COMMUNICATION AND COLLECTIVE IDENTITES IN THE TRANSNATIONAL SOCIAL SPACE: A MEDIA ETHNOGRAPHY OF THE SALVADORAN IMMIGRANT COMMUNITY IN THE WASHINGTON, D.C. METROPOLITAN AREA A dissertation presented to the faculty of the College of Communication of Ohio University In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree Doctor of Philosophy José Luis Benítez June 2005 © 2005 José Luis Benítez All Rights Reserved This dissertation entitled COMMUNICATION AND COLLECTIVE IDENTITIES IN THE TRANSNATIONAL SOCIAL SPACE: A MEDIA ETHNOGRAPHY OF THE SALVADORAN IMMIGRANT COMMUNITY IN THE WASHINGTON, D.C. METROPOLITAN AREA BY JOSE LUIS BENITEZ has been approved for the School of Telecommunications and the College of Communication by Karen Riggs Associate Professor of Telecommunications Gregory J. Shepherd Interim Dean, College of Communication BENITEZ, JOSE L. Ph. D. June 2005. Telecommunications Communication and collective identities in the transnational social space: A media ethnography of the Salvadoran immigrant community in the Washington, D.C. metropolitan area ( 416pp.) Director of Dissertation: Karen Riggs This dissertation explores the crucial relationship between contemporary processes of international migration and mediated communication processes and practices across the transnational social space, specifically in the case of the Salvadoran immigrant community in the Washington, D.C. metropolitan area. In this dissertation, I aim to articulate the theoretical frameworks of transnational studies, diasporic media studies and structuration theory for understanding the local and transnational dynamics of production, circulation and appropriation of mediated texts and the configuration of collective identity representations through local and transnational Spanish-language media. Based on a media ethnography approach, which includes seventy in-depth interviews, one focus group and participant observation developed during twelve weeks of fieldwork, I analyze a sample of Salvadoran radio and television transnational programs, discuss some alternatives forms of communication and cultural expression, evaluate the diasporic uses of the Internet and new Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs), and the formation of new hybrid identities among Salvadoran immigrants articulated through the sociocultural mediations of soccer, religion, popular music and the construct of an ethnic market. I conclude that structuration theory provides important sensitizing devices for mass communication research, especially for analyzing the dynamic of agents and structures in the practices of communication and the levels of signification, domination and legitimation in the structuration of communicative processes in society. Likewise, I emphasize the role of transnational media programs as a central mechanism of deterritorialization and reterritorialization for sociocultural ethnic roots, collective identity representations and mediated reunifications of transmigrant families. Similarly, I propose that the development of the Spanish- language media in the United States and the increasing transnational networks among contemporary immigrant communities not only challenges the traditional conceptualization of cultural assimilation but also suggests ground-breaking possibilities for linking second and third generations with new ethnic and collective identity expressions. Finally, I outline a preliminary agenda for designing and implementing media and cultural policies in El Salvador, which can seriously take into consideration Salvadoran transmigrants’ communication and information needs. This Salvadoran diaspora is sustaining the national economy of El Salvador and deserves new sociocultural and political rights, and participation in the transnational public sphere of a democratic society. Approved: Karen Riggs Associate Professor of Telecommunications Dedication To Monsignor Oscar Arnulfo Romero and the Martyrs of the Central American University (UCA). They represent authentic lives of inspiration for social justice and intellectual commitment in our world Acknowledgements This dissertation is dedicated first and foremost to my mother: Andrea Alvarez de Benítez. She has been my primary teacher and inspiration not only for my academic development but also for learning the significance of human compassion particularly towards the most marginalized in society. To all my family: my father, Francisco; brothers, Mario, Francisco, Juan Carlos; sisters, Rosa, Miriam, Martha, Sagrario; and all my nieces and nephews, especially Mario and Gerson for their support during my fieldwork of this dissertation. To all the Salvadoran immigrant community in the Washington, D.C. metropolitan area, particularly to all my informants that gave me their trust and time for the interviews and informal conversations as well as the members of the Casa de Maryland who participated in the focus group. To all my friends that in one way or another showed me their support and collaboration in order to fulfill this project and my colleagues at the Central American University (UCA) in El Salvador. I am greatly thankful to Raúl Perez Ribalta and Mary Grueser. Raúl provided me all his support during my fieldwork and Mary has been not only the greatest editor but also a tender companionship during the difficult time of my dissertation. To all my professors who have contributed throughout my learning process at Ohio University; to my former advisor Jenny Nelson; my doctoral committee members: Brad Jokisch, Caryn Medved and Mia Consalvo, and the permanent encouragement from my dissertation advisor Karen Riggs. 8 Table of Contents Page Abstract ................................................................................................................ 4 Dedication ............................................................................................................ 6 Acknowledgements .............................................................................................. 7 List of Tables ...................................................................................................... 11 List of Figures..................................................................................................... 12 Chapter 1. Introduction ....................................................................................... 15 Main goals of this media ethnography .................................................... 19 Structure of the dissertation.................................................................... 21 Chapter 2. Salvadoran migration to the United States........................................ 25 Historical background of El Salvador...................................................... 26 Early flows of international migration ...................................................... 34 Migration to the United States during the war (1980-1992) .................... 38 Salvadoran migration to the United States after 1992 ............................ 46 Theories of migration and the Salvadoran migration process................. 50 Conclusion.............................................................................................. 53 Chapter 3. Theoretical frameworks..................................................................... 55 Transnationalism and transnational studies............................................ 56 Media studies and diasporic media ........................................................ 61 Collective identities and the mass media................................................ 70 Structuration theory and mass media studies......................................... 83 Conclusion.............................................................................................. 96 Chapter 4. Methodology ..................................................................................... 98 Mass communication studies and audience research ............................ 99 Cultural studies and audience research................................................ 102 Ethnography and media ethnography................................................... 104 Media ethnography fieldwork and self-reflexivity .................................. 110 Data interpretation and textual analysis................................................ 123 Conclusion............................................................................................ 127 9 Chapter 5. The Salvadoran immigrant community in the Washington, D.C. metropolitan area.................................................................................. 130 History of the Salvadoran community in the Washington, D.C. area .... 131 The Latino Festival and the sense of community.................................. 136 The 1991 Mount Pleasant riots............................................................. 140 Socio-demographic characteristics of the Salvadoran community........ 143 Conclusion............................................................................................ 158 Chapter 6. Spanish-language media in the Washington, D.C. metropolitan area ...................................................................................................... 161 Spanish-language newspaper in the Washington, D.C. area ............... 162 Spanish-language radio stations in the Washington, D.C. area............ 174 Spanish-language television stations in the Washington, D.C. area..... 186 Conclusion............................................................................................ 200 Chapter