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Durham E-Theses Durham E-Theses Between the State and the Ummah: The Hui Negotiation of Identity in Northwest China CHARLES, GERARD,ANTHONY How to cite: CHARLES, GERARD,ANTHONY (2018) Between the State and the Ummah: The Hui Negotiation of Identity in Northwest China, Durham theses, Durham University. Available at Durham E-Theses Online: http://etheses.dur.ac.uk/12574/ Use policy The full-text may be used and/or reproduced, and given to third parties in any format or medium, without prior permission or charge, for personal research or study, educational, or not-for-prot purposes provided that: • a full bibliographic reference is made to the original source • a link is made to the metadata record in Durham E-Theses • the full-text is not changed in any way The full-text must not be sold in any format or medium without the formal permission of the copyright holders. Please consult the full Durham E-Theses policy for further details. Academic Support Oce, Durham University, University Oce, Old Elvet, Durham DH1 3HP e-mail: [email protected] Tel: +44 0191 334 6107 http://etheses.dur.ac.uk 2 Between the State and the Ummah: The Hui Negotiation of Identity in Northwest China Gerard Anthony Charles PhD School of Government and International Affairs Durham University 2017 Abstract This study examines the genesis and on going development of Hui identity in Xining, Qinghai. The people today known as Hui have always negotiated their identity between the Chinese governing centre and Islam. Employing a theory of centre-periphery civilisational influence pioneered by Stevan Harrell, this ethnography seeks to determine the relative influence of the Chinese hegemonic centre on the one hand, and the Islamic ummah on the other, on the construction of national, ethnic and religious identity. Historical Islamic influences have resulted in a peculiarly sectarian nature to Islam in northwest China, and attitudes to the identity project of the governing centre are shown to vary across the sectarian spectrum. The Party-State actively promotes the Zhonghua minzu national identity, and employs the concept of ethnic unity (minzu tuanjie) to seek to incorporate China’s ethnic minorities into this one over-arching national identity. Arguably, Islam teaches the brotherhood of all Muslims, and sees this faith identity as superior and prior to all others. The strategy for inclusion of Muslims in the Chinese identity has been a project of the Chinese State, and involves the adaptation and utilisation of Islam to achieve the purposes of the State. Through a content analysis of core publications, I first describe the process through which the Party-State sought to adapt Islam to be in harmony with China’s socialist society, and then how the State actively promoted this correct version of Islam through a series of authorised sermons and political tropes in the Muslim directed media. Then, using detailed interviews and participant observation, I explain how Hui responses to this correct Islam are shaped by the different expressions of Islam in Xining, reflecting the various external and internal Islamic influences. The strong sectarian nature of Islamic identity in Xining directly influences the acceptance or resistance of the hegemonic centre’s communication of national, ethnic and religious identity. The persistence of sectarian identity represents the strongest influence on Hui identity formation, and is possibly encouraged by the Party-State to counter the political power of a fully united Muslim Hui identity. 2 Statement of Copyright The copyright of this thesis rests with the author. No quotation from it should be published without the author's prior written consent and information derived from it should be acknowledged. 3 TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter One: Islam in the People’s Republic 10 1.1 The Field of Hui Studies 12 1.2 Methodology 18 1.2.1 An epistemological reflection 19 1.2.2 The problem of detecting and measuring influence 21 1.2.3 Research Strategy 24 1.2.4 Detailed Methods 25 1.2.5 Challenges and self-reflection 29 1.3 Detailed Hypotheses 31 PART ONE: THEORY AND LITERATURE ON HUI IDENTITY Chapter Two: The Construction of Identities and their Contestation 36 2.1 Social Identity Theory 37 2.1.1 Personal, relational and collective identity 38 2.1.2 Primordial and constructed identity 39 2.1.3 The stability of identity 40 2.2 Race, Ethnicity and Religion as Identity Categories 42 2.2.1 Race and racial identity 42 2.2.2 Ethnicity and ethnic identity 45 2.2.3 Religious identity 47 2.3 Nation, national identity and nationalism 51 2.3.1 The nation-state 52 2.3.2 Nationalism and the nation 53 2.3.3 Multiculturalism and the modern nation-state 56 2.4 Islam, the ummah and the nation 59 2.4.1 The Muslim ummah 60 2.4.2 Islam and ethnicity 63 4 2.4.3 Islam and the nation 65 2.4.4 The ummah and the Islamic state in the modern 67 world Conclusions 69 Chapter Three: The History and Identity of the Hui in China 72 3.1 Origins and Beginnings of Islam in China 73 3.1.1 Arrival of Islam in China 73 3.1.2 The first ‘tide’ of Islam: Qadim 78 3.2 The indigenisation of Chinese Islam 81 3.2.1 Beginnings of indigenisation 81 3.2.2 The second ‘tide’ of Islam: Sufism 83 3.3 Conflict and Reform in Chinese Islam 88 3.3.1 Sectarian conflict in the Qing dynasty 89 3.3.2 The third ‘tide’ of Islam: Ikhwan 92 3.4 The Hui in the Modern Era 94 3.4.1 The Hui in the Republican and Nationalist Period 94 3.4.2 The fourth ‘tide’ of Islam: Salafism 97 3.4.3 Islam in Qinghai under the People’s Republic of China 99 3.5 The Hui ethnic identity 101 3.5.1 The origin of the identity ‘Hui’ 102 3.5.2 Construction of Hui identity 105 Conclusion 107 Chapter Four: The Twin Centres of Influence 109 4.1 The Party-State centre of influence 112 4.1.1 The problem of national identity 113 4.1.2 The problem of the minority ‘other’ 114 4.1.3 The ideology of Sino-Marxism 120 Summary 122 4.2 The Islamic centre of influence 123 5 4.2.1 Early development of the Chinese Islamic centre 124 4.2.2 The influence of Islamic modernism and reformism 125 4.2.3 The growth and influence of ‘cyber-Islam’ 127 4.2.4 The ideology of the Islamic centre 129 Summary and Conclusion to Part One 130 PART TWO: THE HUI BETWEEN STATE AND UMMAH TODAY Chapter Five: Party-State Genesis of 'Correct’ Islam 133 5.1 The China Islamic Association (IAC): Establishment, Structure and Purpose 137 5.1.1 Structure of IAC 138 5.1.2 Purpose of IAC 139 5.2 Functions of the IAC 141 5.2.1 Education 141 5.2.2 International relations 144 5.2.3 Hajj department 146 5.2.4 Research and periodicals 148 5.2.5 Exegesis work and official sermons 154 5.3 The IAC and Relations with the Hui 156 5.3.1 Hui understanding of the status and role of the IAC 157 5.3.2 Reputation of the IAC 159 Conclusion 162 Chapter Six: The Content of 'Correct’ Islam 164 6.1 Religio-liturgical sermons in the Collection 166 6.1.1 Unity (tuanjie) 167 6.1.2 Fortune in two worlds (liangshi jiqing) 170 6.1.3 Patriotism (aiguo) 171 6.2 Socio-political sermons in the Collection 173 6 6.2.1 Unity (tuanjie) 173 6.2.2 Fortune in two worlds (liangshi jiqing) 175 6.2.3 Patriotism (aiguo) 177 6.2.4 Peace, harmony and tolerance (heping, hemu, kuanrong) 179 6.2.5 Filial piety (xiaojing fumu) 181 6.2.6 Middle Way (zhongzhengzhi dao) 181 Summary: ‘Correct’ Islam portrayed in the Collection 184 6.3 Attitudes to the Collection among imams in Xining 187 6.3.1 Old Teaching views of the Collection 188 6.3.2 Ikhwan views of the Collection 188 6.3.3 Salafi views of the Collection 191 Conclusion: Party-State development of correct Islam 192 Chapter Seven: The Islamic Centre of Influence – National and Ethnic Identity 195 7.1 National Identity: Zhonghua minzu versus Huizu identities 197 7.1.1 Old Teaching (Qadim and Sufi) 198 7.1.2 Moderate Ikhwan 201 7.1.3 Hard-line Ikhwan 204 7.1.4 Salafi 210 Summary: National vs Hui identity 212 7.2 Ethnic Unity: inter-ethnic unity 213 7.2.1 Old Teaching 216 7.2.2 Moderate Ikhwan 217 7.2.3 Hard-line Ikhwan 219 7.2.4 Salafi 221 Summary: inter-ethnic unity 222 7.3 Ethnic Unity: intra-ethnic unity 223 7.3.1 Old Teaching 225 7.3.2 Moderate Ikhwan 228 7.3.3 Hard-line Ikhwan 230 7 7.3.4 Salafi 233 Summary: intra-ethnic unity 235 Conclusion: National and ethnic identity as understood by the Hui 236 Chapter Eight: National Loyalty – Patriotism, the Ummah and the Nation 240 8.1 Ethnic (Hui) or Religious (Muslim) Identity 241 8.1.1 Old Teaching 243 8.1.2 Moderate Ikhwan 244 8.1.3 Hard-line Ikhwan 250 8.1.4 Salafi 252 Summary of attitudes to ethno-religious identity 254 8.2 Patriotism and the Ummah 255 8.2.1 Old Teaching 256 8.2.2 Moderate Ikhwan 260 8.2.3 Hard-line Ikhwan 268 8.2.4 Salafi 271 Conclusion: Religious and Ethnic Identity as understood by the Hui 273 Chapter Nine: Negotiating Hui Identity in Xining 277 9.1 Construction and Development of Hui Identity in Contemporary Xining 280 9.1.1 Historical Identification 281 9.1.2 Changing Hui Identity 283 9.2 Hui Identity Construction and the Influence of Twin Centres 285 9.2.1 Hui Identity and Party-State Influence 285 9.2.2 Hui Identity and Islamic Influence 290 9.3 Between the State and Islam 293 9.4 The Dominance of Muslim Identity and Influence 295 8 9.5 Further Study 299 Appendices 1.
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