DOCSLIB.ORG

GLONASS for Precise Navigation in Space

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
GLONASS for Precise Navigation in Space RESURS-P LEO On Board Resurs-P LEO Satellite GLONASS for Precise Navigation in Space As the Russian Federation continues to implement its GLONASS multiple access (CDMA) navigation pay- modernization program, which will include newly designed spacecraft loads onboard the GLONASS-M satel- lites # 755–761 — only the first of which and signals, the Russian Federal Space Agency is evaluating methods has been launched. In the meantime, the for improving the system’s performance based on the current GLONASS developers’ team conducted generation of GLONASS-M satellites. This effort includes assessing the analysis and experimental testing of the options to improve performance of the performance of the network of ground reference stations and options GLONASS services based on the current for its improvement as well as using the current GLONASS FDMA GLONASS-M satellites transmitting the signals to precisely determine the orbits of a remote sensing satellite. traditional frequency division multiple access (FDMA) signals. he current stage of GLONASS Analysis of GLONASS evolution is aimed at meet- Evolution Prospects ing future user requirements As a result of the GLONASS Federal Tof which the most important is the Program in 2002–2011 resulted in the VICTOR ASHURKOV, ANDREY VOLKOV improved accuracy of positioning. creation of a considerable scientific and RUSSIAN FEDERAL SPACE AGENCY (ROSCOSMOS) During the implementation of technological backlog. Technological the GLONASS Space Segment Mod- solutions for augmenting GLONASS NIKOLAY TESTOYEDOV ernization Program (2012–2015), the were implemented primarily based ISS RESHETNEV COMPANY GLONASS team is facing the situation on modernized software to enable the ANDREY TYULIN in which it is not feasible to launch new improvement of system performance. RUSSIAN SPACE SYSTEMS COMPANY navigation satellites because the existing The most significant of these augmenta- SERGEY SEREDIN, SERGEY KARUTIN, constellation is comprised of GLONASS- tions is the ground network of reference VLADIMIR MITRIKAS, AND IVAN SKAKUN M satellites operating beyond their stations for the System of Differential THE CENTRAL RESEARCH INSTITUTE OF guaranteed design lifetime. Nine more Correction and Monitoring (SDCM). MACHINE BUILDING (ROSCOSMOS) GLONASS-M satellites are in ground A trade-off analysis for GLONASS ARKADII TIULIAKOV, DMITRII FEDOROV storage. services development identified the RUSSIAN INSTITUTE OF RADIONAVIGATION In these circumstances the decision need to create a global ground network AND TIME (RIRT) was taken to install L3 code division to improve the accuracy of orbit and 54 InsideGNSS SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 2015 www.insidegnss.com 90˚ clock prediction when implementing techniques for estimating the combined 60˚ ephemeris and time parameters using one-way measurements by the ground 30˚ segment. Associated efforts initiated in 2007 0˚ resulted in deployment of a ground network with 19 reference stations in –30˚ the Russian Federation and 4 stations Latitude (degrees) abroad for the SCDM, which enable –60˚ observation of the GLONASS satellites in both hemispheres. The main disad- –90˚ vantage of the network is the lack of –180˚ –135˚ –90˚ –45˚ 0˚ 45˚ 90˚ 135˚ 180˚ overlap for satellite visibility zones from Longitude (degrees) the stations in the Russian territory and FIGURE 1 Ground network used for GLONASS orbit and clock data estimation the stations abroad. This results in the need to attract additional international stations on the territory of the Indian 100 Ocean to provide for orbit and clock data estimates along the whole satellite track. Despite these limitations, the pre- requisites for improving the current GLONASS performance still exist. 10 *1.E-14 That is why the task of estimating the potentially achievable GLONASS per- formance in terms of accuracy becomes utterly vital. The main issue is identi- fying the minimum number of refer- ence stations needed and determining 1000 10,000 100,000 the dependence of orbit and clock data errors on the periodicity of their update on board a satellite. FIGURE 2 Allan Deviation estimates of the onboard atomic frequency standards GLONASS Performance We selected a 45-day period starting tioning that the clock corrections were Improvement Options February 2, 2015 for the estimation of of generated using an adaptive model We conducted an experimental study to potential GLONASS performance. Figure without high-accuracy referencing to assess options for improving GLONASS 1 shows the network of selected SDCM the GLONASS time scale. performance. To do this we used the reference stations expanded with several The equivalent user range error adaptable high-accuracy hardware and IGS stations. These stations provide a (UERE, disregarding propagation errors software of the Information and Analy- data stream at one-hertz frequency. and user receiver biases) was estimated sis Center (IAC) for Positioning, Naviga- We conducted the orbit and clock against the postprocessed precise orbit tion and Timing residing in the Central data estimation using two-day interval and clock data generated by IAC at Research Institute of Machine Building measurements with six-hour periodic- 15-minute intervals. We estimated of the Russian Federal Space Agency. ity. The estimated parameters included UEREs for all satellites in the constella- Based on International GNSS Service the GLONASS satellites ephemerides, tion without limitations. (IGS) weekly estimates, the IAC deter- the stochastic corrections to satellite Figure 2 presents the estimates of mined the orbital error of GLONASS and reference station timescale param- Allan deviation for the clocks on all satellites to be about 0.02–0.025 meter eters, the troposphere model parame- operational satellites in the GLONASS (RMS). In the technological cycle ters, the coordinates of the stations, and constellation. employed in IAC we also estimate the the Earth rotation parameters. The following five optional modes systematic errors of the reference sta- At the end of each solution the pre- of operation for onboard and ground tions’ receivers. The delay of the IAC dicted orbit and clock data for a 24-hour capabilities were studied when estimat- final data is seven days. interval were generated. It is worth men- ing UERE (Table 1): www.insidegnss.com SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 2015 InsideGNSS 55 RESURS-P LEO Orbit and Clock Data • estimating, predicting, and uploading orbit and clock data faster calculation of Upload Periodicity, hour/ Orbit and Clock Data every 6 hours with 6-hour delay from the latest measure- the orbit and clock Prediction Interval, hour σ , m ment (orbit and clock data prediction at the 6–12 hour data and its delivery 0 6 / 6–12 0.8 interval to users. • estimating, predicting, and uploading orbit and clock data 6 / 1–6 0.5 every 6 hours with an hour delay from the latest measure- GLONASS Use 1 / 2–3 0.45 ment (orbit and clock data prediction at 1–6 hour interval for Precise Orbit 2 / 1–3 0.4 Determination instead of the 1–7 hour interval) 1 / 0.25–1.25 0.3 • estimating, predicting, and uploading orbit and clock of LEO Satellites data every hour with 2-hour delay from the latest mea- For decades before Table 1 UERE estimation results for GLONASS-M constellation surement (orbit and clock data prediction at the 2–3 hour the global navi- interval) gation satellite systems came into being, the position of any • estimating, predicting, and uploading orbit and clock data satellite had been determined through a dynamic method every 2 hours with an hour delay from the latest measure- incorporating a priori specified models (geopotential, tidal ment (orbit and clock data prediction at 1–3 hour interval) deformations, atmosphere, and so on). Such models were vali- • estimating, predicting and uploading orbit and clock data dated along with the satellites orbits, while solution accuracy every 15 minutes with an hour delay from the latest mea- was estimated based on measurement residuals or laser ranging surement (orbit and clock data prediction at 0.25–1.25 data. With the advent of GNSS, onboard carrier phase mea- hour interval). surements and precise point positioning (PPP) technology in The obtained results demonstrate that the accuracy of particular have enabled a change in the approach to the solu- user position solutions can be improved by employing the tion of the aforementioned tasks. orbit and clock data determination technique based on the Such solutions are based on high-accuracy GNSS satellite measurements from both the limited ground network and the orbit and clock data, resulting from the sophisticated FDMA navigation signals. The improved orbit determination processing of one-way navigation measurements obtained and clock synchronization accuracy is achieved through the from global networks of commercial geodetic-grade receivers. One team with one goal: accurate and reliable GNSS positioning anywhere 56 InsideGNSS SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 2015 www.insidegnss.com In the 1990s such solutions were carried located in Pasadena, Ottawa, Bern, clock data is the only thing needed to out only for geodynamic research Potsdam, and Darmstadt) united by the accomplish this. Still, one substantial in analysis centers (such as those International GNSS Service (IGS) with restriction on carrier phase positioning its Central Bureau located at the NASA is the need for a continuity of phase Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL). During measurements at a relatively high rate that period methods and models of providing cycle-slip detection. Therefore, processing phase measurements were it seems reasonable that the evolution of being improved using a posteriori GNSS measurement techniques could approaches. support orbit determination of low By that time it had already become Earth orbiting (LEO) satellites. The clear that GNSS phase measurements position dilution of precision (PDOP) could potentially enable the at a LEO altitude of 500 kilometers is determination of user position in real almost the same as that at the ground time with significantly better accuracy. level, while atmospheric influences, the FIGURE 3 Resurs-P satellite exterior High-accuracy GNSS satellite orbit and major error source for a ground-level user, are substantially lower.
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Outer Space in Russia's Security Strategy
    Outer Space in Russia’s Security Strategy Nicole J. Jackson Simons Papers in Security and Development No. 64/2018 | August 2018 Simons Papers in Security and Development No. 64/2018 2 The Simons Papers in Security and Development are edited and published at the School for International Studies, Simon Fraser University. The papers serve to disseminate research work in progress by the School’s faculty and associated and visiting scholars. Our aim is to encourage the exchange of ideas and academic debate. Inclusion of a paper in the series should not limit subsequent publication in any other venue. All papers can be downloaded free of charge from our website, www.sfu.ca/internationalstudies. The series is supported by the Simons Foundation. Series editor: Jeffrey T. Checkel Managing editor: Martha Snodgrass Jackson, Nicole J., Outer Space in Russia’s Security Strategy, Simons Papers in Security and Development, No. 64/2018, School for International Studies, Simon Fraser University, Vancouver, August 2018. ISSN 1922-5725 Copyright remains with the author. Reproduction for other purposes than personal research, whether in hard copy or electronically, requires the consent of the author(s). If cited or quoted, reference should be made to the full name of the author(s), the title, the working paper number and year, and the publisher. Copyright for this issue: Nicole J. Jackson, nicole_jackson(at)sfu.ca. School for International Studies Simon Fraser University Suite 7200 - 515 West Hastings Street Vancouver, BC Canada V6B 5K3 Outer Space in Russia’s Security Strategy 3 Outer Space in Russia’s Security Strategy Simons Papers in Security and Development No.
    [Show full text]
  • The Historyof Spaceflight
    CHAPTER15 THEHISTORY AND HISTORIOGRAPHYOF NATIONALSECURITY SPACE’ Stephen B. Johnson e intent of this essay is to provide space historians with an overview of Th.the issues and sources of national security space so as to identify those areas that have been underserved. Frequently, ballistic missiles are left out of space history, as they only pass through space instead of remaining in space like satellites. I include ballistic missiles for several reasons, not the least of which is that they pass through space en route to their targets. Space programs originated in the national security (NS) arena, and except for a roughly 15-year period from the early 1960s through the mid-l970s, NS space expenditures in the United States (U.S.), let alone the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR), have equaled or exceeded those of civilian pro- grams. Despite this reality, the public nature of government-dominated civil- ian programs and issues of security classifications have kept NS space out of the limelight. The recent declassification of the early history of the National Reconnaissance Office (NRO) and the demise of the Soviet Union have led to a recent spate of publications that have uncovered much of the “secret history” of the early Cold War. Nonetheless, much of NS space history has received little attention from historians. One feature of military organizations that is of great value for historians is their penchant to document their histories, and space organizations are no exception. Most military organizations have historians assigned to them, with professional historians at many of the positions documenting events as they occur.
    [Show full text]
  • Making-Space-For-Security-En-346.Pdf
    TABLE OF CONTENTS Editor's Note Kerstin VIGNARD ............................................................................................................. 1 Special Comment Colonel Chris A. HADFIELD .............................................................................................. 3 Making Space for Security? ‘Peaceful uses’ of outer space has permitted its militarization— does it also mean its weaponization? Johannes M. WOLFF......................................................................................................... 5 Monsters and shadows: left unchecked, American fears regarding threats to space assets will drive weaponization Theresa HITCHENS ........................................................................................................... 15 The world’s space systems Laurence NARDON .......................................................................................................... 33 Is a space weapons ban feasible? Thoughts on technology and verification of arms control in space Regina HAGEN and Jürgen SCHEFFRAN............................................................................ 41 Security without weapons in space: challenges and options Rebecca JOHNSON .......................................................................................................... 53 Resources on Outer Space Security compiled by Jon PARIS, with assistance of Melissa MOTT and Rachel WILLIAMS ............ 67 UNIDIR Focus .......................................................................................................................
    [Show full text]
  • Space Security 2004 V2
    Space Security 2004 Space “I know of no similar yearly baseline of what is happening in space. The Index is a valuable tool for informing much-needed global discussions of how best to achieve space security.” Professor John M. Logsdon Director, Space Policy Institute, Elliott School of International Affair, George Washington University “Space Security 2004 is a salutary reminder of how dependent the world has become on space- based systems for both commercial and military use. The overcrowding of both orbits and frequencies needs international co-operation, but the book highlights some worrying security trends. We cannot leave control of space to any one nation, and international policy makers need to read this excellent survey to understand the dangers.” Air Marshal Lord Garden UK Liberal Democrat Defence Spokesman & Former UK Assistant Chief of the Defence Staff Space Security “Satellites are critical for national security. Space Security 2004 is a comprehensive analysis of the activities of space powers and how they are perceived to affect the security of these important assets and their environment. While all may not agree with these perceptions it is 2004 essential that space professionals and political leaders understand them. This is an important contribution towards that goal.” Brigadier General Simon P. Worden, United States Air Force (Ret.) Research Professor of Astronomy, Planetary Sciences and Optical Sciences, University of Arizona “In a single source, this publication provides a comprehensive view of the latest developments in space, and the trends that are influencing space security policies. As an annual exercise, the review is likely to play a key role in the emerging and increasingly important debate on space security.
    [Show full text]
  • National Aspirations, Imagined Futures, and Space Exploration: the Origin and Development of Korean Space Program 1958-2013
    National Aspirations, Imagined Futures, and Space Exploration: the Origin and Development of Korean Space Program 1958-2013 A Dissertation Presented to The Academic Faculty by Hyoung Joon An In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy in the School of History and Sociology Georgia Institute of Technology December 2015 Copyright © 2015 by Hyoung Joon An National Aspirations, Imagined Futures, and Space Exploration: the Origin and Development of Korean Space Program 1958-2013 Approved by: Dr. John Krige, Advisor Dr. Kristie Macrakis School of History and Sociology School of History and Sociology Georgia Institute of Technology Georgia Institute of Technology Dr. Laura Bier Dr. Hanchao Lu School of History and Sociology School of History and Sociology Georgia Institute of Technology Georgia Institute of Technology Dr. Buhm Soon Park Graduate School of Science and Technology Date Approved: November 9, 2015 Policy Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This dissertation could not have been completed without the great support that I have received from so many people over the years. I owe my gratitude to all those people who have made this dissertation possible and because of whom my graduate experience has been one that I will cherish forever. First and foremost, I especially wish to express my deepest gratitude to my advisor, John Krige. I have been amazingly fortunate to have an advisor who from the outset, encouraged me in my work, provided me with many details and suggestions for research and carefully read the manuscript. He is, to be sure, full of a scholastic spirit.
    [Show full text]
  • Commercial Space Transportation: 2011 Year in Review
    Commercial Space Transportation: 2011 Year in Review COMMERCIAL SPACE TRANSPORTATION: 2011 YEAR IN REVIEW January 2012 HQ-121525.INDD 2011 Year in Review About the Office of Commercial Space Transportation The Federal Aviation Administration’s Office of Commercial Space Transportation (FAA/AST) licenses and regulates U.S. commercial space launch and reentry activity, as well as the operation of non-federal launch and reentry sites, as authorized by Executive Order 12465 and Title 51 United States Code, Subtitle V, Chapter 509 (formerly the Commercial Space Launch Act). FAA/AST’s mission is to ensure public health and safety and the safety of property while protecting the national security and foreign policy interests of the United States during commercial launch and reentry operations. In addition, FAA/ AST is directed to encourage, facilitate, and promote commercial space launches and reentries. Additional information concerning commercial space transportation can be found on FAA/AST’s web site at http://www.faa.gov/about/office_org/headquarters_offices/ast/. Cover: Art by John Sloan (2012) NOTICE Use of trade names or names of manufacturers in this document does not constitute an official endorsement of such products or manufacturers, either expressed or implied, by the Federal Aviation Administration. • i • Federal Aviation Administration / Commercial Space Transportation CONTENTS Introduction . .1 Executive Summary . .2 2011 Launch Activity . .3 WORLDWIDE ORBITAL LAUNCH ACTIVITY . 3 Worldwide Launch Revenues . 5 Worldwide Orbital Payload Summary . 5 Commercial Launch Payload Summaries . 6 Non-Commercial Launch Payload Summaries . 7 U .S . AND FAA-LICENSED ORBITAL LAUNCH ACTIVITY . 9 FAA-Licensed Orbital Launch Summary . 9 U .S . and FAA-Licensed Orbital Launch Activity in Detail .
    [Show full text]
  • Baikonur Cosmodrome, Kazakhstan Mikhail Marov
    Baikonur Cosmodrome, Kazakhstan Mikhail Marov Geographical position Kyzylorda Province, Kazakhstan Location Latitude 45.9° N, longitude 63.3° E. Elevation 100m above mean sea level. General description Baikonur Cosmodrome has been the global base of operations for the Soviet, and subsequently the Russian, space programme. The first satellite, Sputnik, was launched from Baikonur, as was the first manned spacecraft in human history, Vostok 1, with Yuri Gagarin. So were several generations of cosmonauts, orbital stations, and lunar and planetary space missions. Introduction Science and technology heritage is a challenging new initiative involving numerous themes and issues, including specifically those relating to astronomical heritage and space exploration. We are keen to see solid progress towards understanding the principal concepts underlying such a complex topic. This, however, can only be accomplished by a gradual development of ideas. Baikonur’s inclusion in this volume is an attempt to undertake the first steps in this process, but it does not constitute a full case study. Science and innovation are regarded by UNESCO as key activities promoting sustainable development. Astronomical heritage is intrinsically related to the most important breakthroughs in space science and technology, and space exploration has established a new great milestone for human civilization. It is therefore essential to include space technology as an important category of technology heritage that has international significance in terms of humankind’s relationships with the sky. Following the international conference on ‘Astronomy and World Heritage: Across Time and Continents’ held in Kazan, Russia in August, 2009, it became a subject of further discussion and clarification, with an important step towards the goal being taken within the first ICOMOS–IAU Thematic Study (see DeVorkin 2010; Marov 2010).
    [Show full text]
  • (;3(',7,21  3Dylqj Wkh 5Rdg Iru 5Hwxuq Wr )Oljkw
    (;3(',7,21 3DYLQJ WKH 5RDG IRU 5HWXUQ WR )OLJKW WWW.SHUTTLEPRESSKIT.COM Updated October 4, 2004 Expedition 10 Press Kit National Aeronautics and Space Administration Table of Contents Mission Overview ..................................................................................................... 1 Crew .......................................................................................................................... 8 Mission Objectives ................................................................................................. 12 Spacewalks ............................................................................................................. 19 Soyuz TMA............................................................................................................... 20 Science Overview.................................................................................................... 42 Payload Operations Center .................................................................................... 47 Russian Experiments ............................................................................................. 51 Experiments............................................................................................................. 58 Media Assistance.................................................................................................... 79 Media Contacts........................................................................................................ 81 Expedition 10 Press Kit National Aeronautics
    [Show full text]
  • 11. the Military Uses of Outer Space
    11. The military uses of outer space JOHN PIKE I. Introduction Since the dawn of the space age, outer space has been regarded as the ultimate high ground from which the earth below could be controlled. Reflecting this view, the cold war space race between the superpowers was a natural corollary of the arms race. At the end of 2001, the one dominant power, the United States, had nearly 110 operational military spacecraft—well over two-thirds of all the military spacecraft orbiting the earth. Russia was a distant second, with about 40. The rest of the world had only about 20 satellites in orbit. This chapter presents the current space programmes and provides an inven- tory of military spacecraft that were operational at the end of 2001. While there are various approaches to research on military space activities, an inven- tory provides a foundation for research on nuclear and conventional weapons. In the case of military space systems, however, an inventory is more difficult to construct and thus all the more important. In the path-breaking chapters on military satellites published in the SIPRI Yearbook in the 1970s, the tables listed the satellites that had been launched over the course of the year.1 At that time, when satellite launches were frequent and operational lifetimes were brief, this focus on annual launches was appropriate. Over time, however, annual launch rates have declined and operating lifetimes have been extended, so today it is meaningful to report on the spacecraft in operation. The counting of operational military spacecraft poses greater challenges than those encountered in compiling inventories of, for example, nuclear weapons or naval forces.
    [Show full text]
  • Impacts of Anti-Access/Area Denial Measures on Space Systems: Issues and Implications for Army and Joint Forces
    The United States Army War College The United States Army War College educates and develops leaders for service at the strategic level while advancing knowledge in the global application of Landpower. The purpose of the United States Army War College is to produce graduates who are skilled critical thinkers and complex problem solvers. Concurrently, it is our duty to the U.S. Army to also act as a “think factory” for commanders and civilian leaders at the strategic level worldwide and routinely engage in discourse and debate concerning the role of ground forces in achieving national security objectives. The Strategic Studies Institute publishes national security and strategic research and analysis to influence policy debate and bridge the gap between military and academia. The Center for Strategic Leadership contributes to the education of world class senior leaders, CENTER for STRATEGIC LEADERSHIP develops expert knowledge, and provides solutions to strategic Army issues affecting the national U.S. ARMY WAR COLLEGE security community. The Peacekeeping and Stability Operations Institute provides subject matter expertise, technical review, and writing expertise to agencies that develop stability operations concepts and doctrines. The School of Strategic Landpower develops strategic leaders by providing a strong foundation of wisdom grounded in mastery of the profession of arms, and by serving as a crucible for educating future leaders in the analysis, evaluation, and refinement of professional expertise in war, strategy, operations, national security, resource management, and responsible command. The U.S. Army Heritage and Education Center acquires, conserves, and exhibits historical materials for use to support the U.S. Army, educate an international audience, and honor Soldiers—past and present.
    [Show full text]
  • Space Security in Russia 20 Christophe Venet
    Space Security in Russia 20 Christophe Venet Contents 20.1 Introduction .............................................................................. 356 20.2 Political Context ......................................................................... 357 20.3 The Foundations of Russia’s Space Security ........................................... 359 20.3.1 Industrial Architecture ......................................................... 359 20.3.2 Institutional Architecture ....................................................... 360 20.3.3 Ground Infrastructure .......................................................... 361 20.4 Russian Military Space Policies ......................................................... 363 20.4.1 Space for Security .............................................................. 363 20.4.2 Security for Space .............................................................. 365 20.5 Conclusions .............................................................................. 367 References ....................................................................................... 368 Abstract The post-Soviet Russia is no longer a military space superpower and strives to adjust its military space policies to a new geopolitical environment. Since the “lost decade” of the 1990s, when Russia failed to maintain many of its military space capabilities, the country has sought to rebuild its military space power. Driven by political considerations, such as the need to regain its status as a respected global power, as well as
    [Show full text]
  • Updated Version
    Updated version HIGHLIGHTS IN SPACE TECHNOLOGY AND APPLICATIONS 2011 A REPORT COMPILED BY THE INTERNATIONAL ASTRONAUTICAL FEDERATION (IAF) IN COOPERATION WITH THE SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL SUBCOMMITTEE OF THE COMMITTEE ON THE PEACEFUL USES OF OUTER SPACE, UNITED NATIONS. 28 March 2012 Highlights in Space 2011 Table of Contents INTRODUCTION 5 I. OVERVIEW 5 II. SPACE TRANSPORTATION 10 A. CURRENT LAUNCH ACTIVITIES 10 B. DEVELOPMENT ACTIVITIES 14 C. LAUNCH FAILURES AND INVESTIGATIONS 26 III. ROBOTIC EARTH ORBITAL ACTIVITIES 29 A. REMOTE SENSING 29 B. GLOBAL NAVIGATION SYSTEMS 33 C. NANOSATELLITES 35 D. SPACE DEBRIS 36 IV. HUMAN SPACEFLIGHT 38 A. INTERNATIONAL SPACE STATION DEPLOYMENT AND OPERATIONS 38 2011 INTERNATIONAL SPACE STATION OPERATIONS IN DETAIL 38 B. OTHER FLIGHT OPERATIONS 46 C. MEDICAL ISSUES 47 D. SPACE TOURISM 48 V. SPACE STUDIES AND EXPLORATION 50 A. ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS 50 B. PLASMA AND ATMOSPHERIC PHYSICS 56 C. SPACE EXPLORATION 57 D. SPACE OPERATIONS 60 VI. TECHNOLOGY - IMPLEMENTATION AND ADVANCES 65 A. PROPULSION 65 B. POWER 66 C. DESIGN, TECHNOLOGY AND DEVELOPMENT 67 D. MATERIALS AND STRUCTURES 69 E. INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY AND DATASETS 69 F. AUTOMATION AND ROBOTICS 72 G. SPACE RESEARCH FACILITIES AND GROUND STATIONS 72 H. SPACE ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS & MEDICAL ADVANCES 74 VII. SPACE AND SOCIETY 75 A. EDUCATION 75 B. PUBLIC AWARENESS 79 C. CULTURAL ASPECTS 82 Page 3 Highlights in Space 2011 VIII. GLOBAL SPACE DEVELOPMENTS 83 A. GOVERNMENT PROGRAMMES 83 B. COMMERCIAL ENTERPRISES 84 IX. INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION 92 A. GLOBAL DEVELOPMENTS AND ORGANISATIONS 92 B. EUROPE 94 C. AFRICA 101 D. ASIA 105 E. THE AMERICAS 110 F.
    [Show full text]