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Cuban and Salvadoran Exiles: Differential Cold War–Era U.S

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Cuban and Salvadoran Exiles: Differential Cold War–Era U.S Calhoun: The NPS Institutional Archive DSpace Repository Theses and Dissertations 1. Thesis and Dissertation Collection, all items 2018-06 CUBAN AND SALVADORAN EXILES: DIFFERENTIAL COLD WAR–ERA U.S. POLICY IMPACTS ON THEIR SECOND-GENERATIONS' ASSIMILATION Nazzall, Amal Monterey, CA; Naval Postgraduate School http://hdl.handle.net/10945/59562 Downloaded from NPS Archive: Calhoun NAVAL POSTGRADUATE SCHOOL MONTEREY, CALIFORNIA THESIS CUBAN AND SALVADORAN EXILES: DIFFERENTIAL COLD WAR–ERA U.S. POLICY IMPACTS ON THEIR SECOND-GENERATIONS’ ASSIMILATION by Amal Nazzall June 2018 Thesis Advisor: Tristan J. Mabry Second Reader: Christopher N. Darnton Approved for public release. Distribution is unlimited. THIS PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK Form Approved OMB REPORT DOCUMENTATION PAGE No. 0704-0188 Public reporting burden for this collection of information is estimated to average 1 hour per response, including the time for reviewing instruction, searching existing data sources, gathering and maintaining the data needed, and completing and reviewing the collection of information. Send comments regarding this burden estimate or any other aspect of this collection of information, including suggestions for reducing this burden, to Washington headquarters Services, Directorate for Information Operations and Reports, 1215 Jefferson Davis Highway, Suite 1204, Arlington, VA 22202-4302, and to the Office of Management and Budget, Paperwork Reduction Project (0704-0188) Washington, DC 20503. 1. AGENCY USE ONLY 2. REPORT DATE 3. REPORT TYPE AND DATES COVERED (Leave blank) June 2018 Master's thesis 4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE 5. FUNDING NUMBERS CUBAN AND SALVADORAN EXILES: DIFFERENTIAL COLD WAR–ERA U.S. POLICY IMPACTS ON THEIR SECOND-GENERATIONS’ ASSIMILATION 6. AUTHOR(S) Amal Nazzall 7. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME(S) AND ADDRESS(ES) 8. PERFORMING Naval Postgraduate School ORGANIZATION REPORT Monterey, CA 93943-5000 NUMBER 9. SPONSORING / MONITORING AGENCY NAME(S) AND 10. SPONSORING / ADDRESS(ES) MONITORING AGENCY N/A REPORT NUMBER 11. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES The views expressed in this thesis are those of the author and do not reflect the official policy or position of the Department of Defense or the U.S. Government. 12a. DISTRIBUTION / AVAILABILITY STATEMENT 12b. DISTRIBUTION CODE Approved for public release. Distribution is unlimited. A 13. ABSTRACT (maximum 200 words) American society conventionally expects immigrants to assimilate, yet contemporary views question whether Latin American immigrants are choosing to conform to this standard. However, this perspective does not account for the structural constraints placed upon immigrants through the influence of U.S. foreign and immigration policy. During the Cold War, two cases—Cuba in the 1960s and El Salvador in the 1980s—demonstrated differential U.S. policy responses to sustained, large-scale exile migrations to the United States, particularly to Miami and Los Angeles. In these cases, the U.S. response was to welcome and provide a positive reception to Cubans in Miami, while Salvadorans were excluded and constrained by the negative reception afforded to them as illegal migrants in Los Angeles, with both responses stemming from U.S. foreign policy interests in Latin America. Twenty-five years after the first wave of exiles from each of these countries, both second generations appear to be assimilating in terms of educational attainment, but Salvadoran-Americans lag behind Cuban-Americans in occupational attainment and income levels. These differential outcomes indicate that reception contexts—government responses, economic opportunity, societal attitudes, and presence of ethnic communities—may accelerate or delay exile groups’ rates of structural assimilation, with legal status playing a major role in determining whether groups assimilate upward or downward. 14. SUBJECT TERMS 15. NUMBER OF immigration, U.S. foreign policy, assimilation, Cuba, El Salvador, Cold War, American PAGES identity, refugee, migration, diaspora, context of reception, Latin America, Western 127 Hemisphere, Central America, Caribbean, exile 16. PRICE CODE 17. SECURITY 18. SECURITY 19. SECURITY 20. LIMITATION OF CLASSIFICATION OF CLASSIFICATION OF THIS CLASSIFICATION OF ABSTRACT REPORT PAGE ABSTRACT Unclassified Unclassified Unclassified UU NSN 7540-01-280-5500 Standard Form 298 (Rev. 2-89) Prescribed by ANSI Std. 239-18 i THIS PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK ii Approved for public release. Distribution is unlimited. CUBAN AND SALVADORAN EXILES: DIFFERENTIAL COLD WAR–ERA U.S. POLICY IMPACTS ON THEIR SECOND-GENERATIONS’ ASSIMILATION Amal Nazzall Major, United States Air Force BA, University of Miami, 2006 Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF ARTS IN SECURITY STUDIES (WESTERN HEMISPHERE) from the NAVAL POSTGRADUATE SCHOOL June 2018 Approved by: Tristan J. Mabry Advisor Christopher N. Darnton Second Reader Mohammed M. Hafez Chair, Department of National Security Affairs iii THIS PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK iv ABSTRACT American society conventionally expects immigrants to assimilate, yet contemporary views question whether Latin American immigrants are choosing to conform to this standard. However, this perspective does not account for the structural constraints placed upon immigrants through the influence of U.S. foreign and immigration policy. During the Cold War, two cases—Cuba in the 1960s and El Salvador in the 1980s—demonstrated differential U.S. policy responses to sustained, large-scale exile migrations to the United States, particularly to Miami and Los Angeles. In these cases, the U.S. response was to welcome and provide a positive reception to Cubans in Miami, while Salvadorans were excluded and constrained by the negative reception afforded to them as illegal migrants in Los Angeles, with both responses stemming from U.S. foreign policy interests in Latin America. Twenty-five years after the first wave of exiles from each of these countries, both second generations appear to be assimilating in terms of educational attainment, but Salvadoran-Americans lag behind Cuban-Americans in occupational attainment and income levels. These differential outcomes indicate that reception contexts—government responses, economic opportunity, societal attitudes, and presence of ethnic communities—may accelerate or delay exile groups’ rates of structural assimilation, with legal status playing a major role in determining whether groups assimilate upward or downward. v THIS PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK vi TABLE OF CONTENTS I. INTRODUCTION..................................................................................................1 A. IMPORTANCE ..........................................................................................1 B. HYPOTHESIS............................................................................................5 C. LITERATURE REVIEW .........................................................................6 1. Theories on Determinants of Migration ......................................8 2. Theories of Migrant Adaptation .................................................14 D. METHODOLOGY AND SOURCES .....................................................19 II. U.S. IMMIGRATION POLICY .........................................................................21 A. U.S. IMMIGRATION POLICY THROUGH THE 1980s ...................22 B. CONTEXT: U.S. POLICY FOR CUBAN IMMIGRATION ..............26 C. CONTEXT: U.S. POLICY FOR SALVADORAN IMMIGRATION ......................................................................................39 III. CONTEXT OF RECEPTION ............................................................................51 A. CUBANS IN 1960s MIAMI.....................................................................54 1. Government Response .................................................................55 2. Economic Conditions ...................................................................57 3. Societal Attitudes .........................................................................58 4. Presence of Ethnic Communities ................................................60 5. Cubans: Conclusion .....................................................................60 B. SALVADORANS IN 1980s LOS ANGELES ........................................61 1. Government Response .................................................................64 2. Economic Conditions ...................................................................65 3. Societal Attitudes .........................................................................66 4. Presence of Ethnic Communities ................................................67 5. Salvadorans: Conclusion .............................................................69 C. CONCLUSION ........................................................................................70 IV. SECOND-GENERATION STRUCTURAL ASSIMILATION .......................73 A. METHODOLOGY AND DATA ............................................................73 B. THE CHILDREN OF THE GOLDEN CUBAN EXILES ...................78 1. Male Incarceration Rates and Female Early Childbearing .....79 2. Educational Attainment ..............................................................79 3. Labor Market Achievement ........................................................81 4. Conclusion on the Second-Generation Cubans .........................83 vii C. THE CHILDREN OF THE WOULD-BE SALVADORAN REFUGEES ..............................................................................................83
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