Man! I Feel Like a Woman: An Exploration of Alexander the Great’s Exploration of Gender

R. Schenk Martin, B.A. 1

Exploration of feminine gender expression dates back thousands of years, conducted by people of all statuses, including Alexander the Great.1 This paper will focus on the story of Alexander the Great dressing as the goddess Artemis, attempting to determine possible explanations as to why he might have engaged in such behaviour, uncommon as it was during that time. Three theories will be presented: that he merely saw himself as a god and did not care to discern between male and female deities; that Alexander felt himself to be what is contemporarily called transgender; and that he may have dressed as Artemis as an early form of what is now referred to as a drag performance. Finally, additional theories will be explored, which are as intertwining and complex as gender itself. This paper will be working from a queer historian perspective, incorporating queer theory into the study of history in order to deconstruct the heteronormative and cisnormative interpretations of the past. By doing so, a fuller understanding of Alexander the Great will be constructed. Additionally, because the true gender identity of several individuals discussed is unknown, the pronouns will be deferred to match the historical record.2 The basis of this paper comes from a lost history of Ephippus, only known because of references from other authors, such as Athenaeus.3 The full text is available in Appendix B, with translation. In summary, this passage records Alexander dressing as a number of gods, as well as the goddess Artemis. He is also recorded to have appeared in this way at parties and in public, though the reason for his actions is not specified.

Expression of Divinity

Alexander may have used femininity as an expression of his divinity. Wearing clothing associated with another gender has been used throughout history for a myriad of reasons, including the consolidation of power. For example, King Hatshepsut—a woman—ruled Egypt in the Bronze Age during the 18th dynasty of 1550-1295 B.C., becoming famous to archaeologists mainly due to their tendency to dress as a different gender throughout their reign.4 Hatshepsut was often depicted in hieroglyphs donning male clothing and wearing a false beard, which is also

1 Other famous Greeks (real or mythological) who explored feminine gender expression include Alcibiades, and the characters Tiresias, Iphis, Hermaphroditus and Salmacis, Sithon, and Caenis

2 A list of terms and definitions in regard to sexuality, gender identity and expression, and drag can be found in Appendix A.

3 Athenaeus. The Learned Banqueters, Volume I: Books 1-3.106e, ed. & trans. S. Douglas Olson (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2007), 12.537e-38b. 4 Because Hatshepsut’s gender identity cannot be identified here, we will use they, them, and their pronouns. Uroš Matić, “(De)Queering Hatshepsut: Binary Bind in Archaeology of Egypt and Kingship Beyond the Corporeal,” Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory 23, no. 3 (September 2016): 813-15. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10816-016-9288-9; Cathleen A. Keller, “The Statuary of Hatshepsut,” in Hatshepsut: From Queen to Pharaoh, ed. Catharine H. Roehrig (The Metropolitan Museum of Art: New York, 2006), 158-172. 2 shown in the iconography of their sphinx.5 Matić argue that this gender presentation was a way of using drag as a means to secure Hatshepsut’s rule, as a woman in such a position was not given equal power to a man.6 This demonstrates the way in which drag could be used to convey a message or identity. For Hatshepsut, this commanded respect; in Alexander’s case, it may have used to suggest his divinity. Power can be accrued through many means. Hatshepsut increased their power through association with the more ‘powerful’ gender. Power could also be amassed through social status, financial gain, or by linking one’s self to divinity. There are many examples that link Alexander and divinity, which furthered his supremacy in the ancient world. Alexander was said to be a direct descendant of Zeus, being descended both from Heracles and Achilles, and even possibly born of Zeus himself.7 The day of his birth was said to be the same day as the day the temple of Artemis burnt down, and rumours noted by Hegesias the Magnesian claimed that the temple had burnt down because Artemis, goddess of childbirth, had left the temple to assist in Alexander’s birth. Alexander’s divinity was seemingly confirmed in his journey to the Siwa Oasis in 332 BC, being welcomed by the priest as paidios or ‘son of god.’8 As a result of this confirmation, Alexander had coins minted by Lysimachus, his companion and bodyguard,9 which showed Alexander young, beardless, and with the horns of Zeus Ammon on the side of his head, linking him to the divine in the eyes of his people.10 The instituting of a policy of proskynesis also demonstrates divine aspiration, encouraging his people to worship him as a divinity.11 All of this demonstrates a clear desire of Alexander to be recognized as divine, which might increase his power. Therefore, his dressing as various gods can be seen as a link to the divine. The male characters he portrays are important choices. Alexander was noted as having

5 e.g., “The Sphinx of Hatshepsut, ca. 1479-1458 B.C.,” Metropolitan Museum of Art, n.d. https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/544442.

6 Matić, “(De)Queering Hatshepsut”, 814-5.

7 Plutarch. Lives, Volume VII: Demosthenes and Cicero. Alexander and Caesar, trans. by Bernadotte Perrin (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1919), 2.1; 3.1-2.

8 Diodorus Siculus. Library of History, Volume VIII: Books 16.66-17, trans. C. Bradford Welles (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1963), 17.51.1-4.; Quintus Curtius. History of Alexander, Volume I: Books 1-5, trans. J. C. Rolfe (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1946), 4.7.25-8.; Plutarch Lives VII, 27.5-9.

9 “Tetradrachm (Coin) Portraying Alexander the Great.” Art Institute of Chicago, n.d. https:// www.artic.edu/artworks/141573/tetradrachm-coin-portraying-alexander-the-great.

10 “Tetradrachm.” Art Institute of Chicago.

11 Plutarch. Lives, Volume VII, 54.3-4.; Arrian. Anabasis of Alexander, Volume I: Books 1-4, trans. P. A. Brunt (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1976), 4.12.1-2. 3 dressed as Artemis, Zeus Ammon, Hermes, and Herakles.12 Zeus Ammon was particularly important to Alexander, as he claimed his divinity from Zeus, and received that confirmation from a priest at Zeus Ammon’s temple.13 Hermes is also associated with Hermaphroditus, the only known true intersex individual in Greek myth.14 Herakles is perhaps the most interesting character for Alexander to emulate, as Herakles also dressed as a woman during his slavery to Omphale.15 Herakles therefore signifies that a man who dresses—and indeed lives—as a woman can still maintain status as a strong, masculine hero. This has particularly strong implications for Alexander, demonstrating the ability to portray oneself as a woman, while maintaining masculine principles and identity. While it is important to examine the choices of male gods Alexander dressed as, it is equally, if not more important, to question why Alexander chose to dress as Artemis. It must be remembered that Artemis was already closely related to Alexander, as she had reportedly left her temple on his birth day in order to assist with his divine birth. Additionally, Artemis is one of the least feminine goddesses in the Greek pantheon, abstaining from the company of men and trained in weaponry, specifically the bow. This may encourage the belief that Alexander chose Artemis not merely because she was a woman, but because she was a strong, independent huntress. However, Alexander also clearly associated himself with more overtly feminine goddesses. When Alexander was wounded in combat and his men worried that his injuries were severe in nature, Alexander quoted Aphrodite, reassuring his men that he was not in mortal danger.16 By trying to convince his men that he was fine, Alexander would have done something that he did regularly; in this case, it must be assumed that for Alexander, either quoting Aphrodite or quoting the Iliad was a regular activity. But if he quoted the Iliad regularly, why would he not quote a hero such as Achilles or Odysseus, both of whom would have more quotes in regard to surviving battles or to do with arrows? Instead, he chooses to quote the feminine, female goddess of love. This suggests that Alexander often quoted Aphrodite, linking him to the most feminine goddess.

Expression of Gender

While it is clear that Alexander enjoyed linking himself to the divine, this theory does not explain why he would specifically make the effort to dress as a goddess, which would

12 Athenaeus. The Learned Banqueters, 12.537e-38b.

13 Plutarch, Lives VII, 27.8

14 Ovid, Metamorphoses, trans. M. Simpson (Amherst, MA: University of Massachusetts Press, 2001), 4.274-388

15 Lucian, Dialogues of the Dead. Dialogues of the Sea-Gods. Dialogues of the Gods. Dialogues of the Courtesans, trans. M. D. MacLeod (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1961), Dialogues of the Gods, 15.237

16 Plutarch, Lives VII, 28.3 4 have been abnormal at the time. One possible explanation is that Alexander was actually what we could conceptualize today as a trans woman, though in a review of the literature, social construction around trans identities in the ancient world is not evident. This suggests that if Alexander was trans, he was unable to openly identify as such. However, it is important to recognize the argument of validity; that is, Alexander’s inability to understand gender identity as we understand it today does not make his behaviour any less valid, nor does it invalidate if Alexander saw himself as a woman. Rather, his viewpoint of gender from his own perspective must be understood, looking at other instances of sex and gender change throughout antiquity. Additionally, it must be remembered that Alexander died fairly young, at just 32 years old, and it is very possible that he was still exploring his gender.17 People of third genders have existed for thousands of years, around the globe. The hijras, for example, are a feminine third-gender people group written about in the Kama Sutra, and were known in the ancient Indian world as ‘eunuchs disguised as females.’18 The Kama Sutra was written sometime between 400 BC and 200 AD.19 If an earlier date is accurate, or if it can be assumed that the hijras existed for some period before the Kama Sutra was written, it becomes possible that Alexander the Great came across the hijras during his conquest of India. According to Vatsyayana, the hijras often had a tendency to ‘imitate [female] dress, speech, gestures, tenderness, timidity, simplicity, softness and bashfulness.’20 Gender expression then was highly important to the hijra.21 Also important is the recognition that the hijras were extremely similar to the priests in the cult of Cybele (see below), with reports of self-castration and living out their days in a separate population.22 Alexander could have been introduced to the concept and identification of gender fluidity by the hijras, thereby providing the possibility of him identifying as a transgender woman. The concept of transsexuality however, as opposed to transgenderism, was quite familiar

17 Leo Depuydt, “The Time and Death of Alexander the Great: 11 June 323 B.C. (-322), ca. 4:00-5:00 PM,” Die Welt Des Orients 28 (1997), pp. 135

18 Vatsyayana. The Kama Sutra of Vatsyayana, trans. Richard Burton, Bhagavanlal Indrajit, Shivaram Parashuram Bhide (2009): 9.69.

19 John Keay, India a History: From the Earliest Civilisations to the Boom of the Twenty-First Century (London: HarperCollins, 2013). 96. https://www.overdrive.com/search? q=B8FA40C1-9FF9-4FDB-90A6-7FDF6B22E1BC.

20 Vatyayana, Kama Sutra, 9.69

21 Sandeep Bakshi, “A Comparative Analysis of Hijras and Drag Queens: The Subversive Possi- bilities and Limits of Parading Effeminacy and Negotiating Masculinity,” Journal of Homosexu- ality, 46 no. 3-4, pp.4-5

22 L. Cohen, “The Pleasures of Castration: The Postoperative Status of Hijras, Jankhas, and Aca- demics,” in Chicago Series on Sexuality, History, and Society, (Chicago, IL: Chicago University Press, 1995), 276; Bakshi, “Hijras and Drag Queens,” pp.6 5 to the Greek people.23 In fact, many Greek myths refer to sex changes. In Ovid’s Metamorphoses, five people are ‘transformed’ by changing their sex, and several of the stories are backed by other Greek author. Such stories include the characters of Tiresias, Iphis, Hermaphroditus and Salmacis, Sithon, and Caenis (also known as Caenus).24 These examples demonstrate that the Greeks had an understanding of sex changes and intersex identities, and thus the concept of transitioning from man to woman, or from woman to man was understood by the Greeks, and by extension, Alexander. Another example of the Greek understanding of sex change is in the cult of Cybele. This unique Greek cult had a eunuch mendicant priesthood, for in the tradition of the cult of Cybele, men would castrate themselves in memory of Attis, a Greek deity famous for self-castration, and the priests would live out their days as ‘women’.25 Their gender is not easily discerned as separate from their sex, but a Hellenistic poet, believed to be Callimachus, referred to them in the feminine.26 These references explain that the Greeks—and Alexander—understood some of the complexities of gender and trans identities, as we understand them today.

Performance of Drag

Another possibility to explain Alexander’s dressing as Artemis is that Alexander was acting as a drag queen, using the performance of gender as an art form. While contemporary society tends to think of drag as fairly recent, female impersonation in art has existed for

23 ‘Transsexuality’ here referring to the change of biological sex based on external genitalia, hereafter referred to as ‘sex change.’

24 Respectively: Ovid, Metamorphoses, 3.320-331.; Apollodorus. The Library, Volume I: Books 1-3.9, trans. James G. Frazer (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1921), 3.7.; Ovid, Metamorphoses, 9.668-797.; Ovid, Metamorphoses, 4.285-388.; Diodorus Siculus. Library of History, Volume II: Books 2.35-4.58, trans. C. H. Oldfather (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1935), 4.6.; Ovid, Metamorphoses, 4.280.; Ovid, Metamorphoses, 4.280

25 Maarten Jozef Vermaseren, Corpus Cultus Cybelae Attidisque, (Leiden, The Netherlands: E.J. Brill, 1986), IX-X; Lynn LiDonnici, “The Ephesian Megabyzos Priesthood and Religious Diplomacy at the End of the Classical Period,” Religion 29, no. 3, pp. 201

26 Attributed to Callimachus, fr. 761 Pfeiffer, as cited by Jan Kwapisz, The Paradigm of Simias: Essays on Poetic Eccentricity (Boston, MA: Walter De Gruyter, Inc., 2019) pp. 182 6 millennia.27 In ancient Greece, men played women’s roles in theatrical productions.28 The performance of gender was not a unique form of entertainment seen in antiquity, but female impersonation was a major role within Attic drama; due to the fact that women were not allowed to perform roles in the theatre, men would have to play the parts of both sexes.29 In order to differentiate between the male and female characters, actors would have to rely on dress, masks, and overly effeminate behaviour.30 This was clear female impersonation, and hardly different from modern drag, who also use dress, masks (makeup), and effeminate behaviour to perform the exaggerated role of a woman. However, some writers at the time condemned the practice of men dressing as women in any role, believing the men to be degrading themselves, possibly with long-term effects.31 While female impersonation was regular in the theatre, it was kept exclusive to that context. Alexander also maintained an entertainment factor—an important component of drag—to his appearance as Artemis. According to the passage of Ephippus, Alexander was seen in his Artemis costume while riding his chariot in the streets.32 There is also record of his dressing as divine figures at his dinners.33 This public performance is a demonstration of showmanship in what can be considered, in modern terms, his ‘drag career.’ Wearing clothing associated with another gender, even outside of the theatre, was also not entirely foreign to the ancient Greeks. Alcibiades, for example, is referred to as dressing in

27 This tradition of gender impersonation in entertainment continued through the era of Shake- speare (Robert L.A. Clark and Claire Sponsler, “Queer Play: The Cultural Work of Crossdressing Medieval Drama,” New Literary History 28, no. 2 (1994): 321), 16th century Kabuki theatre in Japan (Mark Mclelland, “Living More ‘Like Oneself’: Transgender Identities and Sexualities in Japan,” Journal of Bisexuality 3, no. 3-4 (2004): 205-6), and through operas such as The Mar- riage of Figaro (Mclelland, “Living More ‘Like Oneself,’” 205-6; Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, and Lorenzo Da Ponte, The Marriage of Figaro: An Opera in Four Acts (1786; Vienna), opera.)

28 John Davidson, “Theatrical Production,” in A Companion to Greek Tragedy, ed. Justina Grego- ry, (Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing, 2005), 204-5.

29 Aulus Gellius. Attic Nights, Volume II: Books 6-13, trans. J.C. Rolfe (Cambridge, MA: Har- vard University Press, 1927), 6.5; Davidson, “Theatrical Production,” 204.

30 e.g. Aristophanes, Clouds. Wasps. Peace, ed. & trans. Jeffrey Henderson (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1998), Clouds 1083-1100

31 See, for example, Philo. On the Decalogue. On the Special Laws, Books 1-3, trans. F. H. Colson, (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1937), 3.7.37.

32 Athenaeus. The Learned Banqueters, 12.537e-38b.

33 Athenaeus. The Learned Banqueters, 12.537e-38b. 7 women’s clothes and attending the symposium.34 Thus, the concept of wearing women’s clothing for parties or as some form of entertainment was known to the Greeks. However, Alcibiades was also mentioned to have acted especially effeminate at times, changing personality to match that of a woman and wearing female costumes in the Athenian streets.35 While Alcibiades enjoyed women’s clothing and effeminate behaviour, he still maintained a certain amount of masculinity, linking himself to masculine activities, drinking heavily in Thrace, raising horses in Thessaly, and following the harsh, dietary course of the Spartans.36 This was done especially when others in Athens questioned his gender expression, demonstrating both individual desire to express both feminine and masculine attributes, but also the pressures of adhering to gender roles.37 While Alcibiades dressed himself in the clothing of women in a general category, Alexander held a proclivity to dressing up as several different deities.38 One explanation is the concept of ‘boy drag.’ Alexander was known to wear the apparel of the aforementioned gods at his dinners, and possibly in public.39 This exploration of dressing as masculine characters may have also served as an entrance to drag, as dressing as the male gods would have been seen as less anomalous. In this way, he may have been slowly ‘dipping his toe’ into drag.

Further Factors for Consideration

While it is helpful to examine several specific theories to explain Alexander’s dress, there are a number of important concepts and theories that do not fit neatly into one of the aforementioned categories; thus, these arguments can be intertwined. Alexander may have also come across followers of Hinduism during his invasion of India, as Hinduism was formed between 1900 and 1400 BC.40 Though Hinduism has historically had many differing traditions, there is a common theme of Hindu divinities crossing binary gender (i.e. being beyond merely ‘male’ or ‘female’). In many traditions, Hindu gods are either beyond gender entirely, are multiple genders, are androgynous, are genderfluid, or are third-

34 Plato, Lysis. Symposium. Gorgias, trans. W. R. M. Lamb (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1925), Symposium., 212e.

35 Plato, Symposium, 212e; Plutarch. Lives, Volume IV: Alcibiades and Coriolanus. Lysander and Sulla, trans. Bernadotte Perrin (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1916), 16.1.

36 John Finlay, “The Night of Alcibiades,” The Hudson Review 47, no. 1 (1994): 59. https:// doi.org/10.2307/3852157.

37 Finlay, “The Night of Alcibiades,” 57

38 Athenaeus, The Learned Banqueters, 12.537e-38b.

39 Athenaeus. The Learned Banqueters, 12.537e-38b.

40 Axel Michaels, Hinduism. Past and Present (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2004), pp. 32-6. 8 gender.41 Due to this fluidity and arguably almost dismissal of gender, Alexander might have dressed and performed as Artemis both because of her existence as a female, and because he enjoyed linking himself to the divine, or because of the appeal of their gender fluidity.42 This demonstrates an intersection of theories, drawing upon both Alexander’s desire to align himself with Greek deities, while also allowing him to explore gender and femininity. Another factor that can hint to multiple theories is in Alexander’s facial hair, or lack thereof. Alexander was recorded as remaining beardless well into his adulthood: an anomaly in the Greek world, until shaving came into popularity under Alexander’s rule, specifically as a result of his influence.43 However, while Alexander shaved his face, his partner Hephaestion wore a beard; this may have been done in order to preserve their membership in a pseudo- pederastic union.44 In the Greek pederastic tradition, once the eromenos (the younger partner) was old enough to grow facial hair, the pederastic union was typically concluded. If the relationship continued, or if two adult men were in a sexual relationship, they were anomalous, and shamed by other Greeks. In that time, a man who was willingly penetrated by another man was termed a kinaidoi45 Aristophanes refers to such men as euryprôktoi, which translates to ‘wide arses.’46 Aristophanes was also famous for depicting the euryprôktoi as men in an exaggerated female drag.47 Alexander, having lived after Aristophanes and having been tutored

41 Stella Kramrisch, “The Indian Great Goddesses,” History of Religions 14, no. 4 (1975): 245; Rita M. Gross, “Hindu Female Deities as a Resource for the Contemporary Rediscovery of the Goddesses,” Journal of the American Academy of Religion 46, no. 3 (1978): 278-80; Alf Hiltebeitel, “Draupadi’s Garments,” Indo-Iranian Journal 22 (1980): 97.

42 Arrian. Anabasis of Alexander, Volume II: Books 5-7. Indica, trans. P.A. Brunt (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1983), pp. 2-202.

43 Victor Alonso Troncoso, Philip II and Alexander the Great: Father and Son, Lives and Afterlives, ed. Elizabeth Donnelly Carney and Daniel Ogden (New York: Oxford University Press, 2010), 13.

44 This method of remaining beardless in order to maintain the appearance of a pederastic union was not altogether unknown to the Greeks, as we can see in the red-figure vase of Achilles and Patrochlus (see Appendix C, Fig. 2; Sosias, 500 BC). Patrochlus, the older of the two, is shown bearded, with Achilles tending his wounds, beardless. The original painter was likely depicting the pair in the theme of a pederastic union through the artistic representations of facial hair.

45 Kinaidoi was a type of slur, similar to the modern-day slur, ‘f*g.’ See, for example, Tom Sapsford, “The Wages of Effeminacy?: Kinaidoi in Greek Documents from Egypt,” EuGeStA 5 (2015): 119.

46 e.g. Aristophanes, Clouds, 1083-100

47 e.g. Aristophanes, Clouds, 1100 9 by Aristotle, would have studied these plays, and been aware of this tradition.48 Thus, Alexander may have shaved his face to maintain his relationship with Hephaestion without being regarded as a kinaidoi or a euryprôktoi. There is, however, an alternative possibility: that Alexander remained clean-shaven in order to express his gender, or his femininity. It may have simplified Alexander’s visualization of himself as a woman, as the presence of a beard for trans women in a culture that promotes binary cisgenderism can lead to gender dysphoria.49 Alexander’s shaven face may be a hint to his desire to appear more feminine. There is no clear, singular theory that can be seen as best. It is true that there is a great deal more evidence to suggest that Alexander’s dressing as Artemis was based more in his divine aspirations than as a drag performer or a trans woman; there are more sources to his divine heritage, and more peer-reviewed research in that area. However, it must also be acknowledged that there is little to no evidence-based research on gender identity in the ancient world, especially since, as previously mentioned, the concept of gender (as separate from sex) was not clearly evident in ancient Greek culture. Alexander may have dressed as Artemis because he saw himself as a divine figure, because he identified as a trans woman, because he pursued the art of drag, or a combination thereof, or for other reasons not yet foreseen. Until scholars find a personal diary from Alexander with his direct answer, it will be impossible to know which theory —if any—are correct. Alexander died quite young; perhaps he was only beginning to explore his gender identity, or his drag persona. Perhaps this was a fleeting period of exploration. At the very least, this exploration of Alexander and gender identity can serve to classical scholars of two things. First, all scholars are reminded that concepts of gender are rarely clear and straightforward, and deserve dedicated research, especially outside of traditional areas of scholarship. Second, all classical scholars are past the point of being able to assume that everyone in the past was heterosexual and cisgender, and henceforth must work hard to deconstruct the narratives that assume this to be true.

48 Michael Tierney, “Aristotle and Alexander the Great,” Studies: An Irish Quarterly Review 31, no. 122 (1942): 224

49 Gender dysphoria is a severe body-related anxiety based on the incongruency of a person’s sex and gender; “Overview: Gender Dysphoria.” National Health Services, 2016. https:// www.nhs.uk/conditions/gender-dysphoria/. 10

Appendix A: Glossary of Terms and Definitions

Cisgender Person Someone whose sex assigned at birth matches gender identity.

Cross-dresser A member of one gender who dresses in the clothing of another gender; a form of gender expression but does not indicate a difference in gender identity. ‘Cross-dressing’ is typically done for a variety of reasons (e.g. to express one’s self, for entertainment purposes, etc.). ‘Cross- dressing’ often has sexual connotations, similar to transvestitism.

Drag A performance art form, whereby a person, typically of one gender, dresses in exaggerated clothing and makeup typically associated with the opposite sex. The term ‘drag’ in this paper is used anachronistically.

Drag Queen Typically a cisgender man who dresses and performs as a woman. Some drag queens are also openly trans women, and some will occasionally engage in ‘boy drag,’ performing gender as concept but in an exaggerated male presentation.

Gender Expression How an individual acts and displays themselves, including the clothes someone wears, how they refer to themselves, and the way in which they act. Gender expression ranges on scales of masculine and feminine, but can be high or low on both, including the concept of androgyny.50

Gender Identity The way in which an individual identifies themselves as a man, woman, both, or neither.51 Gender, separate from sex, is based on internal awareness and individual psychology.

Orientation A dimension of attraction, separate from gender identity.

Romantic Orientation To whom an individual is romantically attracted (same gender, opposite gender, all genders, no genders, some genders, etc.).

50 Judith Butler, Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity (New York: Routledge, 1990), 25.

51 “Gender Identity and Gender Expression.” Ontario Human Rights Commission, 2014. http:// www.ohrc.on.ca/en/gender-identity-and-gender-expression-brochure. 11

Sex The biological categorization, assigned at birth, describing an individual’s genitalia (including penis, vagina, and intersex genitalia), chromosomes such as XX, XY, XXY etc., and hormonal production, specifically testosterone and estrogen output.52 ‘Sex’ ranges from male to intersex to female.

Sexual Orientation To whom an individual is sexually attracted (e.g., attracted to the same gender, opposite gender, all genders, no genders, some genders, etc.).

Transgender Person Someone who identifies as any gender aside from what was assigned at birth, including trans man or woman, genderqueer, non-binary, genderfluid, and more.53 The term ‘trans’ in this paper is used anachronistically.

Transsexual An individual who has undergone sexual reassignment surgery, also known as gender confirmation surgery.54 Often conflated with ‘transgender’ though ‘transsexual’ is rarely used in modern discourse. The term is now unfavourable, and potentially offensive, especially when used by cisgender and non-trans people.

Transvestite Another name for a cross-dresser but one which is more heavily associated with the procurement of sexual arousal.55

52 “Gender Identity and Gender Expression.” Ontario Human Rights Commission, 2014.

53 “Gender Identity and Gender Expression.” Ontario Human Rights Commission, 2014.

54 Ryan Polly and Julie Nicole, “Understanding the Transsexual Patient: Culturally Sensitive Care in Emergency Nursing Practice,” Advanced Emergency Nursing Journal 33, no. 1 (2011): 56. https://doi.org/10.1097/TME.0b013e3182080ef4.

55 J. Michael Bailey, The Man Who Would Be Queen: The Science of Gender-Bending and Transsexualism (Washington, D.C: Joseph Henry Press, 2003), ch. 8. 12

Appendix B: Translations

The following passage comes from Athenaeus in Deipnsosophists, book twelve, followed by its English translation by S. Douglas Olson:

Ἔφιππος δέ φησιν ὡς Ἀλέξανδρος καὶ τὰς ἱερὰς ἐσθῆτας ἐφόρει ἐν τοῖς δείπνοις, ὁτὲ µὲν τὴν τοῦ Ἄµµωνος πορφυρίδα καὶ περισχιδεῖς καὶ κέρατα καθάπερ ὁ θεός, ὁτὲ δὲ τὴν τῆς Ἀρτέµιδος, ἣν καὶ ἐπὶ τοῦ ἅρµατος ἐφόρει πολλάκις, ἔχων τὴν Περσικὴν στολήν, ὑποφαίνων ἄνωθεν τῶν ὤµων τό τε τόξον καὶ τὴν σιβύνην, ἐνίοτε δὲ καὶ τὴν τοῦ Ἑρµοῦ· τὰ µὲν ἄλλα σχεδὸν καὶ καθ᾿ ἑκάστην ἡµέραν χλαµύδα τε πορφυρᾶν καὶ χιτῶνα µεσόλευκον fκαὶ τὴν καυσίαν ἔχουσαν τὸ διάδηµα | τὸ βασιλικόν, ἐν δὲ τῇ συνουσίᾳ τά τε πέδιλα καὶ τὸν πέτασον ἐπὶ τῇ κεφαλῇ καὶ τὸ κηρύκειον ἐν τῇ χειρί, πολλάκις δὲ καὶ λεοντῆν καὶ ῥόπαλον ὥσπερ ὁ Ἡρακλῆς. τί οὖν θαυµαστὸν εἰ καὶ καθ᾿ ἡµᾶς Κόµµοδος ὁ αὐτοκράτωρ ἐπὶ τῶν ὀχηµάτων παρακείµενον εἶχεν τὸ Ἡράκλειον ῥόπαλον ὑπεστρωµένης αὐτῷ λεοντῆς καὶ Ἡρακλῆς καλεῖσθαι ἤθελεν, Ἀλεξάνδρου τοῦ Ἀριστοτελικοῦ τοσούτοις αὑτὸν ἀφοµοιοῦντος θεοῖς, ἀτὰρ καὶ τῇ Ἀρτέµιδι; ἔρρανε δὲ ὁ Ἀλέξανδρος καὶ µύρῳ σπουδαίῳ 538καὶ οἴνῳ εὐώδει τὸ δάπεδον, ǁ ἐθυµιᾶτο δὲ αὐτῷ σµύρνα καὶ τὰ ἄλλα θυµιάµατα, εὐφηµία τε καὶ σιγὴ κατεῖχε πάντας ὑπὸ δέους τοὺς παρόντας· ἀφόρητος γὰρ ἦν καὶ φονικός· ἐδόκει γὰρ εἶναι µελαγχολικός.

‘Ephippus also says that Alexander wore sacred garments at dinner parties: sometimes Ammon’s purple robe, perischideis, and horns, like the god; at other times Artemis’ costume (which he often wore when he was on his chariot), dressing in a Persian robe and allowing his bow and his quiver to be seen hanging from his shoulders; on occasion Hermes’ costume; otherwise, generally, on an everyday basis a purple cloak, an off- white tunic, and his Macedonian hat with the royal diadem on it, but at parties the sandals, the traveler’s hat on his head, and the herald’s staff in his hand; and frequently a lion-skin and a club, like Heracles. Why then does it come as a surprise that in our own day the emperor Commodus had Heracles’ club lying beside him on his chariot, and a lion-skin stretched out beneath him, and wanted to be referred to as Heracles, given that Aristotle’s student Alexander tried to make himself resemble so many gods, including Artemis? Alexander also had the ground sprinkled with expensive perfume and sweet-smelling wine, and myrrh and other fragrant substances were burned in his honour, and everyone present remained respectfully silent out of terror; because he was impossible and bloodthirsty, and appeared to be unbalanced.’56

56 Athenaeus, 2010, 12.537e-38b 13

Fig. 2 Achilles binds the wounds of Patroclus57

57 Sosias Painter, Achilles Binds the Wounds of Patroclus, Berlin F 2278 Vase (Berlin, Germany: Altes Museum, 500 BC). 14

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