle of Tokyo pay little attention to these aspects of Okinawa, even Higa, at first, showed a lack of

10 3 | 11 | 0 APJ | JF awareness about language endangerment. behind languages which have been passed on When I pointed out that there was a need to for hundred of years inevitably constitutes a find new domains of usage and new speakers of decisive break with the past. Powerful symbolic the language in order to secure the future links to a shared culture and history are forever existence of the local languages, he answered: lost.

Well, there are such places where you can use Viewed from another angle, a further decline of Ryukyuan languages. These places exist and I the Ryukyuan languages would weaken the make my recordings there. I myself am such a multilingual and multicultural bases of place. It doesn't matter whether someone Japanese society. This is crucial, because the speaks well or not. As long as these people are current policy of ignoring linguistic and there, the language will be there as well. No cultural diversity within the Japanese nation worries (daijobu)! contradicts and runs counter to other efforts aiming at internationalisation. The latter policy After I explained that the language would appreciates and cherishes linguistic and vanish with its present speakers if no counter cultural diversity on an international level while measures were taken, Higa lamented that too the former ignores such diversity on the few people were getting involved in issues of national level. While there has been an upsurge cultural and linguistic revitalization. in literature pointing out and describing Japan's multilingual tradition and heritage in If you make attempts for revitalization,recent years many people and institutions everybody says ‘great’. But when it comes to continue to cling to the modernist paradigm making an effort, they don't do anything. I according to which there is a one-to-one mean, look, even the scholars here don't do congruence between the Japanese state, nation anything. They only care whether their own and language. Producing evidence about field of research is affected. But if you say, let's Japan's multilingual and mulicultural past and do something for the revitalization of such and present is one thing, having it reflected in such island language, they will do nothing. popular attitudes and in official policies quite They only do something for their research. And another. if it is for some bigger issue, even they won't do anything. What I would like to see is scholars As it presently stands, modernist language really getting involved. So what would you ideology which claims linguistic homogeneity make out of something like that? [Laughs]. across nation states continues to serve as self- fulfilling prophecy – in Japan as in many other The remarks by Higa point to the fact that it places across the world. Every two weeks a would be naïve to simply equate statements language dies while thousands of others about concern with evidence that people are continue to decline. This reinforces the validity really aware of what is at stake and/or that they of modernist nation-imagining ideology. To are ready to get involved. many the view of the linguistically homogenous nation appears to be more true, natural, normal Language loss affects more than language and historical day by day. This is one of the use–it affects identities. To start with, the major reasons why it is so very difficult to save Ryukyuan languages, or their absence, a threatened language. With every day, it profoundly Ryukyuan identity. The seems to become easier to perceive language collapse of a language is always accompanied revitalization as an unfeasible endeavour. When by thoroughgoing changes in local culture. I asked Shimoji Toshiyuki [Shimoji toshiyuki?] Attempts to revitalize languages are therefore from the Local Research Society of Miyako not purely linguistic endeavours. Leaving

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(Miyako kyodo kenkyukai) whether there were think that this would allow pupils to engage in people who would oppose languageconversations. And one would need a leader revitalization and whether he could imagine the who would pursue all these things [pause]. It's local language varieties being taught in school, difficult, isn't it? he sounded first optimistic about the idea and then, slowly, gave in to the view that prospects Shimoji is right. It is difficult and everything he were rather bleak, enumerating, as he did, the mentioned indeed needs to be done. But while difficulties involved: that appeared to be almost insurmountable to him, it is most important to recognize that it If it were possible to save the dialects, and if actually can be achieved. The Ryukyuan one could get pupils to use them at school, this language might very well survive in the event would be good. I think that this would be really that such action is taken. It won’t happen, good. I don't think that anyone would be however, unless a growing number of people against it. Well, I don't know, but I don't think become involved, readers of Japan Focus not that someone would oppose the idea. [Pause] excluded. Dialect [pause] at school [pause]. Even if one wished to teach it at school, how should it be Patrick Heinrich studies and teaches Japanese taught? To start with, there is the question culture and linguistics at Duisburg-Essen whether the teacher would be able to speak the University ( Germany). His fields of research dialect. People who speak the dialect properly include history of linguistics, language ideology would need to train the teachers. One would and sociolinguistics. He is currently working on need to incorporate it into general education a monograph on reversing language shift in the (sogo gakushu). You know, the curriculum is Ryukyu Islands. He wrote this article for Japan already set and there is the question to which Focus. He can be contacted by -mail: extent the dialect can be incorporated into the [email protected] The author curriculum. There is no need to do it in a half- would like to thank Matt Allen, Donald Seekins, hearted way like having two lessons a year or Jim Stanlaw, John Whitman and Mark Selden so – if it is incorporated into school education, for comments which helped to improve this it would need to be done properly. Even if you article. Posted at Japan Focus, November 10, were to teach it, say one hour a week, I don't 2005.

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