CROSBY, AUBREY M., Ph.D., August 2020 ENGLISH

NEWS MEDIA REPRESENTATION OF THE DAKOTA ACCESS PIPELINE PROTEST

(A STUDY USING SYSTEMIC FUNCTIONAL LINGUISTICS AND APPRAISAL THEORY)

(279 PP.)

Dissertation Advisor: Dr. Patricia Dunmire

My dissertation presents a critical discourse analysis of news media reporting of three specific altercation events during the Dakota Access Pipeline (DAPL) protest in 2016. The DAPL

Protest is known globally as a grassroots movement occurring in response to the construction of a 1,172-mile long pipeline across the states of North Dakota, South Dakota, Iowa, and Illinois.

Initially led by members of the Standing Rock Sioux Tribe, the DAPL protest movement centered on the concerns that tribal lands would be destroyed during construction and that the region’s water supply would be contaminated. Although the tribe’s protest of the project began in 2014, it was largely kept out of mainstream news media. It wasn’t until the fall of 2016, when reports of physical confrontations surfaced, that the ongoing protest made national headlines.

While several studies have analyzed the quantitative patterns of this news coverage, only a few studies have taken a qualitative look at the actual content of the news reports. My project intends to fill this gap by examining how these altercation events and the actors involved are characterized by journalists and presented to the public. To do so, I draw on tools and methods of Critical Discourse Analysis and Systemic Functional Linguistics, specifically Transitivity analysis and Appraisal Theory.

NEWS MEDIA REPRESENTATION OF THE DAKOTA ACCESS PIPELINE PROTEST

(A STUDY USING SYSTEMIC FUNCTIONAL LINGUISTICS AND APPRAISAL THOERY)

A dissertation submitted

to Kent State University in partial fulfilment

of the requirements for the

degree of Doctor of Philosophy

By

Aubrey M. Crosby

August 2020

© Copyright

All rights reserved

Except for previously published materials

Dissertation written by

Aubrey M. Crosby

B.A., Siena Heights University, 2012

M.A., The University of Toledo, 2014

Ph.D., Kent State University, 2020

Approved by

______Dr. Patricia Dunmire_____, Chair, Doctoral Dissertation Committee

______Dr. Ryan Miller______, Members Doctoral Dissertation Committee

______Dr. Sara Newman______

______Dr. Danielle Coombs_____

______Dr. Tiffany Taylor______

Accepted by

______Babacar M’Baye______, Chair, English Department

______Mandy Munro-Stasiuk______, Interim Dean, College of Arts and Sciences

TABLE OF CONTENTS ------iv

LIST OF FIGURES ------vii

LIST OF TABLES ------ix

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ------xiv

CHAPTERS

I. INTRODUCTION ------1

The Dakota Access Pipeline Protest ------1

Research Design & Methodology ------9

Theoretical Frameworks ------12

Analytic Procedure ------23

Conclusion & Chapter Summaries ------35

II. LITERATURE REVIEW ------37

Trends in Representation Research ------37

Representing Protest in the News ------46

Reporting on the Dakota Access Pipeline Protest ------52

Conclusion & Contributions to Research ------54

III. ANALYSIS I: Representation in The New York Times ------56

Transitivity Analysis ------56

Appraisal: Judgement Analysis ------74

Source Integration & Engagement Analysis ------79

Conclusion ------85

iv IV. ANALYSIS II: Representation in the Wall Street Journal ------87

Transitivity Analysis ------87

Appraisal: Judgement Analysis ------105

Source Integration & Engagement Analysis ------111

Conclusion ------114

V. ANALYSIS III: Representation in the Associated Press ------116

Transitivity Analysis ------116

Appraisal: Judgement Analysis ------138

Source Integration & Engagement Analysis ------145

Conclusion ------151

VI. ANALYSIS IV: Representation in The Bismarck Tribune ------153

Transitivity Analysis ------153

Appraisal: Judgement Analysis ------187

Source Integration & Engagement Analysis ------194

Conclusion ------201

VII. CONCLUSION ------203

Characterizing Alecain a Pce, Paician, & Cicmance ------204

Representing Social Actors ------207

Role & Range of Integrated Sources ------213

Summary, Contributions, & Limitations ------219

REFERENCES ------223

APPENDICES ------237

A. Articles Published After the 9/3, 10/27, & 11/20 DAPL Protest Altercations------237

v B. Transitivity Diagrams for The New York Times ------239

C. Transitivity Diagrams for Wall Street Journal ------244

D. Transitivity Diagrams for Associated Press ------249

E. Transitivity Diagrams for The Bismarck Tribune ------255

vi LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1. Projected DAPL Route & Alternative Routes in N.D. ------3

Figure 2. Map of DAPL Route Intersection in Cannon Ball, N.D. ------4

Figure 3. System Network for Analyzing Attitude: Affect in Appraisal Theory ------19

Figure 4. System Network for Analyzing Attitude: Judgement in Appraisal Theory ------21

Figure 5. System Network for Analyzing Attitude: Appreciation in Appraisal Theory ------21

Figure 6. System Network for Analyzing Engagement in Appraisal Theory ------22

Figure 7. Sample Transitivity Diagram ------26

Figure 8. Samle f Aibed Maeial Pce Coding in NYT Report 10/28 ------27

Figure 9. System Network for Analyzing Social Actors and Their Representation in Discourse

(Adapted) ------29

Figure 10. Sample Coding for Attitude: Judgement (of Appraisal Theory) ------33

Figure 11. Percentage of Attributed vs. Unattributed Phrasing Across All News Reports ----- 204

Figure 12. Percentage Range of Process Types Across All News Reports ------205

Figure 13. Range of Source Attributions Across All News Reports by Percentage------213

Figure 14. Transitivity Diagram, NYT 10/28 Report ------239

Figure 15. Transitivity Diagram, NYT 11/21 Report ------241

Figure 16. Transitivity Diagram, WSJ Report 10/27 ------244

Figure 17. Transitivity Diagram, WSJ Report 11/21 ------245

Figure 18. Transitivity Diagram, AP Report 9/4 ------249

Figure 19. Transitivity Diagram, AP Report 10/28 ------251

Figure 20. Transitivity Diagram, AP Report 11/21 ------253

Figure 21. Transitivity Diagram, BT Report 9/3 ------255

vii Figure 22. Transitivity Diagram, BT Report 10/28 ------258

Figure 23. Transitivity Diagram, BT Report 11/22 ------261

viii LIST OF TABLES

Table 1.1. News Reports of Protest Altercations Occurring on 9/3, 10/27, and 11/20------11

Table 1.2. Transitivity Processes and Functional Labels ------24

Table 3.1. NYT Articles Published After Altercations Occurring on 9/3, 10/27, and 11/20------56

Table 3.2. Unattributed & Attributed Processes in NYT 10/28 News Report ------57

Table 3.3. Unaibed Maeial Pcee in NYT 10/28 News Report ------57

Table 3.4. Aibed Maeial Pcee in NYT 10/28 News Report ------60

Table 3.5. Aibed Relainal Pcee in NYT 10/28 News Report ------63

Table 3.6. Unaibed Vebal Pcee in NYT 10/28 News Report ------64

Table 3.7. Aibed Vebal Pcee in NYT 10/28 News Report ------65

Table 3.8. Unaibed Menal Pcee in NYT 10/28 News Report ------65

Table 3.9. Aibed Menal Pcee in NYT 10/28 News Report ------66

Table 3.10. Unattributed & Attributed Processes in NYT 11/21 News Report ------67

Table 3.11. Unaibed Maeial Pcee in NYT 11/21 News Report ------67

Table 3.12. Aibed Maeial Pcee in NYT 11/21 News Report ------68

Table 3.13. Aibed Relainal Pcee in NYT 11/21 News Report ------70

Table 3.14. Unaibed Vebal Pcesses in NYT 11/21 News Report ------71

Table 3.15. Aibed Vebal Pcee in NYT 11/21 News Report ------72

Table 3.16. Range of Unattributed & Attributed Processes in NYT Reports ------73

Table 3.17. Aaial f Behai Aibed Pee in NYT Reports ------74

Table 3.18. Aaial f Behai Aibed La Enfcemen in NYT Reports ------77

Table 3.19. Range of Source Attribution in NYT Reports ------80

Table 3.20. Range of Framing Devices Used in NYT News Reports ------83

ix Table 4.1. WSJ Articles Published After Altercations Occurring on 9/3, 10/27, and 11/20------87

Table 4.2. Unattributed & Attributed Processes in WSJ 10/27 News Report ------88

Table 4.3. Unaibed Maeial Pcee in WSJ 10/27 News Report ------88

Table 4.4. Aibed Maeial Pcee in WSJ 10/27 News Report ------90

Table 4.5. Unaibed Menal Pcee in WSJ 10/27 News Report ------92

Table 4.6. Aibed Menal Pcee in WSJ 10/27 News Report ------93

Table 4.7. Aibed Relainal Pcee in WSJ 10/27 News Report ------93

Table 4.8. Unaibed Vebal Pcee in WSJ 10/27 News Report ------95

Table 4.9. Aibed Vebal Pcee in WSJ 10/27 News Report ------95

Table 4.10. Unattributed & Attributed Processes in WSJ 11/21 News Report ------96

Table 4.11. Unaibed Maeial Pcee in WSJ 11/21 News Report ------96

Table 4.12. Aibed Maeial Pcee in WSJ 11/21 News Report ------98

Table 4.13. Unaibed Relainal Pcee in WSJ 11/21 News Report ------101

Table 4.14. Aibed Relainal Pcee in WSJ 11/21 News Report ------101

Table 4.15. Unaibed Vebal Pcee in WSJ 11/21 News Report ------102

Table 4.16. Aibed Vebal Pcee in WSJ 11/21 News Report ------102

Table 4.17. Aibed Menal Pcee in WSJ 11/21 News Report ------103

Table 4.18. Range of Unattributed & Attributed Processes in WSJ Reports ------104

Table 4.19. Aaial f Behai Aibed Pee in WSJ Reports ------106

Table 4.20. Aaial f Behai Aibed La Enfcemen in WSJ Reports ------108

Table 4.21. Range of Source Attribution in WSJ Reports ------111

Table 4.22. Range of Framing Devices Used in WSJ News Reports ------114

Table 5.1. AP Articles Published After Altercations Occurring on 9/3, 10/27, and 11/20 ----- 116

x Table 5.2. Unattributed & Attributed Processes in AP 9/4 News Report ------117

Table 5.3. Unaibed Maeial Pcee in AP 9/4 News Report ------117

Table 5.4. Aibed Maeial Pcee in AP 9/4 News Report ------118

Table 5.5. Unaibed Relainal Pcee in AP 9/4 News Report ------122

Table 5.6. Aibed Relainal Pcee in AP 9/4 News Report ------122

Table 5.7. Aibed Eienial Pcee in AP 9/4 News Report ------123

Table 5.8. Unattributed & Attributed Processes in AP 10/28 News Report ------124

Table 5.9. Unaibed Maeial Pcee in AP 10/28 News Report ------124

Table 5.10. Aibed Maeial Pcee in AP 10/28 News Report ------127

Table 5.11. Unaibed Relainal Pcee in AP 10/28 News Report ------129

Table 5.12. Aibed Relainal Pceses in AP 10/28 News Report ------130

Table 5.13. Unaibed Vebal Pcee in AP 10/28 News Report ------131

Table 5.14. Unattributed & Attributed Processes in AP 11/21 News Report ------132

Table 5.15. Unaibed Maeial Pcee in AP 11/21 News Report ------132

Table 5.16. Aibed Maeial Pcee in AP 11/21 News Report ------133

Table 5.17. Aibed Relainal Pcee in AP 11/21 News Report ------135

Table 5.18. Unaibed Relainal Pceses in AP 11/21 News Report ------135

Table 5.19. Range of Unattributed & Attributed Processes in AP Reports ------137

Table 5.20. Aaial f Behai Aibed Cncin Ce in AP 9/4 Re ---- 138

Table 5.21. Aaial f Behai Aibed Seci Gad in AP 9/4 Report ------139

Table 5.22. Aaial f Behai Aibed La Enfcemen in AP Reports ------140

Table 5.23. Aaial f Behai Aibed Pee in AP Reports------142

Table 5.24. Range of Source Attribution in AP Reports ------145

xi Table 5.25. Range of Framing Devices in Used in AP News Reports ------148

Table 6.1. BT Articles Published After Altercations Occurring on 9/3, 10/27, and 11/20 ----- 153

Table 6.2. Unattributed & Attributed Processes in BT 9/3 News Report ------154

Table 6.3. Unaibed Maeial Pcee in BT 9/3 News Report ------154

Table 6.4. Aibed Maeial Pcee in BT 9/3 News Report ------156

Table 6.5. Aibed Relainal Pcee in BT 9/3 News Report ------159

Table 6.6. Aibed Menal Pcee in BT 9/3 News Report ------160

Table 6.7. Aibed Eienial Pcee in BT 9/3 News Report ------161

Table 6.8. Unattributed & Attributed Processes in BT 10/28 News Report ------161

Table 6.9. Unaibed Maeial Pcee in BT 10/28 News Report ------162

Table 6.10. Aibed Maeial Pcee in BT 10/28 News Report ------165

Table 6.11. Unaibed Vebal Pcee in BT 10/28 News Report ------167

Table 6.12. Aibed Vebal Pcee in BT 10/28 News Report ------168

Table 6.13. Unaibed Relainal Pcee in BT 10/28 News Report ------169

Table 6.14. Aibed Relainal Pcee in BT 10/28 News Report ------169

Table 6.15. Unaibed Menal Pcee in BT 10/28 News Report ------171

Table 6.16. Aibed Menal Pcee in BT 10/28 News Report ------171

Table 6.17. Unaibed Eienial Pcee in BT 10/28 News Report ------172

Table 6.18. Aibed Eienial Pcee in BT 10/28 News Report ------172

Table 6.19. Unattributed & Attributed Processes in BT 11/22 News Report------173

Table 6.20. Unaibed Maeial Pcee in BT 11/22 News Report ------173

Table 6.21. Aibed Maeial Pcee in BT 11/22 News Report ------175

Table 6.22. Unaibed Relainal Pcee in BT 11/22 News Report ------180

xii Table 6.23. Aibed Relainal Pceses in BT 11/22 News Report ------180

Table 6.24. Unaibed Vebal Pcee in BT 11/22 News Report ------183

Table 6.25. Aibed Vebal Pcee in BT 11/22 News Report ------184

Table 6.26. Aibed Menal Pcee in BT 11/22 News Report ------184

Table 6.27. Aibed Eienial Pcee in BT 11/22 News Report ------186

Table 6.28. Range of Unattributed & Attributed Processes in BT Reports ------186

Table 6.29. Aaial f Behai Aibed Cncin Ce in BT Reports ------188

Table 6.30. Aaial f Behai Aibed La Enfcemen in BT Reports ------189

Table 6.31. Aaial f Behai Aibed Pee in BT Reports ------191

Table 6.32. Range of Source Attribution in BT Reports ------194

Table 6.33. Range of Framing Devices Used in BT News Reports ------198

Table 7.1. Range f Tem Ued Idenif Pee a Scial Ac ------207

Table 7.2. Range f Behai Aibed Pee Ac All News Reports ------209

Table 7.3. Range of Terms Ued Idenif La Enfcemen a Scial Ac ------210

Table 7.4. Range f Behai Aibed La Enfcemen Ac All News Reports-- 211

Table 7.5. Range of Source Attributions Across All News Reports ------215

xiii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

A sincere thank you to all those who served on my dissertation committee. A special thank you to Dr. Dunmire whose guidance and advice brought out my best work; and to Dr. Newman: I would not be here if it had not been for your unconditional support and guidance throughout the program. A special thank you goes out to the family that Ie chen he kindne and generosity of spirit has made it possible for me to climb these steps: thank you Lora, Tim, and

Barbara, especially for your support over the years and your steadfast belief and optimism in my potential. Finally, to John: que los campos estén siempre llenos de moras.

xiv

CHAPTER I

Introduction

My dissertation presents a critical discourse analysis of news media reporting of three specific altercation events during the Dakota Access Pipeline (DAPL) protest in 2016. The

DAPL Protest is known globally as a grassroots movement occurring in response to the construction of a 1,172-mile long pipeline across the states of North Dakota, South Dakota,

Iowa, and Illinois. Initially led by members of the Standing Rock Sioux Tribe, the DAPL protest movement centered on the concerns that tribal lands would be destroyed during construction and that the region’s water supply would be contaminated. Although the tribe’s protest of the project began in 2014, it was largely kept out of mainstream news media. It wasn’t until the fall of

2016, when reports of physical confrontations surfaced, that the ongoing protest made national headlines. While several studies have analyzed the quantitative patterns of this news coverage, only a few studies have taken a qualitative look at the actual content of the news reports. My project intends to fill this gap by examining how these altercation events and the actors involved are characterized by journalists and presented to the public. To do so, I draw on tools and methods of Critical Discourse Analysis and Systemic Functional Linguistics, specifically

Transitivity analysis and Appraisal Theory.

The Dakota Access Pipeline Protest

The Dakota Access Pipeline (DAPL) Protest is known as a global grassroots movement largely occurring throughout 2016 in North Dakota. The 1,172-mile-long pipeline project was

1 first proposed in June 2014, by Energy Transfer Partners (ETP) as a $3.7 million-dollar investment to cut down on the demand for oil from international markets (Dakota Access, LLC,

2014, p. 3-4, 7-8).1 It was proposed to cross through the states of North Dakota, South Dakota,

Iowa, and Illinois, connecting oil refineries in the Bakken fields to those in the Midwest region where 80 percent of U.S. oil production occurs (Dakota Access, LLC., 2014, p. 3). The project was immediately opposed by members of the Standing Rock Sioux Tribe. In 2012, the tribe had officially come out in opposition to all pipeline projects because of the environmental risks they posed (Earthjustice, 2014, p. 5). In a 2014 public meeting with ETP representatives about the project, David Archambault II, then-Chair of the Standing Rock Sioux Tribe, reaffirmed the tribe’s position on pipelines and voted against the DAPL project (Earthjustice, 2014, p. 5; see also Archambault, 2016, para. 2). Archambault and other committee members argued that the pipeline would destroy cultural sites and prayer sites located along the pipeline’s path, as well as risk contamination to the water supply of villages near the confluence (Earthjustice, 2014, p. 16-

17, 33; see also Archambault, 2016, para. 2).

Originally, the pipeline had been designed to cross the Missouri River north of Bismarck.

However, concerns about water contamination had prompted ETP and engineers to re-route the pipeline away from the capital, consequently shifting the Missouri River crossing to Lake Oahe

(Johnson, 2019, p. 335; RepRisk, n.d., p. 2). While the tribe still recognizes this crossing as part of their protected tribal land granted through the Fort Laramie treaties of 1851 and 1868,

ETP officials do not. They denied any allegation that their project threatened tribal land or that the pipeline would pose any risk to land or water. ETP officials also argued that the route had been chosen carefully in order to collocate with as many pre-existing pipelines structures as

1 ETP is a fully owned subsidiary of Bakken Holdings Company LLC which is a joint venture formed by Energy Transfer Partners (ETP) & Sunoco Logistic Partners (RepRisk, n.d., p. 1).

2 possible and to avoid crossing over any critical or protected sites (Dakota Access, 2014, p. 20,

47, 70). Figure 1 illustrates the original path of the pipeline compared to alternative and final route decisions subsequently proposed.

Figure 1

Projected DAPL Route & Alternative Routes in N.D.

Note. From North Dakota Public Service Commission Combined Application for Certificate of

Corridor Compatibility and Route Permit by Dakota Access, LLC., 2014 (https://archive.org/stream/nd-

psc-dapl/001-030%20Application%).

. Figure 2 illustrates the DAPL route located at the Missouri River crossing in Cannon

Ball, N.D., and its proximity to Backwater Bridge and the Standing Rock Sioux Reservation:

3 Figure 2

Map of DAPL Route Intersection in Cannon Ball, N.D.

Note. From “Key Moments in the Dakota Access Pipeline Fight” by R. Hersher, 2017, NPR (https://www.npr.org/

sections/thetwo-way/2017/02/22/514988040/key-moments-in-the-dakota-access-pipeline-fight).

Despite the tribe’s opposition, ETP officials moved forward with their plans to construct the

DAPL, and in April 2016, the first of many resistance camps were formed (Johnson, 2017, p.

158). By July 2016, more than 3,000 people from social, activist, and tribal groups around the country had joined the ongoing resistance effort (Hersher, 2017, para. 13; Medina, 2016, para.

8). In July 2016, following the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers decision to grant final approval of the project, the construction of the DAPL officially began.

In early August 2016, the Standing Rock Sioux Tribe filed an injunction hoping to halt the construction of the pipeline near the Cannon Ball crossing. Tribal leaders sued the Army of

Engineer Corps for their perceived violation of the National Historic Preservation Act. In court documents, they claimed that ETP and the U.S. Army Corps had failed to consult with the

Standing Rock Sioux Tribe before formally approving the project (Archambault, 2016, para. 7).

They filed for a temporary restraining order against ETP and called on the government to halt

4 construction until proper environmental assessments could be made (Standing Rock Sioux Tribe v. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 2016, p. 2). A hearing was scheduled at the U.S. District

Court of Columbia, but before a ruling could be made, construction crews broke ground at the

Lake Oahe construction site. This event spurred an altercation between many of the protesters on site and security guards working there. A live video released during this altercation by

Democracy Now showed guard dogs being released onto crowds of protesters and guards pepper- spraying protesters (“VIDEO…,” 2016). As news of this event became public, the DAPL protest became an overnight issue of national concern. Prior to the release of this video, there had been little news coverage related to DAPL or to Standing Rock’s ongoing litigation with ETP. After the Democracy Now video circulated, however, #NoDAPL became a trending topic on Twitter and Facebook. Thousands of more people joined at the site of protest, bringing group totals at the camps to nearly 5,000 people (Medina, 2016).

More than a month later, on October 27, 2016, another altercation was reported.

According to news reports and social media updates, protesters had set up a roadblock along

Highway 1806 and built an encampment on private property. In efforts to get protesters to leave, police attacked them with pepper spray, tasers, and rubber bullets, and people working for the pipeline started a brush fire near their resistance camps (RepRisk, 2017, p. 12). More than 140 protesters were arrested by police during this altercation. According to some of those arrested, they had been jailed in what were called “squalid conditions”. They were kept in kennel-like enclosures and penned with identification numbers on their arms (RepRisk, n.d., 2017, p. 12;

Javier, 2016, para. 30). Tensions between these groups escalated further on November 20.

Several videos and images published to social media accounts showed water cannons being used on protesters, as well as pepper-spray and tasers. Law enforcement denied using these devices

5 and claimed they had only used a water cannon to put out fires started by protesters (Johnson,

2017, p. 164). The Standing Rock Medic and Healer Council reported that nearly 300 people were treated for injuries and symptoms of hypothermia (Medic and Healer Council, 2016).

In light of these event, the Obama administration made an official announcement that they would deny approval of the DAPL, stating plans to do a full environmental analysis

(Johnson, 2017, p. 167; Hersher, 2017, para. 33). The project was temporarily halted. As part of his campaign for presidency in 2016, Donald Trump promised to greenlight the project as soon as he took office. On January 24, 2017, he signed an executive order to overturn Obama's directive, calling for an expedited review and approval of the project. This directive ultimately granted the final easements needed and allowed construction of the DAPL to resume (Eilperin &

Dennis, 2017, p. 4; Hersher, 2017, para. 35). Protesters were ordered to clear the camps and any who did not leave voluntarily were forced out (Gyenes, et al., 2017, para. 1). Since then, there has been little mainstream coverage related to the DAPL or the Standing Rock Sioux Tribe, despite the many oil leaks which have occurred since and the ongoing litigation that continues today.

Lack of Media Coverage

As mentioned, one of the major issues regarding these events is the general lack of media coverage they received. Unless you were connected to the events directly, or reading about them through shared social media posts, blogs, or local news outlets, much of the general public was kept largely uninformed about these events. Analysts who have studied news reporting during the DAPL protest have shown that prior to the September 3 altercation, early coverage of the

DAPL protest was infrequent and often dominated by local papers and bloggers. Ekberzade

(2018) argues when there was coverage by mainstream news sources, much of it portrayed the

6 protests and altercations as a “series of minor skirmishes between locals and law enforcement that would soon die away” (p. 4-5). Johnson (2017) claims that this lack of coverage, particularly from mainstream news sources, could simply be due to the remote location of the protest site. As Johnson points out, there was only one spot, referred to as “Facebook Hill,” where protesters could obtain cell phone reception and share updates or videos online. As a result, much of the early coverage consisted of second-hand reports or information passed along by the Morton County Sheriff’s Department; none of the major news outlets had reporters on site, and when they did, the difficulty in obtaining cell reception prohibited them from documenting events or holding live interviews (Jensen, 2016, para. 14). While coverage did increase after the September 3 altercation, some analysts, such as Gyenes, et al. (2017), say it did so only as a result of the growing demand for coverage expressed by activists and supporters on social media (para. 12).

Johnson (2017) notes, however, that even in this growth of coverage, reports were still minimal and often contradictory and unclear. Johnson points to disparities between published news reports of altercation events and the first-hand accounts which were shared on social media accounts by many of the individuals on site (p. 162). Jensen (2016) similarly notes contradictions between reports published by the BBC, CNN, and NPR, for example, and those on site (para. 13). Jensen adds that NPR in particular was criticized for downplaying the excessive use of force by police and for framing events in ways which ultimately “underplay[ed] or altogether ignor[ed] Standing Rock” (in Jensen, para. 7, 10). While Jensen agrees that NPR had underplayed the seriousness of the events, she also claims, however, that once NPR arrived on site, they devoted more time and resources than any other major news outlet (para. 17).2

2 See Jensen (2016) para. 4-6 and 18-19 for a review of NPR’s coverage related to the DAPL and the Standing Rock Sioux Protest.

7 Some scholars have claimed that this general lack of coverage is ideological in nature.

Johnson (2017), for example, suggests that it was the result of a kind of media “black out”.

Because the dominant view of the media tends to support the interests of the dominant and elite upper class, the media’s need to emphasize the value of oil to the country’s economy could have resulted in a reluctance to cover the protests (Johnson, 2017, p. 163). She also suggests that this lack of coverage could have been due to the 2016 presidential campaign which had taken precedence throughout the fall of 2016 and into early 2017, dominating conventional news outlets (Johnson, 2017, para. 20). Nonetheless, the DAPL protest was and continues to be a significant social event. Not only was this movement able to garner a lot of widespread and public support, it also dealt with important issues related to Native American rights and sovereignty and the prioritizing of oil production over human rights and environmental freedoms. In shifting the oil pipeline away from Bismarck, ETP officials and state approval agencies knowingly shifted the same potential risks of contamination onto the Standing Rock

Sioux Tribe. Thus, the protests and concerns raised by the Standing Rock Sioux Tribe were not just about environmental protection but also about much larger issues concerning U.S. treatment of Native Americans. However, scholars who examine news media, particularly in the case of protest reporting, have argued that media rarely acknowledges these larger concerns when reporting on protest. Rather than get into the reasons behind a protest or the concerns or causes which shape it, journalists tend to fixate on the violence and confrontation which may occur

(Halloran, Elliot, & Murdock, 1970; Hertog & McLeod, 1995; McLeod & Hertog, 1992, 1999;

Boyle, et al., 2005).3 With this in mind, my project examines news reports of these events to see how mainstream journalists characterized these events, how they represented the participants involved, and how they situated these altercations in light of the larger protest movement itself.

3 See Chapter Two for more on the Protest Paradigm Framework.

8 Research Design & Methodology

Project Overview & Research Questions

My project is grounded in Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) as a theoretical approach to the study of discourse and utilizes tools and frameworks from Systemic Functional Linguistics

(SFL) to analyze news reports systematically. To date, there has been little research on media’s coverage of the DAPL Protest. Research that has been done has largely focused on quantitative trends in coverage over time, with little analysis on the actual content of the news reports.4 My project intends to fill this gap by offering a critical analyses of news coverage related specifically to the content of the news report. My analysis is ultimately concerned with how journalists represent these events: how they characterize participants and present details to the public. To examine these aspects of representation, I analyze news media reports using methods and frameworks developed in SFL. Through a transitivity analysis, I examine how these altercations are construed in terms of ‘participants’ and ‘processes,’ and through an appraisal analysis, I analyze how social actors are represented and appraised. The research questions guiding my analysis are as follows:

• How are the altercations characterized in terms of ‘participant,’ ‘process,’ and

‘circumstance’?

• What behaviors are attributed to major social actors and how are they positively or

negatively judged by journalists?

• What sources are integrated into the news reports, and what role do they play in

construing these events?

4 For a review of recent research, please see Ch. 2

9 Data Collection & Rationale

In choosing the news sources to analyze, I wanted to include both popular mainstream sources, as well as sources which were regional to the site of protest activity. The New York

Times (NYT) was chosen because it is considered a top news source in the United States, read by both a general public and an elite class (politicians, business leaders, academics, and economic leaders, for example) (Agility, 2019; Misachi, 2017). NYT publications are also often reproduced and referenced by other publications around the globe. The Wall Street Journal

(WSJ) was chosen because it is considered to be the largest U.S. paper according to daily circulation and total subscribers. In 2019, the WSJ reported a subscription base of approximately 2 million digital and print subscribers (in Benton, 2020). The WSJ has also consistently been ranked as a leading source of business and financial news and is also read widely by both a general and elite population (Agility, 2019). The Associated Press (AP) is a not-for-profit cooperative news agency with a global distribution network of over 1,700 news agencies and sources (Associated Press, n.d.).5 I chose to include AP reports in my analysis because many major and local papers reprint articles published by the AP. Thus, including AP reports in my analysis allows me to consider patterns of reporting as they may be reproduced across this distribution network. Finally, The Bismarck Tribune (BT) is a leading regional paper for the city of Bismarck and its neighboring counties, including Sioux County where the events take place (The Bismarck Tribune). I chose to include the BT because of their proximity to the protest sites and because they were recognized as one of the most active news agencies during the early protest movement, publishing and covering more protest-related events than most other news sources (Gyenes, et al., 2017).

5 1,700 refers to newspaper members only. The AP maintains approximately 6,000 television and radio memberships and 8,500 other global subscriptions as well (Associated Press; Encyclopedia).

10 Using the electronic databases, Nexis Uni and ProQuest, and the search terms, “Dakota

Access Pipeline” and “protest,” I searched these newspapers for official reports following each of the altercations occurring on September 3, October 27, and November 20, 2016. I cross- checked these results with the online archives maintained by each news outlet, and from these results, I excluded abstracts, ‘briefs,’ editorials, and opinion pieces. While these genres of media discourse perform an important rhetorical function, I was looking specifically for news reports which aim to provide facts and details of events. The articles I collected for my analysis are listed in Table 1.1:6

Table 1.1

News Reports of Protest Altercations Occurring on 9/3, 10/27, and 11/20

News Source/Date Author(s) Word Count The New York Times October 28, 2016 Skalicky & Davey 672 November 21, 2016 Bromwich 553

Wall Street Journal October 27, 2016 Maher 416 November 21, 2016 Maher 657

Associated Press September 4, 2016 MacPherson 512 October 28, 2016 MacPherson 557 November 21, 2016 MacPherson 416

The Bismarck Tribune September 3, 2016 Eckroth 585 October 28, 2016 Grueskin & Donovan 873 November 22, 2016 Grueskin 1,241

As Table 1.1 illustrates, nearly all the journalists in my study published their reports immediately following each altercation event. There are only two exceptions to this: neither the NYT nor the

WSJ exclusively reported on the September 3 altercation event. WSJ recirculated the AP report originally published by MacPherson on September 4, making only a few alterations to the

6 See Appendix A for full citations.

11 original article (such as removing “Mr.” and “Mrs.” and expanding contractions). As a result, this duplicate was excluded from my analysis. Similarly, the NYT also did not report exclusively on the September 3 events. The first mention of this event did not appear in reports until several days later. In an article published on September 7 about Jill Stein and her misdemeanor charge for spray painting a bulldozer, the journalist, Bromwich, indirectly references the September 3 event in a 59-word passage (see Bromwich, 2016, para. 10). Because this reference is both informal and brief, it has not been included in my analysis.

Theoretical Frameworks

My project is informed by Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) and draws on tools and frameworks from Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL). Each of these frameworks are discussed in the sections which follow.

CDA, News Media, and Representation

Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) was developed in the late 1980s and early 1990s most notably by Teun van Dijk, Norman Fairclough, Gunther Kress, Theo van Leeuwen, and Ruth

Wodak. These scholars developed CDA as an approach to Discourse Studies which would emphasize how cognitive, social, historical, cultural, and political contexts can influence and shape a discourse (van Dijk, 1991, p. 44-45). As Fairclough explains, a discourse is an element of social life (Fairclough 2003, p. 3). It is not only a mode of representing the world, but also a mode of acting upon the world and upon each other (1992, p. 63-64). It organizes particular situations, social identities, and relationships between groups of people, while at the same time, is constrained by those same situations, relations, and institutional conventions (Fairclough,

1992, p. 64). As a result, discourse can bring about changes in belief, attitudes, and values or it may reinforce or perpetuate existing beliefs and values (Fairclough, 1992, p. 3; 2003, p. 8).

12 For CDA practitioners, discourses are intimately connected to issues of power and ideology. Fairclough defines ideologies as ways of representing various aspects of the world which “can be shown to contribute to establishing, maintaining, and changing social relations of power, domination, and exploitation” (Fairclough, 2003, p. 9). Such ideologies or ways of thinking or believing about the world, are “accumulated and naturalized,” built into societal norms and conventions so that they appear as “natural” and “neutral” (Fairclough, 1992, p. 90;

Wodak & Meyer, 2009: 8). Ideologies can be realized at the linguistic level through word choice and word meanings as well as through rhetorical devices, presuppositions and metaphors. They can also be realized through larger organization elements, such as cohesion or the organization of a text (Fairclough, 1992, p. 89). However, as Fairclough explains, people are not always aware of the ideological dimensions of discourse, either in their own practices or in the larger practices of political or social institutions, such as news media or politics (1992, p. 90). This is because such ideologies have been made dormant through repeated reinforcement and reproduction. A critical perspective on ideology and power, like that held by CDA scholars, challenges the notion that the world has an intrinsic and neutral structure from which language passively draws its meaning (Fowler & Kress, 1979, p. 186). Rather, CDA scholars argue that language is built upon common-sense assumptions which are ideologically shaped by power and dominance

(Fairclough, 1989, p. 4). Those in power use language as a tool for maintaining their dominant social positions, and at the same time, those structures of power and inequality both enables and reinforces their dominance (Kress, 1989, p. 450, 452).

The term ‘dominance’ here refers to a form of social power used to oppress others, particularly those not in the dominant group. Van Dijk defines ‘dominance’ as a “legally or morally illegitimate exercise of control over others in one’s own interests”. The result of this

13 dominance is often social inequality (van Dijk, 1996, p. 84). Dominance may be exercised by particular groups or organizations (and its members) over the actions or minds of others in order to limit their individual freedoms or to influence the knowledge, attitudes, or ideologies held and shared by those groups (van Dijk, 1996, p. 84) 7. A CDA perspective recognizes this potential for power abuse and takes an interest in uncovering the manipulative strategies which may be used by discourse institutions to produce and reproduce such inequalities (van Dijk, 1995, p. 17-

18). As van Dijk (1996) states, one of the crucial tasks of CDA is to “describe and explain how power abuse is enacted, reproduced, or legitimized” by dominant groups or institutions, particularly politics and media (84). The goal of critical discourse analysts is to reveal these structures and strategies of domination in order to effect change in the way that power is wielded, maintained, and produced in organizations and in the social realm (Young & Harrison,

2004, p. 2).

My project shares this CDA perspective on discourse, ideology, and language and is ultimately concerned with how particular forms of representation produced by news reporting may function to undermine the perspectives and experiences of minorities in order to maintain the dominant attitudes, interests, and experiences of the cultural majority. My concept of representation draws from Stuart Hall’s work in representation theory. Hall defines representation as the “production of meaning through language” (2013, p. 2). As Hall writes, the words or language we use to make sense of the world–the people, object and events around us, either real or imagined– are what give meaning to things (2013, p. 3). It is through language that we are able to convey this meaning as well as express our thoughts to others so they can understand. Hall identifies two systems of representation which enable this shared meaning to

7 CDA scholars recognize that ‘texts’ and ‘discourse’ are rarely the work of one person. Because of this, CDA scholars do not deal with individualized power, but rather, social power, a property of the relations between social groups, institutions, or organizations (van Dijk, 1996, p. 84).

14 occur. The first refers to the “concepts or mental representations we carry around in our heads”

(2013, p. 3). This conceptual map correlates to objects, people, and events in the world.

According to Hall, without this map, we could not interpret the word; this map allows us to refer to things “both inside and outside our heads” through processes of organizing, clustering, arranging and classifying and through our ability to establish complex relationships (2013, p. 3).

Language itself is the second system of representation. Language provides the framework by which we can represent or exchange meanings and our conceptual maps with others. We correlate our concepts and ideas of the world with particular words, sounds, or images, referred to as signs, and we communicate those signs to others (Hall, 2013, p. 4).

My interest in representation is concerned with how DAPL protest altercations are characterized in the press. In particular, I’m interested in the linguistic terms used by journalists to identify, classify, and categorize people and participants, and how journalists correlate those participants further by manner of attributed behavior and appraisal. In doing so, journalists provide their audiences with a framework for interpreting and understanding these events and can influence their opinions about them.

SFL & the Metafunctions of Language

Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL) is a theory of sociolinguistics which focuses on the meaning potential of language. It sees language as a network of choices. In his development of SFL, M.A.K. Halliday (1978) sought to focus on language in terms of man’s social nature as well as social context (10). He opposed theories of structural linguistics which treated language as devoid of context or function. Such theories, particularly Noam Chomsky’s

Transformational-Generative approach, argued that the rules of language and a speaker’s knowledge of language are made up entirely of deeply internalized and highly abstract

15 principles, or a kind of “universal grammar” (1965, p. 14). However, Halliday argued that such structural theories of language did little to address how users know what to do with language and thereby minimized the role context plays in the language interaction. As Halliday writes, language is the “main channel which patterns of living are transmitted” (p. 9). It is the main channel through which we learn to act as a member of society, “to adopt its culture, its modes of thought and action, its beliefs and its values” (Halliday, 1978, p. 9). Halliday further argued that the conventions of language are not matters of surface correctness, or what Chomsky referred to as prescriptive rules, but rather, are made up of complex connections between linguistic features and their functions in a particular context.

Language, Halliday argues, is a system of “meaning potential” whereby “what a speaker

‘can do’ is equivalent to what he ‘can mean’” (1978, p. 27-28). Utterances, whether verbal or written, are representations of that choice, what is meant selected from a set of possibilities which could be meant (Halliday, 1978, p. 40-41, 109). Halliday argued for an analytical framework which would interpret language within this sociocultural context, understanding that language has evolved, not from prescriptive rules, but from the functions it serves (Halliday,

2004, p. 31). According to Halliday, language must do many things at once: it must account for our experience, reducing that experience into categorical processes of ‘doings’ and ‘going-ons’; it must express our role and participation in an event while also acknowledging our feelings, attitudes, and judgements about the other people and things involved in that event; and finally, it must allow us to express logical relations within the structures that make up our language, such as our grammar and the semantic system of our language (Halliday, 1978, p. 21-22). With these major functions in mind, Halliday developed a taxonomy of language-use whereby each of these primary functions could be analyzed according to a unique network of properties, structures, and

16 interrelated options. He referred to these systems as the metafunctions of language, distinguishing between the Ideational, the Interpersonal, and the Textual.

The Ideational metafunction refers to the function of language to express a speaker’s experience of their external world and to categorize those experiences in terms of ‘process,’

‘participant,’ and ‘circumstance’ (Halliday, 1978, p. 45; 2004, p. 170). These elements are realized in verbs, nouns, and the adverbial or prepositional elements of the semantic system

(Halliday, 2004, p. 175, 177). The Interpersonal metafunction refers to the function of language to express roles and feelings in a language event. Writers or speakers adopt a particular speech role and assign the reader a complimentary role (Halliday, 2004, p. 106). Throughout the interaction, these roles are negotiated or challenged. Finally, the Textual metafunction refers to the function of language to express its “operational relevance”. This refers to our ability to use language to build up sequences and to organize text cohesively and with continuity (Halliday,

2004, p. 30).

My analysis is informed by this multifunctional language framework, recognizing, too, that language is a system of inter-related options that writers or speakers choose from in order to represent their experience, construe particular relations, or express ideas logically. Each choice made in this system reflects a choice that isn’t made, what is meant selected from a set of options or possibilities that could have been meant (Halliday, 1978, p. 40-41, 109). My analysis examines how these functions of language are realized in news media reporting: how journalists make sense of these events and construe them in terms of ‘process,’ ‘participant,’ and

‘circumstance’. Moreover, I examine how various feelings and social relations are managed in these reports through subtle characterizations and appraisals, and how both of these aspects are

17 realized grammatically through language. My analysis also draws from Martin & White’s

Appraisal Theory (2005).

Appraisal Theory: A Framework for Analyzing Attitude, Engagement, and Graduation

Martin & White’s Appraisal Theory (2005) is an attempt to map out the linguistic choices available in written discourse which enable speakers to adopt particular attitudes toward others and to express those attitudes through language (Martin & White, 2005, p. 1, 7). As Martin &

White (2005) write, Appraisal Theory is concerned with “how writers [and] speakers approve and disapprove, enthuse and abhor, applaud and criticize, and how they position their readers

[and] listeners to do likewise” (p. 1). Within the Appraisal Theory framework, there are three systems for mapping these feelings out. Attitude explores the different ways that speakers or writers indicate whether they think a person, thing, action, event, situation, or idea, is essentially

‘good’ or ‘bad’ (Martin & White, 2005, p. 46-49). Engagement is concerned with the way that speakers or writers adopt a stance toward their subject matter and toward other participants in the speech act (Martin & White, 2005, p. 134). Graduation pairs with Attitude or Engagement to examine how elements within each can be further managed in greater or lesser degrees of positivity, negativity, certainty, or investment (Martin & White, 2005, p. 135-6). The following sections outlines my framework for analyzing attitude and engagement, as I draw on Martin &

White’s Appraisal Network.

Appraisal Theory: Attitude

In Appraisal Theory, Attitude explores the different ways that speakers or writers may indicate whether they think a person, thing, action, event, situation, or idea, is essentially ‘good’ or ‘bad’. These evaluations correspond to one of three major categories of attitude: affect, judgement, or appreciation. Affect reflects how we feel about things and our emotional

18 responses to them; judgement refers to how we appraise people and the qualities we give them; and appreciation considers how we appraise things, actions, natural phenomena, etc., and the qualities we ascribe them (Martin & White, 2005: 35-6, 42-3, 54). Linguistically, these aspects of attitude can be realized semantically through a range of grammatical structures, including the modification of participants and processes through adjectives or adverbs, as well as through modal adjuncts (Martin & White, 2005: 35, 45-46). The framework for analyzing affect is mapped out in Figure 3:

Figure 3

System Network for Analyzing Attitude: Affect in Appraisal Theory

Note. Adapted from “Attitude and Ways of Feeling” in The Language of Evaluation by

J. R. Martin & P. R. R. White, 2005, p. 46-49.

According to this framework, the analyst must first identify the expression of feeling in a text and then consider a number of related aspects: (a) whether the major emotional value assigned to that emotion is generally positive or negative; (b) what form the expression takes, whether it is

19 realized as a surge of emotion (“the captain wept”) or as an emotive state (ex. “the captain disliked leaving”); (c) whether the feeling is shown to have occurred in reaction to a particular trigger or mood; (d) how the feeling is graded, whether it is expressed in terms of low gradation

(“disliked”), median (“hated”), or high (“detested”); and finally, (e) where the emotion being expressed falls in terms of one of three typologies: un/happiness, in/security, or dis/satisfaction

(Martin & White, 2005, p. 46-49). Un/happiness is concerned with emotions of the heart, such as sadness, hate, or love, while in/security covers emotions of eco-social well-being, such as anxiety, fear, confidence, or trust. Dis/satisfaction is concerned with the pursuit of goals and may include emotions related to ennui, displeasure, or curiosity (Martin & White, 2005, p. 47-

49). This framework can be mapped out into the system network illustrated in Figure 3:

Analyzing judgment is done similarly. Judgement is divided into categories of social esteem or social sanction. Criteria for social esteem judgements include how normal or unusual the person or behavior is (‘normality’), how capable or forceful (‘capacity’), and the level of determination involved (‘tenacity’). These categories offer reflections of how one ‘ought to behave’ as policed in the social sphere, through our shared cultural and social networks (Martin

& White, 2005, p. 52). Criteria used for evaluating social sanction judgments include how truthful or honest a person or their behavior is (‘veracity’) and how ethical or lawful they are

(‘propriety’). These are reflections of how one ‘ought to behave’ as policed by written laws, rules, and legislation. The consequences of social esteem behaviors may include social rejection and inclusion, while the consequences of social sanction behaviors are legal penalties and punishments (Martin & White, 2005, p. 52). This framework is mapped in Figure 4:

20 Figure 4

System Network for Analyzing Attitude: Judgment in Appraisal Theory

Note. Adapted from “Attitude and Ways of Feeling” in The Language of Evaluation

by J. R. Martin & P. R. R. White, 2005, p. 52-56.

The Appreciation sub-system of Attitude examines evaluations of ‘things’ or phenomena (Martin

& White, 2005, p. 56). Appreciations can be divided into categories of ‘reaction,’

‘composition,’ and ‘value,’ as shown in Figure 5:

Figure 5

System Network for Analyzing Attitude: Appreciation in Appraisal Theory

Note. Adapted from “Attitude and Ways of Feeling” in The Language of Evaluation

by J. R. Martin & P. R. R. White, 2005, p. 56-58.

‘Reaction’ refers to whether or not things catch our attention or please us, while composition deals with balance and complexity. Finally, value refers to how innovative, authentic, timely, etc., something may be (Martin & White, 2005, p. 56).

21 Appraisal Theory: Engagement

The engagement network of Appraisal Theory is concerned with the way that speakers or writers adopt a particular stance toward the value positions referenced in a text or toward those they address. As Martin & White (2005) write, analysis focuses on how solidarity is negotiated with others through elements of modality, projection, polarity, and concession, as well as through adverbials and adjuncts (p. 36). Analysts examine how speakers acknowledge other speakers, how ‘alternate’ positions are managed, presented, and positioned to audiences in a text, and what the rhetorical effects are of such positionings (Martin & White, 2005, p. 92). This aspect of the Appraisal Theory framework is informed by Bakhtin’s notions of dialogism and heteroglossia. Bakhtin (1981) recognizes that all verbal or written communication is ‘dialogic’ in some way, in that it takes up what has been said or written about before while also anticipating future responses of actual, potential, and imagined audiences. The framework for analyzing engagement is shown in Figure 6:

Figure 6

System Network for Analyzing Engagement in Appraisal Theory

Note. From “Engagement and Graduation…” in The Language of Evaluation by J. R. Martin & P. R. R. White, 2005, p. 134.

22 Following the Engagement framework, analysts must first consider whether the resource under analysis (the reporting verb or the proposition in its entirety) can be considered dialogically ‘expansive,’ in that it actively makes allowances for alternative positions,’ or dialogically ‘contractive’ in that it challenges or restricts the possibility of alternative positions

(Martin & White, 2005, p. 102). If the resource is found to be expansive, then it can be analyzed further in terms of whether it “disclaims” or “proclaims”. Disclaim refers to the textual voice positioning itself at odds with or rejecting some contrary position. This can be done through denial or negation, or through countering or conceding (Martin & White, 2005, p. 97).

Proclaim refers to presenting the proposition as highly “warrantable”. The textual voice, in this case, sets itself against an alternative one in efforts to rule it out. This is done through concurring, pronouncing, or endorsing (Martin & White, 2005, p. 98). On the other hand, if the engagement resource is found to be dialogically contractive, then it is analyzed in terms of whether it “entertains” or “attributes”. To entertain means to present the proposition as

“grounded” in its own subjectivity, thus representing it as one of many possible positions.

Similarly, to attribute also presents a proposition as grounded; however, in this case, it is grounded in the subjectivity of an external voice. Still, the proposition is presented as one of many possible positions (Martin & White, 2005, p. 98). The writer’s own stance to this position can be indicated according to whether the writer simply acknowledges this external position

(“He said…”) or whether they distance themselves from the position (“He claims that…”). This distinction is realized through the modal range of reporting verbs (Martin & White, 2005, p. 98).

Analytic Procedure

My analysis consists of three major steps: first, I categorize and analyze the news reports according to their transitivity structure. Then, I examine similarities in process types to support

23 my analysis of social actor representation. I examine further descriptions of behaviors attributed to social actors for how journalists appraise these behaviors and the actors. Finally, I analyze the role of integrated sources in the production of these news reports. Each of these steps are outlined in the sections which follow.

Step One: Analyzing Transitivity

I begin my analysis by identifying and categorizing the processes which make up the news reports according to the system of transitivity as developed by Halliday. This allows me to see how these altercation events are construed in terms of ‘participant,’ ‘process,’ and

‘circumstance’ (Halliday, 2004, p. 170). Halliday identifies six types of processes in the transitivity system which construe our experiences of the internal and external. These are shown in Table 1.2:

Table 1.2

Transitivity Processes and Functional Labels

Process Type Description Functional Labels Actor (‘doer’) ‘doings’ or ‘happenings’ of Material Goal (‘done to’) things in the external world Circumstance ‘doings’ or ‘happenings’ of Senser Mental things in the mind Phenomenon Carrier Token the ‘relating’ of one thing Relational Attribute Value to another (attributive) (identifying) Sayer Receiver Verbal the ‘saying’ of things Target Verbiage Circumstance Behaver Behavioral physiological behaviors Behavior Circumstance Existential the ‘existence’ of things Existent

‘Material’ processes involve the ‘doing’ or ‘happening’ of things. They reflect the outer experience of what ‘goes on’ in the world, such as the actions and events which occur and the

24 people who are involved in those actions (Halliday, 2004, p. 170, 179). ‘Behavioral’ processes represent the acting out of consciousness and of our physiological behaviors, such as breathing, coughing, or smiling (Halliday, 2004, p. 171, 248). ‘Mental’ processes reflect the ‘going-ons’ that happen in the internal world of our mind (Halliday, 2004, p. 170, 201). ‘Verbal’ processes refer to ‘sayings’. They reflect the “symbolic relationships” which are constructed in human consciousness and which are enacted in the form of language (Halliday, 2004, p. 171, 252).

‘Relational’ processes classify or relate an object to a particular quality or attribute or identify one thing in terms of another (Halliday, 2004, p. 214-5, 170). Finally, ‘existential’ processes express the mere existence of something without predicating anything else about it (Halliday,

2004, p. 171, 256). Though these processes are described as separate, Halliday makes it clear that they are actually continuous regions with often vague, blurred, and overlapping boundaries

(Halliday, 2004, p. 172).

In analyzing these reports, I code each process type according to Halliday’s system. Take this sentence, for example:

The protest on Tuesday followed another against the pipeline on Saturday at a different

site where video showed that private security personnel threatened protesters with dogs.

(Bromwich, 2016, in Appendix B, para. 10-11)

In this sentence, there are two independent clauses which are joined together by the conjunction

“where”. In the first clause (“the protest on Tuesday followed another against the pipeline on

Saturday at a different site”), the main process verb is “followed”. This process would be coded as a ‘relational’ process. ‘Relational’ processes work to classify or relate an object to its quality or attribute or to identify one thing in terms of another (Halliday, 2004, p. 214-5, 170).

Typically, they are realized by the verb, be, though not always. In this example, the verb

25 “followed” functions to identify “the protest on Tuesday” in terms of its relationship to “another against the pipeline”.

The main process verb of the second clause in the example sentence above (“where video showed that private security personnel threatened protesters with dogs”) would be “showed”. In this way, “showed” is acting as a ‘verbal’ projecting process. ‘Verbal’ projecting processes, and in some cases, ‘mental’ projecting processes as well, allow writers or speakers to attribute particular propositions to other sources (Halliday, 2004, p. 252). According to Halliday, these kinds of projected clauses should be analyzed separately from their projecting processes. Thus, in the example sentence provided, while the main process verb of this clause is “showed,” the transitivity analysis is directed instead on the main process of its embedded clause: “private security personnel threatened protesters with dogs”. In this case, the process verb “threatened” would be coded as a ‘material’ process as it reflects a physical ‘doing’ (Halliday, 2004, p. 179).

Figure 7 illustrates my transitivity coding of this sentence:

another against the 1 The protest on pipeline on Saturday, at Tuesday followed a different site where Token Process: Relational Value Conjunction: private security video showed that personnel threatened protesters with dogs Sayer Process: Verbal Actor Process: Material Goal Circumstance Projecting Projected

2 Mr. Keller said that some protesters had reported being injured by the dogs on Saturday but Figure 7 Sayer Process: Verbal Process: Material Actor Circumstance Conjunction: Sayer Process: Verbal Projecting Projected Projecting Projected Sample Transitivity Diagram of anyone being he had not heard hospitalized and no arrests had been made after either protest Senser Process: Mental Phenomenon Conjunction: Goal Process: Material Circumstance

Once the coding for each news report has been finished, and the range of processes identified, I then analyzed groups of clauses according to their major process types, distinguishing between those which are attributed those which aren’t. I organize the clauses into tables and labeled them according to Halliday’s functional labelling system. Figure 8 is a sample of this system applied to attributed ‘material’ processes:

26

Figure 8

Sample of Attributed ‘Material’ Process Coding in NYT Report 10/28

By categorizing similar process types, as shown in Figure 8, I can more easily analyze patterns in news reporting and social actor representation. Specifically, I can examine more closely which participants are presented as actors and participants and the range of terms and behaviors that are assigned to them. In doing so, I am able to clearly address my first research question: how are the altercations characterized in terms of ‘participant,’ ‘process,’ and matters of ‘circumstance’?

Step Two: Analyzing Social Actor Representation & Appraisal

The second part of my analysis uses the findings from my transitivity analysis, particularly in terms of how social actor categories are identified and described in the news reports, to analyze larger abstract patterns of representation. My framework for analyzing representation comes from Theo Van Leeuwen’s model for mapping representation in discourse

(1996). Working within SFL and transitivity, Van Leeuwen’s model works to consider how the participants of an event are included or excluded in discourse, how they are described and characterized, how they are allocated active or passive roles, and how they are appraised in language. In using this framework, I am likewise able to analyze how particular aspects of representation differ across social actor categories, not just with the actors involved in the protest

27 events, but also with the sources that are brought into the news reports as experts, witnesses, or sources of authority. Such representations are rarely explicitly tied to journalists. Rather, they are disguised through attributions made to other sources. This allows readers to assume that it is the source which is responsible for the representation, not the journalist. It is only in the case of a direct quote that a journalist can be seen as separate from the representation offered.

Otherwise, the choice of paraphrasing or summarizing a passage or quote recontextualizes that passage or source in ways which fit with the journalist’s own rhetorical intention.

Figure 9 on the next page outlines my framework for analyzing social actor representation. It is presented as a network of steps and options and has been adapted from van

Leeuwen’s original model. My adaptation of van Leeuwen’s model addresses three questions which drive social actor analysis. As shown in Figure 9, the first question driving analysis is:

“How is the actor identified?” This question considers whether or not the actor is explicitly identified in the text or if they are alluded to. This distinction between “inclusion” and

“exclusion” and is denoted at [1] in Figure 9. If an actor is explicitly identified, then the analyst continues to the considerations noted at [2] in order to examine other aspects of their identification. If the actor is only alluded to in the text, in that they are not explicitly mentioned, analysts must then consider whether their identity is being suppressed or backgrounded (noted at

[3]). These are terms that van Leeuwen uses to indicate when there is no reference to the social actor anywhere in the text (“suppressed”) or when the actor is not referenced in relation to a particular activity but is mentioned elsewhere (“backgrounded”) (van Leeuwen, 1996, p. 39).

As van Leeuwen writes, some exclusions may be “innocent” in that writers leave out details they assume their readers know already or which are otherwise irrelevant or repetitive; in other cases, these exclusions can be ideological (van Leeuwen, 1996, p. 38-39).

28 Figure 9

System Network for Analyzing Social Actors and Their Representation in Discourse (Adapted)

Note. Adapted from “The Representation of Social Actors” by Theo van Leeuwen, 1996, in Texts and Practices, p. 32-70.

29 As said, if an actor is explicitly identified in the text, analysts move on to [2] to examine whether the identity of the actor is presented as an individual, as part of a collective, or in association to some other individual or group. If the actor is referred to as an individual, are they

“nominated” or “categorized”? This distinction, noted at [4], considers whether the actor is represented in terms of their unique identity (nominated) or in terms of functions or identity characteristics they may share with others (categorized) (van Leeuwen, 1996, p. 54-57). If they are nominated, then one must further consider whether they are presented in terms which correlate to a unique identity, such as “Mrs. Smith”; if the actor is categorized, one must consider whether the categorization is in terms of a particular activity, occupation, or role held in society (such as “a teacher”), or in terms of class, relation, or characteristics of physical identity

(such as “a middle-class woman,” “a mother,” or “a woman with brown hair”) (van Leeuwen,

1996, p. 54-57) (see [6]). These are not necessarily either-or choices. Rather, many of these aspects of categorization can be present at the same time, for example: “A 37-year-old teacher and mother of two kicked the ball”.

If the actor is referenced not as an individual, but as part of a collective, the analyst moves instead from [2] to step [5], as shown in Figure 9. Van Leeuwen describes the reference of an actor in collective terms as a representational act of assimilation (van Leeuwen, 1996, p.

50-51). In assimilating an actor to a collective, the actor is treated in terms of aggregation or collectivism (denoted at [5]). Aggregation functions to quantify groups of participants, treating them as statistics, while collectivism does not (van Leeuwen, 1996, p. 49). If the actor is referenced at [2] as neither an individual or a collective, but rather, as a pairing or grouping

(termed “parataxis”), this representation strategy is referred to as an association (van Leeuwen,

1996, p. 50-51).

30 Outside of this framework for analyzing how actors are specifically identified in a text, van Leeuwen also makes note of general aspects of representation, such as indetermination or differentiation. These abstract terms can be applied to any step of representation as they ultimately just consider whether the identity of the actor in question is in any way specified, even if in vague or indefinite pronouns (such as “somebody” or “some people”) (van Leeuwen, 1996, p. 51). If it is, as in the case of “somebody,” this would be an act of determination or differentiation; if it is not, it is indetermination (van Leeuwen, 1996, p. 51). Moreover, if the

‘actor’ role is filled by a non-human entity, such as “television” or “aspects of television,” these particular representational choices are referred to as objectivation and abstraction, respectively

(van Leeuwen, 1996, p. 43).

As Figure 9 denotes, the second question framing social actor analysis in my adapted framework is: “How is the actor described?” This question considers the range of activities which are presented in association with the actor and the role that that actor may be allocated in those activities. Thus, the third question in my framework can be addressed simultaneously with the second: “How is the actor appraised?” According to van Leeuwen (1996), social actors are appraised when they are referred to in terms which evaluate them as being ultimately ‘good’ or

‘bad’, loved or hated, admired or pitied, etc. (p. 58). To get at description, I consider simultaneously the range of activities associated with the actor (indicated at [7a] and [7b]) and the role allocated for the actor in those activities. The role of an actor can be realized grammatically through their participant role in a given process, through elements of circumstance, or in the pre- or post-modification of a nominalization or process (referred to by

Van Leeuwen as “possessivation”) (1996, p. 43-44). Actors may be represented in active roles

31 as the “dynamic, force” of the activity, or they may be represented in passive roles, as undergoing the activity or being at the receiving end of it (van Leeuwen, 1996, p. 43-44).

Activities can then be analyzed in terms of their range and in terms of how they are described via evaluative terms (indicated at [9] in Figure 9) Actors may be shown to participate in a single social activity or in more than one (referred to by van Leeuwen as

“overdetermination”) (1996, p. 53). Activities and actors can be appraised according to the activities described and the role allocated. Actors are considered appraised when they are referred to in terms which ultimately characterize them as either ‘good’ or ‘bad’. As noted in

Figure 10, an example of a positive appraisal may be something like, “she carried the frail woman” whereas a negative appraisal may be something like, “she kicked the frail woman”. It could be considered a positive act to carry a woman depicted as ‘frail’ or weak, while ‘kicking’ a

‘frail’ or weak woman may be considered a negative, even violent act. As these examples show, however, appraisal is ultimately contextually determined (van Leeuwen, 1996, p. 58).

Depending on the context of the sentence, a word may be positively or negatively charged. If a woman ‘kicks’ the ball to kids, it would not be considered a negative nor violent act.

To further support my analysis of social actor appraisal, I rely on Martin & White’s attitude framework, specifically the sub-system of Judgement to map out positive or negative evaluations based on the ‘normative principles’ of social esteem or social sanction (2005, p. 58).

Criteria for social esteem judgements include how normal or unusual the person or behavior is

(‘normality’), how capable or forceful (‘capacity’), and the level of determination involved

(‘tenacity’). Criteria for social sanction judgments include how truthful or honest a person or their behavior is (‘veracity’) and how ethical or lawful they are (‘propriety’). I also draw on the

Graduation framework of Appraisal Theory to consider how varying degrees of intensity

32 (‘force’) or category distinction (‘focus’) are rendered in the elements of ‘participant’ and

‘process’ to influence those judgements and thus, actor appraisals (Martin & White, 2005, p.

140).

Mapping Appraisal

In coding aspects of appraisal, I follow from Martin & White’s (2005) framework. My adaptation of this framework is shown in Figure 10:

Figure 10

Sample Coding for Attitude: Judgement (of Appraisal Theory)

As Figure 10 shows, I include separate categories for identifying the “appraised” (i.e. the social actor), the “appraising behavior,” and any “appraising circumstance” which modifies that behavior. I have left out the category of “appraiser” because in these news reports, the appraiser of these behaviors and actors are almost always the journalist, despite the fact statements may be attributed to other sources. This is because the journalist is always making a choice between directly quoting, paraphrasing, or summarizing the proposition of an outside source. They choose to represent the proposition as it was originally presented by the original speaker, or they modify the proposition in ways which fit their own rhetorical purpose. In doing so, they position these actors and behaviors, accordingly, presenting them ultimately in terms of ‘good’ or ‘bad’ and allowing audiences to interpret them accordingly. Only in the event that a representation is presented as a direct quote is the appraiser someone other than the journalist. In such cases, the

33 appraising elements need to be analyzed accordingly, and in these cases, they are discussed separately from the appraisals presented by the journalists.

My assessment of judgement, as illustrated in the sample coding mechanism of Figure

10, is based on the presentation of the proposition itself, the representation of actor and behavior as described in terms of process, goal, and circumstance, and how these elements work to position the appraised behavior as ultimately ‘good’ or ‘bad’. In the sample above, the behaviors which are attributed can be interpreted as negative-normality and negative-capacity. In both cases, the behavior exhibited is one to criticize. It is not ‘normal’ behavior to threaten others with animals, and it is not ‘normal’ for dogs to injure people. Because these behaviors can be understood socially as abnormal, they can then be criticized. By extension, the ‘behavers’ are criticized too. Throughout this judgment analysis, I also draw on the Graduation sub system of

Appraisal Theory to consider how the particular terms or categories used to depict actors and behaviors reflect aspects of ‘force’ and ‘focus,’ and how such depictions might influence judgements. In this context, the analysis of ‘force’ would consider degrees of intensity and amount (Martin & White, 2005, p. 140). These assessments would apply to the intensity of the verb choice when describing or representing social actor behavior (“hit” vs “attacked” or

“walked” vs. “marched”), as well as to the measuring of number, size, weight, distribution, or proximity which is attached to descriptions of social actors (“some protesters” vs. “hundreds”).

‘Focus,’ on the other hand would consider how category membership is defined in the reports– particularly how writers specify (‘sharpen’) or hedge (‘soften’) these membership categories and the actors within–for example, referring to individuals gathered at the site as either “protesters” vs. “demonstrators” vs. “individuals”. Findings from this analysis directly answer my second

34 research question: what behaviors are attributed to major social actors and how are these actors and their behaviors positively or negatively judged by journalists?

Step Three: Analyzing the Role of Integrated Sources

The third and final step of my analysis is to examine how the external sources brought into the news report function to affirm or challenge particular representations of events. I begin by mapping out the sources which are included in the news report, examining their role in relation to the processes which their attributions construe, and then analyzing the range of reporting verbs or framing devices which are associated with their integration. Such framing devices can be subtle indicators of stance, such as if the journalist uses “claims” or “suggests” as opposed to “states” or “says”. The former suggests a distancing of the writer to the authorial voice presented, while the latter may signify a more neutral integration. In analyzing these framing devices, I draw on Martin & White’s Engagement framework for analyzing engagement resources as either contractive or expansive. In doing so, I analyze how journalists dissuade the possibility of alternative perspectives or positions, affirms or deny them, or position particular sources as more or less knowledgeable, helpful, or trustworthy than others. Findings from this level of analysis answers my third and final research question: what sources are integrated into the news reports, and what role does their integration play in construing these events?

Conclusion & Chapter Summaries

In this chapter, I have introduced the problem my dissertation addresses, outlining the context of the Dakota Access Pipeline Protest as well as the altercations which occurred on

September 3, October 27, and November 20. I have reviewed the theoretical frameworks, methods, and analytical tools which guide my analysis, and I have outlined the analytic procedure my dissertation follows. In Chapter Two, I outline relevant scholarship related to my

35 project, particularly the trends and topics which inform much of media studies dealing with the analysis of social actor representation. I focus specifically on representation research involving minorities and protest movements, highlighting the kind of ‘standard’ reporting which has persisted since the early 1960s. I also highlight research specifically devoted to DAPL protest coverage to show how my project contributes to this growing body of research. In Chapters

Three, Four, Five, and Six, I analyze the individual news agencies and the reports published following each altercation event. Chapter Three analyzes The New York Times, Chapter Four, the Wall Street Journal, Chapter Five, the Associated Press, and finally, Chapter Six analyzes the

Bismarck Tribune. Each chapter follows the analytic procedure outlined in Chapter One and discusses my data and findings of each news agency, respectively. Chapter Seven concludes my dissertation by synthesizing the analysis presented in chapters Three through Six. I discuss patterns of representation and source integration across each news agency, and I discuss how the presentation of these sources and their perspectives function, ultimately, to construct a dominant interpretation of these events and the participants involved.

36

CHAPTER II

The Representation of Social Actors in the News

A Literature Review

My dissertation examines news reporting of physical altercations in 2016 during the

Dakota Access Pipeline (DAPL) Protest. At issue is the manner in which news agencies represent issues of social protest and the social actors involved. In the literature review which follows, I outline research related to media’s representation of social actors, drawing from the fields of Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA), Media Studies, and Systemic Functional Linguistics

(SFL). I highlight findings related to social actor representation as well as the major methods and frameworks used for analysis. Following this, I review research related specifically to media’s representation of social protest, drawing on the framework of the protest paradigm as developed in media studies. I end the literature review by discussing recent quantitative and qualitative research studies related specifically to the DAPL Protest and its representation in mainstream press.

Trends in Representation Research

Media studies have long been interested in issues of framing and representation. Media scholars have argued that news media consistently misrepresents minority groups, depicting them negatively and in ways which perpetuate and reinforce existing stereotypes. One of the first major studies concerned with news’ representation of race followed the “riots” of the 1960s.

Termed “riots” by governing agencies, these events began in July 1967, and continued

37 throughout approximately 128 major U.S. cities (The National Advisory Commission, 1967, p.

1, 3; Gooden & Myers, 2018, p. 2). A task force formed by President Lyndon B. Johnson set out to investigate the cause of these riots, identify solutions for reform, and examine what role the mass media played in perpetuating racist attitudes and misconceptions about these events

(The National Advisory Commission, 1967, p. 1, 9; Gooden & Myers, 2018, p. 1). In their analysis, the Kerner Commission cited “white racism” as the leading cause for the riots and criticized news media for contributing to overall hostility. According to the report, there were several instances of “sensationalism, inaccuracy and distortion” presented in newspapers, radio, and television reports (The National Advisory Commission, 1967, p. 9). The commission reports that newspapers exaggerated the total estimates of damages, suggesting, for example, that

200-500 million dollars in damages had been done, when in fact, the highest estimates were at most, 45 million dollars (The National Advisory Commission, 1967, p. 3). The report also states that media inaccurately portrayed the overall scale and character of the violence, creating the impression that the riots were more destructive, widespread, and racialized than they actually were (The National Advisory Commission, 1967, p. 9).

Following the Kerner Report, media representations of race have largely remained negative. Researchers find that minority representation is usually correlated to specific social issues or themes. Hartmann & Husband (1974), for example, find that between 1963 and 1970, the media defined issues of race by associating minorities and race with immigration. In their analysis of 10 major British newspapers, they found that much of the content of news reports discriminated against blacks and emphasized legislation geared toward enacting immigration policies which would “keep the blacks out” (Hartmann & Husband, 1974, p. 141, 145). Gilens

(1996) similarly finds a correlation between depictions of race and particular social issues. His

38 analysis finds that the news racialized “poverty,” making “poorness” a quality or circumstance linked specifically to African Americans (p. 515). Gilens argues that news reports disproportionally painted the issue of poverty as a ‘black issue’ and not as a social issue facing the general public (p. 516). As a result, Gilens argues, reports reinforced existing negative stereotypes of the black community while also misrepresenting global issues of poverty to the public (p. 521). In a similar study, Chibnall (1977) finds that through repeated links of local crime to particular demographics, the media was able to reinforce larger social attitudes which believed such groups were responsible for crime. In her study of news media reports of mugging, Chibnall finds that reports racialized mugging, presenting it as a ‘black crime’ which targeted whites. Chibnall argues that this dominant construction of mugging was made in large part because of the reporters’ over reliance on law enforcement-based sources which frequently depicted the ‘doer’ of these crimes as “black”. Chibnall also finds that in their response to these muggers, members of law enforcement were often depicted as justified or excused in their actions.

Van Dijk’s, Racism in the Press (1991) offers a similar overview of media’s treatment of minorities. According to van Dijk, media has maintained an unfavorable representation of minorities since the 1960s. He states that in general, minorities are often depicted in stereotypical ways and not often given a voice in the news to account for their own experiences.

Journalists talk about them, for example, but they don’t talk to them. When journalists do incorporate references or quotes from minorities, van Dijk states that those individuals are rarely presented as credible or authoritative. Rather, their contribution in news reports often presents their views as being “unwarranted” or as asserting “ridiculous accusations” (van Dijk, 1991, p.

101). Van Dijk also finds that minority perspectives, when included, are often prefaced or

39 followed by voices from the dominant majority which are treated more ‘neutrally’. He suggests that this is an attempt to provide “balance” to the reports (van Dijk, 1991, p. 20). Van Dijk finds these patterns to be especially consistent in reports concerning issues of discrimination, prejudice, or racism. Members of minority groups are typically cast out in these reports, presented as something “other” and “different” than the cultural majority (van Dijk, 1991, p. 20-

21).

Fleras (1995) similarly finds that the depiction of minorities in Canadian Press presents such groups as a “social problem”. They are represented in ways which render them “invisible” or “irrelevant,” or which present them merely as “entertainment” or “decoration” (p. 407).

Fleras adds that such depictions make stereotypes intrinsic, “naturalizing them into common sense knowledge” (1995, p. 318). In their study of the European Press, Erjavec (2001) similarly finds that news reports depict the Romani minority as threatening to the cultural majority.

Erjavec finds evidence that news reports selectively used and misused information in order to present the group in ways which emphasized their “otherness”. Reports emphasized the Roma as

“abnormal” by emphasizing stereotypes which depicted them as criminals, as lazy, and which characterized them as operating amorally to the “normal” citizens (Erjavec, 2001, p. 714). As a result, the discrimination such groups had already been facing historically was both sustained and reaffirmed by these reports (p. 703).

Many scholars have also studied the representation of minorities through the lens of immigration. Scholars find that immigrants, migrants, asylum seekers, and refugees are consistently portrayed in negative terms by the press and positioned to audiences as threatening to the social order and way of life of the dominant majority. Such groups are also consistently depicted in ways which emphasize their ‘illegal’ presence in a country. Saxton (2003), for

40 example, working within a CDA framework, finds that Australian news reports and editorials draw on themes of nationalism in order to present asylum seekers as “illegal, threatening and non-genuine” to the public (p. 112). Reports more often referred to actors in terms which

“blurred” their identities. For example, Saxton finds that the terms ‘asylum seeker,’ ‘illegal immigrants,’ and ‘refugees’ were used interchangeably (p. 113). Moreover, war metaphors were often prevalent in these reports, used rhetorically to construct the relations between these groups and the larger government as confrontational and potentially violent (Saxton, 2003, p.

113). Saxton suggests that these representation strategies work to legitimize both the public’s opinion about excluding these groups from Australia as well as the governments’ action toward them (p. 118). Haynes et al. (2006) similarly finds that news media rely on reporting frames which construe the status of immigrants as being both illegal and illegitimate (p. 106-7).

Reports focused on the criminality of immigrants, arguing they were likely to contaminate the

Irish population with illness or disease, and that they posed a great threat to the economic growth and stability of the nation (p. 105-113). As a result, immigrants, asylum seekers, and refugees are equally presented as “significant threats to the prosperity and privilege of the Irish citizenry” and othered from the cultural majority (Haynes, Devereux, & Breen, 2006, p. 117).

KhosraviNik (2009) finds that depictions of RASIM populations, specifically between

1999 and 2005 in British reporting, similarly relied on reporting frames which focused on the legality and legitimacy of their presence. KhosraviNik found individuals were referenced not as unique individuals, but in terms of assimilation which grouped them into a collective. As a result, members of RASIM populations are presented as a homogenous group, similar in characteristics, background, motivations and status (KhosraviNik, 2009, p. 493-4). KhosraviNik also finds that reports foregrounded issues of violence and criminality, emphasizing the risk

41 RASIM populations pose to the home country while also backgrounding the causes or concerns which had led to their migration (KhosraviNik, 2009, p. 493-4). In their 2014 study, Mohd Don

& Lee find that mainstream and alternative Malaysian news also represented the presence of refugees and asylum seekers in Malaysia as a ‘problem to be dealt with’ (p. 701). This frame is constructed generally through quotes attributed to prominent politicians and government officials. These officials were often quoted in reports in ways which linked immigration to crime and emphasized the ‘illegal’ status of immigrants (p. 695, 696). As a result, Mohd Don & Lee argue, the reports position immigrants as “abnormal” and “unacceptable” to society, emphasized their criminal qualities, and highlighted the need for legislature to remove them (p. 702). This exclusion was presented as necessary for maintaining the protection of the majority and for the overall well-being of society.

Lueck, Due, & Augoustinos (2015) find that press reporting of refugees draws on a similar discourse of “unlawfulness” and “threat to home country”. In their study of press reporting in Australia between October 2009 and March 2010, they find that reports evoke several news frames to justify the exclusion of asylum seekers from the dominant population (p.

618). Lueck, et al., argue that such frames reflected neoliberal and nationalist discourses aimed at “protecting the sovereignty of the white, Australian nation-state” and linking acts of immigration to acts of crime (p. 608). Refugee transportation, for example, was often framed as

‘people smuggling’ and conflated with human ‘trafficking’ (p. 616-7). Similarly, boat arrivals were framed as “unwanted,” “undesirable,” and “illegitimate” within the Australian nation (p.

623-4). Lueck, et al., argue that these representations, particularly those of asylum seekers, served to criminalize the process of transport as well as the refugees themselves. As a result, they constructed a need for stricture border control in Australia to keep such groups out (616-7).

42 In only a few cases, researchers have found positive portrayals of RASIM populations.

Chang (2015), for example, found that in approximately 41 percent of editorials from 108 sources (700 total), immigrants were discussed in positive terms. These ‘positive’ editorials often pointed to the social and economic contributions of RASIM populations to the general public and referred to them as “valuable members of society” (Chang, 2015, p. 850). Only 17 percent of the editorials in Chang’s study characterized immigrants as “harmful” to the country, and the remaining 41 percent expressed no explicit opinion. Chang found that the negative characterizations were linked to newspapers from more religious or politically conservative communities (Chang, 2015, p. 850). As Chang discusses, editorials from these areas tended to frame immigrants in line with the dominant discourse of immigration, which depicts members of

RASIM populations as financial and social burdens, as well as sources of crime. As such, these reports emphasized the risk such groups had to the general public (Chang, 2015, p. 850-1).

In terms of how particular Native or Aboriginal populations have been characterized by the press, scholars have also found that these groups are presented in ways which emphasize their minority status and rely on negative stereotypes. In his 2006 study, Harding finds that

Canadian news coverage during the 1860s and 1990s reported on aboriginal issues using frames that signified these individuals as being ‘inferior’ to whites, as more susceptible to corruption, and as overly emotional in comparison to whites (p. 224). While members of this community were included in the reports as sources of information or as outside perspectives, Harding argues that most of the statements attributed to them expressed only abstract concerns or functioned to promote stereotypical representations of the aboriginal people (p. 225). Harding writes that aboriginal perspectives were often “diluted through techniques of deflection, decontextualization, misrepresentation and tokenization” (p. 225, 231).

43 Simmons & Lecouteur (2008) similarly find that references to indigenous people in the

Australian Press draw on negative stereotypes of aggressiveness and a “weakness” for drugs and alcohol (p. 668). Simmons & Lecouteur find that news reports were more likely to characterize indigenous individuals as ‘agents’ of activities as well as present them as being more responsible for the outcome of events. In a case study of reports involving indigenous and non-indigenous individuals in a riot, Simmons & Lecouteur found that news reports characterized the indigenous community as being more susceptible to violence and police conflict than non-indigenous communities (p. 673). In this way, the actions taken by officers during the riot were excused.

Simmons & Lecouteur found that police were often described in passive voice so that their agency or role in the events was omitted. As a result, their actions were often minimized or shown to be justified, and they were not seen as contributing to the overall cause or consequence of the riots (Simmons & Lecouteur, 2008, p. 685).

Summary of Methods

Within the scholarly works reviewed, analysts have employed a range of methodological approaches drawn from sociology, media studies, and discourse analysis. A predominant approach has been one of general content analysis. Content analysis is generally used to analyze large groups of text according to broad coding categories. These categories can be informed by any number of disciplinary structures. For example, in discourse studies, these categories are often informed by the general schema of the news report: headlines, lead, topics, arguments, or the construction of the news narrative. Discourse studies analysists may look at quoting patterns, textual integration, and elements of the semantic system. Gilens (1996), for example, examines news and television coverage according to general content analysis of “core categories”. These categories include “poor,” “poverty,” and “public welfare” (p. 519). He also analyzes images

44 for patterns in the portrayals of race and age (p. 519). Chibnall (1977) also relies on content analysis to inform her analysis of interviews and to connect the professional practices of journalists to the construction of the dominant ideology reflected in the reports analyzed. In media studies, framing theory is often used to identify the larger coding categories, aptly referred to as “frames” which present topics or stories in particular representational frames. This concept of “framing” comes from Entman’s Framing Theory (1993) and is a widely applied method of analysis in media studies. Chang (2015) draws on framing theory to analyze the content of news reports particularly in terms of how journalists suggest remedies and state judgements (p. 841).

Haynes, et al. (2006) as well as Harding (2006) similarly rely on framing theory to inform their content analysis of news reports.

Many of the studies mentioned also operate within the CDA framework. Within CDA- frameworks, the object of study is text analysis and scholars consider the role that ideology and power play in the production of discourse. Van Dijk (1991), Erjavec (2001), KhosraviNik

(2009), and Lueck, Due, & Augoustinos (2015), to name a few, all operate within the CDA scope. Van Dijk (1991), a notable CDA scholar, specifically builds on analytical themes derived from psychology and sociology, such as “in and out group” mentalities which then becomes a focal point of media representation research. Erjavec (2001) analyzes the thematic schema of the news report (following from the work of van Dijk). Lueck et al. (2015) examines how language is organized within larger discourses of nationalism using a general content analysis approach and is also informed by CDA epistemologies.

A number of these CDA scholars also pay close attention to linguistics, analyzing the particular role that linguistic structures play in enforcing dominant ideologies and in representing social actors or events. Erjavec draws from SFL frameworks to “uncover underlying ideologies

45 and power relations” (p. 706-7). Erjavec analyzes news reports according to the transitivity system in order to see how events are construed via categories of ‘process’ and ‘participant’.

KhosraviNik (2009) also examines social actor representation, following from frameworks devised by Van Leeuwen which operate within the transitivity system of SFL (p. 477).

Representing Protest in the News

In addition to the themes reviewed, another major area of study for representation research is on protests and protest movements. Several notable protest movements have occurred throughout the 20th and 21st centuries in America. These movements have included the

Civil Rights movement, the women’s rights movement, anti-war and anti-nuclear movements, and more recently, the ongoing Black Lives Matter and Never Again movements, which react to issues of police brutality, systemic racism, and gun control issues in America. Environmental protests have most often centered on issues related to pipelines being built across federal or

Native American lands. The Dakota Access Pipeline is one of many recent environmental protests over pipeline construction.

Protest movements, as defined by prominent scholars in the field are described as gatherings of people in support of mutual concerns regarding international conflict, economic or social policies, environmental practices, and social and civil rights issues (McLeod, 2000, p. 29).

Such groups protest these issues in the hope to bring about a particular change or to prevent one from occurring (McLeod, 2000, p. 29). To gain the attention of media and the interest of public and elected officials, protest groups rely on marches, rallies, and demonstrations (Boyle, et al.,

2005, p. 635). Media coverage is considered to be integral for both disseminating information about protest causes and concerns as well as for shaping public response to these protests and gaining their support. However, as Boyle et al. (2005) notes, many protest groups do not receive

46 adequate news coverage, let alone balanced or neutral coverage (p. 635). Studies have found that reports tend to cover protest events in a ‘typical’ fashion. This standard of news reporting has been termed the Protest Paradigm.

The Protest Paradigm

The Protest Paradigm framework was initially inspired by the work of Halloran, Elliot, &

Murdock (1970). In their analysis of anti-war protest coverage, Halloran, et al. discuss several rhetorical strategies employed by newspapers in their depiction of protest events. These strategies include employing a negative frame of events and representing participants in ways which reinforce those frames, as well as relying primarily on law enforcement and state officials to construct the dominant narrative of events. The work of Halloran, Elliot, & Murdock (1970) has since been a jumping off point for the study of protest representation in news media.

Scholars have continued to find the patterns pointed out by Halloran, Elliot, & Murdock in protest coverage over time–so much that this way of reporting has since become recognized as the ‘standard’ of reporting.

In Gitlin’s analysis of New York Times’ coverage of the Anti-Vietnam March on

Washington (1980), he argues that journalists “compounded the serious and the shallow”. He continues to say that journalists “trivialized the March” and “balanced presumably equivalent anti-war and ultra-Right forces; ….it began to construe the student movement as freakish deviance” (p. 46). Gitlin said the media largely presented the movement as ineffectual, portraying the participants as being young and deviant (p. 49, 58). He also notes a tendency on the part of the New York Times to lead in their headlines with reports of arrests and other criminal behaviors associated with protesters. Gitlin suggests that while this is in part due to reporters relying on law officials for information about events, it nonetheless emphasizes the

47 criminal nature and violence associated with protests and backgrounds the concerns shaping the movement (p. 42). He argued such coverage ultimately functioned to marginalize the protesters.

Whitaker (1981) and Fowler (1991) similarly found that reporters over-relied on

“official” sources, arguing that they are socialized to prefer news releases, press conferences, statements, and other avenues of information-gathering which are seen as most accessible and available to them (Whitaker, 1981, p. 31-32). These sources are often ‘organized’ through their affiliation to a bureaucratic structure which utilizes spokespersons and a regular scheduling of statements (Fowler, 1991, p. 22). Through their repeated reference, these news sources then become the ‘established’ sources, deemed most credible by the authority, status, or commercial success of the source. Their dominance in news reports is then reinforced by repeated reliance.

As Fowler argues, a reliance on these elite kinds of sources creates an imbalance between the representation of the “already privileged” and the “already underprivileged” (1991, p. 22). He continues to say that the view of the official, the powerful, and the rich continue to be invoked in order to maintain and legitimize the status quo, while all other voices are dismissed or ignored

(Fowler, 1991, p. 22).

McLeod & Hertog (1992) and Scannell (1989) similarly argue that the use of “official” sources function to dominate the news reports with a hegemonic perspective of reality. McLeod notes that these sourcing practices minimize ‘alternative’ views, and in the case of protest coverage, often function to minimize and condemn protesters (McLeod & Hertog, 1992, p. 260,

267). Reports lean heavily on law enforcement and state officials to provide “official” perspectives and details of events, and as a result, protesters are generally portrayed to be more violent and deviant than they actually are. Scannell (1989) argues that the integration of these

‘dominant’ voices then acts as a “gate-keeping device that admits only those in position of power

48 and influence while shutting out the opinions and perspectives of those deemed by society to be powerless”. Tuchman (1978) also argues that the use of sources functions as a technical device designed to “distance the reporter from phenomena identified as facts” (p. 95). Tuchman continues to say that incorporating outside sources allows the journalist to present the desired opinions as others’ while they appear distanced or neutral (1978, p. 95).

In addition to relying on law enforcement as “official” sources, scholars have also found a pattern in how journalists’ fixate on the criminal or violent aspects of a protest. McLeod &

Hertog (1999) identify a number of “mechanisms of social control” which they find to be embedded within media coverage of protest. These mechanisms include an over reliance on official sources and their definitions of events as well as story framing and negative depictions of protest groups and participants (p. 311). In their analysis of anarchist protest coverage during

1986, 1987, and 1988 in Minneapolis, Hertog & McLeod (1995), for example, find that journalists consistently frame the protest and its participants as “criminal” and violent through an emphasis on the conflicts occurring between anarchists and police (p. 11). Hertog & McLeod find that reports also tended to focus more on the unusual appearance of those protesting, highlighting their mohawks and piercings, for example, while altogether ignoring the social critique they had intended (Hertog & McLeod, 1995, p. 12-14, 11). Stories were organized around violent or illegal acts, and reporters emphasized the “graphic deviance and oddities” of protesters, as well as irrational or emotional nature (McLeod & Hertog, 1999, p. 312-3). This finding has been consistent for many scholars: the tone of a protest is quickly framed as emotional and violent, and the causes and concerns which inspired the protest are left entirely out of the news reports (Halloran, Elliot, & Murdock, 1970; Hertog & McLeod, 1995; McLeod &

Hertog, 1999; Boyle, et al., 2005). According to McLeod & Hertog, such representation

49 strategies serve to marginalize protesters and delegitimize the protest cause. McLeod & Hertog also propose that the more “extreme” the ideological goals of the protest group, the more likely the journalists apply these mechanisms and the more likely the coverage of such groups will be negative (1999, p. 311). As a result of this negative framing, audience perception toward these groups, their cause, and the overall protest event are negative (p. 323-5).

In recent research, scholars have analyzed the role and effect sourcing practices can have in the framing of protest events. Jullian (2011), for example, argues that the attributions made in news reports are “not evaluation outlets for sources only, but indirect means of appraisal for the journalists as well, who support – and reinforce – the points they want to make through these voices” (p. 766). Jullian argues that newspapers rely heavily on quotations and source integrations to appraise, endorse (or not endorse) particular issues, events, and social actors

(Jullian, 2011, p. 777). Such endorsements were largely framed through the integration of

“official” sources. Atwell Seate & Mastro (2015) further point out that reliance on expert sources, spokespersons, and community members in contemporary news reporting often works to “espouse” alternative perspectives, constructing rhetorical events of activities which reinforce the dominant and ‘official’ attributions (p. 7). Rantsudu (2019) similarly argues that the framing of quotes and sources in respect to protest and strikes sets the tone for the framing of the issue. According to Rantsudu, “the use of language alongside pictorial representations in the media can project these negative themes and create a situation in which news audiences are led to take sides with either of the social actors involved in the industrial dispute” (2019, p. 93).

In the last ten years, particularly in review of media coverage of recent protest movements, scholars have found that many of these negative patterns and tendencies outlined by

Protest Paradigm scholars have persisted. In their analysis of Black Lives Matter coverage, for

50 example, Leopold & Bell (2017) find that the majority of the newspapers in their study relied on the “riot” frame when labeling and describing events. Consequently, the papers emphasized any destruction caused by or occurring during the protests and painted a “scene of disorder and danger” (p. 725). According to Leopold & Bell (2017), many of the articles “demonized the protesters” by focusing on the illegal and disruptive nature of their protests, mentioning arrest numbers and emphasizing the disruption the protest had on holiday events, such as Black Friday shopping (p. 726). Leopold & Bell (2017) also find that among the sources relied on by reporters, politicians and authority figures are most prominent. In addition, reports also featured quotes or made references to college professors and lawyers who had not been participating in the protest, but who had been contacted specifically to give their opinion (p. 725).

Similarly, Kilgo & Harlow (2019) find that the term “riot” and the subsequent violent reporting frame depicted by a 'riot' characterization is most frequently correlated to “anti-Black racism protests” (p. 521). Other prominent terms were linked to other kinds of protests. For example, the term “confrontation” was most often attached to environmental protests, such as that of the Dakota Access Pipeline (p. 521). Kilgo & Harlow (2019) also show that, regardless of the underlying issue, whether it was a protest concerned with race, immigration, or the environment–the coverage of the protest events consistently excluded the voice of protesters, as well as their demands, consequently “ignoring the underlying racial injustice that led to the protests in the first place” (p. 522). In protests concerning immigration, however, Kilgo &

Harlow find that coverage follows less of a delegitimization pattern than it does for protests centered on racial issues (p. 508).

In contrast to some of these studies, Kyriakidou & Osuna (2017) argue that news reports of protesters during protests of the Indignados in Spain and the Aganaktismeni in Greece (2011)

51 did not adhere to these patterns of protest reporting. According to their content analysis of news reports from May to June 2011, coverage was neutral and emphasized the cause of the protest well more than the violence (p. 463). The protests and demonstrations were framed as

“celebratory” and newspapers focused on the inclusivity of the protest efforts (p. 464).

References to the number of protesters involved “further strengthened the construction of the protests as nationwide events and legitimate expressions of unrest” (p. 464). However, though these protests events were ultimately termed in a more positive or neutral way, Kyriakidou &

Osuna (2017) also note that consistently, the reports continue to be dominated by government officials and public figures as leading sources. In a subsequent study, Harlow (2019) again noted that representations of #Ferguson by journalists from the U.S., the U.K., Spain, and France more often discussed the underlying issues of police brutality surrounding the protest but made little connection to the larger issues of systemic racism (p. 635).

Reporting on the Dakota Access Pipeline Protest

In regard to studies specifically looking at coverage of the Dakota Access Pipeline

(DAPL) protest, much of the research has focused on quantitative trends in coverage with a minimal analysis of the content of the reports. Gyenes, et al. (2017), for example, have tracked trends in coverage over several years and finds that early protest coverage was dominated by local papers or bloggers and rarely addressed by mainstream new sources. In their general analysis of news coverage, they found that journalists focused on the deviancy of acts and defiance of the protest participants. They also found disparities in how sources with differing ideological leanings covered events. For example, the use of “water protector” to identify the individuals involved in protests occurred more frequently in news sources which were considered left-leaning and sympathetic to the concerns raised by the Standing Rock Sioux

52 Tribe. Other outlets which appear more right leaning or centrist, such as the WSJ or other larger mainstream sources, predominantly framed the participants as “protesters” and made little to no mention of “water protectors” or the concerns shaping the protest (Gyenes, et al., 2017).

Kilgo & Harlow (2019) also note that in holistic coverage of protests spanning 2016, coverage related to the DAPL protests contributed to only about 10 percent of all reports. They found that when DAPL protests were mentioned, they were mostly framed as a “confrontation” with police (p. 516, 517). This confrontation frame resulted in an explicit focus on the physical violence and aggression occurring between police and protesters and emphasized law enforcement’s need to enforce law and order (p. 517). Kilgo & Harlow further argue that none of the reports they examined provided explicit details about the protest movement’s origin or goals (p. 521). As they state: “[t]hese protests, centered on the intersections of Indigenous people’s rights and environmental concerns, were framed as confrontational nearly three-fourths of the time, and coverage of them was the least likely to include discussion of protesters’ concerns and demands” (p. 522). Kilgo & Harlow point out that while protests related to immigration and other social issues may have fallen away from the “standards” of reporting labeled the Protest Paradigm, issues related to “Black and Indigenous people, have not evolved beyond the traditional paradigm’s structure” (p. 523).

Most recently, Moore (2019) has examined how major news outlets including The New

York Times, Bismarck Tribune, and Indian Country Media Network, covered the DAPL protest event. Moore considers how the Indigenous population of protesters, law enforcement, and the pipeline were represented by news outlets in terms of abstract reporting frames (p. 5). She examined images used with stories, phrases and slogans, and the adjectives used to describe actions and participants involved to see what kinds of representational frames were constructed

53 by the news (p. 76). Moore (2019) found that dominant frames shifted as the protest and the pipeline’s construction went through different stages, particularly in BT coverage (p. 105). A focus on environmental justice was “uncommon when considered throughout the entire span of the newspaper’s coverage”–despite the fact that the BT had seemed sympathetic to the tribe’s concerns early on (p. 105). Furthermore, Moore found that though protesters were often quoted in the papers, their perspectives were directly opposed by representatives from the pipeline, the state, law enforcement, or local citizens (p. 105). In contrast to these papers, Moore found that the Indian-produced news agency, Indian Country Media Network, emphasized consistently themes of environmental justice and empathy toward the indigenous population (109). Moore states that they did not let the “professional goal of balance deter it from providing the perspective and voice of the Tribe and its allies in the struggle against the pipeline” (p. 109).

Conclusion & Contributions to Research

As this chapter has shown, the representation of minorities by mainstream news sources has consistently depicted such groups in negative and stereotypical ways. Through mechanisms of sourcing, framing, and representation, these groups are often pitted against the majority culture and dominant way of life to reinforce their identity as a general “threat” to the public. In terms of protest reporting, protesters are typically depicted in terms of their deviance and violence. Such representations also position these group against the needs, values, and interests of the cultural majority, casting them out as ‘outsiders,’ and excusing policies or public opinions which serve to ostracize them. The effect of these sustained representation pattern has been to perpetuation systemic and institutional racism through the dominant discourse which is repeatedly reinforced in these reports. This dominant discourse then has a first-hand effect on

54 how the public is able to perceive this group, their concerns, and the political or social change they call for.

In terms of the DAPL protest, specifically, limited research has shown that media tends to shy away from the concerns or values which are explicitly tied to the cultural identity of the

Standing Rock Sioux Tribe. Journalists seemingly reproduce the dominant narrative of protest- reporting, influenced by their socialization into specific institutional sourcing and production practices. In order to contribute to these findings, my project offers a systematic analysis of news reporting which analyzes reports according to SFL frameworks. There has yet to be a systematic analysis like mine. Moore (2019) comes close, however, her analysis tends to focus on reporting features and themes as they appear over a wide breadth of sources and not on specific or individual news articles. Her study is useful for mapping out holistic trends, and my study may serve to contribute to her holistic analysis, enhancing her work by analyzing specific sets of news reports related to protest altercations. By examining the news content published after particular dates of confrontation, I can analyze how reports specifically characterize altercations in the frame of this larger protest movement. In doing so, I not only contribute to the current gap in research, but I can also examine to what extent these reporting patterns of the

DAPL protest adhere to the protest paradigm framework. In this way, my analysis will shed light on contemporary representation patterns of protest.

55

CHAPTER III

Representation in The New York Times

Analysis I

My dissertation analyzes news reports published by mainstream and regional news sources following each of the DAPL protest altercations occurring on September 3, October 27, and November 20, 2016, to see how these altercation events are construed by journalists and represented to audiences. In this chapter, I analyze news reports published by The New York

Times (NYT). Table 3.1 lists the articles which have been included in my analysis:

Table 3.1

NYT Articles Published After Altercations Occurring on 9/3, 10/27, and 11/20

Date of Publication Author Word Count October 28, 2016 Skalicky & Davey 672 November 21, 2016 Bromwich 553

As noted in Chapter 1, the NYT did not publish a report following the September 3 altercation. A

59-word reference of this event appeared in an article published days later about Jill Stein and her misdemeanor charge (see Bromwich, 2016). It has not been included in my analysis.

Transitivity Analysis

The articles listed in Table 3.1 have been coded and diagramed according to their transitivity structure. These diagrams can be found in Appendix B. In coding these reports, 53.7 percent of the 10/28 report and 63.3 percent of the 11/21 report have been coded as ‘verbal’

56 projecting clauses.8 These projecting clauses allow journalists to attribute information and details to external sources (Halliday, 2004, p. 252). Throughout my dissertation, I refer to these projecting clauses as “attributed” processes and the non-projecting clauses as “unattributed”.

Following from Halliday, I analyze them separately.

Altercation 1: September 3, 2016

No report was published by the NYT.

Altercation 2: October 27, 2016

The NYT report following the October 27 altercation is 672 words long. Table 3.2 illustrates the different processes found in this report and the total number for each:

Table 3.2

Unattributed & Attributed Processes in the NYT 10/28 News Report

Unattributed Attributed ‘Material’ 16 ‘Material’ 17 ‘Verbal’ 3 ‘Relational’ 6 ‘Mental’ 1 ‘Verbal’ 1 ‘Mental’ 1

‘Material’ Processes

As Table 3.2 shows, ‘material’ processes occur most frequently. In 17 cases, they are attributed to an external source, while in the other 16 cases, they are not. The unattributed

‘material’ processes are shown in Table 3.3:

Table 3.3

Unattributed ‘Material’ Processes in NYT 10/28 News Report

Sent. Process Circum. Actor Goal Circum. Conj. # (active) 1 for months tensions had mounted between protesters and law enforcement officials over the fate of an oil pipeline not far from the Standing Rock Sioux Reservation

8 attributed word count This percentage was determined by /total word count. Attributed word count includes phrasing used to signal sources, such as reporting verbs, titles, and other descriptions which accompanied a source’s inclusion.

57 2 late this the strained boiled over as week relations

officers tried to the of an area where they had been force…out protesters camping 3 scores of officers walked in a wide line dressed in riot gear

sweeping…out protesters of the area as face-to-face yelling matches broke out 5 a standoff unfolded beside a bridge known as the where Backwater Bridge

protesters set fire to wooden and boards and signs

held off the line of over many hours officers 17 the confrontation has been for months as brewing

Energy Transfer tries to finish construction of the Dakota Access pipeline, Partners which is to carry oil 1,170 miles from North Dakota to Illinois 20 even as all sides were awaiting a review by the Army Corps of engineers crews here on a crucial stretch of the were proposed path, through Army continuing Corps land and under the construction Missouri River of the pipeline lands 22* the intensifying drew a renewed from organizations like Amnesty clashes flurry of International as law attention enforcement moved in on Thursday 29* [tribal Leaders] called on federal to step in and authorities

oversee the actions of law enforcement 30 Thursday’s sweep brought the total number of protesters arrested since August to 411

Sent. Process Goal Actor # (passive) several vehicles including at 4 were set ablaze least one truck

As Table 3.3 shows, throughout these unattributed ‘material’ processes, the role of ‘actor’ varies from a noun or collective noun which refers to individuals or people (such as “officers,”

58 “protesters,” “ETP,” or “tribal leaders”) to abstract nouns (such as “tensions,” “all sides,” or

“strained relations”) or to nominalizations of a process (“a standoff,” “the confrontation,”

“intensifying clashes,” or “Thursday’s sweep”). In five instances, these abstractions and nominalizations characterize the altercation itself: as mounting tensions in sentence 1, strained relations which had boiled over in sentence 2, a standoff which had unfolded in sentence 5, a confrontation which had been brewing in sentence 17, and as “intensifying clashes” in sentence

22. Through the circumstantial elements attached to these characterizations, the journalist also represents aspects of the altercation event in terms of its ongoing length, its location, the major

“sides” involved, and elements of causality. As such, the altercation is depicted as resulting from

“strained relations” which had been growing over many months and which escalated at a construction site for the DAPL project near Backwater Bridge (sent 1, 5, & 17). The pipeline is presented as the leading cause for both the protests as well as the strained relations (sent. 1).

The altercation is presented as involving two primary groups, protesters and members of law enforcement, and as having escalated just as officers had begun to force out the protesters

(sent. 1 & 2). “Officers” are depicted as actors in three cases. They are allocated active roles.

In each case, members of law enforcement are identified only by their collective affiliation.

“Officers” are depicted as trying to “force” and “sweep” out protesters from the area (sent. 2 and

3). Protesters are also identified only as a collective entity. They are depicted as active participants as well, described as having shown to have set fires to wooden boards and signs and holding off officers (sent. 5). Though the identity of the actor responsible for setting vehicles on fire in sentence 4 is omitted from the sentence, contextually, readers may infer that the actor is a member of the collective “protesters” group.

59 In addition to these unattributed ‘material’ processes, there are also 17 attributed

‘material’ processes in the October 28 report, as shown in Table 3.4:

Table 3.4

Attributed ‘Material’ Processes in NYT 10/28 News Report

Sent Process Projected Projecting Circum. Actor Goal Circum. Conj. # (active) ‘Sayer’ ‘Process’ 6 by Friday they had at least 142 on charges officers said evening [officers] arrested protesters including engaging in a riot and conspiracy to endanger by fire and explosion 7 protesters were the authorities said gathered near refusing to the bridge leave

9 protesters had them with officers said attacked [officers] firebombs, logs, feces, and debris 10 using pepper spray against the as they acknowledged and beanbag protesters well [officers] rounds as

a high- meant to pitched disperse sound crowds device 11 in one they used a taser gun after the officers said case [the officers]

a protester threw pepper in officers’ faces 12 one woman had pulled a gun out and the authorities said who was being arrested

fired at a police line 19 the $3.7 threatens the region’s and Native say billion water supply Americans pipeline and environ- mental activists would sacred harm cultural lands and tribal burial grounds

22* it [Amnesty was observers to monitor Amnesty said International] sending law International enforcement’s behavior

60 23* they refused Kirchmeier said [protesters] [to move away from a campsite] 24 “it forced our hand” Sheriff said [protesters’ Kirchmeier refusal to move] 25 by the authorities had given on with the and he said Thursday up negotiations protesters [Kirchmeier] morning moved in to clear the area where more than 200 people were gathered 28 those who would be in the second the authorities said were swept permitted camp off the private to stay land

Sent. Process Projected Projecting Goal Actor Circumstance # (passive) ‘Sayer’ ‘Process’ they 13 no one was hit by these shots said [authorities]

The main ‘actors’ of these attributed ‘material’ processes include members of law enforcement

(referred to throughout as either “officers” or “authorities”) and those identified collectively as

“protesters”. Both groups are identified impersonally throughout the news report.

As actors, “officers” and “authorities” are identified through their collective membership to law enforcement and are depicted in active roles 4 times. The activities they participate in include arresting protesters, using pepper spray and other weapons against them, giving up on negotiations, and moving in to clear protesters from a private area (sent. 6, 10, 11, and 25). In each case, the actions of law enforcement are characterized through the circumstantial phrases as reactive which presents their behaviors as responsive to the actions of protesters. In sentence 6,

“officers” are said to have arrested “at least 142 protesters on charges including engaging in a riot and conspiracy to endanger by fire and explosion”. The arrest of these protesters is justified based on the constructed premise that these individuals were willing and planning to partake in dangerous and life-threatening activities. In sentence 11, “officers” are said to have used a taser

61 gun only “after a protester threw pepper in officers’ faces”. The action of using the taser gun is similarly presented as a reaction to the protesters’ attempt to harm officers. Moreover, the qualifying adjunct, “in one case” signals that such officer behavior occurred only once.

Sentences 24 and 25 similarly set up a premise that the activity led by the “authorities” occurred only in response to protesters and because of their refusal to vacate the area. Through the direct quote attributed to Kirchmeier, it is said that the refusal of protesters which “forced our hand”

(sent. 24). In only one case the activities of “officers” are not presented as overtly reactive to protesters. In sentence 10, “officers” are said to have acknowledged using pepper spray, bean bag rounds, and a high-pitched sound device against protesters. This claim is presented through an attribution to “officers” who are said to have “acknowledged” the use of these weapons. No additional qualifiers are given to this behavior other than the intention to “disperse crowds”

(sent. 10). In all cases, these descriptions of law enforcement activity are attributed to sources which are themselves affiliates of law enforcement. These sources include “officers” and Kyle

Kirchmeier, the Morton County Sheriff.

The other major actors identified in attributed ‘material’ processes of this report are people who are identified and affiliated collectively as “protesters”. This group is unanimously referred to as “protesters” throughout the report and are depicted as actors 8 times. In general,

“protesters” are described as refusing to leave the area, attacking officers with a variety of weapons, including firebombs, logs, feces, and debris, and throwing pepper at officers. In one case, “a woman being arrested” is depicted as ‘actor’. She is affiliated with the group of protesters through her association to the shared behaviors of the protesters, i.e. her attempt to harm the officers. Like with descriptions of law enforcement, these details are all provided

62 through statements attributed to law enforcement sources. These sources include “authorities,”

“officers,” and Kyle Kirchmeier.

Two additional ‘actors’ are depicted in these attributed ‘material’ processes besides officers and protesters. These include the “$3.7 billion pipeline” and “Amnesty International”.

In sentence 19, the pipeline is identified by reference to the monetary investment of the project and through a statement attributed to “Native Americans and environmental activists”.

According to this group, the pipeline is said to threaten the region’s water supply and it is said that it “would harm” sacred cultural lands and tribal burial grounds (sent. 19). The likelihood of this occurring however is made more certain through the modal adverb “would”. Finally,

Amnesty International is depicted as ‘actor’ in one case. Through a statement attributed to the organization, they are said to be sending observers to monitor law enforcement (sent. 22).

‘Relational’ Processes

There are six ‘relational’ processes depicted in the October 28 news report, all of which are attributed to external sources, as shown in Table 3.5:

Table 3.5

Attributed ‘Relational’ Processes in NYT 10/28 News Report

Sent. Process: Projected Projecting Carrier Attribute Circum. Conj. # (attributive) ‘Sayer’ ‘Process’ 14 “it was peaceful but Randez Bailey, said a resident of Standing Rock it is not [peaceful] now” 29* the land in is tribal land tribal leaders said question

Sent. Process: Projected Projecting Token Value # (identifying) ‘Sayer’ ‘Process’ 15 “we are the ones who have to live [Bailey] here” 16 “you all get to go back home” [Bailey] 18 the pipeline will be a safer way to transport oil company contend officials

63 Within these attributed ‘relational’ processes, aspects of the altercation event are identified, defined, or described, according to statements attributed to Randez Bailey, “tribal leaders,” or

“company officials”. The attributions made to Bailey, who is described only as a “resident of

Standing Rock,” are all presented through direct quotes. Through these quoted attributions,

Bailey characterizes the overall atmosphere, the citizens who reside there, and those who have come to participate in the protest. In sentence 14, Bailey describes the environment as no longer being peaceful. Bailey’s inclusion in the report also sets up a dichotomy between those participating in the protest who get to leave without worrying about the aftermath of it (“you all”) and those who are native to the area who do (“we”) (sent. 15 & 16).

In addition to Bailey, “tribal leaders” are included in the reports to define the location of the altercation and the “land in question” through ‘relational’ processes as “tribal land”.

Similarly, “company officials” (referring to ETP officials) come into the news report to describe the pipeline project in terms of function and quality or characteristic. According to their attribution, the pipeline “will be a safer way to transport oil”. The certainty of this claim is presented through the modal verb, “will,” increasing the certainty of the proposition.

‘Verbal’ Processes

The October 28 news report also contains four ‘verbal’ processes. Of these, one is attributed to an external source while the remaining three are not. The unattributed ‘verbal’ processes are shown in Table 3.6 and the attributed in Table 3.7:

Table 3.6

Unattributed ‘Verbal’ Processes in NYT 10/28 News Report

Sent. Sayer Circumstance Process Circumstance Verbiage/Circumstance # 8 each side complained vehemently about violent tactics by the other 26 the authorities some of whom arrived in demanded over loudspeaker that people leave military-style vehicles

64

Sent. Receiver Process Sayer Verbiage/Circumstance # were not to evacuate a second larger camp they have 27* protesters being asked set up on federal land a few miles away

Table 3.7

Attributed ‘Verbal’ Processes in NYT 10/28 News Report

Sent. Projected Projecting Target Process Sayer Verbiage # ‘Sayer’ ‘Process’ to move away from a campsite had been they had created on private land 23* protesters Kirchmeier said asked that is owned by Energy Transfer Partners

The ‘verbal’ processes depicted in Table 3.6 function to summarize the actions or requests occurring during the altercation. In each case, these processes are presented actively and with greater degrees of certainty. In sentence 8, both sides are said to have “complained vehemently” about the violent tactics used by the other. However, no protester accounts are provided in this report to corroborate this claim. In sentence 26 and 27, law enforcement’s desire for protesters to leave the site is reiterated through the unattributed summary of law enforcement’s on-site actions in sentence 26 and the attributed summary of Kirchmeier’s request in sentence 27. In both occurrences, the desire of law enforcement to have protesters leave the area is reiterated.

‘Mental Processes’

The October 28 news report also contains two ‘mental’ processes, one of which is attributed to an external source, as shown in Table 3.8 and Table 3.9:

Table 3.8

Unattributed ‘Mental’ Processes in NYT 10/28 News Report

Sent. Phenomenon Process Senser Circumstance # has sparked from environmentalists 21 the issue on social media concern and politicians

65

Table 3.9

Attributed ‘Mental’ Processes in NYT 10/28 News Report

Sent. Projected Projecting Senser Process Phenomenon # ‘Sayer’ ‘Process’ a disproportionate response from law David Archambault have repeatedly II, the chairman of 31 “we enforcement to water protectors’ nonviolent said seen the Standing Rock exercise of their constitutional rights” Sioux Tribe

As shown, the unattributed ‘mental’ process in sentence 21 emphasizes that the pipeline issue itself has gained recognition from “environmentalists and politicians on social media” (see Table

3.8). The attributed ‘mental’ process shown in Table 3.9, reflects a direct quote attributed to

David Archambault, who is introduced as the “chairman of the Standing Rock Sioux Tribe”. In this quote, Archambault’s perception of law enforcement’s actions are that they have been repeatedly “disproportionate” in response to the actions of those gathered in protest.

Archambault emphasizes the aggression by referencing that it has happened on other occasions, as presented in the framing of the process “have repeatedly seen”. Conversely, Archambault characterizes the actions of those protesting, whom he identifies as “water protectors” as being a

“nonviolent exercise of their constitutional rights” (sent. 31). Another option for presenting

Archambault’s statement, which would have matched the tone and patterns used throughout the report would have been to say: “Law enforcement responded disproportionately to water protectors’ non-violent exercise of their constitutional rights,’ Archambault said” (sent. 31).

This would have presented Archambault’s statement as a ‘material’ processes, emphasizing the actions of law enforcement and providing and alternative view. As presented, however, the emphasis is not on the actions, but on Archambault’s perception of those actions. The effect of this is that the actions Archambault characterizes are backgrounded, and the emotive narrative tone of his statement is foregrounded.

66 Altercation 3: November 20, 2016

The NYT report following the November 20 altercation is 553 words long. Table 3.10 illustrates the different processes found in this report and the total number for each:

Table 3.10

Unattributed & Attributed Processes in the NYT 11/21 News Report

Unattributed Attributed ‘Material’ 7 ‘Material’ 14 ‘Verbal’ 4 ‘Relational’ 5 ‘Verbal’ 2

‘Material’ Processes

As Table 3.10 shows, ‘material’ processes occur most frequently. In 14 cases, they are attributed to an external source, while in seven, they are not. The unattributed ‘material’ processes are shown in Table 3.11:

Table 3.11

Unattributed ‘Material’ Processes in NYT 11/21 News Report

Sent. Process Circumstance Actor Goal Circumstance Conj. # (active) 1 tensions continued in North Dakota as Monday afternoon

law enforcement arrested 16 people at a demonstration one day officials after

hundreds clashed with the police over the Dakota Access Pipeline

16 late last tensions boiled over at a protest camp near when month Backwater Bridge

law enforcement forced demonstrators out of the area officials 17 that confrontation led to the arrests of more than 140 and protesters resulted in the setting of multiple fires

67 The ‘actors’ depicted in these processes include protesters (referenced as “hundreds”, sent. 1), law enforcement “officials” (sent. 1 and 16) and abstractions related to protest altercations (sent.

1, 16, and 17). All ‘actors’ are identified in vague, impersonal terms. In sentence 1, “hundreds” are described as having “clashed” with police which resulted in law enforcement’s arrest of 16 people. In sentence 16 and 17, the activity being referred to is not from the November 20 altercation, but rather the October 27, as referenced by “late last month”. This reference shifts the focus away from these November events back to those events which had occurred in late

October as if to suggest that one led to, or in the least, contributed to the other.

In addition to these unattributed ‘material’ processes, there are also 14 attributed

‘material’ processes in the October 28 report, as shown in Table 3.12:

Table 3.12

Attributed ‘Material’ Processes in NYT 11/21 News Report

Sent. Process Projected Projecting Actor Goal Circumstance Conj. # (active) ‘Sayer’ ‘Process’ 4 protesters “setting fires and photos showed [released by the Sheriff’s Dept.] using aggressive tactics” trying to a police on Backwater dismantle barricade Bridge 7* protesters had started a dozen of the paper reported fires [Bismarck Tribune]

Sent. Process Projected Projecting Goal Actor Circumstance Conj # (passive) ‘Sayer’ ‘Process’ 3 some of the was used to repel some of the protest and Morton County said water activities that were occurring Sheriff, Kyle Kirchmeier it was used at a time where they were aggressive toward officers 6 water was being for crowd control Rob Keller told the used Bismarck Tribune

water cannons had also been to douse the fires adding used 8 one officer was struck on the head it [Bismarck said Tribune] 9 at least one was arrested Associated reported person Press

68

Sent. Projecting Process: Projected Projecting Sayer Actor Goal # ‘Process’ (active) ‘Sayer’ ‘Process’ they [the Oceti water sprayed early signs of he 13 said that caused said Medical from cannons hypothermia [Goldtooth] team]

Sent. Projected Projecting Process: Projected # Sayer Goal Actor Circum. Conj. ‘Process’ ‘Process’ (passive) ‘Sayer’ & Circum. 7* officers had said rocks were being at them the paper reported from the that and thrown [Bismarck Sheriff’s logs Tribune] Department

10 the Oceti …had nearly were and Dallas Goldtooth, said Sakowin reported 200 injured a spokesman for in a phone medical that people the Indigenous interview team, Environmental Monday which… Network 12 were for head people hospitalized injuries

As shown, most of the ‘material’ processes depicted in Table 3.12 are constructed through passive voice and as a result, omit the responsible agent of each clause. This is particularly significant given that the agent being excluded from the reports, in this case backgrounded in terms of their involvement, are members of law enforcement. In both cases where a member of law enforcement would be identified as actor (sent. 3 and 6), they are excluded from the clause.

Instead of foregrounding those responsible, the emphasis is on the reason water was being used.

Water is presented as a response to the protesters’ activities: “to repel some of the protest activity,” “at a time where they were aggressive toward officers,” “for crowd control,” and to

“douse the fires” (see sent. 7). The descriptions here are presented through statements attributed to Kyle Kirchmeier, the Morton County Sheriff, and to Rob Keller, a spokesperson for the sheriff’s department. However, throughout this report, the statements attributed to Rob Keller are actually based on The Bismarck Tribune’s reporting of Keller’s statement.

69 In sentence 10, the ‘actor’ responsible for injuring 200 people is similarly left out of the clause. This statement is paraphrased from Dallas Goldtooth who is shown to be paraphrasing the Oceti Sakowin medical team. Additionally, in sentence 13, water is depicted as the ‘actor’ which “caused early signs of hypothermia”. In sentences 4, 7, 8, and 9, protesters are described as setting fires, being aggressive, interfering with law enforcement equipment, and throwing rocks and logs at officers. “Protestors” are again identified unanimously as a collective, and the descriptions of their activities are presented through paraphrased attributions made to other newspapers (The Bismarck Tribune and the Associated Press in sent. 6, 7, 8, & 9), and to

“photos” which had been released by the Sheriff’s Department (sent. 4).

‘Relational’ Processes

There are five ‘relational’ processes depicted in the November 21 news report, all of which are attributed to external sources, as shown in Table 3.13:

Table 3.13

Attributed ‘Relational’ Processes in NYT 11/21 News Report

Projected Sent. Process: Projected Token Value Circumc. ‘Process’ & # (identifying) ‘Sayer’ Circum. 14 the air was about 23 degrees at 10:15 the National according to temperature in the p.m. Weather area Service 19 the measures law represented a clear escalation of David said enforcement violence Archambault in a phone officials took on interview on Sunday Monday “the use of water just goes to they are being more he said in freezing show that aggressive and are trying to [Archambault] temperatures hurt people”

21 “this is more threatening to human [Archambault] [the use of water] life than any other time of confrontation with law enforcement”

Sent. Process Projected Projecting Sayer Process Token Value # (identifying) ‘Sayer’ ‘Process’ 15* “I would love to this entire is ripe with irony” Mr. said emphasize here that situation Goldtooth

70 Within these attributed ‘relational’ processes, the actions of officers, the altercation itself, or the weather are characterized through statements attributed to David Archambault, Dallas Goldtooth, or the National Weather Service. Most of what Archambault is referenced as saying are presented through direct quotes. The exception to this is sentence 19, which presents

Archambault’s statement in the form of paraphrase. In sentence 19, the actions of law enforcement are defined in terms of increased aggressiveness toward the people protesting.

Similarly, in sentence 21, the use of water by law enforcement is characterized as being “more threatening to human life than any other time of confrontation”. In sentence 20, Archambault further describes the actions of law enforcement as likened to their nature, describing them in terms aggression and harm. In both the direct quotes attributed to Archambault, the target of his characterizations is the tactics used by officers and not the officers themselves. Similarly, the quoted attribution to Goldtooth’s quoted attribution in sentence 15 similarly draws focus to the situation itself and not the actions of officers. Consequently, this representation strategy backgrounds the role of these participants in the activity.

‘Verbal’ Processes

The November 21 news report also contains 6 ‘verbal’ processes. Of these, two are attributed to an external source while the remaining four are not. The unattributed ‘verbal’ processes are shown in Table 3.14 and the attributed in Table 3.15:

Table 3.14

Unattributed ‘Verbal’ Processes in NYT 11/21 News Report

Sent. Target Process Circumstance/Verbiage # with law enforcement officials and reports coming out of the have been highly 18 protesters leveling substantive conflict contested accusations of violence at each other

71 Sent. Circumstance Sayer Process Target Circumstance/Verbiage # 2 during a news officials also defended their use of fire against protesters the night conference on hoses before, despite the below Monday freezing weather 4 in a statement the Morton characterized the demonstration as an “ongoing riot” late on Sunday County Sheriff’s Department 5 the statement did not dispersal methods against what it estimated to be a address the department crowd of 400 protesters used

Table 3.15

Attributed ‘Verbal’ Processes in NYT 11/21 News Report

Sent. Projected Projecting Circ. Sayer Process Target Verbiage Circumstance # ‘Sayer’ ‘Process’ 12 the medical attributed many of to rubber Mr. according teams the bullets, Goldtooth to injuries pepper spray and shrapnel from concussion grenades

Sent. Projected Projecting Circ. Sayer Process Receiver Verbiage Circumstance # ‘Sayer’ ‘Process’ 15* on Sheriff had urged the to leave their because they Mr. said... Friday Kirchmeier protesters camps might be Goldtooth adding unfamiliar with that the harshness of North Dakota winters

Within the unattributed ‘verbal’ processes, the journalist acknowledges that reports of the altercation are contested by law enforcement as well as protesters (sent. 18). This statement signals the possibility of conflicting perspectives, yet does not make reference to any protester, nor does it include their perspective. They are referenced instead generally and indirectly. In sentence 2, law enforcement “officials” are described as having defended their actions. As written, the emphasis of the sentence is on the defense position and not the actions themselves.

The journalist could have written: “officials used fire hoses against protesters…” and in doing so would have characterized the actions of officers in active voice. Consequently, however, the actions of law enforcement are backgrounded. Similarly, in sentence 12, the journalist could

72 have written “the medical teams said many of the injuries were caused by rubber bullets…”.

Instead, the attribution of the injuries to rubber bullets indirectly references the actions which have led to the injuries, backgrounding members of law enforcement as agents in the process.

Summary of Transitivity Analysis

My transitivity analysis has indicated patterns in how these altercations events are presented to audiences in terms of ‘participants’ and ‘processes’. Table 3.16 illustrates the range of processes identified in these reports: `

Table 3.16

Range of Unattributed & Attributed Processes in NYT News Reports

Process 10/28 Report 11/21 Report Type Unattrib. Attrib. Unattrib. Attrib. Total ‘Material’ 16 17 7 14 54 ‘Relational’ 6 5 11 ‘Verbal’ 3 1 4 2 10 ‘Mental’ 1 1 2

Of the 77 total processes identified, 54 of them (or 70 percent) are ‘material’. 14 percent of all processes are ‘relational’ (11 of 77), and 13 percent are ‘verbal’ processes (10 of 77). Finally, there were also two ‘mental’ processes depicted in these reports which accounted for 3 percent of all process types.

Throughout these reports, the altercations are characterized as either a “demonstration” or a “clash,” terms which emphasize the negative aspects of the events and focus on the violence or aggression displayed. The major participant groups depicted in these reports are protesters and member of law enforcement. Protesters are consistently positioned as the instigators of these events and law enforcement are depicted as reactive to them. Reporters also link to one another through associative and temporal characterizations, such as by saying that the protest is

73 “ongoing” or has been “brewing for months”. In this way, the individual altercations are not treated as isolated events, but as a continuation of a larger pattern of violent behavior.

Appraisal: Judgement Analysis

As said, my transitivity analysis has indicated that the primary social actors involved in these protest altercations are law enforcement and individuals identified collectively as or affiliated with “protesters”. To examine how these actors and their behaviors are represented and appraised holistically in these reports, I have organized aspects of their identification and description into tables. I then analyzed the entries for how these descriptions and the behaviors attributed to these groups function to construe positive or negative evaluations of the actors. My analysis examines evaluation in terms of social esteem and social sanction, normative principles of judgement developed in Martin & White’s Appraisal Theory framework (2005, p. 35). I also analyze patterns in terms of social actor representation, drawing on van Leeuwen’s framework for actor analysis in discourse.9

Table 3.17 presents the social actor category of “Protesters” and the various behaviors or activities which are attributed to or associated with this group in the NYT news reports. The entries are organized by similarity and then by report date in order to show how related behaviors are depicted across the news reports. My analysis of their appraisal is shown in the column marked “judgement”:

Table 3.17

Appraisal of Behaviors Attributed to ‘Protesters’ in NYT Reports

Report: Appraising Appraising Appraised Judgement Sent # Behavior Circumstance 10/28: 4 several vehicles including at least one -norm/-cap truck were set ablaze -prop

9 See Figure 9 in Chapter 1 (p. 29)

74 10/28: 5 protesters set fire to wooden boards and -norm/-cap signs and -prop

held off the line of officers over man hours -cap -prop 11/21: 4 protesters setting fires and using aggressive tactics and -norm/-cap -prop trying to dismantle a police barricade on Backwater Bridge -norm/-cap -prop 11/21: 7 protesters had started a dozen of fires -norm/-cap -prop 10/28: 7 protesters gathered -prop were refusing to leave near the bridge 10/28: 23 they [protesters] refused [to move away from a campsite] -prop

10/28: 9 protesters attacked [officers] with fire-bombs, logs, -norm/-cap feces, and debris -prop 10/28: 11 a protester threw pepper in officers’ faces -prop 10/28: 12 one woman who was pulled out a gun and fired at a police -norm/-cap being arrested line -prop 11/21: 7 rocks were being thrown at [officers] -prop 11/21: 8 one officer was struck on the head -prop

As illustrated in Table 3.17, in all but one case, members of the “protester” social actor category are identified explicitly as “protesters”. Following from Van Leeuwen’s social actor representation framework, the use of “protesters” reflects an impersonal form of actor representation (1996, p. 46-47). Rather than be represented as specific, identifiable individuals, these participants are represented in categorical terms, via the collective entity “protesters”.

Their actions are always depicted in terms of that assimilated collective and their individual identities are thus rendered irrelevant to readers (van Leeuwen, 1996, p. 51). In only two cases are members of the protest group qualified and in both cases, it is in terms of quantity. In sentence 11 of the 10/28 report, for example, “a protester” is identified as throwing pepper in officers’ faces, and in sentence 12 of the 10/28 report, “one woman” is identified specifically in terms of having pulled out a gun and firing at officers. In both of these cases, though individuals are described uniquely through “a” and “one,” these individuals are nonetheless identified in relation to their affiliation with the larger protest group, or by generic references to an identification category (i.e. woman).

75 The range of activities associated with “protesters” include refusing to leave the site and setting multiple things on fire. Sentences 4 and 5 of the 10/28 report, as well as sentences 4 and

7 of the 11/21 report describe protesters as setting fires to boards, signs, and vehicles. In addition to setting fires, protesters are also depicted as behaving violently toward officers. The range of this violence includes resisting or “holding off” officers (10/28, sent. 5), throwing objects at them, such as pepper or rocks (10/28, sent. 11 and 11/21, sent. 7, 8), firing at them

(10/28, sent. 12), and “attacking” officers (10/28, sent. 9). The range of terms used to describe these behaviors such as throwing objects, firing, or “attacking” characterize these behaviors as extreme and violent. This aggression is further heightened through the word “attack”. In cases where ‘circumstantial’ elements are construed, these elements work to clarify the ‘where’ or

‘with what’ of the behaviors, emphasizing and elevating those actions, rather than trying to account for them or to justify or rationalize them.

As a whole, these behaviors are appraised negatively. It is not considered normal to set things on fire, throw objects at police, or attempt to harm officers. Thus, the depictions of these activities function to condemn and criticize the “protesters” in terms of normality and propriety, as shown in Table 3.17. Protesters are holistically presented as behaving abnormally, dangerously, and illegally. In cases where protesters are presented in passive roles, as undergoing the activity or being ‘at the receiving end of it,’ it is typically in association with arrests or injuries. In the case of injuries, protesters are referred to more generically, and such references only appear in the 11/21 report. Those injured are not identified as “protesters,” specifically but instead as “people”. This obscuring makes it hard for readers to know whether these “people” were specifically protesters or not and may consequently downplay readers’ empathy for them (see sent. 10 in 11/21 report).

76 In Table 3.18, I present the social actor category of “Law Enforcement” and the various behaviors or activities which are attributed to or associated with them. Like the previous table, these entries have been organized by similarity and then by report date:

Table 3.18

Appraisal of Behaviors Attributed to ‘Law Enforcement’ in NYT Reports

Report: Appraising Appraising Appraised Judgement Sent # Behavior Circumstance 10/28: 6 [officers] arrested at least 142 protesters on charges including engaging +prop in a riot and conspiracy to endanger by fire and explosion 11/21: 1 law enforcement arrested 16 people at a demonstration one day after hundreds +prop clashed with the police over the DAPL 11/21: 9 at least one person was arrested +prop 10/28: 2 officers tried to force out the protesters of an area where they had -cap been camping 10/28: 3 scores of officers walked in a wide line, sweeping of the area as face-to-face -cap dressed in riot protesters out yelling matches broke out gear

10/28: 25 the authorities had given up on negotiations with the protesters and +ten +prop moved in to clear the area where more than 200 people were gathered 10/28: 26 the authorities demanded over loudspeaker that +ten some of whom people leave arrived in military style vehicles 10/28: 27 protesters were not being asked to they have set up on federal +prop evacuate a second larger camp land, a few miles away

10/28: 28 those who were swept off the private +prop land would be permitted to stay in the second camp

10/28: 10 [officers] us[ed] pepper spray and beanbag -norm/-cap rounds against the protesters as well -prop as a high-pitched sound device meant to disperse crowds 10/28: 11 [officers] us[ed] a taser gun in one case +prop

after a protester threw pepper in officers’ faces 11/21: 2 officials defended their use of fire hoses despite the below freezing -norm/-cap against protesters the night before weather -prop 11/21: 3 some of the water was used to repel at a time where they +prop some of the protest activities that [protesters] were aggressive were occurring toward officers 11/21: 6 water was being used for crowd control +prop 11/21: 6 water cannons had also been used to douse the fires +prop

77 As illustrated in Table 3.18, the range of terms used to identify members of law enforcement include the collective nouns “officers,” “authorities,” and “officials,” and the abstract entity of

“law enforcement”. These terms carry a weight of authority and credibility simply because of the position they hold in the social sphere. As a result, readers are primed to trust them. Similar to protesters, these ‘actors’ are described not in individualized or personalized terms, but rather in terms of their collective entity. Their individual identities are rendered irrelevant, and readers are encouraged to view them based on their social authority and esteem only.

The range of activities associated with “law enforcement” include making arrests, forcing out protesters from private land (when they wouldn’t leave voluntarily), and defending their actions, specifically their tactics. In each case of arrest, the qualifying circumstances of the arrest ultimately positions the arresting action as a positive and lawful response to protester behavior. In sentence 6, it is made clear through the attribution to “officers,” that those arrested were arrested because of their involvement in the riot and their “conspiracy to endanger by fire and explosion” (sent. 6 in 10/28). Similarly, the arrests mentioned in sentence 1 of the 11/21 reports, as well as the additional arrest mentioned in sentence 9, are presented as occurring as a result of “hundreds clashing” with officers. The arrest of these individuals is then judged positively, construed as justified, considering the violence and aggression exhibited by those being arrested. In both of cases, the total number of arrests are also obscured. Quantitative descriptions are qualified in both cases by the terms, “at least”. As a result, even though 142 arrests are presented as the lowest possible number of arrests made in sentence 6 of 10/28 and

“one” in sentence 9 of 11/21, the actual number of arrests is backgrounded from the clause.

In addition to making arrests, members of law enforcement are consistently represented in the 10/28 report as trying to get protesters to vacate the private land and forcing them out

78 when they refused to leave voluntarily (10/28: 25). Sentence 27 and 28 both stipulate that protesters were only being asked to vacate the land they were on illegally and which was owned by ETP. They were permitted to stay on the other federal land or the “second camp”. Because protesters were violating the law by remaining on private land and trespassing, officers’ attempt to get them to leave, even if by force, may be seen as justified and legal and thus judged positively. Law enforcement members are also described as having used a taser gun (10/28 report, sent. 11) as well as water and water cannons (11/21 report, sent. 5 and 6) during these events, though the use of water is presented passively with the actual agent being omitted from the clause. In the case of using pepper spray and beanbag rounds, the lack of circumstance actually works to characterize the actions here negatively. In the case of water, however, the opposite is true. As shown in Table 3.18, the use of water is qualified by the circumstance in which it was used. Water usage is described in varying categorical terms: “some” of the water was used to “repel protest activity” or for purposes of crowd control (sent. 3 in 11/21 report), while the water cannons and fire hose were used to put out fires (sent. 6 in 11/21 report). In each case, the use of water is shown to be justified, and thus, may be regarded as positive in regard to what is legal and ethical: to contain violent behavior and put out destructive fires.

Source Integration & Engagement Analysis

Throughout these reports, NYT journalists rely on a range of sources to construct these news narratives of ‘what happened’. In the section which follows, I examine the range of sources which are integrated into the news reports to consider the role they play in construing events. I map out their integration by analyzing frequency of occurrence across process types and the range of framing devices used to signal their entry. Table 3.19 lists the range of these sources as they are organized into larger affiliate source categories:

79

Table 3.19

Range of Source Attribution in NYT Reports

10/28 11/21 Total # Source of Attribution % Report Report of Words Category: Law Kyle Kirchmeier 69 41 110 14.9 Rob Keller 31 31 4.2 “officers” 82 82 11.1 “authorities” 72 72 9.8 “photos” 19 19 2.6 314 42.6 Category: Other, Organizations Dallas Goldtooth 144 144 19.5 Amnesty International 16 16 2.2 160 21.7 Category: Tribal David Archambault II 31 73 104 14.1 “tribal leaders” 11 11 1.5 115 15.6 Category: Other Randez Bailey 34 34 4.6 Native Americans and 32 32 4.3 environmental activists National Weather Service 19 19 2.6

85 11.5 Category: News The Bismarck Tribune 37 37 5.0 Associated Press 12 12 1.6 49 6.6 Category: ETP “company officials” 14 14 1.9 14 1.9

As shown in Table 3.19, there are 6 major groups of sources included in these reports. Law enforcement sources make up 42.6 percent of all source attributions (314 of 737 total words).

With the exception of one ‘verbal’ process attributed to Kirchmeier in the 10/28 report, these attributions to law enforcement appear only in the ‘material’ processes of these news reports.

Thus, it is these sources which help the journalist to account for the ‘who, did what, when, where, and why’ of these altercation events. The only other prominent source depicted through

‘material’ processes is Dallas Goldtooth, and he only appears in the 11/21 report in reference to

80 reported injuries. The statements attributed to Goldtooth, however, never stipulate precisely

“who” is responsible for the injuries nor indicate clearly who was injured. Given the fact that law enforcement sources are the primary sources relied on, they become the leading authority on these events, able to construct the dominant narrative of these events. Even if a journalist does not align with these sources, their endorsement of these perspectives position law enforcement with more credibility and trustworthiness than other sources, rendering all other sources and perspectives as alternative.

Most of the other sources shown in Table 3.19 contribute to the news report as

‘relational’ processes. Affiliates of the Standing Rock Sioux Tribe, for example, referred to in the reports as either “tribal leaders” or as David Archambault make up 15.6 percent of all attributions (115 of 737 words). In the 10/28 report, attributions to “tribal leaders” only function to define the land as “tribal land” (sent. 29). This characterization of land contradicts the way the area is referred to throughout the rest of the 10/28 news report, particularly in the ‘material’ processes attributed to law enforcement. In these, the land is consistently defined as “private land” or land owned by Energy Transfer Partners (ETP). Archambault’s inclusion in the report functions largely to characterize the actions of law enforcement based on his own perceptions of their behavior. Archambault is quoted as describing law enforcement as being

“disproportionate” in their response to protesters, “aggressive,” and in terms of the 11/21 altercation specifically, as “more life threatening than any other time of confrontation”. Despite addressing the actions of participants, Archambault’s perspective isn’t presented in terms of factual ‘goings’ and ‘happenings,’ like that of the law enforcement. Rather they are presented in terms of his emotional perception of these events. As a result, these sources are seen as less authoritative and their perspective as ‘alternative’.

81 Randez Bailey is also quoted frequently in the 10/28 report. Her inclusion, like

Archambault’s, is contained to ‘relational’ processes. Throughout the 10/28 report, Bailey seems to take on the symbolic role of an “innocent bystander”. She is one of the few sources which is directly quoted in NYT reports. She is not involved in the activities but is shown to be affected by them. Through her quoted attributions, the environment is described as not being peaceful and a divide is constructed between us (‘the area natives’) and them (‘those who came to protest’). As a result, the locals are disassociated from the goals and behaviors of those protesting, and those protesting are marginalized from ‘normal’ society and othered as ‘different’ or ‘abnormal’. McLeod and Hertog (1992) have argued that this kind of attribution in protest coverage often functions to symbolize the opinion of the general public and works to present the larger protest as annoying or bothersome to the general public (p. 261). In the case of Bailey, I would agree. As the only local, on-site source integrated into these news reports, references to

Bailey do little to give voice to the protesters. Instead, it minimizes the protest efforts by positioning those efforts as a divided, public nuisance.

Finally, “company officials” and “Native Americans and environmental activists” are also referenced in the news report. They are shown to offer competing takes on the pipeline project. Statements attributed to “company officials” for example position the pipeline as safe and reliable, while statements attributed to “Native Americans and environmental activists” indicate the potential threat the project “would” have on the region’s water supply and tribal burial grounds. It's worth mentioning that the integration of “Native Americans and environmental activists” comes in response to the claim attributed to “company officials,” connected by the coordinating conjunction, “but”:

82 Company officials contend that the pipeline will be a safer way to transport oil. But

Native Americans and environmental activists, many of whom are gathered here say

the $3.7 billion pipeline threatens the region’s water supply and would harm sacred

cultural lands and tribal burial grounds (sent. 18-19).

The use of “but” as demonstrated is a move referred to as Disclaim: Deny in the engagement network. In this example, “but” functions as a contractive resource which acknowledges an alternative and then explicitly rejects it (Martin & White, 2005, p. 117). The claim that the pipeline will be safe and the land which acts as the site of the altercation is private land are the perspectives shown to be explicitly rejected, as attributed to the “Native Americans and environmental activists”. Through this hedging, as well as through the generic source reference, the journalist positions these sources with less credibility and authority.

In examining the integration of these sources, I also have analyzed the reporting verbs used to signal them. Because journalists are unlikely to make explicit rejections or endorsements of perspectives or positions, the use of reporting verbs may act as an explicit indicator of a journalist’s stance. Their use is referred to as attributing moves in the Engagement framework of

Martin & White’s Appraisal Theory (2005), and are by nature, dialogic. They serve to disassociate the journalist from the proposition presented while also signaling that the cited proposition is one of many possible dialogical positions (Martin & White, 2005, p. 111, 113). In

Table 3.20, I’ve mapped out the range of framing devices used in these reports:

Table 3.20

Range of Framing Devices Used in NYT News Reports

Reporting # of Verb occurrences “said” 21 “according to” 2 “showed” 1

83 “told” 1 “adding” 1 “contend” 1 “reported” 1

The reporting verb most often used in these reports is “said” which can be considered neutral in that it neither associates nor disassociates the journalist to the proposition expressed. I would also suggest that “showed,” “told,” “adding,” and “reported” in these particular instances, also function neutrally. “Showed” and “reported” are used in tandem with “photos” and “the paper” and seem the most appropriate (sent. 4 and 9 in 11/21 report). Similarly, “told” is used when referencing Keller “telling” the Bismarck Tribune, and “adding” is used to signal a second attribution to him in the same sentence (see sent. 6 in 11/21 report). These seem like neutral moves.

In only a few cases, the journalist deviates from these “neutral” framing devices. Twice, the journalists use the phrase “according to”. The first instance of this is in sentence 12 of the

11/21 report and the second is in sentence 14 of the same report. They are listed below:

Sent. 12: The medical teams attributed many of the injuries to rubber bullets, pepper

spray and shrapnel from concussion grenades, according to Mr. Goldtooth.

Sent. 14: The air temperature in the area was about 23 degrees at 10:15 p.m., according

to the National Weather Service.

The use of “according to” in these examples distances the journalist from the reported statements, maximizing the space for dialogic alternatives such that the injuries were not from those items listed or that the temperature was not 23 degrees. In addition to “according to,” the only other variant in the NYT reports is “contend”. This verb is used to signal “company officials” in reference to the pipeline project: “company officials contend that the pipeline will be a safer way to transport oil” (sent. 18 in 10/28). This is an expansive verb functioning to

84 distance the journalist from the claim expressed and attributed to “company officials”. This framing device functions to position this source with less credibility and authority on events.

Conclusion

In this chapter, I have analyzed news reports published by The New York Times following the altercations occurring on October 27 and November 20, 2016. In line with the research questions guiding my analysis, I have found that NYT journalists characterized these altercations most often through the ‘material’ processes attributed to law enforcement sources which construe events in terms of ‘doings’ and ‘happenings’. The altercations are characterized in ways which emphasize the violence of protesters and their illegal presence on site. “Protesters” are often depicted in active roles and described in terms and behaviors which appraise them negatively.

They are consistently associated with negative activities and behaviors, such as setting things on fire, resisting officers, interfering with construction efforts, and tampering with law enforcement equipment. Officers on the other hand, are represented more often in passive roles, where their agency is omitted from the clause and their role in events is backgrounded. Furthermore, they are consistently depicted as reacting to the actions of protesters. Members of law enforcement are described as forcing out protesters only when they refuse to leave voluntarily, and their use of weapons is shown to be a reaction to the aggression and violence displayed by protesters. The use of more extreme weapons, such as a water cannon or a fire hose, are used only for putting out fires that protesters are said to have started and are never explicitly said to have been used against protesters. In this way, the actions and behaviors of law enforcement are shown to be legal and justified. My analysis also shows that NYT journalists rely heavily on law-enforcement sources to provide the “official” accounts of events and to construct the dominant narrative of these events. As a result, all other perspectives enter the report as “alternative” or less credible

85 or authoritative by comparison. Moreover, an analysis of integrated sources shows that NYT journalists rely more heavily on official spokespersons than on first-person accounts. Protesters or individuals directly involved in the altercation are left out of the reports, and other news sources are similarly relied on to corroborate events and details. The perspectives of protesters are excluded from reports, and these findings suggest, NYT coverage of the DAPL protest altercations are consistent with the protest paradigm framework.

86

CHAPTER IV

Representation in the Wall Street Journal

Analysis II

In this chapter, I analyze news reports published by the Wall Street Journal (WSJ) following the DAPL protest altercations occurring on September 3, October 27, and November

20, 2016. Table 4.1 lists the articles which have been included in my analysis:

Table 4.1

WSJ Articles Published After Altercations Occurring on 9/3, 10/27, and 11/20

Date of Publication Author Word Count October 27, 2016 Maher 416 November 21, 2016 Maher 657

As noted in Chapter 1, the WSJ did not publish exclusively on the September 3 altercation.

Instead, it released a report which was originally published by the Associated Press (AP), making only minor alterations to the original content (such as removing “Mr.” and “Mrs.” and expanding contractions). In order to avoid duplicates, this WSJ version of the original AP report was not included in my analysis.

Transitivity Analysis

The articles listed in Table 4.1 have been coded and diagramed according to their transitivity structure. These diagrams can be found in Appendix C. In coding these reports, 48.6

87 percent of the 10/27 report and 66.1 percent of the 11/21 report consist of statements attributed to external sources. These statements are analyzed separately from unattributed statements.

Altercation 1: September 3, 2016

No report was published by the WSJ.

Altercation 2: October 27, 2016

The WSJ report following the October 27 altercation is 416 words long. Table 4.2 illustrates the different processes found in this report and the total number for each:

Table 4.2

Unattributed & Attributed Processes in the WSJ 10/27 News Report

Unattributed Attributed Process Type Total Process Type Total ‘Material’ 9 ‘Material’ 9 ‘Mental’ 1 ‘Mental’ 2 ‘Verbal’ 2 ‘Relational’ 3 ‘Verbal’ 1

‘Material’ Processes

As Table 4.2 shows, ‘material’ processes occur most frequently in this report. In nine cases, they are attributed to an external source, and in the remaining nine, they are not. The unattributed ‘material’ processes are shown in Table 4.3:

Table 4.3

Unattributed ‘Material’ Processes in WSJ 10/27 News Report

Sent. Process Circum. Actor Goal Circumstance Conj. # (active) 1 police removed dozens of Thursday from an encampment protesters on private property in North Dakota

2 state and local cleared about 250 from a winter camp set up police, protesters Sunday with teepees and tents including near a Dakota Access Pipeline some in riot site owned by Energy Transfer gear Partners, which is building the nearly 1,200-mile pipeline

88 3 police also roadways that had been illegally blocked cleared by protesters

7 after several emotions boiled Thursday months of over occasionally volatile but mostly peaceful protests 8 protesters set fire to tires and

threw objects at police who in turn

used pepper spray to disperse the crowd and a high- pitched acoustic device

Sent. Process Goal Actor Circumstance # (passive) 9 about 20 people were arrested by Thursday evening 16 a spokesman for the could not for comment Standing Rock Sioux immediately be reached

As Table 4.3 shows, the ‘actors’ depicted in the unattributed ‘material’ processes include the

“police,” “protesters,” and “emotions”. As ‘actors,’ “police” are described as removing or clearing protesters from areas where they were illegally gathered or which they had illegally blocked (sent. 1, 2, and 3). In sentence 8, “police” are also described as attempting to disperse the crowd of protesters through their use of pepper spray and a high-pitched acoustic device. In sentence 2, “police” are further described as being made up of both “state and local police” some of whom are dressed in “riot gear”. Throughout these ‘material’ processes, the goal of the police is shown to be the clearing of protesters which are numbered in the “dozens” or at “about 250”

(sent. 1 & 2). As ‘actors,’ protesters are described as acting violently toward the officers. In sentence 8, they are described as having set fires to tires and thrown objects at police. These actions are described as causing the response of law enforcement.

89 The actors of the clauses in sentences 9 and 16 are both omitted and backgrounded in the report. In sentence 9, the omitted agent is law enforcement personnel, while in sentence 16, it is the journalist for the WSJ. In sentence 7, the altercation is characterized through the abstract noun of “emotions” which are describe as “boiling over”. These “emotions,” though not explicitly attributed to any human entities, can be inferred to be the emotions of the major ‘sides’ involved, i.e. the protesters and law enforcement. The larger, ongoing protest is further characterized in sentence 7 as being “occasionally volatile but mostly peaceful”. Such hedging presents the protest as being “mostly” peaceful, with only these reported altercations (September

3 and October 27) which are volatile making exception to that.

In addition to these unattributed ‘material’ processes, there are also nine attributed

‘material’ processes in the October 27 report, as shown in Table 4.4:

Table 4.4

Attributed ‘Material’ Processes in WSJ 10/27 News Report

Sent. Projected Process Projected # Actor Goal Circumstance Conj. ‘Process’ (active) ‘Sayer’ & Circum. 4 all protesters had left the area voluntarily or North said Dakota Thursday Gov. Jack evening Dalrymple been arrested 10 he was trying to the law while removing Morton enforce protesters County peacefully Sheriff said Kyle Thursday Kirchmeier

12* “Morton has entrusted me to uphold the Sheriff said County law” Kirchmeier 14* it would work law to remove Energy said with enforcement protesters and Transfer Tuesday prosecute them Partners evening 17* protesters blocked a highway with barbed wire and local authorities said

threatened a helicopter with a drone 18 it will endanger drinking water on its ancestral it [the pipeline] and sacred lands said [the Tribe] sites

90 Sent. Process Projected Projected Circum. Actor Goal # (active) ‘Sayer’ ‘Process’ 5* “to the best of my knowledge” we had no serious injuries He said [Dalrymple]

As shown in Table 4.4, the ‘actors’ of these material processes include “protesters,” Kyle

Kirchmeier (“he” in sent. 10), Energy Transfer Partners (“it” in sent. 14), and the pipeline project (“it” in sent. 18). As actors, “protesters” are described as having left the area voluntarily

(sent. 4), having blocked a highway, and having “threatened” a helicopter with a drone (sent.

17). In each case, the term “protesters” is used to collectively identify and assimilate these individuals into the larger protesting group. These descriptions of protester behaviors are presented through attributions to North Dakota governor, Jack Dalrymple or to “local authorities”.

In sentence 10, Kyle Kirchmeier is depicted as an ‘actor’ whose only goal is “trying to enforce the law” while “removing protesters peacefully” (sent. 10). Through the gerund realized in the process verb, “was trying,” Kirchmeier is depicted as straining to achieve this goal, and it is implied that protesters are behaving un-peacefully, thus, impeding his ability to “enforce the law”. In sentence 12, Kirchmeier’s quoted attribution states that Morton County has “entrusted” him to uphold the law. The sheriff is charged with this duty of protecting citizens, and through this statement, he characterizes the actions of law enforcement as part of this larger responsibility. As a result, the actions law enforcement take during the altercation are presented as justified and necessary. In sentence 5, Dalrymple, identified as the state governor, is referenced by direct quote as saying, “to the best of my knowledge, we had no serious injuries”.

The circumstantial element of “to the best of my knowledge” positions Dalrymple as authoritative and knowledgeable in terms of reports of injuries. If there had been serious injuries, he would have been informed about them.

91 Two additional ‘actors’ are depicted in these attributed ‘material’ processes. They include Energy Transfer Partners (ETP), the company building the pipeline and the pipeline project itself. In sentence 14, ETP is referenced through a generic attribution to the company, stating that the company would work with law enforcement toward the removal and prosecution of protesters. These groups are associated grammatically through parataxis. Through the pairing of law enforcement and ETP, the journalist presents them as being on the same ‘side’ of things and as having an alliance (van Leeuwen, 1996, p. 50-51). In sentence 18, the likelihood that the pipeline will endanger drinking water and sacred sites is expressed through a statement attributed to the tribe. The modal adverb attached to the process of “will endanger” expresses a higher value of probability and likelihood (Martin & White, 2005, p. 14). In this way, the journalist positions the likelihood of endangerment with more certainty than if they would have said

“would endanger” or “could endanger”. Furthermore, in sentence 18, the attribution made to the tribe identifies and defines the land in question as being “sacred” and “ancestral” lands.

‘Mental’ Processes

The October 27 news report also contained three ‘mental’ processes, two of which are attributed to external sources. The unattributed ‘mental’ process is shown in Table 4.5 and the attributed processes are shown in Table 4.6:

Table 4.5

Unattributed ‘Mental’ Processes in WSJ 10/27 News Report

Sent. Senser Process Phenomenon # 18* the tribe wants to stop the pipeline which would carry oil from North Dakota to Illinois

92 Table 4.6

Attributed ‘Mental’ Processes in WSJ 10/27 News Report

Sent. Projected Projected # Senser Process Phenomenon ‘Process’ & ‘Sayer’ Circum. 14* it [ETP] wouldn’t tolerate anyone trespassing on its Energy Transfer said private property Partners Tuesday

Sent. Projected Projected Phenomenon Process Senser # ‘Sayer’ ‘Process’ The company said 15 “lawless behavior will not be tolerated” [ETP] Tuesday

In sentence 18, the feelings of the tribe are appropriated and presented through a summarized attribution. In doing so, the journalist speaks for the tribe in stating that they want to stop the pipeline project. The pipeline is described through the “phenomenon” of this process in terms of its function: “which would carry oil from North Dakota to Illinois”. The other two ‘mental’ attributions shown are both attributed to Energy Transfer Partners (ETP), also referenced as “the company”. In both sentences, ETP is presented, either through direct quotes or paraphrase, as being “intolerant” to trespassers on their private property (sent. 14 & 15). Despite being made up of individuals, ETP is depicted here as a homogenized entity, and any particular officials are excluded from the news report. Instead, it is ETP as an organization which is nominated in the reports (van Leeuwen, 1996, p. 53).

‘Relational’ Processes

There are three ‘relational’ processes depicted in the October 27 news report. In each case, they are attributed to external sources, as shown in Table 4.7:

Table 4.7

Attributed ‘Relational’ Processes in WSJ 10/27 News Report

Sent. Process: Projected Projected Token Value # (identifying) ‘Sayer’ ‘Process’ [uphold the law] Sheriff said 12* is exactly what I intend to do…” “…that Kirchmeier

93

Sent. Process Process Projected Projected Circum. Sayer Receiver Token Value # (verbal) (identifying) ‘Sayer’ ‘Process’ that our the place state to carry have these 6 “hopefully we highways is not [sic] out a [Dalrymple] persuaded protesters and county peaceful highways protest”

Sent. Process: Projected Projected Carrier Attribute # (attributive) ‘Sayer’ ‘Process’ he said 5* “we all need to be very grateful” [Dalrymple]

As shown, each of these attributed processes are realized through direct quotations. In sentence

5, Dalrymple’s statement projects that “we,” all those present and involved with the protest

“need to be very grateful” that there were no serious injuries. This lack of injuries is shown to be based on his knowledge, reinforcing Dalrymple as a knowledgeable and credible source. In sentence 6, Dalrymple further projects the unified “we,” this time representing law enforcement as an entity. He is quoted as hoping that protesters had been persuaded that the “state highways and county highways” are not the place to carry out a peaceful protest (sent. 6). Through the

‘relational’ process depicted in sentence 6, both the highways as well as the protest are defined in terms of identity or attribute. The “state highways and county highways” are defined as belonging to the collective residents (“our”) as well as defined as not the place to carry out protest; the protest itself is defined here as “peaceful”.

‘Verbal’ Processes

The October 27 news report also contains three ‘verbal’ processes. Of these, one is attributed to an external source while the remaining two are not. The unattributed ‘verbal’ processes are shown in Table 4.8 and the attributed processes are shown in Table 4.9:

94 Table 4.8

Unattributed ‘Verbal’ Processes in WSJ 10/27 News Report

Sent. Sayer Process Target/Receiver Verbiage/ Circumstance # 11 He blamed protesters for escalating activities over the weekend, including [Kirchmeier] setting up illegal roadblocks with cars and rocks 17* the head of the urged the Justice on Monday to investigate the police tactics in dealing Standing Rock Department with the protests Sioux Tribe

Table 4.9

Attributed ‘Verbal’ Processes WSJ 10/27 News Report

Sent. Projected Projected Conj. Target Process Sayer Verbiage # ‘Sayer’ ‘Process’ to let agitators and rioters by outsiders and walk onto private am being 13 “yet I millionaire property, destroy [Kirchmeier] asked Hollywood actors equipment, and endanger lives”

As shown in Table 4.8, in each of these unattributed ‘verbal’ processes, the journalist recontextualizes the actions of various “sides” through summary. In sentence 11, Kirchmeier is said to have “blamed” protesters for escalating activities, while in sentence 17, “the head of the

Standing Rock Sioux Tribe” is said to have called for the Justice Department to intervene with the investigation. This “head” is not named by the WSJ reporter, despite the fact that this head is widely known and recognized as David Archambault, the Standing Rock Sioux Chairman.

Archambault’s personalized identity is excluded from the report, generalized instead as the

“head” of the Standing Rock Sioux Tribe, and he is referenced impersonally, nominated and characterized according to his functional role only (van Leeuwen, 1996, p. 54).

In the attributed ‘verbal’ process, Kirchmeier is quoted as being “asked by outsiders and millionaire Hollywood actors to let agitators and rioters walk onto private property, destroy equipment, and endanger lives”. This attribution both characterizes members of the protest group and characterizes their intentions and behaviors. They are described as “agitators” and

95 “rioters” who wreak physical harm on both people and construction equipment, and who are in violation of the law by trespassing on what Kirchmeier identifies here as “private” property

(sent. 13). This statement further suggests that those allies or supporters of the protest are

“outsiders” or “Millionaire Hollywood actors”. By characterizing the supporters as such,

Kirchmeier’s quoted attribution distinguishes “them” from “us” while also insinuating that they– the actors and outsiders–are not from the area and thus, don’t know what’s really going on here.

Altercation 3: November 20, 2016

The WSJ report following the November 20 altercation is 657 words long. Table 4.10 illustrates the different processes found in this report and the total number for each:

Table 4.10

Unattributed & Attributed Processes in the WSJ 11/21 News Report

Unattributed Attributed Process Type Total Process Type Total ‘Material’ 9 ‘Material’ 17 ‘Relational’ 1 ‘Relational’ 8 ‘Verbal’ 5 ‘Verbal’ 2 ‘Mental’ 4

‘Material’ Processes

As Table 4.10 shows, ‘material’ processes occur most frequently in this report. In 17 cases, these ‘material’ processes are attributed to an external source, while in nine other cases, they are not. Unattributed ‘material’ processes are shown in Table 4.11:

Table 4.11

Unattributed ‘Material’ Processes in WSJ 11/21 News Report

Sent. Process Circum. Actor Circumstance Goal Circumstance Conj. # (active) 1 a standoff in North Dakota turned Sunday as near the site of violent an oil pipeline nearing completion

96 police sprayed water

fired rubber bullets and

used tear gas to disperse protesters

some of whom had set multiple fires at a highway crossing 5 the latest clash began Sunday over the Dakota evening Access Pipeline, which would carry crude oil from North Dakota to Illinois along a 1,172-mile route 10 by about 75 protesters remained on Backwater Monday Bridge morning 14 protesters have set up camp about a mile or so from one of the final pipeline links to be completed 22 The county health has begun a message on AM radio warning department broadcasting people of the risks of the approaching cold weather

As shown in Table 4.11, there are three main ‘actors’ depicted in these unattributed ‘material’ processes. They include “a standoff,” “police,” and “protesters”. As ‘actors,’ “police” are described as spraying water, firing rubber bullets, and using pepper spray to disperse protesters.

These actions are positioned as a response to protesters and their setting of multiple fires (sent.

1). Protesters are described as setting fires at a highway crossing and remaining on Backwater

Bridge, presumably against the wishes of law enforcement. Protesters are also said to have set up camp “a mile or so” from the pipeline site (sent. 14). The altercation itself is characterized through these processes as a “clash” and depicted in temporal terms, signifying when it began and positioning it as a part of a larger, ongoing pattern of “clashes”. Such phrasing emphasizes the violent and aggressive nature of these events while also linking them together.

In addition to these unattributed ‘material’ processes, there are also 17 attributed

‘material’ processes in the October 28 report, as shown in Table 4.12:

97 Table 4.12

Attributed ‘Material’ Processes in WSJ 11/21 News Report

Sent. Process Projected Projected Actor Circum. Goal Circumstance Conj. # (active) ‘Sayer’ ‘Process’ 5* about 400 set…on two near a bridge the Morton according protesters fire trucks on Highway County Sheriff to 1806 near Department Cannon Ball, N.D. 6* police set up a line to prevent and Rob Keller, a said protesters spokesman for from moving the sheriff’s north toward department the pipeline 7 protesters threw rocks & at the line of he said burning police, [Keller] logs

striking one in the head officer 11 police continued the as fires Mr. Keller said to monitor situation smoldered nearby 13* “…the Morton is using a water on our Dallas Goldtooth, said County cannon people…” a spokesman for Sheriff’s the Indigenous Department Environmental Network 16 one protester went into at the scene but the group said cardiac [Indigenous arrest Environmental Network] 20 of the more reside in North He said than 500 Dakota [Keller] people who have been arrested at protests in the county since August, only 7 percent 21 temperatures hit a low of on Sunday Mr. Keller according 25 to degrees 28 construction at a could within weeks Kelcy Warren, said Missouri begin if the chief executive River company gets of the pipeline’s reservoir the final builder, Energy crossing approval it Transfer Partners near the needs protests

Sent. Process Projected Projected Goal Circum. Actor Circum. Conj. # (passive) ‘Sayer’ ‘Process’ multiple suffered that were Representatives for protesters injuries caused by the Standing Rock 2* overly said Sioux Tribe which aggressive oppose the pipeline police tactics

98 4 one person was arrested police said a firetruck from was used to stop the Rob Keller, a Mandan, movement of spokesman for the 6* N.D. protesters as said Sheriff’s well as put out Department fires 12* hundreds of were from tear gas Representatives people receiving exposure, from the Standing treatment hypothermia Rock Sioux tribe and injuries said and other pipeline from rubber opponents. bullets

15 the camp’s was and the group medical staff overwhelmed [Indigenous said Environmental Network] a local school was opened for emergency

gymnasium relief

The ‘actors’ of these processes include “protesters,” “police,” the Sheriff’s Department, and “the company”. The nominalizations of “police tactics” and “construction” also appear as actors. As actors, protesters, are described as violent and destructive. In sentence 5, they are described as having set trucks on fire, and in sentence 7, as throwing “rocks and burning logs” at police, injuring one officer. The protesters are identified through their collective affiliation as

“protesters” and not through any unique or individual identities. These descriptions of protester behaviors are attributed to law enforcement sources, such as “the Sheriff’s Department” and Rob

Keller, identified as a spokesperson for the sheriff’s department. In sentence 16, a protester is further described as having gone into cardiac arrest. The protester is said to have been resuscitated, according to the attribution made to “the group”. The agent of this resuscitation is omitted, though it can be inferred that it is an EMT or medical professional. In sentence 20, a group of protesters are described as having been arrested. They are further described as not being from the area, thus positioning them as “outsiders”.

As ‘actors,’ members of law enforcement are depicted three times, explicitly. In sentence

6 and 11, police are described as setting up a police line with the intention of halting the

99 movement of protesters. They are also described as intending to stay on site in order to

“monitor” the situation (sent. 11). Both descriptions are attributed to Keller, spokesperson for the Sheriff’s Department. In sentence 13, the “sheriff’s Department” is identified as having used a water cannon on protesters, according to a direct quote which is attributed to Dallas Goldtooth.

Through this attribution, however, it is not any unique individuals who are identified as the agents of this action, but rather the conglomerate entity of the “Sheriff’s Department” itself. In sentences 2, 12, 4, and 6, additional members of law enforcement are omitted from their respective clauses. In sentences 2 and 12, the actor of both ‘material’ processes are phrased as

“police tactics”. In sentence 2, “overly aggressive police tactics” is depicted as the cause of injury, and not any human agents. In sentence 12, “tear gas exposure, hypothermia, and injuries from rubber bullets” are similarly emphasized as the cause of injury. These statements are attributed to “representatives for the Standing Rock Sioux Tribe” who are further described as a group “which oppose[s] the pipeline”. In sentence 12, they are grouped in parataxis with “other pipeline opponents”. In sentence 6, a statement attributed to Keller describes the use of a fire truck to stop protesters. As written, the driver of the firetruck is omitted from the clause and the use of the truck to “put out fires” is emphasized. Finally, in sentence 4, one person is said to have been arrested. In each of these cases, agents are excluded in an act of backgrounding which serves to shift the focus of the activity away from the human agents involved and instead emphasizes the “action” or process of the clause. In both cases, as written, the journalist backgrounds the actor(s) who are responsible for the use of tear gas, water, and rubber bullets.

‘Relational’ Processes

There are nine ‘relational’ processes depicted in the November 21 news report. In all but one case, they are attributed to external sources, as shown in Table 4.13 and Table 4.14:

100

Table 4.13

Unattributed ‘Relational’ Processes in WSJ 11/21 News Report

Sent. Process: Token Value Circumstance # (identifying) 27 it is [not] clear whether protests will taper off or ramp up as cold weather sets in over the next several weeks

Table 4.14

Attributed ‘Relational’ Processes in WSJ 11/21 News Report

Sent. Process: Projected Projected Carrier Attribute Circumstance # (attributive) ‘Sayer’ ‘Process’ 9* “these agitators were a little more aggressive and did [Keller] not back down” 13* “it is below freezing right now” Dallas Goldtooth, a spokesman for said the Indigenous Environmental Network 19* “the other 1,600 in are peaceful” [Keller] the camp 23 it [the temperature] [is] only going to get [Keller] colder”

Sent. Process: Projected Projected Token Value # (identifying) ‘Sayer’ ‘Process’ 9* [protesters not backing down] is why there was less than lethal [Keller] “that force used” 13* [the use of a water cannon] is an excessive and potentially Dallas Goldtooth, “that deadly use of force” a spokesman for the Indigenous said Environ-mental Network 18 “it [is] the same 200-300 agitators” He [the more aggressive of the said [Keller] people] 25 “everyone has a right to protest” [Keller]

As Table 4.13 shows, in sentence 27, “it,” referring to the abstract idea of whether or not protests will continue, is identified through the ‘relational’ attribute of “not clear”. Other aspects and participants involved in the altercation are further ‘defined’ by these ‘relational’ processes. In sentences 9 and 19, Keller is said by the journalist to describe a group of protesters as being the

“same 200-300 agitators” who are “a little more aggressive” and are unwilling to “back down”

(sent. 18 & 9). In sentence 19, this group of protesters is further characterized as “not peaceful”

101 based on the converse relationship set up by comparison to the “other 1,600 in the camp” who are described as being “peaceful”. In sentences 13 and 23, attributions made to Dallas Goldtooth and Keller emphasize the cold temperatures during the November 20 altercation, and indicate with certainty that it is “only going to get colder”. Overall, these unattributed ‘relational’ processes emphasize the unpredictable nature of these protests and signals the possibility that additional protests may occur.

‘Verbal’ Processes

The November 21 news report also contains seven ‘verbal’ processes. Of these, two are attributed to an external source while the remaining five are not. The unattributed ‘verbal’ processes are shown in Table 4.15 and the attributed processes are shown in Table 4.16:

Table 4.15

Unattributed ‘Verbal’ Processes in WSJ 11/21 News Report

Sent. Sayer Process Target/Receiver Verbiage/Circumstance # 2* police blamed several hundred protesters for inciting the violence 3 the tribe equated the use of water in to deadly force freezing temperatures

police disagreed 12* Representatives from the criticized police Standing Rock Sioux tribe and other pipeline proponents 29 local law enforcement reiterated their call for support from the federal government officials to help control the situation

Table 4.16

Attributed ‘Verbal’ Processes in WSJ 11/21 News Report

Sent. Projected Projected Sayer Process Target Verbiage # ‘Sayer’ ‘Process’ about people just surviving the 26 “we [are] talking [Keller] night”

Sent. Projected Projected Target Process Sayer Verbiage # ‘Sayer’ ‘Process’ were given 8 protest ers multiple to back up Mr. Keller said orders

102 Within the unattributed ‘verbal’ process in Table 4.15, various ‘sayers’ are given a voice in the news report through paraphrase. These ‘sayers’ include police or law enforcement officials, “the tribe,” “Representatives from the Standing Rock Sioux tribe and other pipeline proponents,” and the county health department. Through these paraphrases, the WSJ reporter summarizes the attitudes and perceptions held by these different groups or their actions. In sentence 2, members of law enforcement are said to blame “several hundred” protesters for “inciting” violence. In sentence 29, law enforcement officials are said to have asked the government for help in dealing with these protesters in order to “control the situation”. In sentence 3, the tribe is said to have

“equated” the use of water by police to “deadly force,” but this claim is quickly contradicted by the police who are mentioned in disagreement. In sentence 12, police are said to have been

“criticized” by “Representatives from the Standing Rock Sioux tribe,” but these representatives are not clearly named or identified. Finally, the attributed ‘verbal’ process in Table 4.16 reiterates Keller’s claim that law enforcement “don’t want lives lost” and that protesters have been asked repeatedly to leave.

‘Mental’ Processes

There are also four ‘mental’ processes in the 11/21 news report. In each case, these

‘mental’ processes are attributed to external sources, as shown in Table 4.17:

Table 4.17

Attributed ‘Mental’ Processes in WSJ 11/21 News Report

Sent. Projected Projected Circumstance Senser Process Phenomenon # ‘Sayer’ ‘Process’ 24 “we don’t want lives lost” He said [Keller] 30 as of now we just really haven’t seen any federal support” Mr. Keller of the county said. Sheriff’s Department

103 Sent. Projected Projected Senser Process Senser Process Phenomenon Conj. # ‘Sayer’ ‘Process’ he believed most of the wanted to protest peacefully but Mr. Keller said that approximately of the 17 2,000 people at Sheriff’s the encampment Department

several hundred had chosen more aggressive tactics

Within the attributed ‘mental’ processes shown in Table 4.17, members of law enforcement emphasize the lack of support they feel they’ve received at the federal level, as well as their desire to protect the health and well-being of all those on site, including the protesters. In sentence 24, statements attributed to Keller signify that law enforcement “don’t want lives lost”.

In sentence 17, protesters are said to have wanted to “protest peacefully” but these desires were disrupted due to the “several hundred” protesters who had “chosen” more aggressive tactics

(sent. 17). A division among protesters is highlighted through this distinction that a majority of them are genuinely peaceful and the rest are hostile, violent, and seeking to cause harm.

Summary of Transitivity Analysis

The results of my transitivity analysis have shown patterns in how these altercations events are presented to audiences. In terms of ‘participants’ and ‘processes,’ I have found that representations of events are sustained most through the ‘material’ processes which dominate the news reports. In addition to ‘material’ processes, ‘relational,’ ‘verbal,’ and ‘mental’ processes are also depicted. Table 4.18 illustrates the range of processes identified in these reports:

Table 4.18

Range of Unattributed & Attributed Processes in WSJ Reports

Process 10/27 Report 11/21 Report Type Unattrib. Attrib. Unattrib. Attrib. Totals ‘Material’ 9 9 18 25 299 ‘Relational’ 3 1 11 64 ‘Verbal’ 2 1 7 3 46 ‘Mental’ 1 2 1 6 21

104 Of the 72 total processes identified, 38 of them (or 52.8 percent) are ‘material’ processes. An additional 20.8 percent are ‘relational’ processes, (15 of 72), 15.3 percent are ‘verbal’ processes

(11 of 72), and finally, eight of them were ‘mental’ processes 11.1 percent).

Throughout these reports, the October 27 altercation is characterized as “emotions boiling over” which concluded with protesters setting fires and throwing objects at police. The

November 20 altercation is characterized as a “standoff” and “clash” between protesters and law enforcement. Both altercation events are linked together as part of a “mostly peaceful protest” which “occasionally” became “volatile”. The associated causes of the altercation include the growing “emotions” and hostility of protesters and the construction of the DAPL pipeline on

“private” land. The major participant groups depicted in these reports are protesters and member of law enforcement.

Appraisal: Judgement Analysis

My transitivity analysis has indicated that the primary social actors involved in these protest altercations are individuals identified as or affiliated with “protesters” and members of law enforcement. In the sections which follow, I analyze how these larger actor categories for how individual and group behaviors are represented and appraised holistically in news reports. I draw on frameworks of Judgement analysis developed by Martin & White (2005) as well as van

Leeuwen’s framework for analyzing Social Actor representation (1996). Table 4.19 presents the social actor category of “Protesters” and the behaviors and activities which attributed to or associated with this group throughout the WSJ news reports. The entries are organized by similarity and then by report in order to show how related behaviors are depicted across the news reports. My appraisal analysis is shown in the column marked “judgement”:

105

Table 4.19

Appraisal of Behaviors Attributed to ‘Protesters’ in WSJ Reports

Report: Appraising Appraising Appraised Judgement Sent # Behavior Circumstance 10/27: 3 [protesters] illegally blocked roadways -norm/-prop 10/27: 17 protesters blocked a highway with barbed wire -norm

threatened a helicopter with a drone -norm/-cap/-ten 10/27: 4 all protesters had left the area voluntarily or +norm/+prop

[had] been arrested 11/21: 10 about 75 protesters remained on Backwater Bridge (by Monday morning) -ten -prop 11/21: 14 protesters have set up camp about a mile or so from -prop one of the final pipeline links to be completed 10/27: 8 protesters set fire to tires and -norm/-prop

threw objects at police 11/21: 1 some of whom had set multiple fires at a highway crossing -norm/-prop [protesters] 11/21: 5 about 400 protesters set two trucks on fire near a bridge on -norm/-prop Highway 1806 near Cannon Ball, N.D. 11/21: 7 protesters threw rocks and burning logs at the line striking one officer in -norm/-prop of police the head

As indicated in Table 4.19, in all but one case, individuals involved in the altercation are identified explicitly as “protesters”. In sentence 1 of the 11/21 report, they are identified through the pronoun referent, “some of whom”. Following from Van Leeuwen’s social actor representation framework, the use of “protesters” to identify individuals or groups throughout these reports reflects an impersonal form of actor representation (1996, p. 46-47). Rather than be represented as specific, identifiable individuals, these participants are instead represented in categorical terms, via the collective entity “protesters”. As a result, they are collectively associated and are represented as a single entity who share the same interests, functions, and behaviors. As a result, their individual actions become the actions of the assimilated collective, and their individual identities are rendered irrelevant to readers (van Leeuwen, 1996, p. 51).

106 In each case, “protesters” are presented in active roles, as the active and dynamic forces in the activity (van Leeuwen, 1996, p. 43-44). The range of activities associated with

“protesters” include illegally blocking roadways, setting fires, threatening helicopters, and throwing rocks and burning logs at officers. As a whole, they are holistically presented as behaving abnormally, dangerously, and illegally. As a whole, these behaviors are not appraised positively. Because it is not normal to block roadways, set fires, or throw objects at police, the depictions of these activities function to condemn and criticize the “protesters”. The only positive judgment which may be construed of protesters is their leaving the area voluntarily

(sent. 4 in 10/27 report). In cases where protesters are presented in passive roles, as undergoing the activity or being ‘at the receiving end of it,’ it is typically in association with arrests and injuries. In the case of injuries, protesters are referred to more generically, making it hard for readers to know whether the “people” reported injured were specifically protesters or not (see sent. 9 in 10/27 report). Their identities are obscured, minimizing the impact these reports of injuries may have on readers. The active agent of these injuries is also omitted from the clause and instead culpability is put on police tactics rather than human agents (see sent. 2 and 12 in

11/21 report).

Terms such as “all,” “some of whom,” “about 75,” and “about 400,” as shown in Table

4.19, are instances of imprecise measuring according to number or size. These measurements may be used in tandem with judgement in order to enforce or influence a particular judgement

(Martin & White, 2005, p. 141). For instance, in sentence 5 of the 11/21 report, it is said through reference to the Morton County Sheriff’s Department that “about 400” protesters had set two trucks on fire. The reference to “about 400” intensifies not just the amount of people involved in the activity, but the actions, as well, making them appear more extreme. This

107 phrasing may construe a kind of “mob mentality” which makes the protesting group appear more violent, involved, and destructive than they may really be. These activities associated with protesters are often depicted as separate from each other, described in separate sentences or clauses. Reporters extend the description of these behaviors by accounting for where, with what, and to what extent these behaviors took place in the form of circumstantial details.

In Table 4.20, I present my appraisal analysis for the social actor category of “Law

Enforcement” and the behaviors and activities which are attributed to this group throughout the news reports:

Table 4.20

Appraisal of Behaviors Attributed to ‘Law Enforcement’ in WSJ Reports

Report: Appraising Appraising Appraised Judgement Sent # Behavior Circumstance 10/27: 1 police removed dozens of protesters Thursday from an +norm/+prop encampment on private property in North Dakota 10/27: 2 state and local cleared about 250 protesters from a winter camp set up +norm police, including Sunday with teepees and tents some in riot gear near a Dakota Access Pipeline site owned by ETP… 10/27: 3 police also cleared roadways that had been illegally blocked +norm/+prop by protesters. 10/27: 8 [police in turn] used pepper spray and a high-pitched to disperse the crowd +prop acoustic device 10/27: 9 about 20 people were arrested by Thursday evening +norm/+prop 11/21: 1 police sprayed water -norm

fired rubber bullets -norm

used tear gas to disperse protesters -norm/+prop 11/21: 6 police set up a line to prevent protesters from +prop moving north toward the pipeline 11/21: 12 police continued to monitor the situation as fires smoldered nearby +norm/+prop 11/21: 13 “…the Morton is using a water cannon on our -norm/-cap County Sheriff’s people” -prop Department 11/21: 2 multiple protesters suffered injuries -cap that were caused by overly aggressive police tactics 11/21: 4 one person was arrested +norm/+prop 11/21: 6 a firetruck from Mandan, N.D. was to stop the movement of +norm/+cap used protesters as well as put out +prop fires

108 11/21: 12 hundreds of people were receiving -cap treatment from tear gas exposure, hypothermia and injuries from rubber bullets 11/21: 8 protesters were given multiple orders +ten to back up +prop

As indicated in Table 4.20, in seven out of 11 cases, members of this category are identified as

“police”. In 1 case, they are identified as “the Morton County Sheriff’s Department” (sent. 13 of 11/21 report), and in the remaining three cases, no explicit term is used to identify law enforcement because their actions are described in passive voice omitting their agency from the clause. Although a range of terms is used to identify this group, their representation in the reports is nonetheless impersonal (1996, p. 46-47). Rather than be represented as specific, identifiable individuals, these participants are represented in categorical terms, via their functional role in society, as members of law enforcement and their alliance to that entity. Their individual identities are rendered irrelevant, and instead, they are regarded in terms of their social authority.

As shown in Table 4.20, the range of activities associated with “law enforcement” include “removing” or “clearing” protesters and roadways; “using” pepper-spray, tear gas, and a sound device; spraying water; and monitoring the situation. Unlike with the protesters, where this qualification came in terms of quantification, the qualifying of “police” is mostly descriptive, in terms of where they came from and how they were dressed. Police are described as “state and local” and as some being dressed in “riot gear” (sent. 2, 10/27 report). While members of law enforcement are depicted in active roles, according to van Leeuwen’s framework, they are consistently presented in active-reactive roles, by which their actions and behaviors are depicted as a lawful and justified response to the actions of protesters. In the case of “clearing” roadways, for example, circumstantial elements justify this as a result of the

109 protesters illegal blocking of these roadways in the first place (sent. 1, 2, and 3 in 10/27 report).

In the case of using pepper spray, rubber bullets, and an acoustic device, officers are shown to be using these tools as a method for “dispersing protesters”. Even in the case of using a fire truck

(sent. 6 of 11/21 report), the actions are justified through circumstantial elements: “to stop the movement of protesters as well as put out fires”. As written, the actions of law enforcement, while not normal, are shown to be a reaction to the abnormal behaviors of protesters. In each case, police are shown to be behaving normally and legally, as per their occupation as law enforcement and the context of the situation. Such actions are executed only in an effort to maintain law and order. Thus, to that end, they are appraised positively.

In the three cases where an explicit actor is not identified, but contextually, can be assumed to be an affiliate of law enforcement, the description of law enforcement behavior is presented in passive voice. The result of this is that the emphasis of the sentence is on the target of the action, and not the agent. Furthermore, in each case, the agent alluded to is presented, not as a human officer, but as the tactic used. In sentences 2, 6, and 12, various forms of police tactics are linked to injuries of protesters, but no member of law enforcement is explicitly identified as agent. In sentence 2 of the 11/21 report, multiple protesters are said to have suffered injuries caused by “overly aggressive police tactics”. Similarly, in sentence 12, hundreds of people are described as receiving medical treatment due to “tear gas exposure, hypothermia, and injuries from rubber bullets”. As a result of this passive representation, the agents themselves cannot be evaluated negatively; the focus of the assessment falls on the range of tactics used instead.

110 Source Integration & Engagement Analysis

In this section of my analysis, I examine the range of sources which are integrated into the news reports to consider the role they play in construing events. I map out their integration by analyzing frequency of occurrence across process types and the range of framing devices used to signal their entry. Table 4.21 lists the range of these sources as they are organized into larger affiliate source categories:

Table 4.21

Range of Source Attribution in WSJ Reports

10/27 11/21 Total # Source of Attribution % Report Report of Words Category: Law Kyle Kirchmeier 65 65 10.3 Rob Keller 252 252 39.7 “police” 6 6 0.9 “authorities” 17 17 2.7 Morton County Sheriff’s 25 25 3.9 Department 365 57.6 Category: ETP Kelcy Warren 37 37 5.8 Energy Transfer 27 27 4.3 “the company” 11 11 1.7 75 11.8 Category: Other, Organizations Dallas Goldtooth 40 40 6.3 “the group” [Indigenous 34 34 5.4 Environm. Network] 74 11.7 Category: State Reps Jack Dalrymple 66 66 10.4 66 10.4 Category: Tribal Representatives from the 40 40 6.3 Standing Rock Sioux “the tribe” 14 14 2.2 54 8.5

As shown in Table 4.21, there are five major groups of sources which are depicted in these reports. Of these, law enforcement sources make up 57.6 percent of all attributions (365 of 634

111 total words) and appear across all process types. Sources in this category include references to

Kyle Kirchmeier, Rob Keller, “police”, “authorities”, and to the Morton County Sheriff’s

Department. These sources largely account for describing the ‘who, did what, when, where, and why’ of these altercation events, and appear throughout attributed ‘material’ processes to do so.

However, law enforcement sources are also frequently depicted in the ‘relational,’ ‘mental,’ and

‘verbal’ processes, as well. Throughout the ‘relational’ processes, attributions to members of law enforcement function to construe the body of protesters in terms of their characteristics and nature. Through the attributions made to Keller, protester’s intentions or inner thoughts are described. Keller is said to describe the protesters as “agitators,” and suggests that “most of the approximately 2,000 people at the encampment wanted to protest peacefully but several hundred had chosen more aggressive tactics” (sent. 17 in 11/21 report). Because most of these law enforcement sources are integrated in manners which personalize them (referring to them by name and title, for example), they may be viewed as credible and trustworthy in their accounts of events. Moreover, because they are affiliated with law enforcement, readers may be primed to regard them with more authority than other sources.

The second most often cited group of sources in these reports are affiliates to Energy

Transfer Partner, the group behind the Dakota Access Pipeline. References to this group include a generic reference to ETP and a reference to Kelcy Warren, described as “chief executive of the pipeline's builder, Energy Transfer Partners LP” (sent. 28 of 11/21 report). These sources make up 11.8 percent of all attributions (or 75 of 634 words). ETP sources appear in both the 10/27 and 11/21 reports. In the case of the 10/27 report, ETP is referenced largely in terms of their intolerance for trespassers on their private property. They are shown to be working with law enforcement to remove protesters, positioning these groups as being on the same ‘side’ of things.

112 Dallas Goldtooth is identified in the 11/21 report as a spokesman for the Indigenous

Environmental Network. He is also described in terms of his affiliation with the group, the

Indigenous Environmental Network. Attributions to Goldtooth or his affiliate group make up

11.7 percent of all attributions (or 74 of 634 total words). In these reports, attributions to

Goldtooth and his group only appear in ‘material’ processes and indicate that medical resources were overwhelmed as a result of events (sent. 15 in 11/21 report). In one case, Goldtooth is referenced as saying that members of law enforcement used a “water cannon on our people” and he reflects on the impact of this use of water: “that is an excessive and potentially deadly use of force” (sent. 13 in 11/21 report). This is the most explicit mention of law enforcement as actor in these reports.

The final group of sources referenced are affiliates of the Standing Rock Tribe, identified in these reports only as “the tribe” or as “representatives from the Standing Rock Sioux Tribe”.

These sources make up only 8.5 of all attributions (or 54 of 634 total words). They only appear in ‘material’ processes and their inclusion is generally associated with the pipeline project and their concerns for that project, or in relation to reports of injuries. Through attributions to the

“tribe” the pipeline project is presented in terms of its probable risk to water and ancestral lands, and in terms of reported injuries, police tactics are presented as the culprits. As said, this group is never referred to personally, in ways which would identify these sources by name, title, position in society, or any other aspect which presents them as a unique individual. Instead, they are only presented in terms which assimilate these sources into a collective. The effect of this may be a minimizing of these perspectives. Readers may take them less seriously, as a result.

To conclude my analysis of WSJ news reports, I analyze the range of framing devices used throughout each report and consider how those devices may indicate a journalists’

113 alignment or distancing to a given source or proposition. In Table 4.22 I’ve mapped out the range of framing devices used throughout these reports in terms of reporting verbs used:

Table 4.22

Range of Framing Devices Used in WSJ News Reports

Reporting # of Verb occurrences “said” 22 “according to” 2 “says” 1

The reporting verb most often used in these reports is, “said,” which is considered neutral in that it neither associates nor disassociates the journalist to the proposition stated. “Says” also functions similarly in that it reflects a neutral position to the perspective offered. In only two cases does the journalist deviate from these neutral terms. These instances are shown below:

1: About 400 protesters set two trucks on fire near a bridge on Highway 1806 near

Cannon Ball, N.D., according to the Morton County Sheriff Department (sent. 5 in

11/21 report).

2: Temperatures hit a low of 25 degrees on Sunday, according to Mr. Keller (sent. 21 in

11/21 report).

As shown, in the case of “according to,” while the journalists acknowledge these external perspectives and positions, the use of “according to” distances the journalist from the reported statements, maximizing the space for dialogic alternatives- such that protesters did not set trucks on fire, or that the weather was not as low as 25 degrees, for example.

Conclusion

In this chapter, I have analyzed news reports published by the Wall Street Journal (WSJ) following altercations occurring on October 27 and November 20, 2016. In line with the

114 research questions guiding my analysis, I have found that WSJ journalists characterized these altercations most often through the ‘material’ processes attributed to law enforcement sources which construe events in terms of ‘doings’ and ‘happenings’. The altercations are characterized in ways which emphasize the conflict, violence, and aggression displayed, and reports do little to mention larger aspects of the protest. The major participant groups depicted in these reports are protesters and law enforcement. In both cases, members of these groups are presented impersonally in the reports, not as individuals, but as parts of a collective entity. “Protesters” are presented in active roles and descriptions of their behaviors consistently appraise them negatively. Reports focus on their illegal presence and emphasize their violent behaviors. Law enforcement, on the other hand, are consistently presented as reacting to the actions of protesters.

As a result, the actions of law enforcement are shown to be lawful and justified. Explicit negative characterizations of their negative behavior are only presented in passively constructed descriptions which background responsible agents and presenting police tactics as the culprit instead. As shown, WSJ journalists also rely heavily on law-enforcement based sources to provide the “official” accounts of events. As a result, all other perspectives enter the report as

“alternative” or less credible or authoritative by comparison. Moreover, an analysis of integrated sources shows that WSJ journalists rely more on official spokespersons than on first-person accounts. Protesters or individuals directly involved in the altercation are left out of the report.

Likewise, WSJ do not make explicit references to members of the Standing Rock Sioux Tribe.

References to this group are left generic and vague, and explicit individuals affiliated with this group are never identified. These reports largely appear to adhere with the protest paradigm framework.

115

CHAPTER V

Representation in the Associated Press

Analysis III

In this chapter, I analyze news reports published by the Associated Press (AP) following the DAPL protest altercations occurring on September 3, October 27, and November 20, 2016.

Table 5.1 lists the articles which have been included in my analysis:

Table 5.1

AP Articles Published After Altercations Occurring on 9/3, 10/27, and 11/20

Date of Publication Author Word Count September 4, 2016 MacPherson 512 October 28, 2016 MacPherson 557 November 21, 2016 MacPherson 416

Transitivity Analysis

The articles listed in Table 5.1 have been coded and diagramed according to their transitivity structure. These diagrams can be found in Appendix D. In coding these reports, 71.3 percent of the 9/4 report, 46.1 percent of the 10/28 report, and 34.4 percent of the 11/21 report consist of statements attributed to external sources. Like in previous chapters, these statements are analyzed separately from unattributed ones.

Altercation 1: September 3, 2016

The AP report following the September 3 altercation is 512 words long. Table 5.2 illustrates the different processes found in this report and the total number for each:

116

Table 5.2

Unattributed & Attributed Processes in the AP 9/4 News Report

Unattributed Attributed Process Type Total Process Type Total ‘Material’ 7 ‘Material’ 22 ‘Relational’ 2 ‘Relational’ 3 ‘Existential’ 1

‘Material’ Processes

As Table 5.2 shows, ‘material’ processes occur most frequently in this report. In 22 cases, they are attributed to external sources, while in seven cases, they are not. The unattributed

‘material’ processes are shown in Table 5.3:

Table 5.3

Unattributed ‘Material’ Processes in AP 9/4 News Report

Sent. Process Actor Goal Circumstance Conj. # (active) 1* a protest of a four- turned violent after tribal officials say construction state, $3.8 billion oil crews destroyed American Indian burial pipeline and cultural sites on private land in North Dakota 10 the incident occurred within half a mile of an encampment where

hundreds of people have gathered the Standing Rock Sioux Tribe’s protest to join of the oil pipeline that is slated to cross the Missouri River nearby 11 the tribe is challenging the Army Corps for Dallas-based Energy Transfer of Engineer’s Partner’s Dakota Access Pipeline which decision to grant crosses the Dakotas and Iowa to Illinois, permits including near the reservation in southern North Dakota 12 a federal judge will rule before Sept. 9 whether construction can be halted on the Dakota Access Pipeline 13 Energy Transfer did not return phone calls and from the Associated Press on Saturday Partners emails seeking comment 24 protesters have also some of the on social media posted confrontation

As Table 5.3 shows, throughout these unattributed ‘material’ processes, the ‘actor’ is either a noun or collective noun referring to people (such as “hundreds of people,” “protesters,” “the tribe,” Energy Transfer Partners, or a federal judge), an abstract noun (“the incident”), or a

117 nominalization of a process (“a protest of a four-state $3.8 billion oil pipeline”). The nominalization characterizes the altercation itself as violent and occurring after construction crews were said by tribal officials to have “destroyed American Indian burial and cultural sites”

(sent. 1). The altercation is also described as an “incident” which occurred where “hundreds of people” were gathered. In sentence 11 and 12, the journalist includes information about litigation processes, linking the protest to a large “challenge” of the pipeline’s construction and the U.S. Army Corps decision to grant ETP the permit to build. In sentence 13, ETP is depicted as ‘actor’ and described as not returning phone calls from the journalist, and in sentence 24, protesters are described as having posted “some of the confrontation” on social media.

In addition to these unattributed ‘material’ processes, there are also 22 attributed

‘material’ processes in the September 4 report, as shown in Table 5.4:

Table 5.4

Attributed ‘Material’ Processes in AP 9/4 News Report

Sent. Projected Projected Process # Actor Goal Circumstance Conj. ‘Sayer’ ‘Process’ (active) & Circum. 1* construction destroyed American on private land crews Indian burial in southern North tribal say and cultural Dakota officials sites 2* several confronted construction Saturday afternoon at Morton County hundred crews the site just outside the Sheriff’s Office said protesters Standing Rock Sioux spokeswoman Reservation Donnell Preskey 7 law had no reports of protesters being Preskey said enforcement injured 9* the crowd dispersed when officers arrived she said [Preskey] 14 the project will disturb sacred sites and the tribe fears

impact drinking water for thousands of tribal members on the Standing Rock

Reservation and millions farther downstream. 15* it found several sites of along the path of the filed court [the tribe] “significant proposed pipeline the tribe papers cultural and saying historic value”

118 17 researchers found burial rock piles called cairns and other sites of Mentz said historic significance to Native Americans 18 construction removed topsoil across an area, about Standing Rock said crews 150 feet wide Sioux Chairman, in a stretching for 2 miles David Archambault statement 21 “the ancient cannot be cairns and replaced” [Archambault] stone rings there 23 the company filmed the by helicopter and confrontation Preskey said

turned the video over to authorities 25 “individuals crossed private and Morton County said onto property Sheriff, Kyle in a Kirchmeier statement accosted private with wooden posts and security flag poles” officers

Sent. Projected Projected Process # Circum. Goal Actor Circumstance ‘Sayer’ ‘Process’ (passive) & Circum. 2* four private were injured Morton County security guards Sheriff’s Office said and two guard spokeswoman dogs Donnell Preskey 3 one of the was taken to a Bismarck security officers hospital for [Preskey] said undisclosed injuries 4 the two guard were taken to a Bismarck Preskey said dogs veterinary clinic 6 at least 30 were pepper- he said people sprayed [Steve Sitting Bear] 9* no one was arrested she said [Preskey] 16 the tribe was only to survey private Tribal preservation said recently land north of the officer, Tim Mentz in court allowed Standing Rock documents Sioux Reservation 22 “in one our sacred land has been into hollow [Archambault] day turned ground”

Sent. Projected Projecting Sayer Process Goal Process Actor # ‘Sayer’ ‘Process’ six people had been by security Tribal spokesman, 5 protesters reported that including a said bitten dogs Steve Sitting Bear young child

As shown in Table 5.4, the main ‘actors’ of these ‘material’ processes include “construction crews,” security dogs, “law enforcement”, individuals identified or affiliated as protesters

119 (“several hundred protesters,” “the crowd,” “individuals”) and “researchers”. Additional “actor” roles are filled by “the project”, “the company”, “the tribe”, and “ancient stone and cairn rings”.

As ‘actors,’ “construction crews” are described as “destroy[ing] American Indian burial and cultural sites on private land…” and “remov[ing] tops oil across an area…” (sent. 1, 18).

These descriptions are both attributed to tribal affiliate sources. In sentence 1, the destruction of burial lands and cultural sites by workers is attributed to “tribal officials,” while in sentence 18, the removal of topsoil by workers is attributed to Standing Rock Sioux Chairman, David

Archambault. Additionally, “security dogs” are said to have bitten six young people in sentence

5, according to reports made by protesters and attributed to Tribal spokesman, Steve Sitting

Bear. In sentence 6, the agent of the ‘material’ process “at least 30 people were pepper-sprayed” is omitted from the clause. Contextually, it can be inferred that private security guards on site are the agents of these actions. This statement is also presented from Steve Sitting Bear.

In one case, members of law enforcement, described only by the collective noun, “law enforcement” are depicted as the main ‘actor’. In sentence 7, “law enforcement” is said to have had no reports of protesters being injured. This statement is presented through a statement attributed to Donnell Preskey, a spokeswoman for the Morton County Sheriff’s Department. Her attributed statement contradicts the claim of injuries presented by Steve Sitting Bear in sentence

6. Furthermore, in sentence 9, the statement attributed to Preskey indicates a lack of arrests made. Though the agent responsible for these arrests is not identified in the clause, audiences can assume the ‘agent’ to be a member of law enforcement.

Individuals identified or affiliated as protesters are described as “several hundred protesters,” “the crowd,” and as “individuals”. As ‘actors,’ protesters are depicted as confronting construction crews (sent. 2), crossing onto private property and accosting private security

120 officers with wooden posts and flag poles (sent. 25). They are also said to have dispersed once officers arrived on scene (sent. 9). In sentence 2, four private security guards and two guard dogs are said to have been injured. Though no agent is identified, it is implied throughout the reports that the injuries came as a result of the protestor’s confrontation with the construction workers and security guards. Sentence 4 emphasizes the intensity of these injuries by addressing that those injured had to be taken to a Bismarck veterinary clinic and hospital. In each case, the actions of protesters are described through attributions made to either Kyle Kirchmeier or

Donnell Preskey-both affiliates of the Sheriff’s Department.

In sentence 17, “researchers” are described as having “found burial rock piles called cairns,” as well as other sites of “historic significance” to Native Americans. In sentence 15,

“the tribe” is also described as having found sites of “significant cultural and historical value”.

Sentence 15 is attributed to “the tribe” and statements they made in court documents, while sentence 17 is attributed to Tim Mentz, described in reports as “tribal preservation officer”.

“The tribe” is also depicted as actor in sentence 16. Accordingly, “the tribe” is said to have only recently been allowed to survey the land, identified through the attribution to Tim Mentz as private land. In sentence 21, a direct quote attributed to David Archambault expresses that the

“ancient cairns and stone rings there,” presumably the same which had been found by

“researchers” and “the tribe,” cannot be replaced. In sentence 22, he is quoted again as saying that “in one day, our sacred land has been turned into hollow ground”. Left out of sentence 22 is any indication of who has turned the ground hollow; though it can be assumed, based on sentence 1, that it is the construction workers who are held responsible.

Finally, the pipeline project and Energy Transfer Partners are presented as ‘actors’ in sentence 14 and 23. In sentence 14, “the project” is allocated an active role in the disturbing of

121 sacred sites and the impact on drinking water. As written, the pipeline project “will disturb sacred sites” and “impact drinking water for thousands…”. The modal adjunct “will” works to construe a higher degree of certainty and likelihood that the pipeline will have the effects described. These statements are attributed to “the tribe”. In acknowledging “the tribe,” however, the journalist writes that the “tribe fears”. The journalist is acknowledging their perspective by acknowledging their fears or concerns. As such, they appropriate the tribe’s statement and recontextualizes it as a “fear”. In doing so, the concerns presented are positioned as a potential fear. In sentence 23, the company behind the pipeline project, referred to only as

“the company,” and not as ETP, is said to have filmed the confrontation by helicopter and to have turned it over to authorities. This statement is presented through an attribution to Preskey.

‘Relational’ Processes

There are five ‘relational’ processes depicted in this report. In all but two cases, these

‘relational’ processes are attributed to external sources, as shown in Tables 5.5 and 5.6:

Table 5.5

Unattributed ‘Relational’ Processes in AP 9/4 News Report

Sent. Process: Token Value # (identifying) the protest one day after the tribe filed court papers saying it 15 came Saturday found several sites… 10* the route skirts the Standing Rock Sioux Reservation

Table 5.6

Attributed ‘Relational’ Processes in AP 9/4 News Report

Sent. Process: Projected Projecting Carrier Attribute # (attributive) ‘Sayer’ ‘Process’ 19 “this demolition is devastating” Archambault said 26 “any suggestion that is false” his [Kirchmeier] said today’s event was a statement peaceful protest

122 Sent. Process: Projected Projecting Token Value # (identifying) ‘Sayer’ ‘Process’ the resting places of 20 “these grounds are [Archambault] our ancestors”

Through the ‘relational’ process depicted in Table 5.5, the protest is further identified in terms of time and causality. As depicted in sentence 15, the protest is said to have come after the tribe reported finding several sites of "significant cultural and historic value" along the path of the pipeline. In sentence 10, the route is described as “skirt[ing]” the Standing Rock Sioux

Reservation. The use of “skirts” functions in the same way that “is nearby” would. In this way, the route is identified via its location. However, the use of skirts makes it seem as if the site is just barely near the reservation. If the journalist would have written “is nearby,” its proximity would have seemed closer. The attributed ‘relational’ processes, as shown in Table 5.6, define the event further, through direct quotes attributed to David Archambault and Kyle Kirchmeier.

In sentence 19, Archambault characterizes the event as a “demolition” and describes it as

“devastating”. In sentence 26, Kirchmeier characterizes the event as not a peaceful protest.

Through the ‘relational’ process, any suggestion that the protest had been peaceful is negated.

Finally, Archambault is quoted in relation to the site of the altercation. Archambault’s quote in sentence 20 defines the grounds as the “resting place of our ancestors”.

‘Existential’ Processes

The September 4 news report also contains one ‘existential’ process, attributed to an external source, as shown in Table 5.7:

Table 5.7

Attributed ‘Existential’ Processes in AP 9/4 News Report

Sent. Existent: Projected Projecting Process Circumstance # Entity ‘Sayer’ ‘Process’ no law enforcement 8 there were when the incident occurred Preskey said authorities at the site

123 Within this attributed ‘existential’ process, the existence of law enforcement, or rather, the lack of law enforcement on site during the altercation events is presented through a statement attributed to Preskey, a spokesperson for the Sheriff’s Department. By nature, existential processes indicate the existence of something without predicating anything else about it. Thus, the statement can be seen as certain and final, as it does not acknowledge the possibility that alternative perspectives exist (that law enforcement were actually on site, for example).

Altercation 2: October 27, 2016

The AP report following the October 27 altercation is 557 words long. Table 5.8 illustrates the different processes found in this report and the total number for each:

Table 5.8

Unattributed & Attributed Processes in the AP 10/28 News Report

Unattributed Attributed Process Type Total Process Type Total ‘Material’ 14 ‘Material’ 15 ‘Relational’ 3 ‘Relational’ 3 ‘Verbal’ 2

‘Material’ Processes

As Table 5.8 shows, ‘material’ processes occur most frequently in this report. In 15 cases, these ‘material’ processes are attributed to an external source, and in the remaining 14 cases, they are not. The unattributed ‘material’ processes are shown in Table 5.9:

Table 5.9

Unattributed ‘Material’ Processes in AP 10/28 News Report

Sent. Circum. Actor Circum. Process Goal Circum. Conj. # 1 law dressed in riot evicted protesters Thursday from private enforcement gear and firing land in the path of the officers bean bags and Dakota Access oil pipeline pepper spray

124 dramatically a months- over Native American escalating long dispute rights and the project’s environmental impact. 2 in an hundreds of -some on foot pushed past burning to slowly envelop the operation armed state and and others in barricades camp that took local police and trucks, military nearly National Guard Humvees and six hours buses– 9 opponents of over the weekend set up camp on private land owned by the pipeline Texas-based Energy Transfer Partners which is working to complete the 1,200-mile pipeline to carry oil from western North Dakota to Illinois 12 the tribe has gone to court to challenge the U.S. Army Corps of Engineer’s decision granting permits at more than 200 water crossings 13 a federal judge in September denied their request to block construction but

three federal stepped in to order construction to halt on agencies Corps-owned land around Lake Oahe, a wide spot of the Missouri River while the corps reviewed its decision making

18 many protesters openly the officers while defied

others took part in prayer and circles

burned sage.

Sent. Goal Process Actor Circumstance Conj. # 3 at least 117 people were arrested 4* one man was hurt in the leg and

received treatment from a medic. 24 at least two cars were also burned

As Table 5.9 shows, the ‘actors’ of these ‘unattributed’ material processes include those affiliated or grouped as protesters (“opponents of the pipeline,” “many protesters,” and “others”), those affiliated with law enforcement (“law enforcement” and “state and local police and

National Guard”), affiliates of the Standing Rock Sioux Tribe (identified as “the tribe”), and references to federal agencies or a judge.

125 As ‘actors,’ members of law enforcement are allocated active roles. They are described in regard to their collective affiliation to law enforcement, and their activities include evicting and pushing past protesters and burning barricades in order to “slowly envelop the camp” (sent.

1 and 2). Their actions are described as “dramatically escalating a months-long dispute” (sent.

2). Though the agent is omitted from sentence 3, it can be inferred that a member of law enforcement is the one who had arrested at least 117 people. Similarly, in sentence 4, the agent responsible for hurting a man is not identified. Contextually, it can be inferred that this is a member of law enforcement, though an explicit reference is omitted from the clause.

Those identified and affiliated as “protesters” are described impersonally, as “many protesters” or “others” (sent. 18). In sentence 9, they are described by reference to their position on the pipeline, as “opponents” to the pipeline project. Though they are allocated active roles, their activities consist of setting up camp on private land (sent. 9), defying officers (sent. 18), praying, and burning sage (sent. 18). The journalist does not clarify how exactly protesters

“openly defied the officers”. It can be assumed, however, that this defiance is in reference to the protesters’ refusal to leave the private area as they had been asked to. In sentence 24, protesters are implied, contextually, to be the actor involved in burning two cars. However, their role has been omitted from the sentence. The remaining unattributed processes describe various background aspects of the larger protest movement. In sentence 12, “the tribe” is described as having gone to court in order to challenge permit decisions. In sentence, a federal judge’s is shown to deny the tribe’s request, and as a result, three federal agencies are described as

“stepping in” to help halt construction while new reviews could be made.

In addition to these unattributed ‘material’ processes, there are also 14 attributed

‘material’ processes in the October 28 report, as shown in Table 5.10:

126

Table 5.10

Attributed ‘Material’ Processes in AP 10/28 News Report

Sent. Process Projected Projecting Circum. Actor Goal Circum. Conj. # (active) ‘Sayer’ ‘Process’ 6 officers did not she said return fire [Fong] 7* police were still protesters on the Sheriff Kyle said dealing with perimeter. Kirchmeier 8* they planned to the site to private [officials] turn over security officials said

8* police would stay for now Kirchmeier said 10* it [the could water and pipeline] endanger supplies the tribe says

disturb cultural sites 16 at one they [law used a high- point enforcement] pitched whistle they [law intended to said enforcement] “control and disperse” protesters 19 enough the county needed additional to house Morton people jails them County were Sheriff’s said arrested spokeswoman that Donnell Hushka 22 “it is going to a lot to move he take them from said [Hall] there” 23 protesters set fire to four large pieces of authorities said construction equipment 26 “I came here for peace he said and prayer” [Johnson]

Sent. Process Projected Projecting Goal Actor Circum. # (passive) ‘Sayer’ ‘Process’ 7* the camp had been cleared by nightfall Sheriff Kyle said Kirchmeier 11 no sensitive sites have been found in the area the state of says North Dakota 20 those charged would be held pending court she said with felonies appearances [Hushka] 21 a new camp would be built elsewhere in the Cody Hall, a vowed pipeline’s path on spokesman for federal land the protesters

127 As shown in Table 5.10, the main ‘actors’ of these ‘material’ processes include members of law enforcement (referred to throughout as “officers,” “police,” and “they”) and individuals identified or affiliated as protesters (“protesters” and “I”). Additional ‘actor’ roles are filled by

“the county”, the pipeline project (“it”), and the abstract reference to efforts (“it”) in sentence 22.

As ‘actors,’ members of law enforcement are generally described in terms of their neutral or responsive presence. In sentence 7 and 8, members of law enforcement are described as “still dealing” with protesters” and planning to stay on site. In sentence 6, they are described as not returning fire, and in sentence 16, as using a high-pitched whistle with the intention to control and disperse protesters. In sentence 7, officers are also credited with clearing the camp through the implied role of ‘actor’. Similarly, in sentence 20, law enforcement, or rather an entity of law enforcement, a jail, is implied as the ‘actor’ who will be holding protesters until their court appearances. These descriptions are all presented through attributions to law enforcement sources: for example, Cecily Fong in sentence 6, “officials” and “law enforcement” in sentence 8 and 16, and Kyle Kirchmeier in sentence 8. In sentence 16, the statement attributed to “law enforcement” contains partial direct quotes, making it clear that the rationale for the use of the whistle is according to their claims, and is not one given by the journalist.

Protesters appear as active ‘actors’ in only one case. In sentence 23, they are described as setting fire to “four large pieces of construction equipment” according to the attribution to

“authorities” (sent. 23). Additionally, in sentence 26, “I” is depicted as actor, referring to Aaron

Johnson, and individual affiliated with the group of protesters. Through a direct quote attributed to Johnson, he is said to have come to the site of protest for “peace and prayer” (sent. 26).

Through his quoted statement, Johnson is identified as part of the protest group but is distanced from those violent members of the protest group who are not there for “peace and prayer”.

128 Protesters are the implied ‘actors’ in sentence 21. Through the statement attributed to Cody Hall, the journalist writes that a new camp would be built “elsewhere in the pipeline’s path on federal land” (sent. 21). The person(s) responsible for building this new camp is left out of the clause, though it can be inferred it would be done by an affiliate of the protest group. A passive reference to the protesters is also made in sentence 6 and 19, implying that protesters had shot at officers and that a large number of protesters had been arrested. The statements are presented in passive voice and the agent of these activities is omitted or left out of the clause.

In sentence 10, the pipeline project is also depicted as an ‘actor’ through attributions made to “the tribe”. As written, the project “could endanger water supplies and disturb cultural sites” (sent. 10). “Could” is a modal adjunct which expresses a lower degree of possibility. In this way, the possibility of threat is minimized, and the statement attributed to “the tribe” is distanced in certainty or likelihood. In sentence 11, the state of North Dakota is paraphrased as saying that no sensitive sites had been found. In this way, the findings of the state are presented as the most credible and authoritative. The statement leaves out the possibility that such sites had been found, also contradicting the claims made by the Standing Rock Sioux Tribe.

‘Relational’ Processes

There are also five ‘relational’ processes depicted in the October 28 news report. In three cases, they are attributed to external sources, and in the other two, they are not. They are shown in Table 5.11 and Table 5.12:

Table 5.11

Unattributed ‘Relational’ Processes in AP 10/28 News Report

Sent. Process: Token Value # Attributive 17 The camp cleared is located just to the North of a more permanent and larger encampment on on Thursday federally owned land that has been the main staging area for hundreds of protesters, including Native Americans from across North America, environmentalists and some celebrities

129 14 Thursday’s began a day after they refused to leave voluntarily operation to push out the protesters

Table 5.12

Attributed ‘Relational’ Processes in AP 10/28 News Report

Sent. Process: Projected Projecting Carrier Attribute Circumstance # (attributive) ‘Sayer’ ‘Process’ Aaron Johnson, 50, a he and other with the day’s member of the 25 were not happy said protesters outcome Cheyenne River Sioux in South Dakota

Sent. Process: Projected Projecting Token Value # Identifying ‘Sayer’ ‘Process’ 5 a woman who pulled out a .38 was among those State Emergency said caliber pistol and fired three times at arrested Services officers, narrowly missing a spokeswoman sheriff’s deputy Cecily Fong 27 “when somebody sets something on is not peace and [Johnson] fire, that prayer”

Through the unattributed ‘relational’ processes, the site of the altercation as well as the altercation itself are characterized through constructed relationships of time, place, and causality.

In sentence 17, the site of the altercation is identified as a camp located near another camp on federally owned land. This larger camp is then further described as the “main staging area for hundreds of protesters”. In sentence 14, the protest is identified as an “operation to push out the protesters” and is further identified in terms of time and causality. The altercation is said to have begun as a result of the protesters’ refusal to leave the area willingly.

Through the attributed ‘relational’ processes, references to external sources help describe and define the emotional state of protesters, as well as stipulate why a particular protester had been arrested. In sentence 25, the ‘relational’ process attaches the quality of “not happy” to both

Aaron Johnson and the other protesters he is referencing. The quality of “not happy” defines not just their state of being but also their feelings about the “day’s outcome”–implying that they

130 would have preferred a different outcome of events. In sentence 27, Johnson again is the attributed source of the ‘relational’ process. In this sentence, his direct quote identifies the behavior of setting something on fire with the quality of “not peaceful” as well as not a representation of prayer. In sentence 5, an attribute to Cecily Fong identifies someone arrested as being “a woman who pulled out a gun and fired at officers three times, narrowly missing a sheriff’s deputy”.

‘Verbal’ Processes

The October 28 news report also contains two unattributed ‘verbal’ processes. They are shown in Table 5.13:

Table 5.13

Unattributed ‘Verbal’ Processes in AP 10/28 News Report

Sent. Target Process Sayer Verbiage # 4* no serious injuries were reported

Sent. Sayer Process Receiver Verbiage # 15 law enforcement repeatedly asked protesters to retreat

In sentence 4, the claim that “no serious injuries were reported” is presented; however, there is no indication as to who the agent of this reporting is. In sentence 15, law enforcement’s ongoing and repeated request that protesters leave is reiterated by the journalist.

Altercation 3: November 20, 2016

The AP report following the November 20 altercation is 416 words long. Table 5.14 illustrates the different processes found in this report and the total number for each:

131 Table 5.14

Unattributed & Attributed Processes in the AP 11/21 News Report

Unattributed Attributed Process Type Total Process Type Total ‘Material’ 6 ‘Material’ 9 ‘Relational’ 4 ‘Relational’ 5

‘Material’ Processes

As Table 5.14 shows, ‘material’ processes occur most frequently in this report, as well.

In nine cases, they are attributed to an external source and in the other 6, they are not. The unattributed ‘material’ processes are shown in Table 5.15:

Table 5.15

Unattributed ‘Material’ Processes in AP 11/21 News Report

Sent. Actor Process Goal Circumstance Conj. # 1 Protesters clashed with law late Saturday near the site of the Dakota as enforcement Access Pipeline with at least one person arrested

protesters sought to push a bridge on a state highway that had been past blocked since late October. 3* law enforcement had formed a line to prevent their movement and

appeared to be water cannons using 12 phone calls to went to an answering last Sunday the Sheriff’s machine Department

Sent. Conj. Goal Process Circumstance Actor # 14* But construction of has been for months by the Standing Rock Sioux… and by the the pipeline protested tribe’s allies…

As Table 5.15 shows, the ‘actors’ of these ‘unattributed’ material processes include “protesters,”

“law enforcement,” and phone calls which went to an answering machine. As ‘actors,’ protesters are described as “clashing” with law enforcement and seeking to push past a bridge. Law enforcement are described as responding to protester movement and forming a line to block them. The journalist frames law enforcement as “appear[ing] to be using” water cannons,

132 distancing the certainty of this claim through the modal adjunct, “appears to be” (sent. 3). In sentence 12, “phone calls” are described as not being answered by the Sheriff’s Department, and in sentence 14, the “construction of the pipeline” is presented as the main target of the protest by the Standing Rock Sioux’s and their “allies”. In this way, the journalist relates the protesters to the “allies” of the Standing Rock Sioux Tribe, aligning their goals and concerns, respectively.

In addition to these unattributed ‘material’ processes, there are also 6 attributed ‘material’ processes in the November 21 report, as shown in Table 5.16:

Table 5.16

Attributed ‘Material’ Processes in AP 11/21 News Report

Sent. Process Projected Projecting Actor Goal Circumstance # (active) ‘Sayer’ ‘Process’ 2 400 were trying to the bridge on State Highway The Morton protesters cross 1806 as part of County estimated “an ongoing” riot Sheriff’s Office 7* protesters removed a burnt-out truck that had been on the the Sheriff’s Highway since the said Office Oct. 27 confrontation 9 others needed medical after being hit he said treatment with tear gas [Loeb] 14* a leak could their drinking water the tribe’s fear contaminate allies 15 construction could threaten sacred sites also they [the worry tribe’s allies] that

Sent. Process Projected Projecting Goal Actor Circumstance # (passive) ‘Sayer’ ‘Process’ 6 what being fired at protesters appeared to a video shot showed be cannons by a protester and tear gas 8* he [Loeb] was forced to retreat from the bridge Rema told the Loeb Associated Press 11 the Cannon was opened to aid people Tara Houska, an told the Ball gym who had been organizer with Bismarck doused with Honor the Earth Tribune water or tear gas 16* no sites have been disturbed Energy Transfer has said Partners

133 The main ‘actors’ of these ‘material’ processes include individuals identified or affiliated as protesters (“400 protesters,” “protesters,” and “others”), “a leak” and “construction”. As

‘actors,’ protesters are described as trying to cross a bridge as part of what the Morton County

Sheriff’s Office called an “ongoing riot” (sent. 2) and removing a burned-out truck (sent. 7).

Both descriptions are attributed to the Sherriff’s Office. The use of quotes in sentence 2 makes it clear that the characterization of the activities is not the journalist’s own position. Thus, the journalist distances from this statement and the certainty of the claim. Similarly, the reporting verb “estimated” also functions to distance the certainty of the claim being expressed. In sentence 14 and 15, attributions made to “the tribe’s allies” describe both the leak and the construction of the pipeline in terms of possibility: “a leak could contaminate their drinking water” and “construction could threaten sacred sites”. In both instances, “could” expresses a lower degree of certainty in the claim presented, as well as opens up the possibility that there are alternative perspectives (i.e. could not contaminate; could not threaten). The reporting verb used to signal these attributions include “fear” and “worry”. In both cases, these verbs function to hedge the statements attributed to the “tribe’s allies,” consequently framing them with less reliability and likelihood.

Law enforcement are implied actors in sentences 6 and 8. In sentence 6, “what appeared to be” cannons and tear gas are said to have been fired at protesters, according to an attribution to

“a video shot by protesters”. However, this statement is presented with a low degree of certainty, construed through the expansive, modal adjunct “what appeared to be” which is included with “cannons and tear gas”. In sentence 8, a statement attributed to Rema Loeb indicates that he was forced to retreat, but the agent of that “forcing” is not explicitly mentioned.

It is implied contextually, however, that those firing tear gas and forcing individuals to retreat

134 were members of law enforcement. Similarly, in sentence 16, an attribution to Energy Transfer

Partners, indicates that no sites had been disturbed, presumably by their hired construction crews.

‘Relational’ Processes

There are also nine ‘relational’ processes depicted in the November 21 report. In five cases, they are attributed to an external source, while in the remaining four, they are not. They are shown in Table 5.17 and Table 5.18:

Table 5.17

Unattributed ‘Relational’ Processes in AP 11/21 News Report

Sent. Process: Carrier Attribute # Attributive 3* temperatures dipped toward the low 20s

Sent. Process: Token Value Circumstance # Identifying 4 the clash was at the Backwater Bridge near where protesters had set up camp on private property owned by the pipeline developer, Energy Transfer Partners before they were forcibly removed by law enforcement Oct. 27 5 it [is] also about a mile from an where work has been on hold [the clash] uncompleted section under by order of federal agencies Lake Oahe, a Missouri River reservoir 13 the 1,200-mile, is intended to carry oil from four-state Western North Dakota to a pipeline shipping point in Illinois

Table 5.18

Attributed ‘Relational’ Processes in AP 11/21 News Report

Sent. Process: Projected Projecting Carrier Attribute # (attributive) ‘Sayer’ ‘Process’ the 83-year-old Loeb, who had traveled from 10 “it [has] been just horrible,” said Massachusetts about two weeks ago to join the protests

Sent. Process: Conj. Projected Projecting Token Value # Identifying ‘Sayer’ ‘Process’ 7* the incident began around 6 p.m. the Sheriff’s said office

135 16* the pipeline will have safeguards against leak and Energy has said Transfer Partners is a safer method of transport for oil than rail or truck 17 the pipeline is largely complete, except for the the has said section under Lake Oahe company [ETP]

Through the unattributed ‘relational’ processes, the environment of the altercation, the event itself, and the pipeline project are described in identifying or relational terms. The weather is described as cold, indicated by the attribute description, “toward the low 20s”. The altercation event is depicted as a “clash” and described as taking place on private property, away from the site of the pipeline’s construction (sent. 4, 5). Additionally, the pipeline is described in terms of its functional characteristics: as being 1,200 miles long and its intention to carry oil across four states to a final shipping point.

Through the attributed ‘relational’ processes, shown in Table 5.18, the environment surrounding the altercation, as well as the pipeline project are further defined or described through attributions made to Loeb, the Sheriff’s Office, and to Energy Transfer Partners (ETP).

In sentence 10, Loeb is said to have described the event as being “just horrible,” while in sentence 7, the incident is identified in terms of when it began. In sentences 16 and 17, attributions made to ETP assign particular attributes to the pipeline project. In sentence 16, these attributes include that it will contain safeguards to prevent leaks and that it will be a safer method for transporting oil. In sentence 17, the attached attributes indicate that the project is largely complete, implying that once progress is made on the Lake Oahe section (the site of protest), the pipeline would be able to fulfil its objective in safely transporting oil. In both cases, the pipeline is presented in terms which construe high degrees of certainty: “the pipeline will have safeguards…,” “the pipeline is a safer method…,” and “the pipeline is largely complete…”.

136 Through this construal, the qualities of “safe” are presented in higher degrees of certainty, not acknowledging as well as distancing any claim that they may not be safe.

Summary of Transitivity Analysis

The results of my transitivity analysis have shown patterns in how these altercations events are presented to audiences. In terms of ‘participants’ and ‘processes,’ I have found that representations of events are sustained most through the ‘material’ processes which dominate the news reports. In addition to these, ‘relational,’ ‘verbal,’ and ‘existential’ processes are also present. Table 5.19 illustrates the range of processes identified in these reports:

Table 5.19

Range of Unattributed & Attributed Processes in AP Reports

Process 9/4 Report 10/28 Report 11/21 Report Type Unattrib. Attrib. Unattrib. Attrib. Unattrib. Attrib. Totals ‘Material’ 7 21 14 15 6 9 72 ‘Relational’ 1 3 3 3 4 5 19 ‘Verbal’ 3 3 ‘Existential’ 1 1

Of the 95 total processes identified, 72 of them (or 75.8 percent) are ‘material’ processes. An additional 20.0 percent are ‘relational’ processes, (19 of the 94), and only three of the processes are ’verbal’ processes (or 3.2 percent). Finally, there were also a single ‘existential’ process depicted in these reports (contributing to 1.1 percent of all processes).

Throughout these reports, the October 27 altercation is characterized as an “incident” and an “operation,” and the November 20 altercation is characterized as a “clash” (sent. 1, 2, and 14 in 10/28 report; sent. 1, 4, 5 in 11/21 report). The altercations are characterized in terms of ongoing length (“a month’s-long dispute” and an “operation that took 6 hours”), and as an attempt to “push out the protesters” (sent. 1, 2, and 14 in 10/28 report). The major participant groups depicted in these reports include security construction workers, private security hired by

137 ETP, individuals identified as or affiliated as “protesters,” and members of law enforcement.

References are also made throughout reports to the broader aspects of the protest in general, such as the ongoing litigation and the tribe’s challenge to the U.S. Army Corps and their decision to grant ETP easements.

Appraisal: Judgement Analysis

My transitivity analysis has indicated that the primary social actors involved in these protest altercations are construction workers and private security hired by ETP, individuals identified as or affiliated with “protesters,” and members of law enforcement. In the sections which follow, I analyze how these larger actor categories for how individual and group behaviors are represented and appraised holistically in news reports. I draw on frameworks of Judgement analysis developed by Martin & White (2005) as well as van Leeuwen’s framework for analyzing Social Actor representation (1996). Table 5.20 presents the social actor category of

“Construction Workers” and the behaviors and activities which attributed to or associated with this group throughout the news reports. Table 5.21 does the same for “Security Guards”. Both of these social actor categories only appear in the 9/4 report. My appraisal analysis is shown in the column marked “judgement”:

Table 5.20

Appraisal of Behaviors Attributed to ‘Construction Crews’ in AP 9/4 Report

Report: Appraising Appraising Appraised Judgement Sent # Behavior Circumstance 9/4: 1 construction crews destroyed American Indian burial on private land in southern -norm/-cap and cultural sites North Dakota -prop 9/4: 18 construction crews removed topsoil across an area about 150 feet wide stretching +norm for 2 miles

138

Table 5.21

Appraisal of Behaviors Attributed to ‘Security Guards’ in AP 9/4 Report

Report: Appraising Appraising Appraised Judgement Sent # Behavior Circumstance 9/4: 6 at least 30 people were pepper- -norm sprayed -prop 9/4: 5 six people including a young child -norm had been bitten by security dogs -prop

In both cases, the individuals involved in the construction activity (Table 5.20) are identified in the reports, impersonally, referenced only by their categorical assimilation. As van Leeuwen

(1996) explains, categorizing social actors in this way represents individuals not in terms of their unique identity but in terms of the functions they share with others. In the case of “construction crews,” their identity is referred to in terms of their occupation or role in the social sphere (p.

54). In terms of role allocation, “construction crews” are allocated active roles. In sentence 1 of the 9/4 report, they are described as destroying American Indian burial and cultural sites, and in sentence 18 of the 9/4 report, they are described as removing topsoil from an area. In the case of

“destroying,” these activities are described in negative terms. It’s presumably not normal for a construction crew to destroy burial or cultural sites, and it may be seen as unethical and disrespectful, as well. Thus, these actions are described in ways which appraise these behaviors negatively (-norm/-prop). In terms of removing topsoil, however, this can be characterized as normal behavior. The sole purpose of construction crews is the moving or removing of dirt.

In Table 5.21 the agent of the first clause is omitted, backgrounding these participants in the activity described (van Leeuwen, 1996, p. 39). The effect of this representation strategy is that the actors themselves are deemphasized in the clause, and more emphasis is placed the

‘goal’ or recipients of the action. In the second clause, the agent is identified (“by security dogs”), but the construction of the clause in passive voice deemphasizes this agent and similarly

139 to the first clause, places more emphasis on the individuals affected by the behavior. In both clauses, specific quantifications are given: “at least 30 people” and “six people including a young child”. The modal adjunct of “at least” indicates that there could have been more than 30 people pepper-sprayed; the least number of which is 30.

In Table 5.22, I present my appraisal analysis for the social actor category of “Law

Enforcement” and the behaviors and activities which are attributed to this group throughout the news reports. The entries are organized by similarity and then by report in order to see more clearly how related behaviors are depicted across news reports:

Table 5.22

Appraisal of Behaviors Attributed to ‘Law Enforcement’ in AP Reports

Report: Appraising Appraising Appraised Judgement Sent # Behavior Circumstance 9/4: 9 no one was arrested +prop 10/28: 3 at least 117 people were arrested +prop 10/28: 7 the camp had been cleared by nightfall +norm/+prop 10/28: 1 law enforcement evicted protesters Thursday from private land +prop offices dressed in in the path of the Dakota riot gear and Access oil pipeline firing bean bags and pepper spray 10/28: 4 one man was hurt in the leg -norm 10/28: 16 they [law used a high-pitched whistle intended to (at one point) +norm enforcement] “control and disperse” protesters +prop 11/21: 3 law enforcement had formed a line to prevent their movement +norm and +prop

appeared to be using water cannons -norm/-cap -prop 11/21: 6 what appeared to be cannons and tear -norm/-cap gas being fired at protesters -prop 10/28: 6 officers did not return fire +norm +prop 10/28: 7 police were still dealing with protesters on site +norm +prop 10/28: 8 they [officials] planned to turn over the site to private security but +norm +prop

police would stay for now. +norm +prop 9/4: 7 law enforcement had no reports of protesters being +prop injured

140 As Table 5.22 shows, members of the law enforcement category are consistently described through this affiliation, referenced via the collective nouns, “law enforcement,” “officers,”

“officials,” or “police”. In one case, sentence 1 of the 10/28 report, officers of law enforcement are described by the AP reporter as being “dressed in riot gear and firing bean bags and pepper spray”. By combining the action of firing bean bags and pepper spray to the visual appearance of the officers, the reporter backgrounds this activity in the clause. Instead, the action of

“evicting” is presented as the main process of the clause and is what is emphasized in the sentence.

In 8 of the 14 descriptions shown, members of law enforcement are allocated active roles.

They are represented as active agents in the clause and are linked to activities which are all appraised positively in terms of normalcy and propriety: they evict protesters from private land, they used a high-pitched whistle intended to disperse crowds, they formed a line to prevent protester movement, planned to continue monitoring the site, and did not return fire at protesters.

These are all behaviors which can be understood to be part of the ‘job’ of law enforcement and are thus appraised positively in terms of normality and propriety. In 6 of the 14 descriptions shown, however, members of law enforcement are omitted as agents from the clause to the effect that their identities are backgrounded (van Leeuwen, 1996, p. 39). These backgrounded roles are in association to arrests, clearing of the camp, and the use of cannons and tear gas. In the case of no one being arrested or “at least 117 people arrested,” the omission of agency may be because readers might assume their identities (van Leeuwen, 1996, p. 38). The effect of this backgrounding is that the certainty of these actions, and their association to officers is minimized. Moreover, the use of these weapons is further qualified by the modal adjuncts,

“what appeared to be”. In this way, the certainty that officers were in fact using these weapons,

141 which may be appraised negatively, is obscured. The officers appeared to be using water cannons, but they also might not have been. As a result of this obscuring, the activities and effect of those activities are minimized. These are the only times in which behaviors of law enforcement are characterized or appraised negatively.

In Table 5.23, I present my appraisal analysis for the social actor category of “Protesters” and the behaviors and activities which are attributed to this group throughout the news reports.

Like the previous table, these entries have also been organized by similarity and then by report:

Table 5.23

Appraisal of Behaviors Attributed to ‘Protesters’ in AP Reports

Report: Appraising Appraising Appraised Judgement Sent. # Behavior Circumstance 9/4: 9 the crowd dispersed when officers arrived +norm +prop 9/4: 10 hundreds of have gathered to join the Standing Rock Sioux Tribe’s +norm people protest of the oil pipeline that is slated to cross the Missouri River nearby. 10/28: 9 opponents of set up camp (over the weekend) -norm the pipeline on private land owned by Texas-based -prop Energy Transfer Partners… 10/28: 21 a new camp would be built elsewhere in the pipeline’s path on federal -ten land -prop

11/21: 1 protesters sought to push past a bridge on a state highway that had been blocked -cap/-ten since October 11/21: 2 400 protesters were trying to cross the on State Highway 1806 as part of “an -cap/-ten bridge ongoing riot” 9/4: 2 several confronted construction Saturday afternoon at the site just outside -norm hundred crews the Standing Rock Sioux Reservation protesters 9/4: 25 “individuals crossed onto private property and -prop

accosted private security with wooden posts and flag poles” officers 9/4: 2 four private security guards -norm and two guard dogs were -prop injured 10/28: 23 protesters set fire to four large pieces of -norm construction equipment 10/28: 24 at least two cars were also -norm burned -prop 10/28: 18 many openly defied the officers while -prop protesters

others took part in prayer circles and +norm, +prop

burned sage +norm, +prop

142 11/21: 1 protesters clashed with law late Saturday near the site of the Dakota -norm/-cap enforcement Access Pipeline with at least one person -prop arrested 11/21: 7 protesters removed a burnt-out truck that had been on the Highway since the -prop Oct. 27 confrontation 9/4: 24 Protesters have also posted some of the on social media -norm confrontation

As Table 5.23 shows, individuals described as major participants in the altercation are consistently referred to collectively as “protesters” and not by any unique or individual identity.

They are categorically identified in terms of the function they share with others as “protesters”.

When the term “protesters” is not used, some other quantification device is used to associate and assimilate the individuals into the larger collective “protesters” group. These quantification devices include collective nouns and modifying adjectives such as “individuals,” “many,” “the crowd,” “hundreds of people,” “400,” and “several hundred”. The effect of this quantification is that the amount of people involved in the activity is emphasized, making it seem as if the group as a whole was aggressive by nature, and not just some of the people involved. In two additional cases, these individuals affiliated with the larger group of protesters is identified as “opponents of the pipeline” (sent. 9 in 10/28) and “those charged with felonies” (sent. 20 in 10/28).

Throughout the descriptions of protester behaviors, members of this social actor category are consistently allocated active roles. They are frequently depicted as the agents of the clause, presented as the active, dynamic force of the activity being described (van Leeuwen, 1996, p.

43-44). The range of these activities include arriving or setting up camp on private property and trying to cross a bridge despite there being blockades. While the act of gathering in protest is both normal and legal in terms of their constitutional rights to protest, the added detail that this gathering is taking place on private property emphasizes the illegal presence of the protesters.

Protesters are also described as “confronting” construction crews, “accosting” officers,

“clashing” with law enforcement and defying their orders, as well as setting fire to “four large

143 pieces of construction equipment”. The emphasis of protesters crossing the bridge on the state highway negatively emphasizes their determination to protest. This determination is further characterized negatively in sentence 2 of the 11/21 report, where it is described as being a part of the “on going riot”.

The description of protesters involved with “confronting,” “accosting,” and “clashing” with other individuals on site, characterize the protesters as behaving abnormally. Furthermore, the intensity of these actions is heightened through the terms “accost” and “clash,” and their capabilities are also intensified through the description of weapons used. Protesters are described as accosting private security officers with wooden posts and flag poles (sent. 25 of the

9/4 report). This characterizes the protesters are aggressive and willing to harm others. In sentence 24 of the 9/4 report, protesters are said by the AP journalist as “posting some of the confrontation on social media”. While it may be considered normal that individuals would post their experience to social media, the adjective “some” suggests that what is being shared is only part of the experience, and not the whole experience. As a result, what protesters post is positioned with some doubt and uncertainty that the whole event is not being fairly depicted.

In three cases, the identities of those involved in activities are backgrounded through omission of agency. In sentence 2 of the 9/4 report and in sentences 21 and 24 of the 10/28 report, the agent of each of these clauses are omitted. In the case of sentence 2 and 21, this omission backgrounds the culprit of the activity mentioned, deemphasizing the agent and instead emphasizing the activity: “four private security guards and two guard dogs were injured” (sent 2 of 9/4) and “at least two cars were also burned” (sent. 24 of 10/28). In both cases, this behavior is not normal, nor legal. Thus, they are characterized negatively in terms of normality and propriety. In sentence 21 of the 10/28 report, the backgrounding of the agent may serve to

144 emphasize that the camp which would be built could be built by anyone among the protest group, that there is not one single individual responsible for it. The appraising circumstance suggests that this new camp would be built on private property, which characterizes the affiliated actors as being determined to stay in the area (-ten) despite their illegal presence on the privately, ETP- owned land (-prop). The only times when actions associated with the “protester” actor category are characterized positively are in sentences 18 and 26 of the 10/28 report. In both cases, actors associated with the larger protesting group are shown to participate or intending to participate in peace and prayer. These actions are shown to be passive, and not aggressive toward others, and can thus be judged or characterized as positive behaviors.

Source Integration & Engagement Analysis

In this section of my analysis, I examine the range of sources which are integrated into the news reports to consider the role they play in construing events. I map out their integration by analyzing frequency of occurrence across process types and the range of framing devices used to signal their entry. Table 5.24 lists the range of these sources as they are organized into larger affiliate source categories:

Table 5.24

Range of Source Attribution in AP Reports

9/4 10/28 11/21 Total # Source of Attribution % Report Report Report of Words Category: Law Kyle Kirchmeier 40 28 68 8.0 Donnell Preskey 120 32 152 17.8 Mort. County Sheriff’s Of. 52 52 6.1 “law enforcement” 17 17 2.0 “authorities” 12 12 1.4 “officials” 14 14 1.6 315 36.9 Category: Tribal Dave Archambault 65 65 7.6 Steve Sitting Bear 30 30 3.5 Tim Mentz 45 45 5.3

145 “tribal officials” 19 19 2.2 “the tribe” 46 12 58 6.8 “the tribe’s allies” 20 20 2.3 237 27.7 Category: Protesters Cody Hall 45 45 5.3 Aaron Johnson 44 44 5.2 Rema Loeb 59 59 6.9 “video shot by protesters” 20 20 2.3 168 19.7 Category: State Reps. Cecily Fong 37 37 4.3 “the state of North Dakota” 16 16 1.9 53 6.2 Category: ETP Energy Transfer Partners 48 48 5.6 48 5.6 Category: Other, Organizations Tara Houska 31 31 3.6 31 3.6

As shown in Table 5.24, there are seven major groups of sources which are depicted in these reports. Law enforcement-based sources make up 37.0 percent of all attributions (or 315 of 852 total words) and appear across all process types. These sources include references to Kyle

Kirchmeier, Donnell Preskey (or Hushka), the Morton County Sheriff’s Office, “law enforcement”, “authorities”, and “officials”. In general, the information which is attributed to these sources detail the actions of the protesters and the reactions of the officers. They also acknowledge a lack of recorded injuries of protesters, as well as a lack of arrests involving protesters. Both nominated and generic references to this category of source supply this information.

References to tribal leaders or affiliates of the Standing Rock Sioux Tribe account for

27.8 percent of all attributions (or 237 words total). Members of this group are identified throughout reports as Dave Archambault, Steve Sitting Bear, Tim Mentz, “tribal officials”, “the tribe”, and “the tribe’s allies”. In ‘material’ processes, attributions made to these nominated individuals, Archambault, Sitting Bear, and Mentz, only appeared in the 9/4 report. Information

146 which is attributed to Archambault (described as “Standing Rock Sioux Chairman”) indicate that construction crews cleared topsoil, that sacred ground had been turned to “hollow ground,” and that the cairns and stone rings destroyed could not be replaced. References to Archambault also characterize the demolition as devastating and the grounds as ancestral. Steve Sitting Bear

(described as “Tribal spokesman”) was referenced as a voice for protesters, by which reports of injuries and pepper-spraying, attributed to protesters, was then re-attributed through paraphrase to Sitting Bear. Tim Mentz (described as “Tribal preservation officer”) appeared only in reference to survey allowance and the subsequent finding of cairns and other “sites of historic significance”. In all other reports, only generic references to the tribe category was presented

(“tribal officials”, “the tribe”, and “the tribe’s allies”), and in each case, it was in reference to the pipeline project and the ‘material’ process concerns linked to that project: “could endanger,”

“could contaminate,” “could threaten” (see sent. 10 in 10/28; sent. 14 & 15 in 11/21). The modality construed here has already been discussed.

The third most often cited group of sources in these reports are individuals linked to the group of protesters. This group includes nominated individuals, Cody Hall, Aaron Johnson, and

Rema Loeb, as well as a generic and vague reference to a “video shot by protesters”. These sources make up 19.7 percent of all attributions (or 168 words) and appear only in the 10/28 and

11/21 reports. Attributions to Hall (described as “spokesperson for the protesters”) indicate the lengths members of the protest group would go in support of their goals, while attributions to

Johnson and Loeb served to symbolize a growing divide among the protesters about the behaviors and tactics used by their group.

References to individuals affiliated with the state of North Dakota, as in a vague reference to the state itself, and a nominated reference to Cecily Fong, described as the “State

147 Emergency Services spokeswoman” indicated a lack of sensitive sites, and the conditions for a woman’s arrest. These attributions made up 6.2 percent of all source references (or 53 words total). Energy Transfer Partners is also referenced throughout reports, contributing to 5.6 percent of all attributions (or 48 words). Attributions to this source indicate that no sites had been disturbed and that the pipeline would be safe. Finally, Tara Houska is also mentioned in the reports, though her affiliation is unclear. She is described as “an organizer with Honor the

Earth”, but contextually, may be perceived as a member of the protest group though this affiliation is not explicitly implied. She is referenced in 3.6 percent of the 11/21 news report 31 words total) and only to acknowledge that a gym had to be opened in order to “aid people who had been doused with water or tear gas” (sent. 11 in 11/21 report).

To conclude my analysis of AP news reports, I analyze the range of framing devices used throughout the reports and how those devices may indicate a journalists’ alignment or distancing to a given source or proposition. In Table 5.25 I’ve mapped out the range of framing devices used throughout these reports:

Table 5.25

Range of Framing Devices Used in AP News Reports

Reporting # of Verb occurrences “said” 29 “say(s)” 3 “has said” 3 “told” 2 “saying” 1 “showed” 1 “estimated” 1 “fear” 1 “worry” 1 “vowed” 1

148 The reporting verb most often used in these reports is, “said,” which may be considered neutral in that it neither associates nor disassociates the journalist from the proposition being referenced.

As discussed in the previous chapter, I also consider the variants of “said” (“say(s)” and

“saying”), as well as “showed” and “told” to function neutrally, as well. In addition to these variants, the reporter also uses “has said” three times in these reports. Though this may seem to be another variant of “says” or “saying,” the addition of “has” seems to emphasize the claims made. In three cases, the AP reporters use “has said,” and in all cases, it is used in reference to

Energy Transfer Partners:

1: Energy Transfer Partners has said no sites have been disturbed (sent. 16 in 11/21

report).

2: Energy Transfer Partners has said the pipeline will have safeguards against leaks and

is a safer method of transport for oil than rail or truck (sent. 16 in 11/21 report).

3: Energy Transfer Partners has said the pipeline is largely complete, except for the

section under Lake Oahe (sent. 17 in 11/21 report).

In each of the cases shown above, the use of “has said” seems to emphasize the act of saying, possibly projecting a repetition of the statement, i.e. “ETP has said [multiple times] that the pipeline will have safeguards”. In this way, the use of “has said” may not be a neutral term but rather something which gives more consideration to a proposition by emphasizing its repetition.

In addition to these reporting verbs mentioned, the AP journalist also deviates from

“neutral” reporting verbs in four other cases, when using the reporting verbs “estimated”, “fear”,

“worry”, and “vowed,” as shown below:

1: The Morton County Sheriff’s Office estimated 400 protesters were trying to cross the

bridge on State Highway 1806 as part of an “ongoing riot” (sent. 2 in 11/21 report).

149 2: …the tribe’s allies fear a leak could contaminate their drinking water (sent. 14 in

11/21 report).

3: …. they [the tribe’s allies] also worry that construction could threaten sacred sites

(sent 15. In 11/21 report).

4: Cody Hall, a spokesman for protesters vowed a new camp would be built elsewhere in

the pipeline’s path on federal land (sent. 21 in 10/28).

As shown, in each of these cases except example 4, the process verb used to project the embedded clause is a ‘mental’ process. ‘Mental’ process, like ‘verbal’ are often used to project

(Halliday, 2004, p. 253-4). Thus, while the projecting processes here are technically ‘mental,’ they perform the same function as a ‘verbal’ process and are worthy of analysis, particularly as an engagement resource. In each of these cases, the use of these ‘mental’ processes repurposed as reporting verbs helps to distance the journalist from the statements presented. In example 1, the number of protesters trying to cross is presented as an estimation of 400 according to the

Sheriff’s Office. In example 2 and 3, the concerns attributed to “the tribe’s allies” about the pipeline project are expressed. They are depicted as fearing water contamination and the destruction of their sacred sites. However, this fear is presented as one perspective or perception of many. Rather than attribute these statements to the source through the same patterns which the journalist has used consistently throughout for other source attributions (i.e. “said”), the journalist instead paraphrases these statements and attributes them via emotional, ‘mental’ processes. In this way, it minimizes the statements of these sources, presenting their attributed statements as emotional fears or concerns rather than subjective statements of fact. In example

4, Cody Hall is depicted as “vowing” that a new camp would be built. This emphasizes the determination of the protesting group to continue and support their larger protest.

150 Conclusion

In this chapter, I have analyzed news reports published by the Associated Press following altercations occurring on September 3, October 27, and November 20, 2016. In line with the research questions guiding my analysis, I have found that AP journalists characterized these altercations most often through the ‘material’ processes attributed to law enforcement sources.

The altercations are characterized in ways which emphasize the conflict and violence of the events, but AP reporters also make extensive reference to the larger ongoing litigation which informs the protest. In this way, it connects these altercations specifically to the larger concerns expressed by the Standing Rock Sioux Tribe. The major participant groups depicted in these reports include security guards, construction workers, protesters, and law enforcement.

Construction crews are described as removing topsoil and, in an attribution to Archambault, destroying American Indian burial and cultural sites (sent. 18, 1 in 9/4 report). Private security hired by ETP are backgrounded in descriptions which depict them as pepper-spraying or injuring protesters. “Protesters” are presented in active roles and are consistently described as arriving or setting up camp on private property, trying to cross through police blockades, “confronting” construction crews, “accosting” officers, and “clashing” with law enforcement, as well as setting fire to “four large pieces of construction equipment”. Members of law enforcement are described as evicting protesters from private land, using whatever tools are necessary for this aim, including a high-pitched whistle, forming a line of police, and constructing other blockades.

In considering the range of sources consulted as part of journalists’ process for collecting information and representing these events, law enforcement, as discussed, are the most consulted sources. Not only are they the most consulted, but law enforcement sources are the sources which are relied on most in presenting the ‘who, did what, to who, when, where, and why’ of the

151 event. As a result, it is through these law enforcement sources that details of participants and actions are given, and it is their hegemonic perspective on events which is then reproduced in the reports. All other sources exist to fill some other rhetorical function or role, other than detailing

‘who did what’. Members of the Standing Rock Sioux Tribe, for example, are presented not as participants in the protest nor as having perspectives of events. Rather, are included in the reports in ways which suggests that only their emotional reflection of the events is valuable or newsworthy–not their alignment or their participation to the protest itself. In this way, their affiliation or association to the larger protest is backgrounded from the reports, and thus, their concerns and rationale for the larger protest is backgrounded as well. Similarly, the perspectives of protesters within the reports seem to function as a disassociate device, as well. The information which is attributed to these sources (Hall, Johnson, Loeb, for example) does not give a voice to those directly involved, nor give room for their unique perspective, but rather, functions to emphasize the growing divide among the larger group of protesters, implicitly arguing that the actions of a “few” are not representative of the group as a whole. As a result, those few are ‘marginalized’ and ‘othered’ as separate from the larger protesting group.

152

CHAPTER VI

Representation in The Bismarck Tribune

Analysis IV

In this chapter, I analyze news reports published by The Bismarck Tribune (BT) following the DAPL protest altercations occurring on September 3, October 27, and November 20, 2016.

Table 6.1 lists the articles which have been included in my analysis:

Table 6.1

BT Articles Published After Altercations Occurring on 9/3, 10/27, and 11/20

Date of Publication Author Word Count September 3, 2016 Eckroth 585 October 28, 2016 Grueskin & Donovan 873 November 22, 2016 Grueskin 1,241

Transitivity Analysis

The articles listed in Table 6.1 have been coded and diagramed according to their transitivity structure. These diagrams can be found in Appendix E. In coding these reports, 79.1 percent in the 9/3 report, 26.3 percent of the 10/28 report, and 35.1 percent of the 11/22 report consist of statements attributed to external sources. Like in previous chapters, these statements are analyzed separately from unattributed ones.

Altercation 1: September 3, 2016

The BT report following the September 3 altercation was 585 words long. Table 6.2 illustrates the different processes found in this report and the total number for each:

153 Table 6.2

Unattributed & Attributed Processes in the BT 9/3 News Report

Unattributed Attributed Process Type Total Process Type Total ‘Material’ 10 ‘Material’ 25 ‘Relational’ 5 ‘Mental’ 2 ‘Existential’ 1

‘Material’ Processes

As Table 6.2 shows, ‘material’ processes occur most frequently in this report. In 25 cases, they are attributed to an external source, and in 10 cases, they are not. The unattributed

‘material’ processes are shown in Table 6.3:

Table 6.3

Unattributed ‘Material’ Processes in BT 9/3 News Report

Sent. Process Actor Circumstance Goal Circumstance # (active) 1 protesters broke through a fence line at an alternate construction site for the Dakota Access Pipeline early Saturday afternoon, south of Mandan 28 investigators have taken three formal from officers reports of injuries 30 law from Morton responded to the enforcement County, Burleigh construction County, and site Highway Patrol 31 the Morton in cooperation with is investigating the incident County the Bureau of Sheriff’s Criminal Department Investigations

Sent. Circumstance Goal Process Actor Circumstance Conj. # 3 one of them [the required hospitalization private security guards injured] 4 two security K-9s were also taken to veterinarians to be treated for injuries 20 by late the area had been cleared Saturday afternoon 23 two phone were left for Johnelle Leingang, emergency but messages manager for Standing Rock, and LaDonna Brave Bull Allard, co- organizer of the protest and tribal historian

154 they could not for comments immediately be reached 27 that security guard was transported to a Bismarck hospital [who said he was jabbed and kicked]

The ‘actors’ depicted in the unattributed ‘material’ processes in Table 6.3 include members of law enforcement (referred to as “investigators,” “law enforcement,” and the Morton County

Sheriff’s Department”), and a generic reference to “protesters”. As ‘actors,’ members of law enforcement are presented in generic roles, referenced only in terms of their collective association and functional identity. They are said to have responded to the site (sent. 30), are investigating the event (sent. 31) and took reports of injuries from officers (sent. 28). Sentence

28 further suggests that at least three officers reported being injured. In sentence 20, members of law enforcement are backgrounded from the clause through omission of agency. It can be inferred, however, that law enforcement are the ones responsible for clearing the area. In only one process, “protesters” are identified as ‘actor’. No individual or unique identity is identified.

Protesters are described as breaking through a fence line. In addition to “protesters” and law enforcement, an additional actor backgrounded from these reports is the person(s) responsible for transporting the two security K-9s and the security guards who were injured (sent. 4 & 27). The journalist as agent is backgrounded in sentence 23. Phone messages are said to have been left and the target of those phone calls, unreached, presumably by the BT journalist.

In addition to these unattributed ‘material’ processes, there are also 10 attributed

‘material’ processes in the September 3 report, as shown in Table 6.4:

155

Table 6.4

Attributed ‘Material’ Processes in BT 9/3 News Report

Sent Projected Projected Process # Circum. Actor Goal Circum. Conj. ‘Sayer’ ‘Process’ (active) & Circum. 7 “individuals crossed onto private and property

accosted private with wooden [Kirchmeier] security posts and officers flagpoles” 8* [the should not [Kirchmeier] aggression be repeated and violence displayed here today] 9 “while no we are actively the incident who he said arrests were investigating and the organized and [Kirchmeier] made at the individuals participated scene in this unlawful event” 13 “the ancient cannot be [Archambault] cairns and replaced.” stone rings there 15 construction removed topsoil across an area news release according crews about 150 from to feet wide…. Archambault 16 “at about protesters crossed an area on the west Preskey said 2:30 p.m. through side of Highway 1806, near the Missouri River and Cannon Ball” 18 protesters reportedly from their and Preskey said marched camp located on U.S. Army Corps of Engineers land

[protesters] marched to the construction site on the west side of Highway 1806 19 once the they broke down a wire fence by stepping she said marchers and jumping , [Preskey] arrived at the on it construction site the marchers broke into the and estimated to construction be at least area 300 people

156

rushed construction workers 24* he surveyed the land Tim Mentz, said [Tim Mentz] former tribal in a historic officer statement

25* a crowd of pushed him against a one security said protesters vehicle guard

Sent Process Projected Projecting Circum. Goal Circum. Circum. Actor Circum. # (passive) ‘Sayer’ ‘Process’ 2 “three at the were by Donnell Preskey, said private site injured protesters” spokeswoman for security the Morton officers County Sheriff’s Office 10 sacred places of the were Saturday by Energy Tribal Chairman shortly containing Standing destroyed Transfer Dave before 9 ancient Rock Partners Archambault II p.m. burial sites, Sioux issued a places of prayer and Tribe statement other sig- saying nificant cultural artifacts 14 “in one our sacred has been into [Archambault] day land turned hollow ground” 17* knives were on them several reports according pulled from security to officers 21 no arrests were Preskey said made 25* he was in the he said jabbed side [one security with a guard] wooden fence pole

[he] kicked in the knees 29 several were witnesses say additional assaulted private security officers

Projected Sent. Process Process: Projected Senser Actor Goal Circumstance Conj. ‘Process’ # (projecting) Material ‘Sayer’ & Circum. they saw protesters climb onto vehicles at the 22 construction site and witnesses also say

beat on them

trying to the

break windows

157 As shown in Table 6.4, the main ‘actors’ of these material processes include those identified and affiliated collectively as “protesters” (referenced to as “individuals,” protesters,” and “marchers” throughout), construction crews, and law enforcement (referenced only by the collective pronoun

“we” in sent. 9).

As ‘actors,’ individuals assimilated into the larger category of “protesters” are identified only through this collective membership and are depicted in active roles 12 times. The activities they participate in include crossing through “an area” and onto private property (sent. 7, 16); marching to a construction site and breaking into it (sent. 18, 19); accosting or assaulting construction workers, security officers and guards (sent. 2, 7, 19, 22 and 25). Their behavior is further characterized as “aggression and violence” through the attribution made to Kyle

Kirchmeier in sentence 8. In each case, these descriptions of protester activity are attributed to law enforcement sources, specifically Donnell Preskey and Kyle Kirchmeier, or to a security guard involved or “witnesses” on site.

In addition to protesters, “construction crews” are also depicted as actor in sentence 15, as well as the omitted ‘actor’ in sentence 14. In sentence 14, construction crews are said to have

“removed topsoil” from an area, according to an attribution made to David Archambault. The use of “according to” is an expansive engagement resource which attributes and distances the reporter from the statement represented. Thus, the remove of topsoil is indicated by the journalist to have been based on Archambault’s perception or claim of the activity. In sentence

14, Archambault is quoted as saying, “in one day our sacred land has been turned into hollow ground”. “Construction crews” are backgrounded in this clause, and as a result, the effect of their actions is emphasized by Archambault. In sentence 10, Archambault is again referenced in the statement that sacred places and significant artifacts had been destroyed by Energy Transfer

158 Partners. In this way, Archambault’s characterization, as attributed, combines ETP and the construction crews based on their association and affiliation to one another. In sentence 9, the efforts of law enforcement are represented through attribution to Kyle Kirchmeier. He is quoted as indicating there have been no arrests, and that “we,” presumably the sheriff’s department, is

“actively investigating” the incident and those involved. Through Kirchmeier’s quote, the actions of the protesters are characterized as contributing toward “unlawful event”. In sentence

21, the lack of arrests is reiterated, this time through an attribution to Donnell Preskey, a spokesperson for the Sheriff’s Department.

‘Relational’ Processes

There are also five ‘relational’ processes depicted in the September 3 report, all of which are attributed to external sources, as shown in Table 6.5:

Table 6.5

Attributed ‘Relational’ Processes BT 9/3 News Report

Sent. Process: Projected Projecting Carrier Attribute # (attributive) ‘Sayer’ ‘Process’ 5 “any suggestion that today’s event is false” [Kirchmeier] was a peaceful protest 8* the aggression and violence is unlawful [Kirchmeier] displayed here today 11 “this demolition is devastating” Archambault said

Sent. Process: Projected Projecting Token Value # (identifying) ‘Sayer’ ‘Process’ 6 “this was more like a riot than a Morton County said protest” Sheriff Kyle Kirchmeier 12 “these grounds are the resting place of our [Archambault] ancestors”

Throughout these attributed ‘relational’ processes, the altercation event itself is characterized. In sentences 5 and 8, the event is presented as not peaceful and as being a result of aggression and violence. These characterizations are presented through attributions to Kyle Kirchmeier. In

159 sentence 8, the behavior of protesters is also characterized as unlawful, and in sentence 6, the event is labelled “more like a riot than a protest”. This characterization of a “riot” is explicitly indicated as a perspective held by Kirchmeier, and not the journalists’ own interpretation. In two cases, attributions are made to David Archambault. In sentence 11, Archambault is said to characterize the construction as “devastating,” and in sentence 12, he identifies and defines

“these grounds” as being “the resting place of our ancestors”.

‘Mental’ Processes

The September 3 news report also contains two ‘mental’ processes, both of which are attributed to external sources, as shown in Table 6.6:

Table 6.6

Attributed ‘Mental’ Processes in BT 9/3 News Report

Sent. Projected Projecting Senser Process Phenomenon # ‘Sayer’ ‘Process’ several reports 17* they witnessed protesters with large knives from security according to officers people saying “stomp him, kick 26 He [security guard] heard Preskey said him, he’s just not going to leave”

In sentence 17, security officers are said to have “witnessed” protesters with large knives, and in sentence 26, a security guard is said to have heard protesters encouraging one another to “stomp” and “kick” him. In both cases, these ‘mental’ processes are attributed to an external source whereby the ‘mental’ perceptions of those involved is presented as one of many possible perspectives on events. In the case of sentence 17, security officers account for their own experience, while in sentence 26, the ‘mental’ experience of the security guard is presented through an attribution to Donnell Preskey, a spokesperson for the Sheriff’s Department.

160 ‘Existential’ Processes

There is also one ‘existential’ process depicted in the September 3 news report. It is attributed to an external source, as shown in Table 6.7:

Table 6.7

Attributed ‘Existential’ Processes in BT 9/3 News Report

Sent. Projected Existent Projected # Process Circumstance ‘Process’ (entity) ‘Sayer’ & Circum. 24* there were multiple graves and where the construction site was Tim Mentz, former said prayer sites breached Saturday tribal historic in a preservation officer statement

‘Existential’ processes, like the one shown in Table 6.7, indicate the presence of something without predicating anything else about it (Halliday, 2004, p. 258). In sentence 24, the presence of “multiple graves and prayer sites” are said to exist. This statement is attributed to Tim Mentz, former tribal preservation officer. The existence of these sites is further qualified through the circumstantial element, “where the construction site was breached”. Throughout the 9/3 report, it is the protesters who are linked to the “breaching” of the site. As such, this statement may suggest that they are protesters are ones who disturbed these sites, not construction workers.

Altercation 2: October 27, 2016

The BT report following the October 27 altercation was 873 words long. Table 6.8 illustrates the different processes found in this report and the total number for each:

Table 6.8

Unattributed & Attributed Processes in the BT 10/28 News Report

Unattributed Attributed Process Type Total Process Type Total ‘Material’ 33 ‘Material’ 9 ‘Verbal’ 13 ‘Verbal’ 2 ‘Relational’ 3 ‘Relational’ 9 ‘Mental’ 3 ‘Mental’ 3

161 ‘Existential’ 1 ‘Existential’ 1

‘Material’ Processes

As Table 6.8 shows, ‘material’ processes occur most frequently in this report. In nine cases, they are attributed to an external source, while in 33 cases, they are not. The unattributed

‘material’ processes are shown in Table 6.9:

Table 6.9

Unattributed ‘Material’ Processes in BT 10/28 News Report

Sent. Process Circum. Actor Goal Circumstance Conj. # (active) 1* a no surrender became a line of retreat line 1* a military overwhelmed hundreds of and police force Dakota Access Pipeline protesters

pushed them from a front line of resistance back to the main camp 2 over the police pressed the protesters half a mile south on N.D. course of 5 Highway 1806 away from a new hours, starting camp they built Sunday directly around noon atop the pipeline easement 3* the unrest continued into the late evening 5 in the late flames and billowed from the cab of one of three Dakota as afternoon thick black Access Pipeline earth movers just smoke over the hill on Highway 1806

protesters walked back to the main camp on U.S. Army Corps land 7* the end-of-day followed hours of that police attempted to contain drama confusion and escalating tensions 10 the two to three eventually the several who hundred surrounded hundred officers protesters

formed human lines of resistance 11* tension and emerged in the group with conflict others throwing logs, water at officers bottles, and rocks 18 protesters set up a series of in their attempts to stop police barricades 19 a contingent started a fire at the first

set up temporary straw at the second and bales two men locked to the undercarriage at the third of a pickup

162 28 some people prayed ,

others took more direct action 31* Loren Bagola walked down the highway along with the retreating protesters 34 police broke up a circle of 50 as people in prayer

they moved through the frontline camp

searching tents and teepees and

marking them with orange Xs when they had been cleared 35 Olivia Bias, of quietly sang as she backed up under police Colorado pressure

41 as police yellow started work on the pipeline within view in an area the Standing formed a construction Rock Sioux Tribe said contains cordon equipment sacred sites around protesters on the highway 44* about 50 marched into the where they encountered police protesters construction zone 45 soon after the roughly 30 walked over the hill from behind construction to protesters private Dakota observe the protesters getting were cleared Access security pushed down the highway from the site guards 46 Thursday’s followed failed between top law enforcement confrontation negotiations officials and camp leaders 48* protesters refused to move

Sent. Process Goal Circumstance Actor # (passive) 17* at least two officers were hit with wood objects thrown by protesters 44* several protesters were arrested

As Table 6.9 shows, the role of ‘actor’ depicted in these unattributed ‘material’ processes vary from a noun or collective noun referring to people, such as references to law enforcement or protesters, to abstract nouns which serves to characterize the altercation itself. In some cases, the

‘actor’ role is also filled by inanimate objects, such as “flames and thick black smoke” in sentence 5 or “yellow construction equipment” in sentence 41.

In 12 of these ‘material’ processes, the ‘actor’ depicted is identified as or associated with the larger group of protesters. References made to this group include “protesters,” and generic references to “some,” “some people,” and “others”, as well as “a contingent,” and “two men”. In

163 each of these cases, individuals are represented as a collective group, thus assimilating the goals and actions of a select few with the goals and actions of the “protester” group as a whole. In each case where a vague reference is made to the protester group or those assimilated into the protest group, these participants are allocated active roles. Protesters and the affiliate

“contingent” are described as setting up a series of barricades to block police. These barricades are described. The first is made of fire, the second, straw, and the third, consists of a pick-up truck which had men “locked to the undercarriage” (sent. 18 & 19). In sentence 11 and 28, a dichotomy is set up within groups of protesters, distinguishing those who are more passive participants from those who are more active. Some protesters are presented as have taking

“more direct action,” such as throwing logs, bottles, and rocks at officers. Others had urged peace and prayer. In sentence 17, a protester is also explicitly depicted as agent, shown to have thrown wooden objects at officers, hitting at least two. In two additional cases, unique individuals associated with the larger protesting group are depicted as ‘actors’: Loren Bagola and

Olivia Bias. Both of these individuals are allocated active roles in the report, but they are depicted as separate from the other violent protest activity. In sentence 31, Loren Bagola is described as having “walked down the highway” with retreating protesters, while in sentence 35,

Olivia Bias is described as quietly singing while “backing up under police pressure”.

In five cases, members of law enforcement are depicted as the main ‘actors’. References to law enforcement include “a military police force,” “police,” and “officers”. In each case, the individuals involved are identified only by their collective affiliation to law enforcement. Their representation is in terms of category, relating to their function in the social sphere. These participants are described throughout the report as “overwhelming” protesters, pushing or pressing past them, and breaking up groups of protesters in prayer. In sentence 44, law

164 enforcement is backgrounded as agents through their omission from the clause. In sentence 45, security guards working on behalf of the pipeline are described as walking over the hill while protesters were forced to retreat. In addition to these participants, the altercation itself is depicted as ‘actor’ through abstract nouns or nominalizations. In sentence 3, the altercation is characterized as an “unrest” which is said to have continued into the late evening, and in sentence 7, it is described as an “end-of-day drama”. In sentence 46, it is further characterized as a “confrontation” resulting between two main groups and their failure to negotiation. These groups are identified as “top law enforcement officials” and “camp leaders”. In sentence 1, the activity of the protesters is characterized as a “no surrender line” which became a “line of retreat,” and in sentence 11, “tension and conflict” are said to have ‘emerged’ in the group.

Finally, in two additional cases, inanimate objects fill the ‘actor’ role. In sentence 5, “flames and thick black smoke” is described as “billowing” from “earth movers”–construction equipment used for the Dakota Access Pipeline. In sentence 41, “yellow construction equipment” is described as starting to work on the pipeline while police attempted to prevent protesters from trespassing into the site. This construction is further qualified through circumstantial elements as taking place within view of where “sacred sites” have been found (41). The journalist attributes the existence of such sites to the Standing Rock Sioux Tribe.

In addition to these unattributed ‘material’ processes, there are also 9 attributed ‘material’ processes in the October 28 report, as shown in Table 6.10:

Table 6.10

Attributed ‘Material’ Processes in BT 10/28 News Report

Sent. Process Projected Projecting Actor Goal Circumstance # (active) ‘Sayer’ ‘Process’ 13 they only used pepper spray and law claims high pitch warning enforcement tones

165 20* “we are not leaving the area Morton County saying Sheriff Kyle Kirchmeier we are holding it” 32 “they used extreme force and against people he said tear gas who were praying” [Bagola] 43 “they are making it worse the only way they Pulliam said know how”

Sent. Process Projected Projecting Goal Actor Circumstance # (passive) ‘Sayer’ ‘Process’ 6 117 people were arrested as of 8:30 p.m. police said 12 they eventually fell under a force of pepper spray, Tribune witnessed [protesters] back rubber and bean bag bullets, reporters by tasers, smoke grenades and relentless, inch-by-inch, pressure from police 22 “this situation has been well from start to finish” Dalrymple said handled

As shown in Table 6.10, the main ‘actors’ of these material processes include members of law enforcement (referenced to throughout as either “they” or “we”) and “protesters”. Protesters are depicted as ‘actors’ in only one case, sentence 12. In sentence 12, protesters are said to have fallen back under a “force of pepper spray, rubber and bean bag bullets, tasers, smoke grenades, and relentless inch-by-inch pressure from police”.

As ‘actors,’ members of law enforcement are described in terms of their presence on the site. In sentences 20 and 21, attributions to sheriff Kirchmeier indicate that members of law enforcement are “holding” the area. This statement is presented through a direct quote attributed to Kirchmeier. In sentences 42 and 43, this presence is characterized as “taunting” through direct quotes attributed to Pulliam. Accordingly, law enforcement are described through the attribution presented as “making it worse the only way they know how”. In only two cases are the activities of law enforcement explicitly described. In sentence 1, law enforcement is presented as accounting for the use of pepper spray only once. The adjunct of “only” here stipulates the range of tools used and functions as a contractive engagement resource. It acknowledges the dialogical perspective that law enforcement has been criticized for using other

166 tools. With the added adjunct of “only” to the material process “used,” this possibility is negated and denied. In sentence 32, members of law enforcement are also described as using “extreme force and tear gas against people who were praying” according to a direct quote attributed to Joe

Pulliam, an individual on site during the altercation. His attribution is signaled by the attributing: acknowledge expansive resource, “said,” which functions neutrally. Finally, in sentence 6, members of law enforcement are backgrounded as agents in the arresting of 117 people. This statement is presented through an attribution to police.

‘Verbal’ Processes

The October 28 news report also contained 15 ‘verbal’ processes, all but two of which are attributed. The unattributed processes are shown in Table 6.11 and attributed in Table 6.12:

Table 6.11

Unattributed ‘Verbal’ Processes in BT 10/28 News Report

Sent. Sayer Process Circums. Target Verbiage/Circums. # 3* police reported two fires on the nearby Backwater Bridge and people throwing Molotov cocktails at police 4 authorities also reported two incidents of shots fired 8 officers repeatedly over the for protesters to return to the called loudspeaker main camp 9 they [officers] promised no arrests if they went peacefully 11* some urged peace and prayer 14 Standing Rock criticized the way other crowd Sioux Tribal dispersing methods-rubber Chairman David bullets-and concussion Archambault II cannons-were also used 17* law enforcement reported no injuries by evening 20* Morton County claimed a victory in the late afternoon Sheriff Kyle Kirchmeier 21 Gov. Jack complimented law enforcement’s efforts to Dalrymple remove protesters from the Dakota Access property 29 one called out “we need our numbers to get back at the prayer” 30 another fired back “you are doing the police’s work for them” 31* Loren Bagola… called it a sad day 47 law enforcement insisted protesters clear out of a camp on private property and stop blocking the road for public safety reasons.

167 Table 6.12

Attributed ‘Verbal’ Processes in BT 10/28 News Report

Sent. Projected Projecting Circums. Sayer Process Target Verbiage # ‘Sayer’ ‘Process’ 23 “going we have protesters that public roadways and private [Dalrymple] forward, persuaded properties is not the place to hold a hopefully protest” 36* “we said that this was a no surrender here she [Bias] said

The ‘verbal’ processes depicted in Table 6.11 summarize the actions, perceptions, and requests occurring during the altercation event. In three cases, unattributed ‘verbal’ processes indicate the culmination of reports made: two fires and people throwing Molotov cocktails at police in sentence 3; two incidents of shots fired in sentence 4; and no injuries in sentence 17. In each of these cases, members of law enforcement are responsible for the information and their attributions are signaled through the contractive engagement resource, “reported”.

In eight additional cases, the ‘verbal’ processes shown in Table 6.12, summarize actions occurring during the altercation, presumably witnessed by the BT reporter who was on site.

Accordingly, various aspects of the altercation are narrated by the journalist. In sentence 8 and

9, officers are said to have called over a loudspeaker, asking protesters to return to camp. They promised not to make any arrests if protesters moved peacefully. The request that protesters leave is reiterated in the ‘verbal’ process depicted in sentence 47. In sentences 29, 30, and 31, the journalist narrates actions of individuals affiliated with the larger group of protesters: in sentence 29, “one protesters” is said to have called out for protesters to return to prayer, while in sentence 30, “another” protester is said to have seen this request as forming an alliance with officers and their desire to evict protesters. Finally, in sentences 14, 20, and 21, Archambault,

Kirchmeier, and Dalrymple are shown to react to the day’s events. In sentence 14, Archambault is said to have criticized some of the tactics used by officers, such as their use of rubber bullets and concussion cannons. Yet, these weapons are qualified as “crowd dispersing methods,”

168 suggesting that their use was justified to this aim. In sentence 20, Kirchmeier is said to have

“claimed a victory,” and in sentence 21, Dalrymple “compliments” the efforts of law enforcement in removing protesters insinuating that the actions taken by law enforcement is supported or endorsed by state government.

‘Relational’ Processes

There are also 12 ‘relational’ processes depicted in the October 28 news report. Nine of these are attributed to external sources, while the remaining three are not. They are shown in

Tables 6.13 and 6.14:

Table 6.13

Unattributed ‘Relational’ Processes in BT 10/28 News Report

Sent. Process: Token Value. Circumc. Conj. # (attributive) 16 dozens had burning eyes

one person had rib cage bruises apparently from bean bag bullets and

one other with with a sore arm from allegedly being grabbed by police

Table 6.14

Attributed ‘Relational’ Processes in BT 10/28 News Report

Sent. Process: Projected Projecting Carrier Attribute Circumstance # (attributive) ‘Sayer’ ‘Process’ 33 “I am heartbroken” [Bagola] 37 “we [have] been so successful with what we’ve been doing for so long” [Bias]

Sent. Process: Projected Projecting Token Value # (identifying) ‘Sayer’ ‘Process’ 23* “…public roadways and is [sic] not the place to hold a protest…” [Dalrymple] private property 24 the day was also a victory for protesters Organizer, said Dallas Goldtooth 25* “this is not a loss” he said [Goldtooth] 36 “this was a no surrender here” she said [Bias] “different people had different ideas about no she said surrender” [Bias] 38 “it is nothing but chaos now” [Bias] 39 the disagreements was “going to happen” Joe Pulliam, said among protesters of Pine Ridge, S.D.

169 48* the land is theirs by an 1851 treaty [Bagola]

Each of the unattributed ‘relational’ processes identify individuals or groups of individuals according to their injury. “Dozens” are identified in terms of their “burning eyes,” “one person” is identified in terms of their rib cage bruises, and one other person is identified in terms of their

“sore arm”. In both of the individual cases, the extent of the injuries described are hedged through distancing engagement resources. These include the use of “apparently” and “allegedly” in sentence 16. Each of these terms functions to distance the certainty in the claim expressed.

“Apparently” conveys a lower degree of certainty in the proposition, while “allegedly” conveys a lower degree of credibility in the source of the “alleged” claim. In both instances the journalist distances the certainty and possibility that the injuries came from been bag bullets or from police, respectively.

Within the attributed ‘relational’ processes, illustrated in Table 6.14 aspects related to the protest altercation are identified or described in terms of characteristic or attribute. In the case of sentences 33 and 37, Bagola and Bias, two individuals affiliated with the larger protesting group are described via direct quotes. Bagola is said to be “heartbroken” by the day’s events, and Bias attributes the group efforts as being successful”. In the remaining ‘relational,’ processes, elements of the altercation are identified. In sentence 24, 25, 38, and 39, the event is identified in terms of its activities, the disagreements among protesters, and as chaotic. These statements are attributed to either Dallas Goldtooth (in the case of sentences 24 and 25), Olivia Bias, and

Joe Pulliam. Each of these sources are associated through the report as being affiliated with the larger protesting group. Finally, in sentence 48, the land serving as the site of altercation is described through attribution to Bagola as tribal land.

170 ‘Mental’ Processes

The October 28 news report also contains six ‘mental’ processes. Of these, three are attributed to external sources while the other three are not. They are shown in Table 6.15 and

Table 6.16:

Table 6.15

Unattributed ‘Mental’ Processes in BT 10/28 News Report

Sent. Senser Process Phenomenon Conj # 27 many protesters were troubled by the day

some [^] by law enforcement’s response and

others [^] by the shouting and shoving among their own over how to protest the camp

Table 6.16

Attributed ‘Mental’ Processes in BT 10/28 News Report

Sent. Projected Projecting Senser Process Target Phenomenon # ‘Sayer’ ‘Process’ 25* “we always knew this camp was at risk” he said [Goldtooth] 26 “we want the world to see how far North Dakota [Goldtooth] and their police will go to protect an oil company”

Through the unattributed ‘mental’ processes, the journalist accounts for the internal thoughts and concerns which “troubled” the protesters. Protesters is referred to here by the collective association of individuals to the larger group entity, assimilating unique individuals into a shared, group one. Protesters are said to be troubled by the day, the actions of law enforcement, and by the “shouting and shoving” occurring among their own members (sent. 27). Through this ‘mental’ process, the group of protesters is divided through characterizations of active and peaceful members, and those who are not. In the attributed ‘mental’ processes, as depicted in

Table 6.16, direct quotes are attributed to Dallas Goldtooth and Olivia Bias–individuals

171 identified and associated with the protesting group due to their presence on site. In sentence 25 and 26, Goldtooth is quoted as saying that “we always knew the camp was at risk” and “we want the world to see how far North Dakota will go to protect an oil company”. In both cases, “we” signifies the association of Goldtooth to the larger protesting group. As a result, the collective entity of protesters and Goldtooth are shown to be driven by their concerns with oil company and the infringement of that company on Native American lands.

‘Existential’ Processes

There are also two ‘existential’ processes depicted in the October 28 report. One is attributed to an external source and the other is not, as shown in Tables 6.17 and 6.18:

Table 6.17

Unattributed ‘Existential’ Processes in BT 10/28 News Report

Sent. Existent: Process # (event) 15 There were visible injuries among the group

Table 6.18

Attributed ‘Existential’ Processes in BT 10/28 News Report

Sent. Existent: Projected Projecting Process: Conj. # (entity) ‘Sayer’ ‘Process’ 40 “there [is] [sic] young militants that want to take action and he said [Pulliam] elders that know better”

In both examples, the ‘existential’ processes indicate the existence of injuries or particular people at the site of protest. In sentence 15, the presence of “visible injuries” is indicated to exist among the group, and in sentence 40, “young militants” and “elders” are said to be at the site. These groups are distinguished by reference to Pulliam as being those that “want to take action” (i.e. the young militants), and those who don’t (i.e. the elders who know better).

172 Altercation 3: November 20, 2016

The BT report following the November 20 altercation was 1,241 words long. Table 6.19 illustrates the different processes found in this report and the total number for each:

Table 6.19

Unattributed & Attributed Processes in the BT 11/22 News Report

Unattributed Attributed Process Type Total Process Type Total ‘Material’ 16 ‘Material’ 37 ‘Relational’ 1 ‘Relational’ 15 ‘Verbal’ 5 ‘Verbal’ 4 ‘Mental’ 4 ‘Existential’ 2

‘Material’ Processes

As Table 6.19 shows, ‘material’ processes occur most frequently in this report. In 37 cases, they are attributed to external sources, while in 16, they are not. The unattributed

‘material’ processes are shown in Table 6.20:

Table 6.20

Unattributed ‘Material’ Processes in BT 11/22 News Report

Sent. Process Circ. Actor Circ. Goal Circumstance Conj. # (active) 1* an hours-long between Dakota ended midday Monday standoff Access Pipeline protesters and police on the Backwater Bridge 2 the previous night’s followed efforts by to remove burned out confrontation protesters vehicles blocking the bridge since late-October 3 the attempt escalated into hours of conflict in [to move burned which vehicles]

protesters reportedly rocks and at police who threw logs

responded with tear gas, rubber bullets, and cold water 18 Michael Knudsen, a was giving medical at the front line of the member of the treatment protest on Sunday night Standing Rock Medic and Healer Council,

173 40 Aidoneus Bishop helped pull one burned off the bridge Sunday vehicle night 43* it took six tries to attach and pull the vehicle 44 protesters started to check on what was arriving happening 48 from officers started the rubber and here firing bullets

more people gathered on the bridge and across the fields to the sides 49* this led to the long with police [the gathering of confrontation protesters] 50 law enforcement responded the protesters with water and by spraying

firing rubber bullets, into the crowd tear gas, and pepper spray 51* they were only one of the [Bishop, et al.] able to get trucks

Sent. Goal Process Actor Circumstance # 5 one officer was reportedly hit in the head with a rock

As Table 6.20 shows, the ‘actors’ depicted in these unattributed ‘material’ processes include individuals identified or affiliated with protesters or nominalizations of their actions, members of law enforcement, and nominalizations which characterize the altercation.

In three of these ‘material’ processes, the ‘actor’ depicted is identified as or associated with the larger group of protesters by generic reference to “protesters” or “more people”.

References made to this group include “protesters,” and the group pronoun referents “some,”

“some people,” and “others”, as well as “a contingent,” and “two men”. In these cases, the individuals involved are stripped of their individual identities and are instead represented by group assimilation. In four additional cases, descriptions of protester activity are presented through reference to Bishop or his activity. In sentence 40, Bishop is described as having helped pull a burned vehicle from the bridge. In sentence 43, his efforts are described as taking six tries,

174 and attracting more protesters to the bridge (sent. 44 & 49). In sentences 2, 3, and 49, it is this activity which is described as instigating and escalating the larger confrontation.

Members of law enforcement are described as “responding” to protester action with tear gas, rubber bullets, and cold water (sent. 3, 48, 50). References made to these actors include

“police,” “officers,” and “law enforcement”. As shown, these individuals are identified only through their collective affiliation to law enforcement. Finally, in sentence 18, Michael Knudsen is depicted as ‘actor’. He is nominalized through his unique identification as “a member of the

Standing Rock Medic and Healer Council,” and is described as giving medical treatment during the altercation. Other than these participants, the altercation itself is depicted as ‘actor’ in sentence 1 and 2. In sentence 1, it is described as an “hours-long standoff” occurring between two particular groups: Dakota Access Pipeline protesters and police. In sentence 2, the altercation, as already mentioned, is said to have occurred as a result of particular efforts made by protesters to remove vehicles from the bridge.

In addition to these unattributed ‘material’ processes, there are also 37 attributed

‘material’ processes in the November 21 report, as shown in Table 6.21:

Table 6.21

Attributed ‘Material’ Processes in BT 11/22 News Report

Sent Projected Projected Process . # Circum. Actor Goal Circumstance Conj. ‘Sayer’ ‘Process’ & (active) Circum. 4* it [the led to at least 26 among a camp medical according to altercation] serious protesters group injuries 9 “we are just not people, come and Kirchmeier said going to let protesters in threaten large groups officers” 12 local law has begun federal aid in the form of Kirchmeier said enforcement getting Customs and Border Patrol officers 13* a leak in the would the Missouri protesters have voiced pipeline contaminate River concerns that

175 14 “it is using our as a weapon she said medicine against us to [Bibens] inflict pain and suffering” 16 her was taking statements throughout Bibens said [Bibens’] the day in team preparation for a potential lawsuit alleging police brutality 17 they would send human to the pipeline Amnesty said rights protests for International Monday observers their fourth visit since August 20 the medics started campfires to warm he said people [Knudsen]

handed out emergency and blankets

organized warmer in camp for “winterized” cold people to beds sleep 26 nine people were treated at Sanford [Health] Sanford Health said spokesman Jon Berg 32 he and approached law at the bridge Archie Fool Bear, said several tribal enforcement two to three a former tribal leaders weeks ago to councilman and ask what it member of the would take to Akicita warrior get the bridge and veteran’s reopened group, who has been involved with the protest camps 33 they [he and asked for a meeting on “neutral but He said several tribal ground” [Archie Fool leaders] Bear]

to his no meeting took place and knowledg e no have been agreements reached 36* demonstrations continue daily Zent said at the bridge 39* snow or ice would the process she said complicate [Olson] 46 everyone showed up and [Bishop]

we could [not] the other get…out one 47 “it just Bishop said escalated” 49* protesters started fires and Kirchmeier according to

allegedly rocks and at officers threw burning logs

176 51* they [will] be to get the Bishop said back other 52 “we [are] what we see because they [Bishop] upholding as our end [are] blaming of the deal those vehicles on us” 53* “we [are] going our mess” Bishop said to clean up 54* Protesters left the bridge late Monday the reported at the request Associated of tribal Press elders 55 police were the with razor Bishop said reinforcing barricade wire, as protesters retreated 57 “we [have] been this for 500 years” [Lizama] fighting

Sent Process Projected Projecting Goal Actor Circumstance Conj. # (passive) ‘Sayer’ ‘Process’ 7 water is not by his as a method to Morton County said normally department disperse a crowd Sheriff, Kyle used Kirchmeier, who said police used fire hoses not cannons as reported by numerous protesters 13* people protesting were being with it Angela Bibens, an did not about protecting repelled attorney who works miss the water at the camp irony that 19 people were mostly from He said suffering hypothermia blunt [Knudsen] trauma as well as from the rubber bullet and tear gas contamination 23 300 people in were injured in some form a release from the according total medic and healer to council 24 at least 26 had to be by to three area hospitals the release from the according seriously injured evacuated ambulance medic and to people healer council 25 six people were treated there CHI St. Alexius confirmed involved in the [at CHI St. Alexius] spokeswoman, protest Chelsey Kralicek 26 nine people were treated at Sanford [Health] Sanford Health said spokesman Jon Berg 27 six were treated at the Fort Yates Cecily Fong, public said Hospital information officer for the Department of Emergency Services 31* it is being used to prevent access to protesters suggest [the barricade] construction sites just north 39* testing can still be despite the cooler She said done temperatures [Olson]

177 As Table 6.21 shows, the November 22 report published by the BT depicts a range of social actors. These actors include individuals identified and affiliated collectively as “protesters” and particular individuals on site whose activities are depicted as escalating the altercation

(“everyone,” “we,” “they”). “Protesters” are described as starting fires and “allegedly” throwing rocks and logs at officers (sent. 49). The modal adjunct of “allegedly” functions to distance the journalist from the certainty expressed in the statement attributed to Kirchmeier. In this way, they allow for the possibility of dialogical alternatives, that they did not throw those particular objects, for example. In sentence 54, “protesters” are said to have left the bridge when requested to by tribal elders (sent. 54). These statements are presented through attributions to Kirchmeier and the Associated Press, respectively. The accounts of individual “protester” activities are presented through attributions to Bishop, an individual named and nominated as directly involved in the events. Accordingly, Bishop had been attempting to remove a vehicle blockade, and other protesters showed up (sent. 46, 47). Bishop is quoted in reflection of these events, particularly in terms of his rationale. He is quoted as saying that “we are upholding what we see as our end of the deal because they [law enforcement] are blaming these vehicles on us” (sent.

52, 53).

Affiliates of law enforcement are depicted as ‘actors’ in sentences 9 and 12. They are described–through attributions made to Kirchmeier–as being unwilling to let “people, protesters in large groups come and threaten officers”. The characterization of the protesters as threatening officers is presented through a direct quote attributed to Kirchmeier and signaled by the neutral reporting verb, “said”. In sentence 12, law enforcement is said to have begun receiving federal aid. This is attributed to Kirchmeier, as well. Kirchmeier is also depicted as source in sentence

7, paraphrased as saying that water is not normally used by his department as a method to

178 disperse a crowd. However, this attribution to Kirchmeier is signaled through an adjective modifier. In it, Kirchmeier is described as “Morton County Sheriff… who said police used fire hoses not cannons as reported by numerous protesters”. Finally, in sentence 55, “police” are said to have been reinforcing a barricade with “razor wire,” and in sentence 31, protesters are shown to suggest that the barricade is being used to prevent access to the construction site. Individuals affiliated with giving or enabling medical care are depicted as ‘actors’ in three of these

‘attributed’ material processes. In sentence 20, “the medics” are described as starting campfires, handing out emergency blankets, and organizing “winterized” bed. These actions are done in response to the cold weather and the number of protesters on site. An Attribution to a camp medical group also signifies that the altercation itself was responsible for at least 26 injuries among protesters.

Actions of Archie Fool Bear, described in the report as a former tribal council man and member of the Akicita warrior and veteran’s group, and his affiliation with other tribal leaders are depicted in sentences 32 and 33. According to paraphrases attributed to Archie Fool Bear, he and several tribal leaders are said to have approached law enforcement to negotiate the opening the bridge and to request a meeting; however, no meeting is said to have occurred, and consequently, no agreements reached. In sentence 13, “a leak in the pipeline” is depicted as

‘actor’. Accordingly, it is said that a leak “would contaminate the Missouri River”. The use of the modal adjunct “would” presents this statement with a higher degree of certainty than if the journalist had used “could” or “might”.

Throughout the attributed ‘material’ processes which are constructed in passive voice, additional details regarding injury reports are presented, though in each case, the agent is backgrounded from the clause. In sentence 19, people are described as suffering from

179 hypothermia, blunt trauma, rubber bullets, and tear gas contamination. In sentence 23, 300 people are said to have been injured in some form. In sentence 24, at least 26 people are identified as seriously injured and described as being transported for medical treatment. The information presented in sentences 25, 26, and 27 further acknowledge reports of treatment based on attributions made to a variety of health care sources.

‘Relational’ Processes

There are 16 ‘relational’ processes depicted in the November 22 news report. All but one of these processes are attributed to an external source, as shown Table 6.22 and Table 6.23:

Table 6.22

Unattributed ‘Relational’ Processes in BT 11/22 News Report

Sent. Process: Token Value # (identifying) 56 among the crowd on the bridge was Elih Lizama, 24, who stayed for four hours despite several hits from rubber bullets

Table 6.23

Attributed ‘Relational’ Processes in BT 11/22 News Report

Sent. Projected Projected Process: # Carrier Attribute Circumstance ‘Sayer’ ‘Process’ & (attributive) Circum. 4* it was the most between law enforcement and a camp medical according to tense conflict opponents of the 1,168-mile group crude oil pipeline in weeks 10 “it [the use was effective” Mandan Police added of force] Chief Jason when asked Ziegler whether the use of force was necess- ary to keep officers safe 15 “I am appalled by Morton County’s utter lack [Bibens] of regard for the sanctity of human life” 30 the bridge may be unsafe for the traffic, due to fires set authorities have said October 27 as law enforcement pushed protesters back from a northern “front line” camp directly along the pipeline easement

180 35 “that area has to be secure before state officials can come he said in to determine the integrity of [Zent] the bridge and make repairs”

Sent. Process: Projected Projecting Circum. Token Value Circum. # (identifying) ‘Sayer’ ‘Process’ 21 “this was a disaster zone yesterday” Knudsen said 28 one person was in serious condition at the the hospital according Hennepin [Hennepin to County Med. Medical Center] Center 29 among the were a man who had a the release according most serious seizure, an elder who from the to injuries had to be resuscitated medic and and a woman suffering healer an eye injury from a council rubber bullet to the face 34 it [is] not a matter of negotiation Jeff Zent, a said spokesman for the governor’s office 37 “until that we [are] kind of in a holding [Zent] happens pattern” [protesters leave] 41 the move was the end of a two-week he said long ritual in which he [Bishop] would pull a semi-truck up to the burned vehicles, as if to tow them, then turn back around to camp 45 “the whole was to remove the trucks” [Bishop] plan 58 “another 24 is nothing” he said hours [Lizama] 59 “to quit is not in our blood” [Lizama]

The unattributed ‘relational’ process, as shown in Table 6.22 identifies an individual involved in the altercation event. Accordingly, Elih Lizama is said to have been “among the crowd on the bridge”. Lizama is further described as being 24 years old and as “staying for four hours despite several hits from rubber bullets”. There is no indication in the clause as to who the agent was of these rubber bullet shots. It can be inferred, however, that it was a member of law enforcement.

Within the attributed ‘relational’ processes, the environment of the altercation, the altercation itself, and activities taking place are described. In sentence 4, the altercation (referred to by “it”) is described as tense and characterized as the “most tense” of the conflicts. In

181 sentence 21, the area of the altercation is characterized as a “disaster zone”. In sentence 41 and

45, some of the activity taking place during the altercation is described in association to Bishop’s activity. Through attributions to Bishop, the journalist characterizes these activities as “the move” which is part of a “two-week long ritual”. Bishop is quoted in sentence 45 and characterizes the plan of his activity being to remove the trucks. Altercation activity is further characterized in sentence 36 through an attribution made to Jeff Zent, described as a spokesman for the governor’s office. In sentence 36, the altercation is associated with a larger group of demonstrations that Zent is credited with saying occur daily. Additional references to Zent characterize the bridge as unsafe and the protesters as hindering law enforcement’s ability to make the area safer (sent. 35). Attributions to Zent indicate that protesters are being asked to leave so that officials can work on the bridge. This request is characterized as “not a matter of negotiation” in sentence 34. In sentence 10, the actions of law enforcement are described as

“effective” through reference to Jason Ziegler, the police chief. In two additional cases, the

‘token’ fields of the ‘relational’ processes indicate injuries. In sentence 28, “one person” is identified in terms of their “serious condition,” while in sentence 29, “among the most serious injuries” are defined through reference to a man with a seizure and a woman suffering an eye injury.

‘Verbal’ Processes

The November 22 news report also contains nine ‘verbal’ processes. Of these, four are attributed to external sources and five are not. The ‘unattributed’ processes are shown in Table

6.24:

182

Table 6.24

Unattributed ‘Verbal’ Processes in BT 11/22 News Report

Sent. Target Process Sayer Verbiage # the use of water to has come under 6* from people who say it made dozens hypothermic repel protesters criticism

Sent. Sayer Process Target Circumstance/Verbiage # 1* an elder encouraged people to leave the bridge 6* law enforcement defended its use Monday, as "the best option we had" [the use of water] 31* protesters criticize the barricade as blocking emergency services 43* law enforcement told them [Bishop et al.] to stop

Again, the ‘verbal’ processes depicted in Table 6.24 function to summarize the actions, perceptions, and requests occurring during the November 20 altercation event. In two cases, the

‘verbal’ processes summarize actions occurring during the altercation, presumably witnessed by the BT reporter who was on site. In sentence 1, an elder is said to have “encouraged people” to leave the bridge, while in sentence 43, law enforcement is said to have told protesters to stop their actions. In sentence 6, law enforcement again is said to have defended their use of water as the “best option” they had. “Defended” here acts as a contractive: disclaim engagement resource. It acknowledges the perspective that the use of these tactics has fallen under criticism, but quickly negates that perspective. Moreover, the phrasing “the best option we had” is presented in quotes, so as to emphasize that characterization as a perspective held by law enforcement and not by the journalist. In this way, it is presented as an expansive: distancing engagement resource.

In addition to these unattributed ‘verbal’ processes, there are also four attributed ‘verbal’ processes in this report, as shown in Table 6.25:

183 Table 6.25

Attributed ‘Verbal’ Processes in BT 11/22 News Report

Sent. Projected Projecting Sayer Process Target Verbiage # ‘Sayer’ ‘Process’ 36* law had repeatedly protesters to leave the area Zent said enforcement asked 52* “they [law [are] blaming those vehicles on us” [Bishop] enforcement] 54* police warned the crowd that they had found the firearms Associated reported Press

Sent. Projected Projecting Receiver Process Target Sayer Circumstance # ‘Sayer’ ‘Process’ 38 the had not any from law on when they might be North Dakota department received update enforcement able to come do testing Department of Transportation said spokeswoman Jamie Olson

The attributed ‘verbal’ processes, as shown in Table 6.25, similarly summarize events occurring during the altercation as attributed to external sources. In sentence 36, members of law enforcement are said to have repeatedly asked protesters to leave. In sentence 54, according to the attribution made to the Associated Press, police used their finding of firearms as a way to convince crowds to disperse. In sentence 52, Bishop is quoted as saying that law enforcement was blaming the burning of the vehicles on them. Bishop’s attribution here also acknowledges the possibility that the protesters were not to blame for the vehicles.

‘Mental’ Processes

There are also four ‘mental’ processes in the report, all of which are attributed to external sources, as shown in Table 6.26:

Table 6.26

Attributed ‘Mental’ Processes in BT 11/22 News Report

Sent. Projected Projecting Senser Process Phenomenon # ‘Sayer’ ‘Process’ 8 field commanders on the considered the effect water would have on scene who made the people in the cold temperatures he said decision to use fire hoses [Kirchmeier] on protesters

184 11 law enforcement would using water again he said consider [Ziegler] 42* he just “figured it was time” he [to try and move the burned said [Bishop] vehicles] 60 “we can expect to fight to the end” [Lizama]

In sentence 8 and 11, various affiliates of law enforcement are referenced in regard to their strategy of using water during the altercation event. In sentence 8, field commanders are said to have made the decision to use water having already considered its effect. This statement is presented through an attribution to Kyle Kirchmeier, county sheriff. In sentence 11, Ziegler,

Mandan police chief, is referenced as saying that law enforcement would “consider” using these practices again, suggesting that neither Kirchmeier nor Ziegler found any fault in their use.

In addition to Kirchmeier and Ziegler, Bishop and Lizama, two individuals associated with the group of protesters are also referenced through attributions. In sentence 42, Bishop is quoted as saying he “figured it was time” to move the vehicles. In sentence 60, Lizama is quoted as saying “we can expect to fight to the end”. This quote follows from another quote which is attributed to Lizama, whereby he acknowledges that the protest and emotions of protesters was partly fueled by a lack of consideration to the concerns, rights, and risks the pipeline project would pose to Native Americans (see sent. 58-59 in Fig. C of Appendix D). As such, Lizama’s emotional acknowledgment here that “we can expect to fight to the end” unites the protesters and

Native Americans, associating them and uniting them in a common goal.

‘Existential’ Processes

Finally, there are two ‘existential’ processes in the report which are both attributed to external sources. They are shown in Table 6.27:

185

Table 6.27

Attributed ‘Existential’ Processes in BT 11/22 News Report

Sent. Existent: Projected Projecting Circumstance Process # (entity) ‘Sayer’ ‘Process’ from Standing Rock, 22 ambulances Cheyenne River, Kidder, were present Knudsen said and Morton Counties

Sent. Existent Projected Projecting Process # (event) ‘Sayer’ ‘Process’ he 42* there was no special reason for going through with the job Sunday night said [Bishop]

In sentence 15, the presence of “ambulances” from multiple counties is indicated to have been present at the site of protest, according to the attribution made to Knudsen. In sentence 42,

Bishop’s decision to remove two trucks from a bridge is depicted as an ‘existential’ process.

Summary of Transitivity Analysis

The results of my transitivity analysis have shown patterns in how these altercations events are presented to audiences. In terms of ‘participants’ and ‘processes,’ I have found that representations of events are sustained most through the ‘material’ processes. ‘Relational,’

‘verbal,’ ‘mental,’ and ‘existential’ processes are also depicted. Table 6.28 illustrates the total range of processes identified in these reports:

Table 6.28

Range of Unattributed & Attributed Processes in BT Reports

Process 9/3 Report 10/28 Report 11/22 Report Type Unattrib. Attrib. Unattrib. Attrib. Unattrib. Attrib. Totals ‘Material’ 10 25 33 9 16 37 130 ‘Relational’ 5 3 9 1 15 33 ‘Verbal’ 13 2 5 4 24 ‘Mental’ 2 3 3 4 12 ‘Existential’ 1 1 1 2 5

186 Of the total 204 process types identified, 130 of them (or 63.7 percent) are ‘material’ processes.

Unattributed ‘material’ processes largely summarize the act of physical response to the altercations from law enforcement, as well as highlight background reporting work such as the attempt to gather information from sources by Tribune reporters. Attributed ‘material’ processes similarly address various “sides” and activities, and in the case of the 11/22 report, acknowledges the range of injuries and medical treatment administered throughout the event. Throughout the

9/4 BT report, there is no explicit characterization of the event, unless attributed via direct quote to another source. In the 10/28 and 11/22 reports, however, the altercation is characterized as an

“unrest,” a “drama,” and as a “confrontation”.

‘Relational’ processes make up 16.2 percent of all processes (33 of the 204 total). These

‘relational’ processes mostly consist of directly quoted law enforcement officials and on-site individuals who characterize the events and behaviors of those directly involved in the altercation. ‘Verbal’ processes made up 11.8 percent of total processes (24 of the 72). They function to summarize actions and requests occurring during the altercation, as witnessed by journalists. Mental processes made up 5.9 percent of all processes (12 out of 204). These

‘mental’ processes construed rationale of events and activities based on details and perceptions attributed to individuals on site during events. Finally, five processes were ‘existential’ (2.5 percent). These processes acknowledged injuries, the presence of grave sites, and a division among the larger group of protesters.

Appraisal: Judgement Analysis

My transitivity analysis has indicated that the primary social actors involved in these protest altercations are construction workers, members of law enforcement, and individuals identified as or affiliated with “protesters”. In the sections which follow, I analyze how these

187 larger actor categories for how individual and group behaviors are represented and appraised holistically in news reports. I draw on frameworks of Judgement analysis developed by Martin

& White (2005) as well as van Leeuwen’s framework for analyzing Social Actor representation

(1996). Table 6.29 presents the social actor category of “Construction Crews” and the behaviors and activities which attributed to or associated with this group throughout the news reports. This social actor category only appears in the 9/3 report. My appraisal analysis is shown in the column marked “judgement”:

Table 6.29

Appraisal of Behaviors Attributed to ‘Construction Crews’ in BT Reports

Report: Appraising Appraising Appraised Judgement Sent # Behavior Circumstance sacred places containing …Saturday… -norm ancient burial sites, places of prayer and other significant 9/3: 10 cultural artifacts of the Standing Rock Sioux Tribe were destroyed…by ETP construction crews removed topsoil across an area about 150 feet wide +norm 9/3: 15

As shown in Table 6.29, the individuals involved in the activities are identified impersonally and categorically. In the case of sentence 10 in the 9/3 report, these construction crews are correlated and identified to the larger organization, Energy Transfer Partners, as the company who had hired the workers and facilitated the construction project. Through descriptions of ETP’s attributed behavior, such as destroying sacred places, sites, places of prayer, and other significant cultural artifacts, this entity is characterized negatively in terms of normalcy. In the case of sentence 15 in the 9/3 report, “construction crews” are described as removing topsoil, which is otherwise regarded as a normal behavior for construction crews.

188 In Table 6.30, I present my appraisal analysis for the social actor category of “Law

Enforcement” and the behaviors and activities which are attributed to this group throughout the news reports. The entries are organized by similarity and then by report in order to see more clearly how related behaviors are depicted across news reports:

Table 6.30

Appraisal of Behaviors Attributed to ‘Law Enforcement’ in BT Reports

Report: Appraising Appraising Appraised Judgement Sent # Behavior Circumstance 9/3: 30 law enforcement from responded to the construction site +norm Morton County, +prop Burleigh County, and Highway Patrol 9/3: 31 the Morton County is investigating the incident +norm Sheriff’s Department in +prop cooperation with the Bureau of Criminal Investigations 10/28: 1 a military police force overwhelmed hundreds of Dakota Access Pipeline protesters and +norm +prop pushed them from a front line of resistance back to the main camp 10/28: 2 police pressed the protesters (over the course of 5 hours, +norm starting around noon) +prop

half a mile south on N.D. Highway 1806 away from a new camp they built Sunday directly atop the pipeline easement 10/28: 10 the two to three hundred eventually surrounded the several +norm officers hundred protesters +prop 10/28: 34 police broke up a circle of 50 people in as +norm prayer +prop

they moved through the frontline with orange Xs when they camp, searching tents and teepees, had been cleared. and marking them 10/28: 41 police formed a cordon around protesters on the +norm highway +prop 9/3: 20 the area had been cleared (by late Sunday afternoon) +norm +prop 10/28: 13 they only used pepper spray and high -norm pitch warning tones -prop 11/22: 3 [police] …who responded with tear gas, rubber -norm bullets, and cold water 11/22: 48 officers started firing the rubber bullets -norm -prop

189 11/22: 50 law enforcement responded by spraying the (from here) -norm protesters with water and

firing rubber bullets, tear gas, and into the crowd -norm pepper spray -prop 11/22: 55 police were reinforcing the barricade with razor wire, as -norm protesters retreated 9/3: 21 no arrests were made +prop 9/3: 28 investigators have taken three reports of from officers +norm injuries +prop

As Table 6.30 shows, members of the law enforcement category are consistently described through their larger affiliation. They are often referenced via the collective nouns, “law enforcement,” a “military police force,” “police,” “officers,” or “investigators”. In two cases, members of law enforcement are depicted in terms of their association with other groups. For example, in sentence 30 of the 9/3 report, law enforcement is described as a conglomerate made up of officers from Morton County, Burleigh County, and Highway Patrol. In sentence 31 of the

9/31 report, the Sheriff’s Department is described as working in cooperation with the Bureau of

Criminal Investigations, suggesting that these two groups are united in their goals and common interests. In one additional case, members of law enforcement are quantified, as shown in sentence 10 of the 10/28 report: “the two to three hundred officers”.

In all descriptions, members of law enforcement are allocated active roles. They are represented as active agents in activities described. Such activities include responding and investigating the incident; moving through the camp and clearing out the protesters, and using tear gas, rubber bullets, and water against protesters. Many of these behaviors can be considered

‘normal’ for law enforcement, given the nature of their job. For example, it is both normal and part of the expectation of their jobs that members of law enforcement to respond to reports of altercation and to investigate those incidents. Similarly, many of the actions described depict officers as attempting to clear the camp of protesters who were inhabiting what they deemed privately owned land. Thus, attempting to remove protesters can be seen as both normal and

190 legal. As such, all of these behaviors are characterized and judged as such (+norm, +prop). In seven cases, however, the behaviors of law enforcement are appraised negatively, in terms of normalcy and propriety. In sentence 13 of the 10/28 report and sentences 3, 48, 50, and 55 of the

11/22 report, members of law enforcement are described as “responding with” tear gas, rubber bullets, and cold water, spraying protesters and pepper spray into crowds, and reinforcing a barricade with razor wire. In two cases, sentence 3 and 50 of the 11/22 report, this behavior is positioned as reactionary to protesters. The journalist writes that law enforcement were

“responding” to the protesters, suggesting in some way that this reaction on their part was fair and warranted. In this way, those particular actions, associated as a “response” to the actions of protesters are presented as justified, even if abnormal.

In Table 6.31, I present my appraisal analysis for the social actor category of “Protesters” and the behaviors and activities which are attributed to this group throughout the news reports.

Like the previous table, these entries have also been organized by similarity and then by report:

Table 6.31

Appraisal of Behaviors Attributed to ‘Protesters’ in BT Reports

Report: Appraising Appraising Appraised Judgement Sent # Behavior Circumstance 9/3: 18 protesters reportedly marched from their camp located on U.S. -norm Army Corps of Engineers land and

marched to the construction site on the west side of Highway 1806. 10/28: 44 about 50 protesters marched into the construction where they encountered police. -prop zone 9/3: 1 protesters broke through a fence line at an alternate construction site for -norm the Dakota Access Pipeline early -prop Saturday afternoon, south of Mandan 9/3: 19 the marchers broke into the construction area and -norm estimated to be at -prop least 300 people rushed construction workers -norm/-cap 9/3: 19 they broke down a wire fence by (once the marchers arrived at the -norm stepping and jumping on it construction site)

191 9/3: 22 protesters climb onto vehicles at the construction site and -norm

beat on them, trying to break -norm/-cap the windows 9/3: 25 a crowd of pushed him [security guard] -norm protesters against a vehicle 10/28: 10 [protesters] formed human lines of -norm resistance 10/28: 18 protesters set up a series of barricades in their attempts to stop police -norm -prop 10/28: 19 a contingent started a fire at the first [barricade] -norm -prop

set up temporary straw bales at the second -norm -prop

two men locked to the undercarriage of at the third -norm a pick-up truck -prop 10/28: 48 protesters refused to move -norm 11/22: 49 protesters started fires and -norm -prop

allegedly threw rocks and -norm burning logs at officers -prop 9/3: 17 knives were pulled on them -norm [security officers] -prop 9/3: 25 he [security guard] was jabbed -norm in the side with a wooden fence -prop pole and kicked in the knees 9/3: 29 several additional private -norm security officers were assaulted -prop 10/28: 17 at least two officers were hit -norm with wood objects thrown by -prop protesters 11/22: 5 one officer was reportedly hit -norm in the head with a rock -prop 10/28: 11 some [protesters] urging peace and prayer and +norm

others throwing logs, water bottles, at officers -norm and rocks -prop 10/28: 28 some people prayed +norm

others took more direct action -norm 10/28: 31 Loren Bagola walked down the highway along with the retreating protesters 10/28: 35 Olivia Bias quietly sang as she backed up under police pressure 11/22: 46 Aidoneus Bishop helped pull one burned off the bridge Sunday night -prop vehicle 11/22: 3 protesters reportedly threw rocks and -norm logs at police -prop 11/22: 44 protesters started arriving to check on what was happening 11/22: 48 more people gathered on the bridge and across the fields to the sides 10/28: 5 protesters walked back to the main camp on U.S. Army +norm Corps of Engineers land 11/22: 54 protesters left the bridge late Monday at the request of tribal +norm elders

192 As Table 6.31 shows, individuals described in these reports are consistently referred to collectively as “protesters” and not by their unique or individual identity. When the term

“protesters” is not used, some other quantification device is used to associate and assimilate the individuals into a larger collective group. These include references to collective nouns or modifying adjectives such as “marchers,” a “crowd,” a “contingent,” “some,” “others,” and

“more people”. Throughout the descriptions of protester behaviors, members of this social actor category are consistently allocated active roles. The range of activities associated with them include marching into the construction site, breaking down a wire fence, climbing onto vehicles and beating on them, setting up barricades, starting fires, pulling knives on, jabbing, and shoving security guards, and throwing objects at police officers.

In the report following the November 20 altercation, the BT journalist references

“protesters” activity as it relates to the actions and events of Aidoneus Bishop, an individual on site who is depicted as a major actor in instigating events. Accordingly, Bishop and “protesters” are described as attempting to remove a vehicle blockade, gathering in mass, and throwing rocks and logs at police. Many of these activities are characterized in terms which appraise both the activities and the actors involved negatively. Protesters are depicted as marching and breaking into the construction site which suggests a kind of mob mentality. This behavior is not considered normal for protesting, nor is it legal to break-and-enter into private property or construction sites. In this way, these actions are judged negatively in terms of normalcy and propriety. Furthermore, attempting to destroy vehicles, setting fires, or constructing barricades to halt officers are all likewise, abnormal and illegal behaviors. As a result, these behaviors are construed in terms which characterize as abnormal, dangerous, aggressive, and illegal. In five cases, individuals involved in activities are backgrounded through omission of agency in the text.

193 In sentence 17, 25, and 29 of the 9/3 report, claims of injuries which are constructed in passive voice indicate that security guards and officers were physically harmed and “assaulted,” presumably by members of the “protester” group. In sentence 17 of the 10/28 report and sentence 5 of the 11/22 report, officers are said by the BT reporter to have been with wooden objects and rocks, again, presumably by members of the “protester” group, though they are not explicitly indicated.

Source Integration & Engagement Analysis

In this section of my analysis, I examine the range of sources which are integrated into the news reports to consider the role they play in construing events. I map out their integration by analyzing frequency of occurrence across process types and the range of framing devices used to signal their entry. Table 6.32 lists the range of these sources as they are organized into larger affiliate source categories

Table 6.32

Range of Source Attribution in BT Reports

9/3 10/28 11/22 Total # of Source of Attribution % Report Report Report Words Category: Law Kyle Kirchmeier 82 11 100 193 12.9 Jason Ziegler 31 31 2.1 Donnell Preskey 152 152 10.1 “authorities” 33 33 2.2 “law enforcement” 13 13 0.9 “police” 10 10 0.7 432 28.9 Category: Protesters Loren Bagola 16 16 1.1 Olivia Bias 37 37 2.5 Joe Pulliam 44 44 2.9 Aidoneus Bishop 133 133 8.9 Elih Lizama 29 29 1.9 “protesters” 28 28 1.9 287 19.2 Category: Health Care Chelsey Kralicek 19 19 1.3 Jon Berg 21 21 1.4

194 Cecily Fong 20 20 1.3 Hennepin Medical Center 16 16 1.1 Michael Knudsen 68 68 4.5 “release from medic and 82 82 5.5 healer council” “camp medical group” 15 15 1.0 241 16.1 Category: State Reps Jack Dalrymple 33 33 2.2 Jeff Zent 68 68 4.5 Jamie Olson 48 48 3.2 149 9.9 Category: Tribal Dave Archambault 109 109 7.3 Tim Mentz 31 31 2.1 140 9.4 Category: Other, Organizations Dallas Goldtooth 35 35 2.3 Angela Bibens 51 51 3.4 Amnesty International 20 20 1.3 106 7 Category: Security Guards “security officers” 19 19 1.3 “security guard” 39 39 2.6 58 3.9 Category: News Associated Press 26 26 1.7 “Tribune reporters” 31 31 2.1 57 3.8 Category: Other, On Site “witnesses” 31 31 2.1 31 2.1

As shown in Table 6.32, there are nine major groups of sources which are depicted in these reports. Law enforcement sources make up 28.8 percent of all attributions (or 432 of 1,501 total words) and appear across all process types. These sources include references to nominated individuals, Kyle Kirchmeier, Jason Ziegler (“Mandan Police Chief”), and Donnell Preskey

(“spokeswoman for the Sheriff’s Department”), as well as generic and collective references to

“authorities”, “law enforcement”, and “police”. These sources appear most frequently in the depicted ‘material’ processes and are used in efforts to describe the activities and actors involved in each altercation. These sources explicitly identify protesters as actors and indicate what role

195 they played in event, and what the consequence of these events were in terms of injured workers, guards, or officers.

References to individuals identified as protesters or affiliated with the larger “protester” group account for 19.1 percent of all attributions (or 287 words total). Members of this group include references to nominated individuals, Loren Bagola, Olivia Bias, Joe Pulliam, Aidoneus

Bishop, Elih Lizama, and a collective reference to “protesters” in general. Throughout the

‘material’ depictions attributed to these sources, they are quoted in reports and characterize the actions and intent of law enforcement. The attribution to Bagola describes law enforcement’s use of “extreme force” and tear gas (sent. 32 in 10/28 report); References to Pulliam characterize the emotional intent of officers by suggesting that they are “taunting” protesters or

“making it worse the only way they know how” (sent. 42-43 in 10/28 report). References to

Bishop provide a first-hand account of the altercation, as Bishop is identified throughout as a key individual involved in the 11/22 altercation. Directly quoted references to Bishop explain what he was doing during the event and his rationale for it.

The third most often cited group of sources in these reports are those individuals or organizations which are linked to health care. References include those made to Chelsey

Kralicek (“CHI St. Alexius spokeswoman”), Jon Berg (“Sanford Health spokesman”), Cecily

Fong (“public information officer for the Department of Emergency Services”), Michael

Knudsen (“a member of the Standing Rock Medic and Healer Council”), the Hennepin Medical

Center, and generic references to a “release from medic and healer council” and to a “camp medical group”. These sources make up 16.1 percent of all attributions (or 241 words). These sources appear most frequently in passive-voice ‘material’ processes and indicate the extent and range of injuries and medical treatment administered throughout each altercation.

196 Affiliates of the Standing Rock Sioux Tribe are also mentioned in these reports.

References to David Archambault, Archie Fool Bear, or Tim Mentz contribute to 9.3 percent of all attributions (140 words total). Archambault (described as “Chair of the Standing Rock Sioux

Tribe”) appears only in 9/3 reports, throughout ‘material’ processes and one ‘relational’ one.

Quoted attributions to him address the destruction to Native cairns, stone rings, burial sites, and other places of prayer by construction workers, and the quoted ‘relational’ processes, further characterizes this destruction as “devastating” (sent. 10, 11, 13 in 9/3 report). References to

Mentz (described as “tribal spokesman”) acknowledges tribal surveying of the land and the existence of graves and prayer sites in the construction area, and Archie Fool Bear acknowledges the attempts by the Standing Rock Sioux Tribe to meet peacefully with officers to negotiate terms for dismantling blockades and resuming travel on the bridge.

In addition to these sources, the BT reporters also reference other organizations or individuals affiliated with other organizations. These sources include Dallas Goldtooth, Angela

Bibens, and Amnesty International. These sources make up 7.1 percent of all attributions (or 106 words). Goldooth (described as “organizer”) is depicted in ‘relational’ processes which characterize the day based on his attitude that the day was “not a loss,” but also served as a

“victory” for protesters. Goldtooth also appears in depicted ‘mental’ processes, quoted in his desire for the world to know “how far North Dakota will go to protect an oil company” (sent. 26 in 10/28 report). In this way, Goldtooth takes on a kind of spokesperson role for the larger protester group, uniting his own organization goals and concerns with that of the protesters.

Bibens (described as “an attorney who works at the camp”) is quoted as being “appalled” by the behavior of law enforcement and shown to be collecting support for a possible lawsuit (sent 16 in

11/22 report). Through reference to Biben, the larger world of human rights violations comes

197 into the event, and the journalist unites their cause and concern to those of the protesters, as well.

The same applies for the integration of Amnesty International in the reports, as well. This organization is referenced as saying they will send observers to oversee law enforcement (sent.

17 in 11/22).

Within the 9/3 report, additional references are made to security workers involved in the altercation (referred to as “security officers” or “security guards”) and “witnesses”. These sources make up 3.9 and 2.1 percent of all attributions, respectively (58 and 31 words total), and appear only in the 9/3 report. In these cases, these sources detail the actions of protesters through ‘material’ process clauses and the number of guards which were said to have been injured by protesters. Finally, reporters from The Bismarck Tribune and the Associated Press are also referred to, contributing to 3.8 percent of all attributions combined, or 57 words. These references appear in the depicted ‘material’ processes and account for reactions of protesters to law enforcement behaviors, a police warning, and the retreat of protesters from the area.

To conclude my analysis of these BT news reports, I analyze the range of framing devices used throughout the reports and how those devices may indicate a journalists’ alignment or distancing to a given source or proposition. In Table 6.33 I’ve mapped out the range of framing devices used throughout these reports:

Table 6.33

Range of Framing Devices Used in BT News Reports

Reporting # of Verb occurrences “said” 48 “according to” 8 “say(s)” 2 “saying” 2 “confirmed” 2 “reported” 1 “added” 1 “have said” 1

198 “voiced concerns” 1 “witnessed by” 1 “claims” 1 “suggest” 1

The reporting verb most often used in these reports is, “said,” which may be considered neutral in that it neither associates nor disassociates the journalist from the proposition being referenced while still acknowledging dialogical and alternative perspectives. As discussed in previous chapters, I also consider the variants of “said” (such as “say(s),” “has said,” and “saying”), as well as “added” and “reported” to function neutrally, as well.

As shown in Table 6.33, the BT journalist deviates from other “neutral” reporting verbs in

13 other cases, eight of which involve the use of “according to”. These are shown below:

1: According to the news release from Archambault construction crews removed topsoil

across an area about 150 feet wide, stretching for two miles, northwest of the

confluence of the Cannonball and Missouri rivers (sent. 15 in 9/3).

2: According to several reports from security officers, knives were pulled on them or they

witnessed protesters with large knives (sent. 17 in 9/3).

3: …and led to at least 26 serious injuries among protesters according to a camp medical

group (sent. 4 in 11/22).

4: According to a release from the medic and healer council, 300 people in total were

injured in some form (sent. 23 in 11/22).

5: At least 26 seriously injured people had to be evacuated by ambulance to three area

hospitals, according to the release (sent. 24 in 11/22).

6: One person was in serious condition at the Hennepin County Medical Center,

according to the hospital (sent. 28 in 11/22).

199 7: Among the most serious injuries were a man who had a seizure, an elder who had to be

resuscitated and a woman suffering an eye injury from a rubber bullet to the face,

according to the release from the medic and healer council (sent. 29 in 11/22).

8: This led to the long confrontation with police in which protesters started fires and

allegedly threw rocks and burning logs at officers, according to Kirchmeier (sent. 49 in

11/22).

As shown, in several of these cases, the use of “according to” acknowledges some statement involving quantification of individuals involved or injured. In this way, the phrasing of

“according to” may function to distance the journalist from these precise quantifications, attributing them clearly to their source. In addition to these, the BT journalist also deviates from

“neutral” reporting verbs in five other cases, when using the reporting verbs “confirmed”,

“witnessed by”, “claims,” and “suggest,” as shown below:

1: Tim Mentz… confirmed there were multiple graves and prayer sites where the

construction site was breached Saturday (sent. 24 in 9/3).

2: CHI St. Alexius spokeswoman Chelsey Kralicek confirmed six people involved in the

protest were treated there for "minor injuries" (sent. 14 in 11/21 report).

3: They [Protesters] eventually fell back under a force of pepper spray, rubber and bean

bag bullets, tasers, smoke grenades and relentless, inch-by-inch, pressure from police

witnessed by Tribune reporters (sent 12. In 10/27 report).

4: Law enforcement claims they only used pepper spray and high-pitch warning tones

(sent. 13 in 10/27 report).

5: Protesters… suggest it [the barricade] is being used to prevent access to construction

sites just north (sent 31. In 11/22 report).

200 In the case of “confirmed,” the journalist aligns with the proposition by presenting it with greater certainty. The same can be said for example 3, “witnessed by”. The reporter presents a contractive perspective of events offered by members of their own staff, aligns with that perspective, and does not allow for alternative perspectives. In terms of “claims” and

“suggests,” the opposite of this is true. In these cases, the reporter acknowledges the source of each proposition but distances from their statements. In doing so, the journalist leaves room for other dialogic possibilities, that law enforcement is withholding, or that the barricade is not used to prevent protesters from accessing the bridge.

Conclusion

In this chapter, I have analyzed news reports published by The Bismarck Tribune following altercations occurring on September 3, October 27, and November 20, 2016. In line with the research questions guiding my analysis, I have found that BT journalists characterized these altercations most often through the ‘material’ processes. Unlike NYT, WSJ, and AP, the reporters at BT rely on a range of sources throughout their report with many perspectives given the chance to weigh in on the events. In early reports, however, BT reports showed a significant amount of law enforcement-based sources referenced in the description of ‘who, did what”.

Additionally, the altercations are largely characterized as a “confrontation” throughout these reports which minimizes the feeling of violence or aggressive that many other news sources have emphasized. Major participant groups depicted in these reports include construction crews, protesters, and law enforcement. Construction crews are described as removing topsoil, while the bulk of the destruction is attributed to Energy Transfer Partners via referenced material attributed to Archambault. “Protesters” are presented in active roles and descriptions of their behaviors appraise them negatively. They are consistently described as breaking into the

201 construction site, intervening with officers and workers there, setting up barricades, starting fires, and throwing objects at police officers. Members of law enforcement are described as responding and investigating the incident; moving through the camp and clearing out the protesters, and using tear gas, rubber bullets, and water against protesters in effort to get them to vacate private property. The actions of law enforcement are shown to be reactive to the actions of protesters, and thus, justified.

202

CHAPTER VII

News Media Representation of the DAPL Protest

Conclusion

My analysis has examined news reports published by The New York Times, Wall Street

Journal, Associated Press, and The Bismarck Tribune to see how the Dakota Access Protest

(DAPL) altercations occurring on September 3, October 27, and November 20, 2016, are represented to audiences. The questions guiding my analysis are:

• How are the altercations characterized in terms of ‘participant,’ ‘process,’ and

‘circumstance’?

• What behaviors are attributed to major social actors and how are they positively or

negatively judged by journalists?

• What sources are integrated into the news reports, and what role do they play in

construing these events?

In this conclusion, I synthesize the results of my previous chapter analyses in order to answer these questions and address larger patterns concerning media’s representation of these events. I begin my conclusion by summarizing the findings of my transitivity analysis. I acknowledge3 the range of processes depicted in these reports and I account for distinctions between attributed and unattributed processes. I use these findings to further inform my analysis of social actor representation, particularly in terms of how protesters and members of law enforcement are identified, described, and appraised by journalists. Following this, I map out the range of

203 sources integrated in the reports and discuss the role they have in construing events. I conclude my dissertation by relating my findings to the Protest Paradigm framework as discussed in

Chapter Two and addressing the limitations and contributions of my analysis.

Q1: Characterizing Altercations as ‘Process,’ ‘Participant,’ & ‘Circumstance’

To understand how these altercations are characterized by journalists in terms of

‘participant,’ ‘process,’ and ‘circumstance,’ I analyzed the transitive structure of the news reports. In doing so, I found that a majority of each news article consisted of projected clauses, i.e. information which was attributed to external sources either through paraphrase or direct quotation. Figure 11 illustrates the total amount of unattributed vs. attributed information across each collection of news reporting. Totals are displayed in terms of percentage and have been determined by word count:

Figure 11

Percentage of Attributed vs. Unattributed Phrasing Across All News Reports

Each collection of news articles contained a range of 57.4 to 61.2 percent of attributed information, with the exception of The Bismarck Tribune (BT), which contained 41.8 percent.

These numbers suggest that as a whole, journalists from these news sources largely constructed

204 their reports around these sources, relying on them to paint the dominant picture of events and a dominant representation of the actors involved.

My transitivity analysis also found that the events of these altercations have been largely construed through ‘material’ processes which represent events in terms of ‘doings’ and

‘happenings’. In addition to ‘material’ processes, news reports also depicted events in

‘relational,’ ‘verbal,’ ‘mental,’ and in a few cases, ‘existential,’ as shown in Figure 12:

Figure 12

Percentage Range of Process Types Across All News Reports

‘Material’ processes contributed to 59.7 to 81.8 percent of all processes across each collection of news reporting. Through attributed ‘material’ processes, journalists are able to construe the altercation in terms of the ‘sides’ involved and to associate particular behaviors and activities to those actors. Unattributed ‘material’ processes set the tone of the altercations by characterizing it or labeling it in terms of ‘riot’ or ‘confrontation,’ for example, and also functioned to provide pertinent background information such as time, place, and in the case of AP specifically, the ongoing litigation efforts of the Standing Rock Sioux which underscored the protest movement.

205

‘Relational’ processes accounted for 14.3 to 20.2 percent of processes across these reports. Through ‘relational’ processes, writers construe aspects of the altercation through enacting relationships between things, either in terms of their identity or in terms of a quality or characteristic (Halliday, 2004, p. 214-5, 170). Throughout these reports, ‘relational’ processes functioned to characterize the mood and general atmosphere surrounding the altercation events, and through statements attributed to various sources, particular aspects of the altercation were defined. These included references to land which defined it as tribal land or private land, and also references to the event which defined it as not being peaceful. ‘Relational’ processes also functioned to the emotional experience and reflections of events held by prominent figures, such as David Archambault and Kyle Kirchmeier. ‘Verbal’ processes accounted for 11.8 to 15.2 percent of processes in the NYT, WSJ, and the BT. They accounted for 2.1 percent of processes in the AP. These processes largely functioned to preface or make way for an attribution via summary of events or a summary of perspective. Contextually, they most often preceded a direct quote or some attribution to an external source. ‘Mental’ processes accounted for 3 to 9.7 percent of processes in the NYT, WSJ, and the BT. They did not appear in AP reports. These processes often depicted the emotional perceptions and reflections to activities attributed to various officials, including David Archambault, Kyle Kirchmeier, and in the case of WSJ reports specifically, Energy Transfer Partners (ETP). Finally, ‘existential’ processes accounted for 1.1 to 2.5 percent of processes in AP and BT. These processes, attributed or otherwise, functioned to assert the existence of some entity, such as sacred sites and injuries as well as divisions among groups of protesters.

206 Q2: Representing Social Actors

Throughout the reports, the major actors are consistently presented to be the individuals on site participating in the protest and members of law enforcement. In the case of AP and BT, specifically, reports following the September 3 altercation also identified construction crews and private security guards as main actors as well. My analysis has found that representations of actors presented in individual reports are largely consistent across all news reports. In the sections which follow, I discuss findings related to each of these social actor categories to present a holistic comparison across each news agency.

Table 7.1 lists the range of terms used to identify individuals affiliated with the larger protesting group across all news reports:

Table 7.1

Range of Terms Used to Identify ‘Protesters’ as Social Actors

Term Used NYT WSJ AP BT Total % to Identify Reports Reports Reports Reports “protesters” [some, all] 6 9 8 13 36 55.4 [not exclusively mentioned, 3 3 5 11 16.9 i.e. backgrounded] “others” 1 2 3 4.6 “marchers” 2 2 3.1 “the/a crowd” 1 1 2 3.1 “a protester” 1 1 1.5 “one woman” 1 1 1.5 “people” [some, more, 1 2 3 4.6 hundreds of] Loren Bagola 1 1 1.5 Olivia Bias 1 1 1.5 Aidoneus Bishop 1 1 1.5 “individuals” 1 1 1.5 “a contingent” 1 1 1.5 “two men” 1 1 1.5 Totals 11 9 15 30 65 100.0

As shown, individuals involved in these events are most often referred to as “protesters” (55.4 percent of the time). In 16.9 percent of cases, they are not referred to at all. This exclusion from

207 the text, termed “backgrounding,” minimizes their role and agency in events, and is realized through agent omission in the clause (van Leeuwen, 1996, p. 39). In an additional 16.9 percent of cases, these individuals are referred to by some other collective noun, such as “others,”

“marchers,” “the crowd,” “people,” or “a contingent”. Through this identification strategy, individuals are assimilated into a larger collective which renders their individual identities irrelevant. In four cases (or 6 percent of all cases), while these individuals are identified uniquely in individualized terms, they are still identified impersonally and categorically. This is done via an identity characteristic, such as gender (“woman” or “men”) or in terms of their social function (i.e. “a protester”).

In only 3 cases (or 4.5 percent of cases), these individuals are identified explicitly by name. Loren Bagola, Olivia Bias, and Aidoneus Bishop are all named and nominated in BT reports. Their representation is semi-formal, and they are titulated in terms of their direct affiliation to the larger group of protesters (van Leeuwen, 1996, p. 53). As Table 7.1 shows, however, terms take some prominence in some reports more than others. In the NYT, for example, individuals are only referred to as “protesters,” or in individual reference to “a protesters” or “one woman”. In the WSJ, the only term used is “protesters”. In both the AP and the BT, a range of identities is construed throughout reports. In both sets of reports, this range is mostly in collective terms (“others,” “marchers,” “the crowd,” “people,” “individuals,” and “a contingent”). However, the BT remains the only news agency which provides explicit reference to individuals, rendering their identities unique and meaningful to the discussion of events.

In analyzing the range of behaviors attributed to this group across news reports, I also found subtle differences in how those behaviors are described across each news agencies. The range of behaviors associated to this social actor category is summarized in Table 7.2. With each

208 general behavior or activity, I have included its particular depiction in subsequent news reports.

Instances of “n/a” denote “not available,” as neither NYT nor WSJ published on 9/3 events:

Table 7.2

Range of Behaviors Attributed to ‘Protesters’ Across All News Reports

General NYT WSJ AP BT Behavior Reports Reports Reports Reports or Activity Entrance n/a n/a arriving and setting up marching into the to site camp construction site; (9/3 report) breaking down a fence Setting up blocking roadways trying to block a setting up barricades “blockades” bridge setting fires to boards, setting multiple fires; Setting fire to four setting fires Setting things signs, and vehicles setting fire to tires and large pieces of on fire two trucks construction equipment resisting or holding off accosting officers; Behavior officers; firing at clashing with law toward officers officers; attacking enforcement officers :: Throwing throwing objects, throwing rocks and throwing objects, objects at pepper, or rocks burning logs rocks, and logs Behavior n/a n/a n/a pulling knives on, toward guards jabbing, and shoving (9/3 report) security guards Behavior n/a n/a confronting toward crews construction crews (9/3 report) threatening helicopters climbing onto vehicles Other with drones and beating them

As Table 7.2 shows, while news reports generally attribute the same general type of behaviors to

“protesters,” the descriptions of these behaviors and activities vary in terms of severity and extent. For example, in terms of their entering of the construction site during the 9/3 altercation,

AP reports describe that activity as arriving and setting up camp. BT reports, however, describe it as marching into the site by breaking down a wire fence. Both descriptions are attributed to law-enforcement based sources. The BT report also indicates that protesters pulled knives on guards, jabbed and shoved them, and also climbed onto vehicles and beat on them. The AP reports do not describe the same behavior. Similarly, the descriptions for the general behavior

209 “setting up blockades,” is framed in WSJ and AP reports in terms of the intent of protesters

(“trying to block”), while in the BT, it is framed in terms of action (“setting up barricades”).

In terms of setting things on fire, reports describe these activities differently, as well. In

NYT reports, fire is said to have been set to boards, signs, and vehicles, while in the WSJ report, multiple fires are said to have been set to tires and trucks. The AP reports indicate that protesters set fire to construction equipment, while the BT doesn’t identify what protesters set on fire, just that they set them. In this way, the NYT, WSJ, and AP characterize the behavior through terms which emphasize the severity of the actions, while the BT minimizes the severity of the actions.

This inconsistency is also present in the case of throwing rocks: in NYT reports, protesters are said to have thrown objects, pepper and rocks, while in WSJ reports, they are said to have thrown rocks and burning logs. The AP reports also indicate that protesters threw rocks and logs, but the

BT doesn’t mention this activity at all. Only the AP and NYT reports explicitly mention that protesters attacked, accosted, or clashed with officers. Neither the WSJ nor the BT characterize this behavior.

These inconsistencies in how particular behaviors are characterized across reports are also found in how members of law enforcement are identified and described. Table 7.3 lists the range of terms used to identify members of law enforcement across all news reports:

Table 7.3

Range of Terms Used to Identify ‘Law Enforcement’ as Social Actors

Term Used NYT WSJ AP BT Total % to Identify Reports Reports Reports Reports [not exclusively mentioned, 6 6 5 2 19 34.5 i.e. backgrounded] “police” 7 2 7 16 29.1 “officers” [two to three 5 1 1 7 12.7 hundred, scores of] “law enforcement” 1 3 2 6 10.9 M.C. Sheriff’s Department 1 1 1.8 “officials” 1 1 2 3.6

210 “authorities” 2 2 3.6 “a military police force” 1 1 1.8 “investigators” 1 1 1.8 Totals 15 13 12 15 55 100.0

As shown, the individuals affiliated with law enforcement are never identified in personal or individualized ways. In most cases, (34.5 percent of the time), they are not referred to at all.

They are excluded from the text, backgrounded in their role during these events. In the rest of cases, these individuals are referred to as “police,” or by a range of other associated terms. In this way, these individuals are also are assimilated into a larger collective which renders their individual identities irrelevant but emphasizes their association to the larger entity of law enforcement. While the information in Table 7.3 may indicate the terms generally favored by individual journalists, it may also indicate institutional preferences of each news organization.

For example, in the WSJ reports, members of law enforcement are explicitly referred to as

“police”. No other term is used to identify this category of social actor. “Police” is also the predominant term in the AP and BT reports, as well; however, as a term, “police” is not used by

NYT journalists. Instead, “officers” appears to be the preferred term, given its frequency in NYT reports. The range of behaviors associated to this actor category is summarized in Table 7.4:

Table 7.4

Range of Behaviors Attributed to ‘Law Enforcement’ Across All News Reports

General NYT WSJ AP BT Behavior Reports Reports Reports Reports or Activity arrested 142 protesters; arrested 20 people; no one was arrested; at no arrests were made arrested 16 people; arrested one person least 117 people were Made arrests arrested at least one arrested person tried to force out the removed dozens of cleared the camp; overwhelmed protesters; walked in a protesters from an evicted protesters hundreds of protesters wide line, sweeping encampment; cleared and pushed them back Moved out protesters out; moved in about 250 protesters to the main camp; protesters pressed the protesters; surrounded the protesters

211 demanded over gave multiple orders loudspeaker that people to back up Made Requests leave; did not ask to Protesters protesters to evacuate a second larger camp used pepper spray and used pepper spray used a high-pitched responded to bean bag rounds; used a and a high-pitched whistle intended to protesters with tear high-pitched sound acoustic device [to “control and disperse” gas, rubber bullets, Used objects device meant to disperse the crowd]; protesters; fired and cold water; fired [against disperse crowds; used a used tear gas [to cannons and tear gas rubber bullets; sprayed protesters] taser gun disperse protesters] at protesters protesters with water and fired rubber bullets, tear gas, and pepper spray used water to repel sprayed water; fired used water cannons used pepper spray and protest activities; used rubber bullets high pitch warning Used water for crowd control; tones objects used water cannons to douse fires overly aggressive police tactics; caused multiple protesters Police injuries; tear gas, Tactics hypothermia, and rubber bullets caused injuries Behavior would allow them to hurt one man in the broke up a prayer Toward stay in other camp leg; did not return fire circle Protesters Reflected on defended their use of their behavior fire hoses cleared roadways; formed a line to responded to the set a line to prevent prevent movement; construction site; is protesters from were still dealing with investigating the moving north; protesters; planned to incident; formed a Other monitored the stay and monitor the cordon around situation site; had no reports of protesters; cleared the protester injury area; reinforced a barricade; took three reports of injuries

Similar to reports of protester behavior, the activities attributed to members of law enforcement differ across each body of news reporting in subtle ways. However, in some cases, there are clear distinctions between the severity of the behaviors construed, particularly in the case of BT reporting. In terms of moving out protesters, for example, all reports associate this activity to officers; however, in BT reports, this behavior is further characterized as “overwhelming hundreds of protesters,” “pushing them back,” and “pressing” them. The other reports do not illustrate these activities with the same heightened connotation. Similarly, while all reports

212 attribute the use of pepper spray and a high-pitched sound device, it is only the BT which explicitly indicates that these items were used or targeted at protesters. The NYT, WSJ, and AP similarly downplay the role of protesters in this activity by emphasizing the intention of the tool, rather than its target. In each of these reports, these objects are used with the intention to disperse protesters. Only the BT reports indicate that they were used to harm protesters.

Moreover, the BT report is the only one which clearly indicates that the water had been targeted at the protesters. All other reports describe the use of water, but again emphasize the function of water as a tool for crowd control and putting out fires and minimize law enforcement’s role in those activities. WSJ reports further attribute injuries to protesters as being caused by “overly aggressive police tactics” and not by the officers themselves.

Q3: Role & Range of Integrated Sources

Throughout my analyses, I have found that news agencies rely on similar groups and types of sources when producing these news reports. In Figure 13, I have collated the range of sources integrated across all news reports to show the major category of sources referenced:

Figure 13

Range of Source Attributions Across All News Reports by Percentage

213 As Figure 13 illustrates, for all news agencies, law enforcement-based were the sources referenced most across attributed statements. Approximately 38.3 percent of the combined news reports consisted of information attributed to law enforcement-based sources (42.6 percent of

NYT articles, 57.6 percent of WSJ articles, 36.9 percent of AP, and 28.9 percent of BT).

Following this, the sources most frequently depicted are: affiliates of the Standing Rock Sioux

Tribe (14.7 percent of all attributions); individual protesters on site (12.2 percent), outside organizations (10 percent), representatives of or for state government (7.2 percent), health care affiliates (6.5 percent); Energy Transfer Partners (3.7 percent), other news agencies (2.8 percent), individuals on site during the 9/3 altercation (2.4 percent), and a group marked ‘Other’ which consisted of a single reference to a local resident, “Native Americans and Environmental

Activists,” and the National Weather Service (2.3 percent).

While the graph in Figure 13 indicates the range of these sources as attributed across all news reports, it is misleading in considering the sourcing practices of individual news agencies.

For example, references to individual protesters were only present in AP and BT reports. Neither

NYT nor WSJ included any first-hand protester account, on site workers, or health care affiliates in their reports, via paraphrase or quote. Similarly, AP made little reference to outside organizations, while the other sources all included some reference to outside organizations. Only

NYT and BT referenced other news agencies and BT was the only source not to include affiliates of ETP in their reports.

Table 7.5 lists the range of sources referenced throughout all reports to illustrate this matter more. As Table 7.5 indicates, within each category, different news agencies maintained different sourcing techniques, particularly in how they identified their sources.

214

Table 7.5

Range of Source Attributions Across All News Reports

NYT WSJ AP BT Total LAW ENFORCEMENT % Reports Reports Reports Reports Words Kyle Kirchmeier 110 65 68 193 436 30.6 Donnell Preskey/Hushka 152 152 304 21.3 Rob Keller 31 252 283 19.8 “authorities” 72 17 12 33 134 9.4 “officers” 82 82 5.8 M. C. Sheriff’s 25 52 77 5.4 Department Jason Ziegler 31 31 2.2 “law enforcement” 17 13 30 2.1 “photos” 19 19 1.3 “police” 6 10 16 1.1 “officials” 14 14 1.0 1426 100.0

THE STANDING NYT WSJ AP BT Total % ROCK SIOUX TRIBE Reports Reports Reports Reports Words Dave Archambault 104 65 109 278 50.9 Tim Mentz 45 31 76 13.9 “the tribe” 14 58 72 13.2 “representative from the 40 40 7.3 Standing Rock Sioux” Steve Sitting Bear 30 30 5.5 “the tribe’s allies” 20 20 3.7 “tribal officials” 19 19 3.5 “tribal leaders” 11 11 2.0 546 100.0

NYT WSJ AP BT Total PROTESTERS % Reports Reports Reports Reports Words Aidoenus Bishop 133 133 29.2 Rema Loeb 59 59 13.0 Cody Hall 45 45 9.9 Aaron Johnson 44 44 9.7 Joe Pulliam 44 44 9.7 Olivia Bias 37 37 8.1 Elih Lizama 29 29 6.4 “protesters” 28 28 6.2 “video shot by protesters” 20 20 4.4 Loren Bagola 16 16 3.5 455 100.0

OUTSIDE NYT WSJ AP BT Total % ORGANIZATIONS Reports Reports Reports Reports Words Dallas Goldtooth 144 40 35 219 59.0 Angela Bibens 51 51 13.7 Amnesty International 16 20 36 9.7 “the group” [Indig. 34 34 9.2 Environ. Network]

215 Tara Houska 31 31 8.4 371 100.0

REPRESENTATIVES OF NYT WSJ AP BT Total % THE STATE GOVT’ Reports Reports Reports Reports Words Jack Dalrymple 66 33 99 36.9 Jeff Zent 68 68 25.4 Jamie Olson 48 48 17.9 Cecily Fong 37 37 13.8 “the state of North Dakota” 16 16 6.0 268 100.0

NYT WSJ AP BT Total HEALTH CARE % Reports Reports Reports Reports Words “release from medic and 82 82 34.0 healer council” Michael Knudsen 68 68 28.2 Jon Berg 21 21 8.7 Cecily Fong 20 20 8.3 Chelsey Kralicek 19 19 7.9 Hennepin Medical Center 16 16 6.6 “camp medical group” 15 15 6.2 241 100.0

ENERGY TRANSFER NYT WSJ AP BT Total % PARTNERS Reports Reports Reports Reports Words Energy Transfer, ETP 27 48 75 54.7 Kelcy Warren 37 37 27.0 “company officials” 14 14 10.2 “the company” 11 11 8.0 137 100.0

NYT WSJ AP BT Total NEWS AGENCIES % Reports Reports Reports Reports Words Bismarck Tribune 37 37 34.9 “Tribune reporters” 31 31 29.2 Associated Press 12 26 38 35.8 106 100.0

NYT WSJ AP BT Total Source % Reports Reports Reports Reports Words “security guard” 39 39 43.8 “witnesses” 31 31 34.8 “security officers” 19 19 21.3 89 100.0

NYT WSJ AP BT Total Source % Reports Reports Reports Reports Words Randez Bailey 34 34 40.0 “Native Americans and 32 32 37.6 environm. activists” National Weather Service 19 19 22.4 85 100.0

216

As Table 7.5 shows, the range of law enforcement sources integrated in these reports are generally consistent. All reports reference Kyle Kirchmeier, the Morton County Sheriff, and one of his official spokespersons, either Donnell Preskey or Rob Keller. References to one of these individuals makes up 71.7 percent of all law enforcement-based attributions. All reports similarly reference some other collective entity associated with law enforcement, either as

“authorities,” “officers,” “law enforcement,” “police,” or “officials”.

In the NYT, affiliates of the Standing Rock Sioux Tribe group were only referred to by reference to David Archambault, Chair of the Standing Rock Tribe, or through collective reference to “tribal leaders”. The BT only references David Archambault and Tim Mentz, who is identified as tribal spokesman in these reports. In WSJ reports, no explicit reference is made to any unique individual identified with the tribe. Instead, references are made only to collective groups: “the tribe” or “representatives” from the tribe. The AP uses the largest range of terms in referring to this group, most of which are in reference to prominent individuals affiliated with the tribe.

As mentioned previously, only AP and BT reports include references to protesters as sources of information. Within the AP, these references are mostly individualized, with persons presented both formally and in terms of their association with protesters. These accounts, however, as I discussed in Chapter Five, largely function to symbolize the protest efforts as bothersome to local residents and the protesting group as being divided in their methods. BT reports identify the largest range of protesters on site, many of whom are used to provide personal and individualized accounts of experience during the 11/20 altercation event.

Table 7.5 also shows that all reports made some kind of reference to an outside organization. Most often cited is Dallas Goldtooth, who is presented as a lead organizer and

217 head of the Indigenous Environmental Network. Also referenced in NYT and BT reports is

Amnesty International, a global organization concerned with human rights. AP reports also include reference to Tara Houska, an organizer with Honor the Earth.

Also significant is the range of references to health care affiliates and to Energy Transfer in these reports. Only the BT provided any external references to health care affiliates, including statements attributed to hospital leaders or spokespersons around the area. These attributions were used to account for a range of injuries, particularly during the 11/20 altercation. No other news agency relied on official health affiliate sources. The NYT communicated reports of injuries through statements attributed to Dallas Goldtooth, a prominent figure for an outside organization, as mentioned. The WSJ presented reports of injuries through statements vaguely attributed to “representatives” of the Standing Rock Sioux Tribe. The AP makes little mention of injuries in their reports.

The last category of sources I’d like to discuss are those affiliated with Energy Transfer

Partners. As I mentioned previously, all agencies except BT include statements attributed to ETP in their reports. In NYT, statements attributed to “company officials” characterize the pipeline as the safer way to transport oil. In WSJ, statements attributed to ETP or “the company” characterize the company’s unwillingness to tolerate trespassing or lawless behavior on their property. Finally, in the AP, statements attributed to ETP indicate that no sites had been disturbed and reiterate the safeguards employed in the pipeline project.

What this comparative analysis and brief discussion has shown is that many of these news agencies rely on the same kinds of sources, often utilizing the same statements, releases, and conferences as one other. While this point has been made by many other news media studies, my analysis also shows, however, that individual journalists make particular choices in

218 naming practices. Though they have the same access to the same sources, some of these journalists choose not to explicitly identify their source, referring to them generically.

Summary, Contributions, & Limitations

Many scholars have successfully argued that protest groups, in general, do not receive adequate, neutral, nor balanced news coverage. My analysis has shown there to be significant disparities in how various mainstream and regional news agencies report on these protest altercations. Mainstream news sources like the NYT and the WSJ are most closely aligned in terms of how events are characterized, and social actors described and appraised. The AP, while characterizing events and participants in the same general, negative tone, is the only news agency to account for the larger protest movement. In each of their reports, AP journalists acknowledge significant aspects of ongoing litigation, such as the tribe’s challenge to the U.S. Army and their decision to grant temporary easements to ETP. Neither the NYT, the WSJ, nor the BT addressed these larger legal aspects. As a result, it is only the AP which connects these physical altercations to the larger legal battle. The other reports fail to do so, and as a result, fail to acknowledge the relationship between these litigation efforts, the Standing Rock Sioux Tribe, and the DAPL protest movement as a whole.

Journalists for the NYT and the AP characterize the altercations as a “demonstration” and a “clash,” and present them as long-term result of strained relations between protesters and members of law enforcement. The WSJ similarly characterizes the altercations as “volatile,” and in the BT, the events are characterized as a “confrontation”. These various labels carry a negative connotation, and since they often appear within the lead of a news report, have the effect of setting the overall tone of the report. As a result, readers are primed to focus on the negative and violent aspects of the events and the deviance of protesters. While each of these

219 terms carry a negative connotation, the BT’s use of “confrontation” minimizes the violence and negative emotions of these altercation events while the other agencies emphasize it.

Moreover, my analysis has shown that all news agencies are similar in their characterization of protester behaviors and activities, with some agencies describing those activities in terms which render the behaviors more extreme and violent than others. Similarly, all mainstream news sources characterize behaviors of law enforcement as justified and excused.

Most often these individuals are backgrounded as agents in activities which are harmful to protesters, and reporters justify their use of weapons or devices against protesters as necessary for maintaining law-and-order. The BT is the only news agency which does not background these social actors. In their reports, journalists are more explicit in their description of law enforcement members and their role in events, appraising them more negatively, as well.

Moreover, BT makes more effort to acknowledge the individual roles, perspectives, and accounts of protesters on site, and pulls from the widest array of sources in the production of their news stories. My analysis has shown that the mainstream news sources in my study, NYT, WSJ, and

AP, seem to follow many of the same journalistic practices, generally representing these altercation events in the same way, and relying on the same major sources to do so. These sources generally represent the protest in terms of violence and confrontation, frame protesters as lead instigators, downplay police action, and rely most on law enforcement-based sources to provide the “official” accounts of events. These representation strategies are consistent with the protest paradigm framework.

Contributions of Project

My critical discourse analysis contributes to the fields of Media Studies, Discourse

Studies, and also, Systemic Functional Linguistics. As noted in Chapter Two, my project is one

220 of the few projects which utilizes SFL frameworks in analyzing news coverage of protest movements. In this way, my project demonstrates the ways in which these SFL tools, specifically transitivity and appraisal analysis, can be used in media studies to extend research on news media framing and representation. Moreover, my project contributes to the SFL framework, as it offers a comprehensive review of process analysis. Likewise, my amended framework for analyzing social actor representation can easily be used or integrated for both scholars and students as an easier approach to social actor analysis. In this way, my dissertation is valuable not just in extending scholarship, but also as a framework for teaching these analytical frameworks to undergraduates or graduates.

In reviewing the range of scholarship on the subject of media reporting on protests and media’s representation of minority figures, research has shown that dominant representations have been persistent in mainstream press since the mid 1900s. My dissertation contributes to these findings and shows how valuable this research can be, particularly when it deals with different methodologies. Much of the research which has been done has utilized media framing tools and methods and have come to similar conclusions. Thus, the value of such projects are the documentation and awareness of such issues in order to promote a need for systemic reform.

Limitations & Future Studies

There are many notable ways that the findings of my study could be expanded and improved upon. First, my execution of the engagement framework of Appraisal Theory did little to account for larger issues of contractive or expansive dialogism in these reports. By focusing on framing devices, I was able to identify subtle shifts in stance and source positioning; however, more could be done to analyze these reports in sole consideration of how journalists engage with sources and position them to one another. This would require a more in-depth analysis of the

221 statements attributed to sources and how the journalist can be seen as aligning or distancing from those sources through the managing of dialogical alternatives. As said previously, sources attribute particular representations to their external sources, thereby appearing neutral and in their presentations. However, analysis of the propositions which are attributed may indicate subtle positionings of particular sources in ways which elevate or undermine their credibility or authority. These are aspects of news media representation worth pursuing in subsequent studies.

Second, analyzing non-traditional medias, or alternative sources may reveal additional patterns in how these events are construed by journalists, particularly by news agencies who are notably more empathetic to these events, such as Democracy Now. By leaving out these alternative news sources, which were often the lead reporters of events during the larger DAPL protest, I was unable to compare their representation of events and actors with the mainstream news sources. Moreover, my data set also proves a limitation. I have analyzed reports published by three mainstream news sources and one news source regional to the site of protest. If I had widened my analysis to include more local, regional, and mainstream news sources, I might have found notable differences in how sources like the NYT reports on such events versus NPR, for example, and my findings may be more representative of news media as an institution.

Finally, to account for media patterns in representing Native American tribes in America more holistically, more research could be done of other protest events or pipeline altercations which involved these groups. A comparative analysis of American reporting with other countries may also reveal systemic patterns in news reporting.

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236 APPENDIX A

Articles Published After the 9/3, 10/27, & 11/20 DAPL Protest Altercations

September 3 Altercation Reports

Associated Press. (2016, Sept. 3). Oil-pipeline protest turns violent in North Dakota. The Wall

Street Journal. Retrieved from: www.wsj.com/articles/oil-pipeline-protest-turns-violent-

in-north-dakota_1472961238.

Bromwhich, J. E. (2016, Sept. 7). Jill Stein, Green Party candidate, is charged over role in

pipeline protest. The New York Times. Retrieved from ProQuest.

Eckroth, L. (2016, Sept. 3). Protesters break through fence line at an alternate construction site.

Bismarck Tribune. Retrieved from: https://bismarcktribune.com/news/local/protesters-

break-through-fence-line-at-alternate-construction-site/article_31dfd79f-e065-540b-

b99b-2fed90fbdd67.html.

MacPherson, J. (2016, Sept. 4). Oil pipeline turns violent in southern North Dakota. Associated

Press. Retrieved from NexisUni.

October 27 Altercation Reports

Grueskin, C. & Donovan, L. (2016, Oct. 28). Demonstrators clash with law enforcement at

camp. Bismarck Tribune. Retrieved from NexisUni.

MacPherson, J. & Nicholson, B. (2016, Oct. 28). Police evict oil pipeline protesters from private

land. Associated Press. Retrieved from NexisUni.

Maher, K. (2016, Oct. 27). Police remove pipeline protesters from camp in North Dakota. The

Wall Street Journal. Retrieved from ProQuest.

237 Skalicky, S. & Davey, M. (2016, Oct. 28). Tension between police and Standing Rock protesters

reach boiling point. The New York Times. Retrieved from ProQuest.

November 20 Altercation Reports

Bromwhich, J. E. (2016, Nov. 21). 16 arrested at North Dakota pipeline protest. The New York

Times. Retrieved from ProQuest.

Grueskin, C. (2016, Nov. 22). Protesters, police take stock after altercation. Bismarck Tribune.

Retrieved from NexisUni.

MacPherson, J. (2016, Nov. 21). Police, protesters face off at Dakota Access pipeline. Associated

Press. Retrieved from NexisUni.

Maher, K. (2016, Nov. 21). Police in North Dakota use water, rubber bullets, tear gas in latest

pipeline clash. The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved from ProQuest.

238 APPENDIX B

Transitivity Diagrams for The New York Times

Figure 14 Transitivity Diagram, NYT 10/28 Report

between protesters over the fate of an oil and law pipeline not far from 1 enforcement the Standing Rock For months, tensions had mounted officials Sioux Reservation. Circumstance Actor Process: Material Circumstance

2 Late this week the strained relations boiled over as Circumstance Actor Process: Material Conjunction officers tried to force...out the protesters of an area where they had been camping Actor Process: Material Goal Circumstance Conjunction Actor Process: Material

3 Scores of officers face-to-face yelling dressed in riot gear walked in a wide line, sweeping...out protesters of the area as matches broke out. Actor Process: Material Circumstance Process: Material Goal Circumstance Conjunction Actor Process: Material 4 Several vehicles, including at least one truck were set ablaze. Goal Process: Material

beside a bridge 5 known as the to wooden boards A standoff unfolded Backwater Bridge, where protesters set fire and signs and Actor Process: Material Circumstance Conjunction Actor Process: Material Goal Conjunction held off the line of officers over many hours Process: Material Goal Circumstance

at least 142 on charges including engaging in a riot and conspiracy to endanger by 6 By Friday evening, officers said they had arrested protesters fire and explosion. Circumstnce Sayer Process: Verbal Actor Process: Material Goal Circumstance Projected Projecting

7 Protesters gathered were refusing to near the bridge leave the authorities said. Actor Process: Material Sayer Process: Verbal Projected Projecting

8 about violent Each side complained vehemently tactics by the other Sayer Process: Verbal Circumstance Circumstance

with firebombs, 9 logs, feces, and Officers said that protesters had attacked them debris Sayer Process: Verbal Actor Process: Material Goal Circumstance Projecting Projected

10 using pepper spray and beanbag rounds against the protesters as well as a high-pitched sound device meant They [officers] acknowledged to disperse crowds. Sayer Process: Verbal Verbiage

239 7 Protesters gathered were refusing to near the bridge leave the authorities said. Actor Process: Material Sayer Process: Verbal Projected Projecting

8 about violent Each side complained vehemently tactics by the other Sayer Process: Verbal Circumstance Circumstance

with firebombs, 9 logs, feces, and Officers said that protesters had attacked them debris Sayer Process: Verbal Actor Process: Material Goal Circumstance Projecting Projected

10 using pepper spray and beanbag rounds against the protesters as well as a high-pitched sound device meant They [officers] acknowledged to disperse crowds. Sayer Process: Verbal Verbiage

11 In one case, the officers said they used a taser gun after Circumstance Sayer Process: Verbal Actor Process: Material Goal Conjunction Projecting Projected a protester threw pepper in officer's faces. Actor Process: Material Goal Circumstance

One woman who 12 was being arrested the authorities said had pulled....out a gun and fired at a police line. Actor Sayer Process: Verbal Process: Material Goal Conjunction Process: Material Goal Projecting Projected

they [the 13 No one was hit by these shots authorities] said Goal Process: Material Actor Sayer Process: Verbal Projected Projecting

Randez Bailey, a 14 not [peaceful] resident of "It was peaceful but it is now." Standing Rock, said of the protest Carrier Process: Relational Attribute Conjunction Carrier Process: Relational Attribute Sayer Process: Verbal Circumstance Projected Projecting

the ones who have 15 "We are to live here" [Bailey] Token Process: Relational Value Projected

16 "You all get to go back home" [Bailey] Token Process: Relational Value Projected

of the Dakota Access pipeline, 17 which is to carry oil 1,170 miles from Energy Transfer North Dakota to The confrontation has been brewing for months as Partners tries to finish construction Illinois. Actor Material Circumstance Conjunction Actor Process: Material Goal Circumstance

a safer way to 18 Company officials contend that the pipeline will be transport oil Sayer Process: Verbal Token Process: Relational Value Projecting Projected

19 Native Americans and environmental sacred cultural activists, many of whom are gathered the $3.7 billion the region’s water lands and tribal But here say pipeline threatens supply and would harm burial grounds. Conjunction Sayer Process: Verbal Actor Process: Material Goal Conjunction Process: Material Goal Projecting Projected

Even as crews here through Army 20 were continuing Corps land and construction of the by the Army Corps of on a crucial stretch of under the Missouri pipeline lands, all sides were awaiting a review Engineers the proposed path, River. Circumstance Actor Process: Material Goal Circumstance

21 The issue has sparked concern from environmentalists and politicians on social media. Phenomenon Process: Mental Senser Circumstance

The intensifying clashes as law 22 enforcement from organizations to monitor law moved in on a renewed flurry of like Amnesty enforcement’s Thursday drew attention International, which said it was sending observers behavior Conjunction Process: Verbal Actor Process: Material Goal Circumstance Actor Process: Material Goal Circumstance Projecting Projected

Kyle Kirchmeier, the 23 Morton County to move away from a campsite they had created on private land sheriff said protesters had been asked that is owned by Energy Transfer Partners, but they had refused. Sayer Process: Verbal Reciever Process: Verbal Verbiage 240 Conjunction Actor Process: Material Projecting Projected Kyle Kirchmeier, the 23 Morton County to move away from a campsite they had created on private land sheriff said protesters had been asked that is owned by Energy Transfer Partners, but they had refused. Sayer Process: Verbal Reciever Process: Verbal Verbiage Conjunction Actor Process: Material Projecting Projected

24 "It forced our hand" Sheriff Kirchmeier said. Actor Process: Material Goal Sayer Process: Verbal Projected Projecting

By Thursday 25 morning, he [Kirchmeier] said, the authorities had given up on negotiations with the protesters and Circumstance Sayer Process: Verbal Actor Process: Material Goal Circumstance Conjunction Projected Projecting more than 200 moved in to clear the area where people were gathered. Process: Material Goal Conjunction Actor Process: Material

26 The authorities, some of whom arrived in military-style vehicles demanded over loud speaker that people leave. , Sayer Process: Verbal Circumstance Verbiage

to evacuate a second, larger camp that they have set up on 27 Protesters were not being asked federal land, a few miles away. Receiver Process: Verbal Verbiage

those who were 28 swept off the would be permitted The authorities said private land to stay in the second camp Sayer Process: Verbal Actor Process: Material Circumstance Projecting Projected

29 But tribal leaders said the land in question was tribal land and Conjunction Sayer Process: Verbal Carrier Process: Relational Attribute Conjunction Projecting Projected called on federal authorities to step in and oversee the actions of local law enforcement. Process: Material Goal Circumstance Conjunction Process: Material Goal Circumstance

30 Thursday's sweep brought the total number of protesters arrested since August to 411. Actor Process: Material Goal Circumstance

Dave Archambault 31 II, the chairman of have repeatedly a disproportionate response from law enforcement to water protectors’ nonviolent the Standing Rock "We seen exercise of their constitutional rights said Sioux tribe. Senser Process: Mental Phenomenon Process: Verbal Sayer Projected Projecting

Figure 15

Transitivity Diagram, NYT 11/21 Report

in North Dakota, on Law enforcement 1 Tensions continued Monday afternoon as officials arrested 16 people at a demonstration one day after Actor Process: Material Circumstance Conjunction: Actor Process: Material Goal Circumstance Conjunction: over the Dakota hundreds clashed with the police Access Pipeline. Actor Process: Material Goal Circumstance

During a news 2 conference on against protesters the night before, despite the Monday officials also defended their use of fire hoses below-freezing weather. Circumstance Sayer Circumstance Process: Verbal Target Circumstance

to repel some of the 3 protest activities that Some of the water was used were occurring, and Goal Process: Material Circumstance Conjunction: Projected at a time where they the Morton County were aggressive sheriff, Kyle at the news it was used toward officers Kirchmeier, said conference. Goal Process: Material Circumstance Sayer Process: Verbal Circumstance Projecting

In a statement late on the Morton County 4 Sunday, Sheriff’s Department characterized the demonstration as an “ongoing riot,” and Circumstance Sayer Process: Verbal Target Verbiage Conjunction: released photos that showed241 protesters "setting fires and Process: Material Goal Process: Verbal Actor Process: Material Conjunction: Projecting Projected using aggressive tactics," trying to dismantle a police barricade on Backwater Bridge Process: Material Goal Process: Material Goal Circumstance

which [Backwater the site of a protest Bridge] has...been. for months against the pipeline Token Process: Relational Circumstance Value

In a statement late on the Morton County 4 Sunday, Sheriff’s Department characterized the demonstration as an “ongoing riot,” and Circumstance Sayer Process: Verbal Target Verbiage Conjunction: released photos that showed protesters "setting fires and Process: Material Goal Process: Verbal Actor Process: Material Conjunction: Projecting Projected using aggressive tactics," trying to dismantle a police barricade on Backwater Bridge Process: Material Goal Process: Material Goal Circumstance

which [Backwater the site of a protest Bridge] has...been. for months against the pipeline Token Process: Relational Circumstance Value

against what it 5 estimated to be a dispersal methods the crowd of 400 The statement did not address department had used protesters. Sayer Process: Verbal Target Circustance

Rob Keller, a 6 spokesman for the department, told the Bismarck Tribune that water was being used for crowd control, Sayer Process: Verbal Receiver Goal Process: Material Circumstance Projecting Projected adding that water cannons had also been used to douse the fires. Process: Verbal Goal Process: Material Circumstance Projecting Projected

7 The paper [The BT] reported that protesters had started a dozen fires and Sayer Process: Verbal Actor Process: Material Goal Conjunction: Projecting Projected officers from the that sheriff's department had said that rocks and logs were being thrown at them. Sayer Process: Verbal Goal Process: Material Circumstance Projecting Projected Projecting Projected

8 One officer was struck on the head it [BT] said. Goal Process: Material Circumstance Sayer Process: Verbal Projected Projecting

9 The Associated Press reported that at least one person was arrested. Sayer Process: Verbal Goal Process: Material Projecting Projected

Dallas Goldtooth, a spokesman for the 10 Indigenous the Oceti Sakowin medical team, which had Environmental in a phone interview on been working in tandem with medics from the Network, said Monday that Standing Rock Sioux tribe, had reported that Sayer Process: Verbal Circumstance Sayer Process: Verbal Projecting Projecting Projected nearly 200 people were injured and 12 people were hospitalized for head injuries. Goal Process: Material Conjunction: Goal Process: Material Circumstance Projected

went into cardiac 11 One protester arrest and was revived by the medic team he [Goldtooth] said. Actor Process: Material Conjunction: Process: Material Actor Sayer Process: Verbal Projected Projecting

to rubber bullets, pepper spray and 12 shrapnel from The medical teams attributed many of the injuries concussion grenades, according to Mr. Goldtooth. Sayer Process: Verbal Target Circumstance Process: Verbal Sayer Projected Projecting

They [the water sprayed from early signs of 13 medical teams] said that cannons caused hypothermia, he [Goldtooth] said. Sayer Process: Verbal Actor Process: Material Goal Projecting Projected Sayer Process: Verbal Projected Projecting

The air temperature in the National Weather 14 the area… was about 23 degrees at 10:15p,m. according to Service. Carrier Process: Relational Attribute Circumstance Process: Verbal Sayer Projected Projecting

242 would love to 15 "I emphasize here that this entire situation is ripe with irony," Mr. Goldtooth said Sayer Process: Verbal Circumstance Target Circumstance Sayer Process: Verbal Projected Projecting

because they might be unfamiliar with the harshness of North adding that on Friday Sheriff Kirchmeier had urged the protesters to leave their camps Dakota winters. Process: Verbal Circumstance Sayer Process: Verbal Receivers Verbiage Circumstance Projecting Projected

16 Late last month, tensions boiled over at a protest camp near Backwater Bridge when Circumstance Actor Process: Material Goal Circumstance Conjunction: Law enforcement officials forced demonstrators out of the area. Actor Process: Material Goal Circumstance

the arrests of more than the setting of multiple 17 That confrontation led to 140 protesters and resulted in fires. Actor Process: Material Goal Conjunction: Process: Material Goal

18 Reports coming out of have been highly law enforcement leveling substantive the conflict contested with officials and protesters accusations of violence at each other. Target Process: Verbal Conjunction: Sayer Process: Verbal Target Receiver

Dave Archambault II, 19 the chairman of the the measures law Standing Rock Sioux in a phone interview enforcement officials a clear escalation of tribe, said Monday that took on Sunday represented violence. Sayer Process: Verbal Circumstance Carrier Process: Relational Attribute Projecting Projected

they are being more 20 “The use of water in aggressive and they are freezing temperatures just goes to show that trying to hurt people." he [Archambault] said. Token Process: Relational Value Sayer Process: Verbal

21 "This is more threatening to human life than any other time of confrontation with law enforcement.” [Archambault] Token Process: Relational Value Projecting

243 APPENDIX C

Transitivity Diagrams for the Wall Street Journal

Figure 16

Transitivity Diagram, WSJ Report 10/27

from an encampment on private property in North Dakota that had become the latest focal point of 1 Police removed dozens of protesters Thursday opposition led by the Standing Rock Sioux against a four-state oil pipeline. Actor Process: Material Goal Circumstance

State and local police, from a winter camp set up Sunday with teepees and tents near a Dakota 2 including some in riot Access Pipeline site owned by Energy Transfer Partners LP, which is building gear cleared about 250 protesters the nearly 1,200-mile pipeline. Actor Process: Material Goal Circumstance

3 roadways that had Police also cleared been illegally blocked by protesters. Actor Process: Material Goal Circumstance

North Dakota Gov. 4 Jack Dalrymple said Thursday evening that all protesters had left the area voluntariliy Sayer Process: Verbal Circumstance Actor Process: Material Goal Circumstance Projecting Projected or [had] been arrested. Conjunction: Process: Material

that to the best of my 5 knowledge, we had no "We all need to be very grateful serious injuries. he [Dalrymple] said. Carrier Process: Relational Attribute Circumstance Sayer Process: Verbal Projected Projecting

our state highways and the place to carry out a 6 "Hopefully, we have persuaded these protesters that county highways is not [sic] peaceful protest. " [Dalrymple] Circumstance Sayer Process: Verbal Receiver Token Process: Relational Value Projected

After several months of occasionally volatile 7 but mostly peaceful protests, emotions boiled over Thursday. Circumstance Actor Process: Material Circumstance

8 Protesters set fire to tires and threw objects at police who Actor Process: Material Goal Conjunction: Process: Material Goal Circumstance Adjective phrase pepper spray and a high-pitched acoustic in turn used device to disperse the crowd. Circumstance Process: Material Goal Circumstance

9 About 20 people were arrested by Thursday evening. Goal Process: Material Circumstance

10 Morton County Sheriff while removing Kyle Kirchmeier said Thursday that he was trying to enforce the law protesters peacefully. Sayer Process: Verbal Circumstance Actor Process: Material Goal Circumstance Projecting Projected

for escalating illegal activities over the weekend, including setting up illegal 11 He [Kirchmeier] blamed protesters roadblocks with cars and rocks. Sayer Process: Verbal Target Verbiage

12 "Morton County has entrusted me to uphold the law and Senser Process: Mental Phenomenon Conjunction: Projected [uphold the law] exactly what I intend that is to do" Sheriff Kirchmeier said. Token Process: Relational Value Sayer Process: Verbal Projecting

to let agitators and rioters walk onto 13 by outsiders and private property, millionaire Hollywood destroy equipment, "Yet I am being asked actors and endanger lives." [Kirchmeier] Conjunction: Receiver Process: Verbal Sayer Verbiage Projected 244 to let agitators and rioters walk onto 13 by outsiders and private property, millionaire Hollywood destroy equipment, "Yet I am being asked actors and endanger lives." [Kirchmeier] Conjunction: Receiver Process: Verbal Sayer Verbiage Projected

anyone trespassing on its 14 On Tuesday Energy Transfer said it [ETP] wouldn't tolerate property and Circumstance Sayer Process: Verbal Senser Process: Mental Phenomenon Conjunction: Projecting Projected to remove protesters and that it [ETP] would work with law enforcement prosecute them. Actor Process: Material Circumstance Goal Projected Projected

the company 15 Lawless behavior will not be tolerated [ETP] said On Tuesday Phenomenon Process: Mental Sayer Process: Verbal Circumstance Projected Projecting

A spokesman for the couldn't immediately 16 Standing Rock Sioux be reached for comment. Goal Process: Material Circumstance

The head of the to investigate the 17 Standing Rock Sioux the Justice police tactics in dealing tribe urged Department on Monday with the protests, a day after Sayer Process: Verbal Receiver Circumstance Verbiage Conjunction: local authorities said protesters blocked a highway with barbed wire and Sayer Process: Verbal Actor Process: Material Goal Circumstance Conjunction: Projecting Projected threatened a helicopter with a drone. Process: Material Goal Circumstance

to stop the pipeline 18 which would carry oil from North Dakota to The tribe wants Illinois, because Senser Process: Mental Conjunction: it [the it [the drinking water and sacred tribe] says pipeline] will endanger sites on its ancestral lands. Sayer Process: Verbal Actor Process: Material Goal Circumstance Projecting Projected

Figure 17 Transitivity Diagram, WSJ Report 11/21

near the site of an oil 1 A standoff in North pipeline nearing Dakota completion turned violent Sunday as Actor Circumstance Process: Material Circumstance Conjunction to disperse protesters, some of whom had set water, fired rubber multiple fires at a police sprayed bullets and used tear gas highway crossing. Actor Process: Material Goal Conjunction Process: Material Goal Circumstance 2 several hundred for inciting the Police blamed protesters violence while Sayer Process: Verbal Receiver Verbiage Conjunction representatives for the that were caused by Standing Rock Sioux which opposes the overly aggressive tribe, pipeline, said multiple protesters suffered injuries police tactics Sayer Circumstance Process: Verbal Actor Process: Material Goal Actor Projecting Projected

245 3 the use of water in The tribe equated freezing temperatures to deadly force but police disagreed. Sayer Process: Verbal Target Verbiage Conjunction Sayer Process: Verbal

4 One person was arrested police said Goal Process: Material Sayer Process: Verbal Projected Projecting

The latest clash over the Dakota Access Pipeline, which would 5 carry crude oil from North Dakota to Illinois along a 1,172-mile route, began Sunday Evening when Token Process: Relational Value Conjunction near a bridge on Highway 1806 near the Morton County about 400 protesters set...on fire two trucks Cannon Ball, N.D., according to Sheriff's Department. Actor Process: Material Goal Circumstance Process: Verbal Sayer Projected Projecting

to prevent protesters 6 from moving north Police set up a line toward the pipeline and Actor Process: Material Goal Circumstance Conjunction Projected to stop the movement Rob Keller, a of protesters as well as spokesman for the a firetruck from Mandan, N.D. was used put out fires said sheriff's department. Goal Circumstance Process: Material Circumstance Process: Verbal Sayer Projecting

7 He [Keller] said protesters threw rocks and burning logs at the line of police Sayer Process: Verbal Actor Process: Material Goal Circumstance Projecting Projected striking one officer in the head. Process: Material Goal Circumstance

8 were given multiple Protesters orders to back up Mr. Keller said. Sayer Process: Verbal Verbaige Sayer Process: Verbal Projected Projecting

a little more why there was less 9 aggressive and did not than lethal force But these agitators were back down and that [is] used". [Keller] Conjunction Carrier Process: Relational Attribute Conjunction Token Process: Relational Value Projected

on Backwater Bridge which had been the 10 site of previous clashes and fires and has been closed by the state's department of By Monday morning, about 75 protesters remained transportation. Circumstance Actor Process: Material Circumstance

11 as scattered fires Police continued to monitor the situation smoldered nearby Mr. Keller said. Actor Process: Material Goal Circumstance Sayer Process: Verbal Projected Projecting

from tear-gas Representatives from exposure, 12 the Standing Rock hypothermia and Sioux tribe and other were receiving injuries from rubber pipeline opponents criticized police and said hundreds of people treatment bullets. Sayer Process: Verbal Target Conjunction Process: Verbal Goal Process: Material Circumstance Projecting Projected

13 below freezing right The Morton County "It is now and Sheriff's Department is using a water cannon on our people , Carrier Process: Relational Attribute Conjunction Actor Process: Material Goal Circumstance Comma Splice Projected Dallas Goldtooth, a spokesman for the an excessive and Indigenous potentially deadly use Environmental That is of force," said Network. Token Process: Relational Value Process: Verbal Sayer Projecting

246 about a mile or so 14 from one of the final pipeline links to be Protesters have set up camp completed. Actor Process: Material Goal Circumstance

The group 15 [Indigenous Environmental the camp's medical a local school Network?] said staff was overwhelmed and gymnasium was opened for emergency relief. Sayer Process: Verbal Goal Circumstance Conjunction Goal Process: Material Circumstance Projecting Projected

16 the group [Indigenous went into cardiac Environmental One protester arrest at the scene but was resuscitated Network?] said Actor Process: Material Circmstance Conjunction Process: Material Sayer Process: Verbal Projected Projecting

most of the 17 approximately 2,000 Mr. Keller of the people at the sheriff's department said he believed encampment wanted to protest peacefully but Senser Process: Mental Phenomenon Sayer Process: Verbal Senser Process: Mental Phenomenon Conjunction Projecting Projected more-aggressive several hundred repeatedly had chosen tactics Senser Process: Mental Phenomenon

18 "It [the the same 200 to 300 more aggressive] [is] agitators," he [Keller] said. Token Process: Relational Value Sayer Process: Verbal Projected Projecting

19 "The other 1,600 in the camp are peaceful and want to do it the right way." [Keller] Carrier Process: Relational Attribute Conjunction Process: Mental Phenomenon Projected

of the more than 500 people who have been 20 arrested at protests in the county since He [Keller] said August, only 7% reside in North Dakota. Sayer Process: Verbal Circumstance Actor Process: Material Circumstance Projecting Projected

21 a low of 25 degrees on Temperatures hit Sunday, On Sunday according to Mr. Keller Carrier Process: Relational Attribute Circumstance Process: Verbal Sayer Projected Projecting

warning people of the 22 risks of the The county health has begun approaching cold department broadcasting a message on AM radio weather. Sayer Process: Verbal Target Circumstance Verbiage

23 only going to get "It [is] colder" [Mr. Keller] Carrier Process: Relational Attribute Projected

24 "We don't want lives lost," he [Keller] said. Senser Process: Mental Phenomenon Sayer Process: Verbal Projected Projecting

25 "Everyone has a right to protest." [Keller] Token Process: Relational Value Projected

247 26 about people just "We [are] talking surviving at night." [Keller] Sayer Process: Verbal Verbiage Projected

whether protests will 27 taper off or ramp up as cold weather sets in over the next several It [is] not clear weeks Token Process: Relational Value Circumstance

Kelcy Warren, chief executive of the 28 pipeline's builder, at a Missouri River Energy Transfer reservoir crossing near Partners LP, said construction the protests could begin within weeks if Sayer Process: Verbal Actor Circumstance Process: Material Circumstance Conjunction Projecting Projected the final federal the company gets approval it needs Actor Circumstance Goal

their call for support 29 from the federal local-law enforcement government to help Meanwhile officials reiterated control the situation. Conjunction Sayer Process: Verbal Verbiage

Mr. Keller of the 30 just really haven't county sheriff's "As of now we seen any federal support." said department. Circumstance Senser Process: Mental Phenomenon Process: Verbal Sayer Projected Projecting

248 APPENDIX D

Transitivity Diagrams for the Associated Press

Figure 18

Transitivity Diagram, AP Report 9/4

A protest of a four- 1 state, $3.8 billion oil American Indian burial in southern North pipeline turned violent after tribal officials say construction crews destroyed and cultural sites on private land Dakota. Actor Process: Material Conjunction: Sayer Process: Verbal Actor Process: Material Goal Circumstance Projecting Projected

Morton County 2 Sheriff's Office four private security at the site just outside spokeswoman Donnell guards and two guard several hundred the Standing Rock Preskey said dogs were injured after protesters confronted construction crews Saturday afternoon Sioux Reservation Sayer Process: Verbal Goal Process: Material Conjunction: Actor Process: Material Goal Circumstance Projecting Projected

One of the security for undisclosed 3 officers was taken to a Bismarck hospital injuries. Goal Process: Material Circumstance

to a Bismarck 4 The two guard dogs were taken veterinary clinic Preskey said. Goal Process: Material Circumstance Sayer Process: Verbal Projected Projecting

5 Tribe spokesman six people (**including Steve Sitting Bear said protesters reported that a young child) had been bitten by security dogs Sayer Process: Verbal Goal Process: Material Actor Sayer Process: Verbal Projecting Projected Projecting Projected

he [Steve 6 At least 30 people were pepper-sprayed, Sitting Bear] said. Goal Process: Material Sayer Process: Verbal Projected Projecting

law enforcement of protesters being 7 Preskey said authorities had no reports injured. Sayer Process: Verbal Actor Process: Material Goal Circumstance Projecting Projected

no law enforcement at the site when the 8 There were personnel incident occurred, Preskey said Process: Existential Existent: Entity Circumstance Sayer Process: Verbal Projected Projecting

9 The crowd dispersed when officers arrived and no one was arrested she [Preskey] said Actor Process: material Circumstance Conjunction Actor Process: Material Sayer Process: Verbal Projected Projecting

to join the Standing Rock Sioux Tribe's 10 protest of the oil pipeline that is slated within half a mile of to cross the Missouri The incident occurred an encampment where hundreds of people have gathered River nearby. Actor Process: material Circumstance Conjunction Actor Process: Material Circumstance

the Army Corps of for Dallas-based Energy Transfer Partner's Dakota Access Pipeline, 11 Engineer's decision to which crosses the Dakotas and Iowa to Illinois, including near the The tribe is challenging grant permits reservation in southern North Dakota. Actor Process: Material Goal Circumstance

whether construction can be halted on the 12 Dakota Access A federal judge will rule before Sept. 9 Pipeline Actor Process: Material Circumstance Goal

249 from the Associated 13 Energy Transfer Press on Saturday Partners did not return phone calls and emails seeking comment Actor Material: Process Goal Circumstance

for thousands of tribal members on the 14 Standing Rock Sioux Reservation and millions The tribe fears the project will disturb sacred sites and impact drinking water farther downstream. Actor Process: Material Goal Conjunction: Process: Material Goal Circumstance Senser Process: Mental Projecting Projected

several sites of 15 one day after the tribe "significant cultural along the path of the The protest Saturday came filed court papers saying it found and historic value" proposed pipeline. Token Process: Relational Value Process: Verbal Actor Process: Material Goal Circumstance Projecting Projected

16 to survey private land Tribal preservation was only recently north of the Standing officer Tim Mentz said in court documents that the tribe allowed Rock Sioux reservation Sayer Process: Verbal Circumstance Goal Process: Material Circumstance Projecting Projected

burial rock piles called cairns and other sites 17 of historic significance Mentz said researchers found to Native Americans. Sayer Process: Verbal Actor Process: Material Goal Projecting Projected

Standing Rock Sioux across an area, about 18 Chairman David 150 feet wide Archambault II said in a statement that construction crews removed topsoil stretching for 2 miles Sayer Process: Verbal Circumstance Actor Process: Material Goal Circumstance Projecting Projected

19 "This demolition is devastating" Archambault said. Carrier Process: Relational Attribute Sayer Process: Verbal Projected Projecting

the resting places of 20 "These grounds are our ancestors" [Archambault] Token Process: Relational Value Projected

"The ancient cairns 21 and stone rings there cannot be replaced." [Archambault] Goal Process: Material Projected

22 "In one day, our sacred land has been turned into hollow ground." [Archambault] Circumstance Actor Process: Material Circumstance Projected

23 Preskey said the company filmed the confrontation by helicopter and turned the video over to authorities. Sayer Process: Verbal Actor Process: Material Goal Circumstance Conjunction: Process: Material Goal Circumstance Projecting Projected

some of the 24 Protesters also have posted confrontation on social media. Actor Process: Material Goal Circumstance

25 Morton County Sheriff Kyle Kirchmeier said in a statement that "individuals crossed onto private property and Sayer Process: Verbal Actor Process: Material Goal Conjunction: Projecting Projected private security with wooden posts accosted officers and flag poles". Process: Material Goal Circumstance

"Any suggestion that 26 today's event was a his [Kirchmeier's] peaceful protest is false" statement said. Carrier Process: Relational Attribute Sayer Process: Verbal Projected Projecting

250 Figure 19 Transitivity Diagram, AP Report 10/28

Law enforcement Thursday from private 1 officers dressed in riot land in the path of the over Native American gear and firing bean Dakota Access oil dramatically a months-long rights and the project's bags and pepper spray evicted Protesters pipeline escalating dispute environmental impact. Actor Process: Material Goal Circumstance Process: Material Goal Circumstance hundreds of armed state and local police and National Guard - 2 some on foot and others in trucks, In an operation that military Humvees and to slowly envelop the took nearly six hours, buses - pushed past burning barricades camp. Circumstance Actor Process: Material Goal Circumstance

3 At least 117 people were arrested Goal Process: Material

4 No serious injuries were reported though Target Process: Verbal Conjunction: one man was hurt in the leg and received treatment from a medic Goal Process: Material Circumstance Conjunction: Process: Material Goal Circumstance

A woman who pulled out a .38-caliber pistol 5 and fired three times State Emergency at officers, narrowly Services missing a sheriff's spokeswoman Cecily deputy, was among those arrested. Fong said. Token Process: Relational Value Sayer Process: Verbal Projected Projecting 6 Officers did not return fire she [Fong] said. Actor Process: Material Sayer Process: Verbal Projected Projecting

7 Sheriff Kyle Kirchmeier said the camp had been cleared by nightfall although Sayer Process: Verbal Goal Process: Material Circumstance Conjunction: Projecting Projected

police were still dealing with protesters on the perimeter. Actor Process: Material Goal Circumstance Projected

planned to turn 8 Though officials said earlier they over the site to private security Sayer Process: Verbal Circumstance Actor Process: Material Goal Projecting Projected Conjunction: Kirchmeier said police would stay for now. Sayer Process: Verbal Actor Process: Material Circumstance Projecting Projected

on private land owned 9 by Texas-based to carry oil from Opponents of the Energy Transfer western North Dakota pipeline over the weekend set up camp Partners, which is working to complete the 1,200-mile pipeline to Illinois. Actor Circumstance Process: Material Goal Circumstance Adjective phrase Process: Material Goal Circumstance

the Standing Rock 10 The route skirts Reservation and the tribe says it could endanger water supplies Actor Process: Material Goal Conjunction: Sayer Process: Verbal Actor Process: Material Goal Projecting Projected and disturb cultural sites. Conjunction: Process: Material Goal

The state of North 11 Dakota says no sensitive sites have been found in the area. Sayer Process: Verbal Goal Process: Material Circumstance Projecting Projected

251 to challenge the U.S. Army Corps of 12 Engineers' decision granting permits at more than 200 water The tribe has gone to court crossings. Actor Process: Material Goal Circumstance

13 A federal judge in September denied their request to block construction but Actor Circumstance Process: Material Goal Circumstance Conjunction: on Corps-owned land around Lake Oahe, a to order construction wide spot of the three federal agencies stepped in to halt Missouri River, while the corps reviewed its decision making. Actor Process: Material Goal Circumstance Conjunction: Actor Process: Material Goal

Thursday's operation a day after they 14 to push out the refused to leave protesters began voluntarily. Token Process: Relational Value

15 Law enforcement repeatedly asked protesters to retreat Sayer Process: Verbal Receiver Verbiage

they [Law a high-pitched whistle intended to "control 16 At one point enforcement] said they used and disperse" protesters. Circumstance Sayer Process: Verbal Actor Process: Material Goal Projected Projecting

located just to the the main staging area for hundreds of north of a more protesters, including Native Americans from 17 The camp cleared on permanent and larger on federally owned across North America, environmentalists Thursday is encampment land that has been and some celebrities.

Token Process: Relational Value Token Process: Relational Value

18 Many protesters openly defied the officers while others took part in prayer circles Actor Process: Material Goal Conjunction: Actor Process: Material Goal and burned sage. Conjunction: Process: Material Goal

Morton County 19 Sheriff's Enough people were spokeswoman Donnell arrested that Hushka said the county needed additional jails to house them. Circumstance Sayer Process: Verbal Actor Process: Material Goal Circumstance Projected Projecting

those charged with pending court 20 She [Hushka] said felonies would be held appearances Sayer Process: Verbal Actor Process: Material Circumstance Projecting Projected

Cody Hall, a elsewhere in the 21 spokesman for the pipeline's path on protesters, vowed a new camp would be built federal land Sayer Process: Verbal Goal Process: Material Circumstance Projecting Projected

22 "It is going to take a lot to move them from there" he [Hall] said. Actor Process: Material Goal Circumstance Sayer Process: Verbal Projected Projecting

to four large pieces of 23 construction Authorities said protesters set fire equipment Sayer Process: Verbal Actor Process: Material Goal Projecting Projected

24 At least two cars were also burned Goal Process: Material

252 Aaron Johnson, 50, a member of the 25 Cheyenne River Sioux he and other with the day's in South Dakota, said protesters were not happy outcome. Sayer Process: Verbal Carrier Process: Relational Attribute Circumstance Projecting Projected

26 "I came here for peace and prayer" he [Johnson] said. Actor Process: Material Goal Circumstance Sayer Process: Verbal Projected Projecting

27 "When somebody sets something on fire, that is not peace and prayer." [Johnson] Token Process: Relational Value Projected

Figure 20 Transitivity Diagram, AP Report 11/21

late Saturday near the site of the Dakota 1 Access pipeline, with at least one person Protesters clashed with law enforcement arrested as Actor Process: Material Goal Circumstance Conjunction:

protesters sought to push past a bridge on a state highway that had been blocked since late October. Actor Process: Material Goal Circumstance on state Highway 2 The Morton County 1806 as part of the Sheriff's Office estimated 400 protesters were trying to cross the bridge “ongoing riot". Sayer Process: Verbal Actor Process: Material Goal Circumstance Projecting Projected

3 to prevent their Law enforcement had formed a line movement and Actor Process: Material Goal Circumstance Conjunction: appeared to be using water cannons as temperatures dipped toward the low 20s. Process: Material Goal Conjunction: Carrier Process: Relational Attribute

4 at the Backwater near where protesters had set up camp on private property owned by the pipeline developer, Energy Transfer Partners, before they were The clash was Bridge forcibly removed by law enforcement Oct. 27 Token Process: Relational Value Circumstance

about a mile from an uncompleted section 5 under Lake Oahe, a Missouri River reservoir, where work has been on hold by order of It [is] also federal agencies Token Process: Relational Value

what appeared to be 6 A video shot by a water cannons and protester showed tear gas being fired at protesters. Sayer Process: Verbal Goal Process: Material Circumstance Projecting Projected

a burned-out truck 7 that had been on the highway since the Oct. The sheriff's office said the incident began around 6 p.m. when protesters removed 27 confrontation Sayer Process: Verbal Token Process: Relational Value Conjunction: Actor Process: Material Goal Projecting Projected

253 8 Rema Loeb told The Associated Press he was forced to retreat from the bridge Sayer Process: Verbal Receiver Goal Process: Material Circumstance Projecting Projected being doused with water on the freezing because he feared night. Conjunction: Senser Process: Mental Phenomenon

9 needed medical after being hit with Others, he [Loeb] said treatment tear gas. Goal Sayer Process: Verbal Process: Material Circumstance Projected Projecting

the 83-year-old Loeb, 10 who had traveled from Massachusetts about two weeks ago to join "It [has] been just horrible," said the protests. Carrier Process: Relational Attribute Process: Verbal Sayer Projected Projecting

Tara Houska, an 11 organizer with Honor the Earth, told the Bismarck Tribune that the Cannon Ball gym was opened to aid people who had been doused with water or tear gas. Sayer Process: Verbal Receiver Goal Process: Material Circumstance Projecting Projected

Phone calls to the 12 sheriff's department to an answering late Sunday went machine Goal Process: Material Circumstance

13 The 1,200-mile, four- intended to carry oil from western North state pipeline is Dakota to a shipping point in Illinois. Token Process: Relational Value

by the Standing Rock 14 Sioux whose construction of the reservation lies near But $3.8 billion pipeline has been protested for months the pipeline route and the tribe's allies who Conjunction Goal Process: Material Circumstance Actor Conjunction Actor Conjunction fear a leak could contaminate their drinking water Actor Process: Material Goal Process: Mental Projecting Projected

15 They [the tribe's allies] also worry that construction could threaten sacred sites. Actor Process: Material Goal Senser Process: Mental Phenomenon

16 Energy Transfer Partners has said no sites have been disturbed and Sayer Process: Verbal Goal Process: Material Conjunction: Projecting Projected a safer method of safeguards against transport for oil than that the pipeline will have leaks, and is rail or truck. Token Process: Relational Value Conjunction: Process: Relational Value

17 largely complete, except for the section under The company [ETP] has said the pipeline is Lake Oahe. Sayer Process: Verbal Token Process: Relational Value Projecting Projected

254 APPENDIX E

Transitivity Diagrams for The Bismarck Tribune

Figure 21

Transitivity Diagram, BT Report 9/3

early Saturday 1 at an alternate for the Dakota Access afternoon south of Protesters broke through a fence line construction site Pipeline Mandan. Actor Process: Material Goal Circumstance

Donnell Preskey, spokeswoman for the 2 "Three private security Morton County officers at the site were injured by protesters" said Sheriff's Office. Goal Circumstance Process: Material Actor Process: Verbal Sayer Projected Projecting

3 One of them required hospitalization. Token Process: Relational Value

to be treated for 4 Two secruity K-9s were also taken to veterinarians injuries Goal Process: Material Circumstance

"Any suggestion that 5 today's event was a peaceful protest is false" [Kirchmeier] Carrier Process: Relational Attribute Projected

6 more like a riot than a Morton County Sheriff "This was protest" said Kyle Kirchmeier. Token Process: Relational Value Process: Verbal Sayer Projected Projecting

private security with wooden posts 7 "Individuals crossed onto private property and accosted officers and flag poles." [Kirchmeier] Actor Process: Material Goal Conjunction: Process: Material Goal Circumstance Projected Projected

The aggression and 8 violence displayed should not be here today is unlawful and repeated. [Kirchmeier] Carrier Process: Relational Attribute Conjunction: Process: Material Projected

the incident and individuals who 9 organized and While no arrests were are actively participated in this made at the scene, we investigating unlawful event," he [Kirchmeier] said. Actor Process: Material Goal Sayer Process: Verbal Projected Projecting

sacred places containing ancient burial sites, places of 10 prayer and other significant cultural artifacts of the Tribal Chairman Dave issued a statement Standing Rock Sioux by Energy Transfer Shortly before 9 p.m. Archambault II saying Tribe were destroyed Saturday Partners Circumstance Sayer Process: Verbal Goal Process: Material Circumstance Actor Projecting Projected

255 11 "This demolition is devastating" Archambault said. Carrier Process: Relational Attribute Sayer Process: Verbal Projected Projecting

the resting place of our 12 "The grounds are ancestors" [Archambault] Token Process: Relational Value Projected

"The ancient cairns 13 and stone rings there cannot be replaced" [Archambault] Actor Process: Material Projected

14 "In one day, our sacred land has been turned into hollow ground" [Archambault] Circumstance Actor Process: Material Circumstance Projected

across an area about 150 feet wide, stretching 15 the news release from for two miles, northwest of the confluence of According to Archambault construction crews removed topsoil the Cannonball and Missouri rivers Sayer Process: Verbal Actor Process: Material Goal Circumstance Projecting Projected

on the west side of 16 Highway 1806, near the Missouri River and "At about 2:30 p.m. protesters crossed through an area Cannon Ball, said Preskey Circumstance Actor Process: Material Goal Circumstance Process: Verbal Sayer Projected Projecting

several reports from protesters with large 17 According to security officers knives were pulled on them or they witnessed knives Sayer Process: Verbal Goal Process: Material Conjunction: Sensor Process: Mental Phenomenon Projecting Projected

from their camp 18 located on U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Protesters reportedly marched land and Actor Process: Material Circumstance Conjunction: Projected on the west side of marched to the construction site Highway 1806, said Preskey Process: Material Goal Circumstance Sayer Process: Verbal Projecting

Once the marchers 19 arrived at the by stepping and construction site, they broke down a wire fence jumping on it , Circumstance Actor Process: Material Goal Circumstance Comma Splice Projected the marchers estimated to be at least 300 people broke into the construction area and rushed construction workers she [Preskey] said. Actor Process: Material Goal Conjunction: Process: Material Goal Sayer Process: Verbal Projected Projecting

By late Saturday 20 afternoon the area had been cleared Circumstance Goal Process: Material

21 No arrests were made Preskey said. Goal Process: Material Sayer Process: Verbal Projected Projecting

22 Witnesses also say they saw protesters climb onto vehicles at the construction site and Actor Process: Material Goal Circumstance Conjunction Sayer Process: Verbal Sensor Process: Mental Projecting Projected beat on them, trying to break the windows. Process: Material Goal Process: Material Goal

256 for Johnelle Leingang, emergency manager for 23 Standing Rock, and LaDonna Brave Bull Allard, could not immediately Two phone messages were left co-organizer of the protest and tribal historian but they be reached for comments Goal Process: Material Circumstance Conjunction Goal Process: Material Circumstance

Tim Mentz, former 24 tribal historic preservation officer, said in a statement he surveyed the land and Sayer Process: Verbal Circumstance Actor Process: Material Goal Conjunction Projecting Projected where the construction multiple graves and site was breached confirmed there were prayer sites Saturday Process: Verbal Process: Existential Existent Circumstancee Projecting Projected

25 One security guard said a crowd of protesters pushed him against a vehicle and Sayer Process: Verbal Actor Process: Material Goal Circumstance Conjunction Projecting Projected in the side with a he [security guard] said he was jabbed wooden fence pole and Sayer Process: Verbal Actor Process: Material Circumstance Conjunction Projecting Projected Kicked in the knees Process: Material Circumstance

"stomp him, kick him, 26 he's just not to going He [security people saying to leave," said Preskey. guard] heard Sayer Process: Verbal Verbiage Sensor Process: Mental Sayer Process: Verbal Projected Projecting

27 That security guard was transported to a Bismarck hospital Goal Process: Material Circumstance

three formal reports of 28 Investigators have taken injuries from officers. Actor Process: Material Goal Circumstance

several additional 29 private security However, witnesses say officers were assaulted. Conjunction Sayer Process: Verbal Goal Process: Material Projecting Projected

from Morton County, 30 Burleigh County, and Law enforcement Highway Patrol responded to the construction site Actor Circumstance Process: Material Goal

in cooperation with the 31 The Morton County Bureau of Criminal Sherriff's Department Investigations is investigating the incident Actor Circumstance Process: Material Goal

257

Figure 22

Transitivity Diagram, BT Report 10/28

hundreds of Dakota 1 a militarized police Access Pipeline A no-surrender line became a line of retreat as force overwhelmed protesters and Token Process: Relational Value Conjunction: Actor Process: Material Goal Conjunction: from a front line of resistance back to the pushed them main camp. Process: Material Goal Circumstance

half a mile south on N.D. Highway 1806, away from a new 2 camp they built Over the course of five Sunday directly atop hours, starting around the pipeline noon, police pressed the protesters easement. Circumstance Actor Process: Material Goal Circumstance

two fires on the nearby 3 Backwater bridge and people throwing Molotov The unrest continued into the evening hours with police reporting cocktails at police. Actor Process: Material Circumstance Conjunction: Sayer Process: Verbal Verbiage

two incidents of shots 4 Authorities also reported fired Sayer Process: Verbal Verbiage

flames and thick black from the cab of one of three Dakota Access Pipeline earth movers just 5 In the late afternoon, smoke billowed over the hill on Highway 1806 as Circumstance Actor Process: Material Circumstance Conjunction: on U.S. Army Corps of protesters walked back to the main camp Engineers land. Actor Process: Material Goal Circumstance

6 Police said 117 people were arrested as of 8:30 p.m. Sayer Process: Verbal Goal Process: Material Circumstance Projecting Projected

The end-of-day 7 drama followed hours of confusion and escalating tensions that police attempted to contain. Token Process: Relational Value

8 for protesters to return Officers repeatedly called over the loudspeaker to the main camp. Sayer Process: Verbal Circumstance Verbiage

if they went 9 They promised no arrests peacefully. Sayer Process: Verbal Target Circumstance

The two to three the several hundred human lines of 10 hundred officers eventually surrounded protesters who formed resistance. Actor Process: Material Goal Adjective phrase Process: Material Goal

11 Emotion and conflict emerged in the group with some urging peace and prayer and Actor Process: Material Circumstance Conjunction: Sayer Process: Verbal Target Conjunction: logs, water bottles, others throwing and rocks at officers. Actor Process: Material Goal Circumstance

under a force of pepper spray, rubber and bean bag bullets, tasers, smoke grenades and 12 They [Protesters] eventually fell back relentless, inch-by-inch, pressure from police witnessed by Tribune reporters Goal Process: Material Circumstance Process: Verbal Sayer Projected Projecting

13 pepper spray and high- Law enforcement claims they only used pitch warning tones Sayer Process: Verbal Actor Process: Material Goal Projecting Projected

258 Standing Rock Sioux 14 Tribal Chairman Dave the way other crowd dispersing methods - rubber bullets and However, Archambault II criticized concussion cannons - were also used. Conjunction: Sayer Process: Verbal Target

visible injuries among 15 There were the group. Process: Existential Existent: Entity

apparently from bean 16 Dozens had burning eyes ; one person had rib cage bruises bag bullets; and Carrier Process: Relational Attribute Semi-Colon Carrier Process: Relational Attribute Circumstance Conjunction: from allegedly being one other with a sore arm grabbed by police. Carrier Process: Relational Attribute Circumstance

with wood objects 17 Law enforcement reported no injuries by evening though at least two officers were hit thrown by protesters Sayer Process: Verbal Verbiage Circumstance Conjunction: Goal Process: Material Circumstance

a series of three in their attempts to 18 Protesters set up barricades stop police. Actor Process: Material Goal Circumstance

19 A contingent started a fire at the first, set up temporary straw bales at the second and Actor Process: Material Goal Circumstance Process: Material Goal Circumstance Conjunction: the undercarriage of a two men locked to pickup at the third. Actor Process: Material Goal Circumstance

20 Morton County Sheriff Kyle Kirchmeier claimed a victory in the late afternoon , Sayer Process: Verbal Target Circumstance Comma-Gerund saying "We are not leaving the area , We are holding it." Process: Verbal Actor Process: Material Goal Comma Splice Actor Process: Material Goal Projecting Projected

21 Gov. Jack Dalrymple complimented law enforcement's efforts to remove the protesters from Dakota Access property. Sayer Process: Verbal Target

22 "This situation has been well handled from start to finish." Dalrymple said. Actor Process: Material Circumstance Sayer Process: Verbal Projected Projecting

hopefully...have 23 "Going forward, we persuaded protesters [Dalrymple] Circumstance Sayer Process: Verbal Target Projected public roadways and not the place to hold a that private properties is [sic] protest" Token Process: Relational Value

Organizer Dallas also a victory for 24 Goldtooth said the day was protesters. Sayer Process: Verbal Token Process: Relational Value Projecting Projected

25 "This is not a loss , We always knew this camp was at risk" he [Goldtooth] said. Token Process: Relational Value Comma-Splice Senser Process: Mental Phenomenon Sayer Process: Verbal Projected Projecting

the world to see how far North Dakota and 26 their police will go to protect an oil "We want company." [Goldtooth] Senser Process: Mental Phenomenon Projected

by the shouting and 27 shoving among their by law enforcement's own over how to Many protesters were troubled by the day some response and others protect the camp. Senser Process: Mental Phenomenon Senser Phenomenon Conjunction Senser Phenomenon

259

took more direct 28 Some people prayed , others action Actor Process: Material Comma Splice Actor Process: Material

"We need our 29 numbers to get back at the prayer" one called out Verbiage Sayer Process: Verbal

"You are doing the 30 police's work for Another fired back, them". Sayer Process: Verbal Verbiage

along with the 31 Loren Bagola walked down the highway retreating protesters and called it a sad day. Actor Process: Material Goal Circumstance Conjunction Process: Verbal Target Verbiage

extreme force and tear against people who 32 "They used gas were praying," he [Bagola] said Actor Process: Material Goal Circumstance Sayer Process: Verbal Projected Projecting

33 "I [am] heartbroken" [Bagola] Carrier Process: Relational Attribute Projected

a circle of 50 people in 34 Police broke up prayer as they [police] moved through the frontline camp, Actor Process: Material Goal Conjunction Actor Process: Material Goal with orange X's when searching tents and teepees and marking them they had been cleared. Process: Material Goal Conjunction Process: Material Goal Circumstance

35 as she backed up Olivia Bias, of Colorado quietly sang under police pressure. Actor Process: Material Circumstance

36 "We said that this was no surrender here so Sayer Process: Verbal Token Process: Relational Value Conjunction Projecting Projected Projected different ideas about different people had no surrender," she [Bias] said. Senser Process: Mental Phenomenon Sayer Process: Verbal Projecting

so successful with 37 what we've been "We [have] been doing for so long." [Bias] Carrier Process: Relational Attribute Projected

nothing but chaos 38 "It [is] now." [Bias] Carrier Process: Relational Attribute Projected

Joe Pulliam, of Pine the disagreements 39 Ridge, S.D. said among protesters was [sic] "going to happen" Sayer Process: Verbal Token Process: Relational Value Projecting Projected

young militants that 40 want to take action and elders that know "There [is] better" he [Pulliam] said Process: Existential Existent: Entity Sayer Process: Verbal Projected Projecting

As police formed a in an area the cordon around Standing Rock Sioux 41 protesters on the yellow construction on the pipeline within Tribe said contains highway, equipment started work view sacred sites. Circumstance Actor Process: Material Goal Circumstance

42 "They [are] taunting us." [Pulliam] Actor Process: Material Goal Projected

260 the only way they 43 "They are making it worse know how Pulliam said. Actor Process: Relational Circumstance Sayer Process: Verbal Projected Projecting

into the construction 44 About 50 protesters marched zone where they encountered police Actor Process: Material Circumstance Conjunction Actor Process: Material Goal and several [protesters] were arrested. Conjunction Goal Process: Material

from behind the 45 construction to Soon after the Roughly 30 private observe the protesters protesters were Dakota Access getting pushed down cleared from the site, security guards walked over the hill the highway. Circumstance Actor Process: Material Goal Circumstance

46 between top law Thursday's enforcement officials confrontation followed failed negotiations and camp leaders. Token Process: Relational Value Circumstance

move out of a camp 47 on private property and stop blocking the for public safety Law enforcement insisted protesters road reasons. Sayer Process: Verbal Target Verbiage Circumstance

48 Protesters said the land is theirs by an 1851 treaty and refused to move. Sayer Process: Verbal Carrier Process: Relational Attribute Circumstance Conjunction Process: Material Projecting Projected

Figure 23 Transitivity Diagram, BT Report 11/22

An hours-long standoff between Dakota Access Pipeline 1 ended midday Monday as an elder encouraged people to leave the bridge where protesters and police on the Backwater Bridge Carrier Process: Relational Attribute Conjunction: Sayer Process: Verbal Receiver Verbiage Conjunction: in subfreezing hundreds were sprayed with water temperatures the night before. Goal Process: Material Goal Circumstance The previous night's 2 followed efforts by the protesters to remove burned out vehicles blocking the bridge since late-October. confrontation Token Process: Relational Circumstance 3 The attempt escalated into hours of conflict in which protesters reportedly threw rocks and logs at police Goal Process: Material Circumstance Conjunction: Actor Process: Material Goal Circumstance with tear gas, who responded rubber, bullets and cold water Adjective phrase Process: Material Circumstance the most tense conflict between law enforcement and at least 26 serious 4 It was and led to among protesters according to a camp medical group. opponents of the injuries 1,168-mile crude oil pipeline in weeks, Token Process: Relational Value Conjunction: Process: Material Goal Circumstance Process: Verbal Sayer Projected Projecting

5 One officer was reportedly hit in the head with a rock. Goal Process: Material Circumstance

from people who say it The use of water to its use [water to as "the best option we 6 has come under criticism made dozens but law enforcement defended Monday repel the protesters repel protesters] had". hypothermic Target Process: Verbal Sayer Conjunction: Sayer Process: Verbal Target Circumstance Verbiage

Morton County Sheriff Kyle Kirchmeier, who said police used fire hoses as a method to 7 said water261 is not normally used by his department not cannons as reported by numerous protesters disperse a crowd. Sayer Process: Verbal Goal Process: Material Actor Circumstance Projecting Projected Morton County Sheriff Kyle Kirchmeier, who said police used fire hoses as a method to 7 said water is not normally used by his department not cannons as reported by numerous protesters disperse a crowd. Sayer Process: Verbal Goal Process: Material Actor Circumstance Projecting Projected

field commanders on the effect the water scene who made the would have on people 8 He [Kirchmeier] said considered decision to use fire in the cold hoses on protesters temperatures. Sayer Process: Verbal Senser Process: Mental Phenomenon Projecting Projected

people, protesters in come and threaten 9 "We [are] just not going to let Kirchmeier said large groups, officers Actor Process: Material Goal | Actor Circumstance Sayer Process: Verbal Projected Projecting

when asked whether Mandan Police Chief "It [the the use of force was 10 added was effective" Jason Ziegler use of force] necessary to keep officers safe. Sayer Process: Verbal Carrier Process: Relational Attribute Circumstance Projecting Projected

11 Law enforcement would consider using water again he [Ziegler] said Senser Process: Mental Phenomenon Sayer Process: Verbal Projected Projecting

in the form of Customs 12 Kirchmeier said local law enforcement has begun getting federal aid and Border Patrol officers. Sayer Process: Verbal Actor Process: Material Goal Circumstance Projecting Projected

13 Protesters have voiced concerns that a leak in the pipeline would contaminate the Missouri River Sayer Process: Verbal Actor Process: Material Goal Projecting Projected

the irony that people Angela Bibens, an protesting about and attorney who works at did not miss protecting water were the camp, being repelled with it.

Conjunction: Senser Process: Mental Phenomenon Projecting Projected

as a weapon against 14 "It [is] using our medicine us to inflict pain and she [Bibens] said suffering," Actor Process: Material Goal Circumstance Sayer Process: Verbal Projected Projecting

by Morton County's utter lack of regard for 15 "I am appalled [Bibens] the sanctity of human life." Carrier Process: Relational Attribute Circumstance Projected

in preparation for a potential lawsuit 16 Bibens said her team was taking statements throughout the day alleging police brutality Sayer Process: Verbal Actor Process: Material Goal Circumstance Projecting Projected

to the pipeline human rights protests for their 17 Amnesty International said Monday they would send observers fourth visit since August. Sayer Process: Verbal Circumstance Actor Process: Material Goal Circumstance Projecting Projected

Michael Knudsen, a at the front line of the member of the was giving medical 18 protest on Sunday Standing Rock Medic treatment night. and Healer Council, Actor Process: Material Circumstance

mostly from hypothermia as well as blunt trauma from 19 He [Knudsen] said people were suffering the rubber bullets and tear gas contamination. Sayer Process: Verbal Goal Process: Material Circumstance Projecting Projected

262 20 He [Knudsen] said the medics started campfires to warm people, handed out emergency blankets and Sayer Process: Verbal Actor Process: Material Goal Circumstance Process: Material Goal Conjunction: Projecting Projected warmer, "winterized" in camp for cold organized beds people to sleep. Process: Material Goal Circumstance

21 "This was a disaster zone, yesterday" Knudsen said Carrier Process: Relational Attribute Circumstance Sayer Process: Verbal Projected Projecting

from Standing Rock, Cheyenne River, 22 Knudsen said ambulances were present. Kidder and Morton Counties Sayer Process: Verbal Existent: Entity Circumstance Process: Existential Projecting Projected

a release from the medic 23 According to 300 people in total were injured in some form. and healer council,

Process: Verbal Sayer Goal Process: Material Circumstance Projecting Projected

the release [from the At least 26 seriously 24 had to be evacuated by ambulance to three area hospitals, according to medic and healer injured people council] Goal Process: Material Actor Circumstance Process: Verbal Sayer Projected Projecting

CHI St. Alexius six people involved in there [at 25 spokeswoman confirmed were treated for "minor injuries" the protest CHI St. Alexisu] Chelsey Kralicek Sayer Process: Verbal Goal Process: Material Circumstance Projecting Projected

Sanford Health 26 said nine people were treated at Sanford but he could not release information on their condition. spokesman Jon Berg Sayer Process: Verbal Actor Process: Material Circumstance Conjunction: Actor Process: Material Goal Circumstance Projecting Projected

Cecily Fong, public information officer for the at the Fort Yates 27 said six were treated Department of Emergency Services Hospital. Sayer Process: Verbal Goal Process: Material Circumstance Projecting Projected

at the Hennepin the hospital 28 One person was in serious condition County Medical according to [Hennepin Medical Center, Center] Carrier Process: Relational Attribute Circumstance Process: Verbal Sayer Projected Projecting

the release from the Among the most a man who had a seizure, an elder who had to be resuscitated and a woman suffering an eye 29 were according to medic and healer serious injuries injury from a rubber bullet to the face, council. Token Process: Relational Value Process: Verbal Sayer Projected Projecting

due to fires set Oct. 27 as law enforcement pushed protesters back from a northern "front 30 Authorities have said the bridge may be unsafe for the traffic line" camp directly atop the pipeline easement. Sayer Process: Verbal Carrier Process: Relational Attribute Circumstance Projecting Projected

as blocking it [the to construction sites 31 Protesters criticize the barricade and suggest is being used to prevent access emergency services barricade] just north Sayer Process: Verbal Target Verbiage Conjunction: Process: Verbal Goal Process: Material Circumstance Projecting Projected

at the bridge two to Archie Fool Bear, a former tribal councilman and member of the Akicita three weeks ago to he and several tribal 32 warrior and veterans' group, who has been involved with the protest said approached law enforcement ask what it would take leaders camps, to get the bridge reopened. Sayer Process: Verbal Actor Process: Material Goal Circumstance Projecting Projected

they [he 33 He [Archie Fool Bear] said and several tribal asked for a meeting on "neutral ground" but leaders] Sayer Process: Verbal Actor Process: Material Goal Circumstance Conjunction: Projecting Projected to his knowledge, no such meeting has taken place and no agreements have been reached Circumstance Goal Process: Material Conjunction: Goal Process: Material

Jeff Zent, a a matter of 34 spokesman for the said it [is] not negotiation. governor's office, Sayer Process: Verbal Token Process: Relational Value Projecting Projected

35 "That area has to be secure," he [Zent] said before state officials can come in to determine the integrity of the bridge and make repairs. Carrier Process: Relational Attribute Sayer Process: Verbal Circumstance Projected Projecting 263 35 "That area has to be secure," he [Zent] said before state officials can come in to determine the integrity of the bridge and make repairs. Carrier Process: Relational Attribute Sayer Process: Verbal Circumstance Projected Projecting

demonstrations at the 36 Zent said law enforcement has repeatedly asked protesters to leave the area but continue daily. bridge Sayer Process: Verbal Sayer Process: Verbal Target Verbiage Conjunction: Token Process: Relational Value Projecting Projected

kind of in a holding 37 "Until that happens, we [are] [Zent] pattern" Conjunction: Carrier Process: Relational Attribute

North Dakota Department of on when they might 38 Transportation said the department has not received any update from law enforcement be able to come do spokeswoman Jamie testing. Olson Process: Verbal Receiver Process: Verbal Target Sayer Circumstance Projecting Projected

despite the cooler 39 She [Olson] said testing can still be done but snow or ice would complicate the process. temperatures Process: Verbal Actor Process: Material Circumstance Conjunction: Actor Process: Material Goal Projecting Projected

40 Aidoneus Bishop helped pull one burned vehicle off the bridge Sunday night Actor Process: Material Goal Circumstance

the end of a two-week-long ritual in which he would pull a semi-truck up to the burned 41 He [Bishop] said the move was vehicles, as if to town them, then turn back around to camp. Process: Verbal Token Process: Relational Value Projecting Projected

no special reason for 42 He [Bishop] said there was going through with the just that he "figured it was time." Job Sunday night Process: Verbal Process: Existential Existent: Conjunction: Senser Process: Mental Phenomenon Projecting Projected

to attach and pull the 43 It took six tries during which time law enforcement told them [Bishop, et al.] to stop. vehicle Token Process: Relational Value Value Conjunction: Sayer Process: Verbal Receiver Verbiage

to check on what was 44 Protesters started arriving happening. Actor Process: Material Circumstance

45 "The whole plan was to remove the trucks." [Bishop]

Token Process: Relational Value Projected

46 "Everyone showed up and we could [not] get the other one out." [Bishop] Actor Process: Material Conjunction: Actor Process: Material Goal Circumstance Projected

47 "It just escalated," Bishop said Actor Process: Material Process: Verbal Projected Projecting

on the bridge and 48 From there, officers started firing the rubber bullets and more people gathered across the fields to the sides Circumstance Actor Process: Material Goal Conjunction: Actor Process: Material Circumstance

49 This led to the long confrontation with police in which protesters started fires and

Actor Process: Material Process: Material Circumstance Conjunction: Actor Process: Material Goal Conjunction:

allegedly threw rocks and burning logs at officers, according to Kirchmeier

Process: Material Goal Circumstance Process: Verbal Projecting

rubber bullets, tear 50 Law enforcement responded by spraying the protesters with water and firing gas, and pepper into the crowd. spray Actor Process: Material Circumstance Conjunction: Process: Material Circumstance

264 51 They were only able to get one of the trucks and Bishop said they [will] be back to get the other.

Actor Process: Material Goal Conjunction: Process: Verbal Actor Process: Material Circumstance Projecting Projected

what we see as our 52 "We [are] upholding because they [are] blaming those vehicles on us." [Bishop] end of the deal Actor Process: Material Goal Conjunction: Sayer Process: Verbal Target Receiver Projected

53 "We [are] going to clean up our mess" said Bishop. Actor Process: Material Goal Process: Verbal Projected Projecting

at the request of tribal 54 Protesters left the bridge late Monday after elders Actor Process: Material Goal Circumstance Conjunction: Projected that they had found police warned the crowd the Associated Press reported firearms Sayer Process: Verbal Receiver Verbiage Sayer Process: Verbal Projecting

as protesters 55 Bishop said police were reinforcing the barricade with razor wire retreated. Process: Verbal Actor Process: Material Goal Circumstance Projecting Projected

Elih Lizama, 24, who Among the crowd on stayed for four despite 56 was the bridge several hits from rubber bullets. Token Process: Relational Value

57 "We [have] been fighting this for 500 years" [Lizama] Actor Process: Material Goal Circumstance Projected

58 "Another 24 hours is nothing" he [Lizama] said Token Process: Relational Value Process: Verbal Projected Projecting

59 "To quit is not in our blood" [Lizama] Token Process: Relational Value Projected

60 "We can expect to fight to the end" [Lizama] Senser Process: Mental Phenomenon Projected

265