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Coversheet for Thesis in Sussex Research Online A University of Sussex DPhil thesis Available online via Sussex Research Online: http://sro.sussex.ac.uk/ This thesis is protected by copyright which belongs to the author. This thesis cannot be reproduced or quoted extensively from without first obtaining permission in writing from the Author The content must not be changed in any way or sold commercially in any format or medium without the formal permission of the Author When referring to this work, full bibliographic details including the author, title, awarding institution and date of the thesis must be given Please visit Sussex Research Online for more information and further details Material and Social Remittances in Highland Ecuador Diana Mata-Codesal Thesis submitted for the degree of PhD in Migration Studies School of Global Studies University of Sussex October 2011 i Summary of Thesis This thesis explores the material and non-material transfers from and to two rural settings in Andean Ecuador. Within the broad realm of the research on remittances, it explores in depth the type, nature, composition, uses, meanings, re-workings and negotiations of the transfers between migrant and non-migrant villagers. Two villages in the Ecuadorian highland provinces of Azuay and Loja are the main research locations. These two provinces receive high remittance transfers, albeit from different origins: remittances to Azuay mainly originate in the US, whereas remittances to Loja are very likely to come from Spain and Italy. Due to very different socio-cultural features and different forms of migrants’ integration in the two destination areas, these two highland Ecuadorian provinces provide an excellent comparative context to research material and social remittances. Fieldwork was carried out in migrants’ villages of origin as well as in their new places of residence. This multi-sited ethnography was supported by a mixed-method approach involving a questionnaire (to gather information about material remittances), interviews (to shed light on social remittances) and participant observation (to provide the broader context for comprehending nuances in the data). This research incorporates socio-demographic variables, such as gender, family structure and generation, in the analysis of material remittances. The relationship between remittance senders and receivers, that is usually overlooked, is regarded as a very important locus of power and negotiations. A refined typology of material remittances, taking into account remittance senders, receivers and non-receivers, is also provided. Finally, there is a micro- ethnographic account of material remittances’ uses which problematizes over-simplistic pictures of remittance expenditure by embedding remittances into broader socio-cultural contexts. Surprisingly, given the large amount of academic work on remittances, there are still unexplored areas. Social remittances are one such area. By systematically researching social remittances, this thesis adds to the limited existing theoretical knowledge on social remittances, providing new information on their creation and content. ii Para todas las madres adoptivas que me regaló la vida (de géneros, edades, espacios y tiempos distintos) iii Acknowledgments First and foremost I feel heavily indebted to my supervisors, Prof. Russell King and Prof. Ron Skeldon. Over these four years you have provided me with the support but also with the time and disciplinary space to craft this thesis. Most of all, I am grateful to you for making me believe in myself (not an easy task). You have done a wonderful job, well beyond your official obligations as supervisors. Thank you for your invaluable support and guidance into the academic world. This thesis was supported by a doctoral grant by the Basque Country Government (BFI07.13). I have also benefited from two supplements to fund short stays in the Universidad de Cuenca in Ecuador and New York University. Thank you to all the people who believe in the principles of shared knowledge and mutual support as I do and who I met at various venues and times. The people at the Sussex Centre for Migration Research provided me with questions and curiosity to look for the answers myself, sometimes through academic reading or discussions, other times with encouraging comments over a pint. Thanks in particular to Bethan, who helped me through the hard times. I also would like to acknowledge J Ørgen Carling, who eased my way into the jungle of the literature on remittances in the two months I was an intern at PRIO, the Peace Research Institute in Olso. Ana Luz Borrero, Juan Flores, and Tanja Bastia also helped me with their comments and provided much needed bureaucratic support. Special mention goes to Martín who sparked my mind when I most needed it. Thanks for all these years of stimulating conversations. Gracias de todo corazón para la gente de Xarbán y Pindo, quienes no solo accedieron a hablar conmigo, sino que me acogieron y cuidaron como su ‘gringa’. Gracias especiales para el maestro Freddy, las juntas parroquiales que facilitaron mi acceso, y los jóvenes de Xarbán y Pindo con quien compartí más de un trago. En especial deseo agradecer a las familias Duchimaza-León y Chuquimarca-Ortega, a quienes llegué a sentir como mis familias ecuatorianas. Gracias de todo corazón para la señora Silvia y doña Elita por ser por un tiempo unas de esas madres adoptivas que me regaló la vida. Y gracias a sus familias (en especial a Claudia y Tito) que accedieron a ‘compartir’ a su madre, y que me dieron la mejor de las bienvenidas posibles a la yoni con unas buenas tortillas de choclo. Espero que sepan que me fui a volver. iv Como muestra de mi gratitud y cariño, quiero dedicar esta tesis a las tres personas que me acompañaron en su largo parto y que han sido mis amarras a puerto más fiables. Para Margari, quien empezó conmigo este camino (y muchos otros más importantes) y con quien siempre pensé que lo terminaría. Aunque tal vez si estés, pero de otra manera. Necesitaría el espacio de otra tesis para hacer honor a lo que has sido en mi vida. Para Paloma, quien a pesar de hacerme pasear una maleta con ruedas por los abruptos caminos andinos, actuó de hermana mayor cuando más falta hacía, y seguramente sacando fuerzas de flaqueza. Per l’Arnau. Per tot. Pel teu suport constant i incondicional. Per acceptar el repte de viatjar amb mi al bell mig dels Andes i tornar-te una mica nòmada. Pel teu esperit positiu inesgotable, per agafar-me i tirar-me endavant. El fet que el treball de camp hagi estat la millor experiència de la meva vida té molt a veure amb tu. Personalment i acadèmica aquesta investigació et deu molt. Gràcies de tot cor per ser amb mi. v Table of Contents Summary of Thesis _____________________________________________________________ i Acknowledgments ____________________________________________________________ iii Table of Contents _____________________________________________________________ v List of Tables ________________________________________________________________ ix List of Figures ________________________________________________________________ x CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION . SETTING THE PATHWAY _________________________________ 1 1.1 Remittances to Ecuador _____________________________________________________ 4 1.2 Research Questions ________________________________________________________ 5 1.3 Thesis Outline _____________________________________________________________ 6 CHAPTER 2: INTERNATIONAL REMITTANCES . POWER INEQUALITIES _______________________ 9 2.1 International Remittances: Numbers, Disciplines and Topics _______________________ 10 2.1.1 Brief snapshot of academic production on remittances ___________________ 17 a) Regarding time ________________________________________ 17 b) Regarding disciplines ___________________________________ 20 c) Regarding topics and areas of research _____________________ 22 2.1.2 Social demography of remittances ___________________________________ 26 2.1.3 Remittances in the migration-development nexus _______________________ 28 2.2 Disciplinary Connections ___________________________________________________ 30 2.3 Power Inequalities ________________________________________________________ 32 2.4 Summary _______________________________________________________________ 34 CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY . FIELDWORK ACCOUNTS _______________________________ 35 3.1. Multi-Sited Ethnography ___________________________________________________ 35 3.1.1 The villages of Xarbán and Pindo in Ecuador ____________________________ 36 3.1.2 Following villagers to ‘the Big Apple’ and Europe ________________________ 40 3.2. Multi-Technique Approach _________________________________________________ 41 3.2.1 Questionnaire ___________________________________________________ 41 3.2.2 Interviews_______________________________________________________ 44 3.2.3 Participant observation ____________________________________________ 46 3.3 From Where I Look: Positionalities and Situated Knowledge _______________________ 48 3.3.1 Power relations __________________________________________________ 52 3.3.2 Accompanied fieldwork ____________________________________________ 53 3.4. Ethics __________________________________________________________________ 55 3.5. Summary _______________________________________________________________ 57 vi CHAPTER 4: RESEARCH SITES . TWO ANDEAN VILLAGES ______________________________ 59 4.1. Qualitative Overview _____________________________________________________ 60 4.1.1 Xarbán _________________________________________________________
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