United Nations Environment Programme ISSN 0379-2455

Desertiffication Control Bulletin

A Bulletin of World Events in the Control of Desertification, Restoration of Degraded Lands and Reforestation Number 34, 1999

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International Events on Desertitication Control Issues in Desertification/Land Degradation Control hr Mutsa C/iasi Summary of the Second Conference of the Parties to the Convention and Edit/i Mussukuva ...... 67 to Combat Desertification ...... The Zabré Women Agro-Ecological Project, Burkina Faso: A Success UNEP Governing Council 20th Session 1-5 February 1999 Story in Desertification/Land Degradation Control hr Ractne Kane and 73 Decision 20/10 - Land Degradation ...... 4 HenriM. Lo ...... Collective and Family Woodlands Project in Tiogo forest Reserve. Desertification/Land Degradation and its Control Burkina Faso: A Success Story in Desertification/Land Degradation Environmental Security in the Drylands of Africa: The Role of Science Control hr Rae/tie Kane and I'Ie,tri M. La ...... 79 and Technology 6r M.B.K. Darkoh ...... 6 Newsfrom UNEP ...... 84 Ecology. People and the Environment: A Challenge to the Educators of UNEP's Effort Tctwards the Implementation of the United Nations hr V.R. Squires ...... IS Managers of Drylands Restoration Convention to Combat Desertification 1997-19911: Sumntary ...... 84 Baseline and Growth Indicators for Dcsertification in the Saharo-Sahelian UNEP and UNDP Join Forces in the GEF Land Degradation Area of Mauritania and their Monitoring from 1953 to 19911 Cross-Cutting Area ...... 87 by Monique Mainguer, E, -édéric Dumar. Mo/tamed Lemi tie Ould El I-/ac cit. and A /tniedou Ould Mah fond ...... 2 I BookReview ...... 88 118 India's Approach to Combat Drought and Desertification: An Analysis The Lost Camels of Tartary hr Jo/tn Hare ...... f,y hr R.N. Kaul, A. Kumar and S.K. Purl ...... I Man in the Desert L.P. B/,a,a,a ...... 89 Reclamation and Management of Eroded Soils Proceedings of Gender Dimension in Relation to Desertification Control Initiatives in the UNEP/CIP/VNIALMI International Training Course, 15th September Southern African Development community hr Wilhant Ru,yuniantu ...... 41 to 5th October Edited hr Pat'/orskv Ye S. Vol gogi'ad...... 89 Integrating Gender Issues into NAP Process in Zimbabwe hr Entntanuel C/tinvamakohru ...... 411 Newsof interest ...... 90 Extent. Severity and Causative Factors of Land Degradation in the Request for Articles and Photographs ...... 90 Sudan hr A/i Ta/ta Aroub ...... S2 Submittong Success Stories to UNEP ...... 90 Indicators of Desertification in Kuwait and their Possible Management Agroenviron-98 Statement ...... 91 hr Shabbir. A. S/ia/tid, Samira A.S. Omar and Samir Al-Ghas'a.s ...... 61 Pollution can be controlled, says Pakistan Scholar ...... 92 Culture and the Environment: The Case of Cameroon ...... 92 Saving the Drylands: Successful Initiatives International Conference on Desertification and Soil Degradation, The Social Work Research Centre Barefoot College: A Success Story Moscow, I I – IS November 1999 ...... 95

Cover: Traditional thatched-roof huts belonging to #tornad pastoralists in the Cholistan desert, Pakistan. Photo: Mohanirnad Arshad. Desertification Control Bulletin, N° 34, 1999

The United Nations Convention to One of the main aims of the bi- Articles Photographs in the bulletin are Combat Desertification (CCD) annual Desertification Control printed black and while. For which came into force on 26 De.sertifii ation Control Bulletin Bulletin is to disseminate satisfactory results, high quality December 1996. lays Out new invites articles from the world's information on, knowledge of, black and white prints 18 cm x 24 measures to be undertaken by scientists and specialists interested desertification problems and to cm (8 in x 10 in) on glossy paper are governments of affected countries in the problems arising from or present news about the programmes, essential. Diapositive slides of high and by those in a position to help. associated with the spread of activities and achievements in the quality may be accepted: however, It is a comprehensive treaty, with dcscrti fication. an innovative participatory implementation of the CCD around theirquality when printed black and approach aimed at involving all the world. Articles published in the white in the bulletin cannot he stakeholders. De.vertification Control Bulletin do Audience guaranteed. The core of the Convention is not imply the expression of any The bulletin addresses a large All line drawings and the development of national, sub- opinion on the part of UNEP audience which includes decision photographs should be numbered in regional and regional action concerning the legal status of any programmes to combat makers, planners, administrators, one sequence to correspond to their desertification. National action country, territory, city orarea, or its specialists and technicians of point of reference in the text, and programmes are to be developed authorities, or concerning the countries facing desertification their descriptions should he listed by governments in close delimitation of its frontiers or problems, as well as all others on a separate page. cooperation with donors, local boundaries. interested in arresting the spread of populations and non-govemmental Material not copyrighted may desertification. organizations (NGOs). In contrast be reprinted with credit to Footnotes and references to many past efforts, these action De.sertifitation Control Bulletin, Language Footnotes and references should be programmes must be fully LJNEP. Enquiries should be listed on separate pages at the end of integrated with other national addressed to: The bulletin is published in English the manuscript. Footnotes should be policies for sustainable The Technical Advisor and Spanish. All manuscripts for kept to an absolute minimum. development. They should be publication must be in English. flexible, able to be modified as Desertification Control Bulletin References should be strictly circumstances change. UNEP relevant to the article and should For this approach to work it is P.O. Box 30552, Manuscript preparation also be kept toaminimuni. The style essential that people at all levels Nairobi, Kenya Manuscripts should he clearly of references should follow the are aware of the strengths of the typewritten with double spacing and format common for scientific and drylands, as well as the causes and wide margins, on one side of the technical publications; the last mechanisms of desertification and name(s) of the author(s) (each). of possible solutions to the Cover page only. The title of the followed by his/her initials, year of problems. Accordingly the UN- Photographs manuscript, with the author's name CCD emphasizes the increasing and address, should be given in the publication, title, publisher (or need to raise awareness and The Editor of De.ser!ifiea,ion tipper half of the first page and the journal), serial number and number knowledge of dryland issues Control Bulleti,i is seeking number of words in the main text of pages. globally, particularly among photographs for consideration as should appear in the upper right government decision makers, bulletin covers. All submissions corner. Subsequent pages should Other requirements affected and non-affected should be addressed to the editor at have only the author's name in the community groups, donors, the above address. upper right hand corner. Users of De.se,-titoauion Control Bulletin international partners and the word-processors are welcome to publishes original articles which general public. have not appeared in other The UNEP Governing Council Technical requirements submit their articles on diskette in publications. However, reprints (GC. 19/17) requested that the MS-DOS format, indicating the function of UNEP/DEDC-PAC be Photographs must be colour programme used. providing the possibility of exchange maintained as a global centre of transparencies of subjects related of views and developments of basic excellence on desertification directly to desertification, land, Metric system importance in desertification control control.promoting cooperation and animals, human beings, structures among the developing regions of the coordination of worldwide affected by desertification, control All measurements should be in the the world, or translations from efforts to combat desertification, of desertification, reclamation of metric system. languages of limited audiences, are and advised UNEP to concentrate desertified lands, etc. Submissions not ruled out. Short reviews its efforts on the following: must be of high quality to beenlarged Tables introducing recently published (a) The development,jointly to accommodate a square 18cm x 18 books in the subjects relevant to with partners, of appropriate Each table should he typed on a indicators on land use and cm (8 in x 8 in). separate page, should have a title desertification and of interest to the quality as part of an updated and should be numbered to readers of the bulletin are also assessment methodology for Captions correspond to its point in the text. accepted. Medium-length articles of drylands and desertification Only essential tables should be about 3.000 words are preferred. control; A brief caption must accompany included and all should he identified (h( Increasing awareness of each photograph giving a description as to source. desertification and drought of the subject. place and country, Editor: issues, and disseminating date of photograph and name and David Round-Tumer, targeted information materials address of photographer. Illustrations and Consultanl, to it broad range of media and photographs DEDC/PAC, UNEP the public: Copyright (C) Continuing to contribute Line drawings of any kind should Technical advisor: to the implementation of the It is assutned that all submissions each be on a separate page drawn in Leonicl Kroumkatchev, Convention and intensifying are the original of the pholographer support for activities in Africa. black china ink and double or larger DEDC/PAC, UNEP and all the rights are owned by the Asia, Latin America and the than the size to appear in the bulletin. photographer. De.ser,,ficaiion Caribbean. at all levels, They should never he pasted in the Layout: Control Bulletin gives full credit to particularly in the preparation text. They should he as clear and as J. Odallo, RDS. UNON of national, sub-regional and photographers for the covers selected simple as possible. regional action programmes. but does not provide remuneration. m Summary of the Second Conference of the Parties to the Convention to Combat Desertification

(abstract)' 30 November to 11 December 1998

Delegates to the second session of the Serious Drought and/or Desertification, Conference of the Parties to the United particularly in Africa was adopted on 17 Nations Convention to Combat June 1994 and was opened for signature Desertification in Those Countries in October 1994 in Paris. Three months Experiencing Serious Drought and/or following the receipt of its fiftieth Desertification, particularly in Africa met ratification, the Convention entered into in Dakar, Senegal, between 30 November force on 26 December 1996. As of 22 and 11 December 1998. The Committee October 1998. 144 countries had ratified on Science and Technology (CST) met in or acceded to the Convention to Combat parallel to the COP from I to4 December. Desertification. Delegates approved arrangements for the The Convention recognizes: institutional linkage between the • The physical, biological and socio- Convention and the United Nations economic aspects of desertification; Secretariat and the headquarters • The importance of redirecting agreement with the Government of technology transfer so that it is Germany, where the Secretariat is demand-driven: scheduled to move in early 1999. The • The involvement of local populations. Conference of the Parties approved The core of the Convention is the adjustments to its budget and adopted the development of national and subregional- outstanding rules of procedure concerning regional action programmes by national bureau members, but retained bracketed governments in cooperation with donors, language regarding majority voting absent local populations and non-governmental consensus. Eastern and Central European organizations. The purpose of using an countries were invited to submit to innovative bottom-up' approach, by Conference of the Parties-3 a draft regional involving people who are affected by implementation annex. desertification in decision-making, is to facilitate effective implementation of the A brief history of the Convention. Convention Report of COP-2 Desertification began with an opening The Convention to Combat Desert- The second session of the Conference of ceremony on Monday morning, 30 ification in Those Countries Experiencing the Parties to the Convention to Combat November 1998. Abdou Diouf, President

'This report was compiled f)oni the special issue of Earth Negotiations Bulletin published by the International Institute Jr Sustainable Deuelopment (IISD). This report is printed without prejudice and in the undeistanding that any views e.vpressed herein are not necessarily those of UNEP.

1 Desertijlcation Control Bulletin, N 34, 1999 of the Republic of Senegal, welcomed the Parties-2 in Dakar. Conference of the Parties-2, the African participants and thanked them for Delegates discussed the importance Group repeated its Conference of the convening Conference of the Parties-2 in of bottom-up approaches and involvement Parties-I request for three Bureau seats, Senegal, on Sahelian soil. He highlighted at all levels and by all relevant actors, but which would have created the same the problems posed by desertification in their deliberations revealed different problem Conference of the Parties-i Africa and Senegal, in particular, as well perspectives on how the Convention faced. However, in Dakar there was no as actions taken to combat this phenomenon should actually facilitate the translation option of temporarily filling the empty at all levels. He suggested that the of the theory of partnerships into action. East European seat with an extra Conference of the Parties, in moving toward The Convention to Combat Desert- representative from Africa, given that its operational phase, consider how to ification Conference of the Parties faces a three Parties from Eastern Europe coordinate activities under the Convention. balancing act of communicating with, participated in Conference of the Parties- the Convention on Biological Diversity fostering and learning from, actors on the 2. The African Group's Presidency of the (CBD) and the United Nations Framework ground while remaining an international Conference of the Parties and desire to Convention on Climate Change (FCCC), coordinating body. To accomplish its host a successful session offered a solution and arrive at the precise definition of the goals, it relies on horizontal partnerships to the issue. Two African delegates were role and operational procedures of the ranging from arrangements between the elected to the Bureau, although the Group Global Mechanism. regional implementation annex countries indicated the decision did not imply a During the opening Plenary on and relationships with related renunciation of their intention to hold Monday afternoon, delegates elected conventions, forexample, to reach vertical three Bureau seats at future Conferences Souty Touré, Senegal's Minister of partnerships between the Conference of of the Parties. Environment and Protection of Nature, as the Parties, national governments and Conference of the Parties-2 President. He local level actors. The difference of From the bottom up said the meeting should enable an in- opinion as to how this balance should be depth exchange of views by participants struck slowed some work at Conference While intergovernmental partnerships did on implementation and institutional of the Parties-2 but related discussions not feature as prominently as they did at arrangements. United Nations Under- may serve as a foundation for building COP-l.a number of issues regarding other Secretary-General for Economic and effective partnerships under the partnerships did emerge. The need to Social Affairs Nitin Desai, on behalf of Convention. This analysis highlights ways engage all interested actors at all levels is United Nations Secretary-General Kofi in which some of these partnerships took standard rhetoric for those engaged in the Annan, highlighted three ways in which form and shaped Conference of the CCD process. However, different the Convention exemplifies and follows Parties-2. approaches to how the Conference of the up on Rio: it shows how environmental Parties can facilitate action on the ground, and development objectives can be served Intergovernmental under the auspices of an international in the same framework; it reflects the Rio coordinating body for action on partnership between developed and partnerships desertification, were evident in the developing countries and it recognizes Conference of the Parties-2 deliberations. the interaction between sectoral and Intergovernmental cooperation at the Many Organisation for Economic among cross-sectoral themes. Conference of the Parties level is a prime Cooperation and Development (OECD) The Convention Executive Secretary area where partnerships must be countries found the COP's modus Hama Arba Diallo introduced the operational if the Convention to Combat operandi to be out of accord with its documents prepared for Conference of Desertification is to be effectively objectives. As an example of this the Parties- 2 and reported on recent implemented. In this regard, the divergence, they pointed to delegates' meetings and workshops, including an continuing debate between the discussions about bottom-up approaches interregional forum. He stressed the Convention's particularity to Africa, while that resulted in recommendations for importance of focal points and national at the same time being a global convention, panels or studies, which they believed to coordinating bodies, noting that recent remains a shaping force. The African be top-down solutions. Their emphasis reports indicate that the weakness of focal Group's decision to emphasize this on National Action Programmes (NAPs) points is a reason for delay in particularity held up the start of was intended to surmount this trap and implementation. He emphasized that the Conference of the Parties-I by two days, focus on specific actions and mainstream Secretariat would continue to work with but delegates did not delay their the issue in development processes Parties during the implementation phase. deliberations at Conference of the Parties- through partnership arrangements. Some 2 on this point. Their decision was believed the European Union-proposed A brief analysis of COP-2 indicative of the recognition by draft decision on implementation and Conference of the Parties-2 participants NAPs was directed to this end. The Group Partnerships between a variety of actors of the need to focus on implementation of 77 and China, by contrast, stressed the propel the Convention's implementation and avoid situations that might deter their need to take a holistic approach to and dominated the scene at Conference of ability to cooperate. On the first day of implementation and thus did not support

2 Summary of the Second Conference of the Parties to the Convention to Combat Desertification some of the OECD countries' singular governments. This could be attributed to such coordination promise to be the topic focus on local level implementation or its non-governmental organizations feeling of further discussions as the Conference draft decision on implementation and more secure with their involvement in the of the Parties charts Convention NAPs. Conference of the Parties and the implementation in the years to come. recognition of their important role and Advancing vertical the input they can have in shaping the Toward effective process. However, some participants felt partnershi PS the presentations fell short of providing implementation concrete insights into how the partnerships This difference in approach also underlay can be enacted within the framework of While the decisions of COP-2 were not the European Union (EU) and the Group the ongoing Conference of the Parties earth-shattering, its deliberations served of 77 and China positions regarding negotiations and subsequent implement- to highlight areas and partnerships that Secretariat support for activities at the ation of the Convention to Combat need reinforcement and further opened regional level. Most participants do not Desertification. Nonetheless, this was an opportunities for more representation in envision the Secretariat as an essential step in charting a process of the process. Whether Conference of the implementing body. The OECD countries local level involvenient and assisting the Parties- 3 delegates will be able to steer particularly desire to keep the Secretariat's Conference of the Parties to visualize away from sensitive issues that emerged activities focused on horizontal Convention implementation and the in COP-I, and continued at COP-2, partnerships rather than vertical ones, as necessary framework to facilitate it. To remains to be seen. Delegates' high regard the Secretariat's regional and national this end, the Conference of the Parties for the informal dialogue on implement- level activities might imply. The Group will have to engage itself in elaborating ation of NAPs and dialogues with NGOs of 77 and China, however, support a role an enabling environment for effective show a way forward as they consider the for the Secretariat as a sponsor of regional involvement of all stakeholders and ways and means to accomplish theirgoals. and national meetings and regional interest groups. The deadlocks and deferred decisions coordinating units. Such meetings or units from Conference of the Parties-2 resulted reach below the top international level of Partnerships between the more from differences in emphasis on actors, but may not result immediately in Rio conventions partnership- building strategies rather than the concrete actions that some OECD from differences in objectives. To this countries emphasized. Supporters see end, intersessional activities, active these meetings and units as useful ways to Coordination across the board will be nurturing of partnerships and continuation engage actors closer to the local level, necessary to accomplish this task. This ofa dialogue between all actors is essential while others do not think the action will need to identify an enabling environment to the success of the Convention to Combat trickle down that far. The efforts of at the international level fits well with the Desertification. Conference of the Parties- 2 to involve repeated calls at Conference of the Parties- parliamentarians and non-governmental 2 for synergies between the Rio Third session of the organizations, particularly through their conventions and coordination of their network. RIOD, provide positive activities. Such coordination would not Conference of the Parties examples of how the Convention to only result in resource efficiency butalso, to the United Nations Combat Desertification Conference of the hopefully, stimulate tangible action. Convention to Combat Parties and Secretariat can advance Conference of the Parties-2 participants vertical partnerships while remaining an recognized that the Convention to Combat Desertification international facilitative body. Desertification has a lot to offer the other The COP-2 experience saw non- conventions, especially if it is able to find COP-3 is scheduled to be held in Recife. governmental organizations presentations how to balance international, national Brazil, from 15 to 26 November 1999. on activities and concerns at the local and local action as well as environmental Preparatory meetings for COP-3 include: level. Unlike the NGO forum at COP-I, and development objectives. The goal of Bureau meetings, the intersessional whose tone some found to be more such coordination should be to provide an meeting of the Bureau of the Committee provocative, these forums embodied the overarching framework under which on Science and Technology, and the spirit ofdialogue with a focus on possible partnerships can be strengthened and meeting of the ad hoc panel on traditional ways to enhance collaboration with pursued at all levels. The modalities for knowledge.

For dates, venue or any other information, contact the CCD Secretariat at: Geneva Executive Centre, 11/13 Chemin des Anemones, 1219 Chatelaine, Geneva, Switzerland; tel: +41-22-979- 9111; fax:+41-22-979-9030/31; e-mail: [email protected]; Internet: http://www.unccd.ch . Effective in early 1999, the Secretariat can be reached at: P0 Box 260129, Haus Carstanjen, D-53153 Bonn, Germany; tel: +49- 228-8152800; fax: +49-228-8152899; e-mail: [email protected]: Internet:http://www.unccd.de .

3 UNEP Governing Council 20th Session I to 5 February 1999

Decision 20/10 - Land Degradation

The Governing Council is the governing Convention to Combat Desertification in the vulnerability of African soils to the body of United Nations Environment Those Countries Experiencing Serious impacts of climate change due to land Programme (UNEP). It is composed of Drought and/or Desertification, degradation and desertification as 58 members of the United Nations General particularly in Africa: 1997-1998 expressed by the Special Consultation of Assembly, with due regard to the (decision 19/17): African Ministerial Conference on the geographical representation of its Recalling its decisions 19/17 of 7 Environment on the United Nations membership, who direct and monitor February 1997 and SS.V/7 of 22 May Framework Convention on Climate UNEP's work. Membership of the 1998, Change and its Kyoto Protocol and Governing Council rotates every four Having considered the report of the Multilateral Environmental Agreements, years to allow all Member States to play executive Director on the implementation held in Nairobi from 19 to 23 October an active role. The Governing Council of the United Nations Convention to 1998 (UNEP/AMCEN/CONSULT. 115, meets at UNEP headquarters in Nairobi Combat Desertification in Those para. 3 (a)), at least every two years in order to approve Countries Experiencing Serious Drought Welcoming the efforts of the United the programme of work for the and/or Desertification, particularly in Nations Environment Programme in forthcoming biennium. Special sessions Africa: 1997-1998 (hereinafter 'the assisting countries affected by land of the Governing Council may also be Convention') UNEP/GC. 20/I1), degradation, in strengthening cooperation called with the agreement of the Recognizing that land degradation is and collaboration with other relevant Governing Council Member States. The a major problem for many countries, United Nations bodies and agencies and Governing Council is an integral part of particularly those in Africa. other organizations in the field of land the United Nations Secretariat and reports Recalling that support for Africa is a degradation, in developing land- back to the United Nations General priority for the United Nations degradation projects as they relate to the Assembly through the United Nations Environment Programme in its work focal areas of the Global Environment Economic and Social Council. programme for 2000-2001, Facility and the signing of a Memorandum At its twentieth session, the Recalling the experience of the United of Understanding with the United Nations Governing Council devoted considerable Nations Environment Programme in Development Programme in the context time to negotiation of the decision on developing desertification assessments of these activities, and in assisting des e rti fi cation/land degradation and databases and its two editions of the Governments in the implementation of indicating the raised level of political World Atlas of Desertification; its the Convention interest in the issue. At the high level research initiatives and cooperative I. Requests the Executive Director to segment, the countries affected by studies with the Scientific Committee on maintain the capability of the United desertification made many favourable Problems of the Environment of the Nations Environment Programme to references to the work UNEP has been International Council of Scientific Unions, respond to global land-degradation doing in supporting them and in assisting its co-sponsorship of the Consultative issues so as to serve its role as Task the progress of the Convention to Combat Group for International Agricultural Manager for chapter 12 of Agenda Desertification. Research and the numerous joint 21, and in supporting the Conference The Governing Council, having programmes and studies on desertification of Parties of the Convention, in considered the report of the Executive with various centres within the particular its Committee on Science Directoron the effort of the United Nations Consultative Group and with other United and Technology in the assessment Environment Programme towards the Nations bodies, and monitoring of desertification and implementation of the United Nations Considering the concerns regarding the enhancement of the scientific and

4 UNEP Governing Council 20th Session 1-5 February 1999

technological knowledge base on land to land degradation in view of the the Global Environment Facility, as degradatiom interlinkages between land well as relevant regional and 2 Requests the Executive Director to degradation and the focal areas of the subregional organizations, to assist give the appropriate priority to Global Environment Facility; countries affected by land degradation promoting support action to combat Also requests the Executive Director in the preparation of land-degradation desertification with in the framework to strengthen the coordination and projects consistent with their national of the implementation of the work collaboration with relevant United action programmes for financing by programme of the United Nations Nations bodies and agencies and other the Global Environment Facility and Environment Programme in organizations concerned in providing other multilateral and bilateral accordance with Governing Council assistance to countries in mitigating agencies; decision SS.V/7; land degradation and the Requests the Executive Director to 3 Requests the Executive Director to implementation of the Convention; take appropriate initiatives to involve assist, upon their request, African Requests the Executive Director to the United Nations Environment countries in the preparation, pursue his efforts to strengthen inter- Programme in the activities of the development and strengthening of agency collaboration in the field of Global Mechanism of the Convention action plans made in accordance with combating desertification; and in particular its Facilitation articles 9 and 11 of the Convention; Further requests the Executive Committee; 4 Requests the Executive Director to Director, in cooperation with other Reciuests the Executive Director to continue efforts to secure and enhance bodies, particularly the Secretariat of submit a report on this matter to the support from the Global Environment the Convention, the Global Governing Council at its twenty-first Facility for providing assistance to Mechanism underthe Convention and session. countries to carry out activities related the other implementing agencies of

5 Environmental Security in the Drylands of Africa: The Role of Science and Technology

M. B. K. Darkoh offer opportunities for sustainable resources, or their appropriation by a few livelihoods and, second, as a precondition wealthy and powerful individuals or Professor, Environmental Science for peace and conflict resolution. In groups.jeopardises peace and undermines Department Unii'ersitv of Botswana societies where the reproduction of security. The security of one group of Private Bag 0022 Gahorone, resource endowments (farms, herds, trees actors in their respective relationship to Botswana etc.) depends, to a large extent, on nature's natural resources, or the harsh conditions bounty, environmental and people of the drylands, will automatically affect security are intertwined and cannot be the security of other groups of actors in Introduction treated in isolation from each other the same environment. (Mohamed Salih, 1992). This line of Considering the above salient features Throughout the African drylands there is thought has been forthcoming in recent of what we term 'environmental security', clear evidence that the environment is not literature (Frankie and Chaisen, 1980: it seems that the whole logic of the concept secure; it is failing to offer opportunities Redclift, 1984: Spooner and Mann. 1982; is skewed when applied to the drylands for sustainable livelihoods to rural and Hjort, 1982, 1989; Hjort and Mohamed (Mohamed Salih, 1992). It appears as if urban populations dependent upon it for Salih, 1989, 1992). The linkage between we mean 'insecurity' when we refer to their survival. For example, long spells of people and environmental security has environmental security in the drylands of drought, desertification and floods are a also reached a new high in the social Africa. few examples of the serious environmental science agenda, particularly when an problems that make it impossible for rural association between political conflicts and Major Environmental people to co-exist in harmony with nature environmental stress is evident in many or, at times, with each other. The famines parts of African drylands (Hjort and Security Issues and food shortages that hit people severely Mohamed Salih. ibid.). In essence, this in the 1970s and 1980s, resulting in mass meansthat environmental security implies Climate starvation, death, disease and the exodus the elimination of the factors which may of millions of environmental refugees threaten peoples' survival, such as soil Dryland environments in Africa are who moved to urban areas or to more erosion, depletion of natural resources undergoing rapid environmental change. humid lands in a desperate search for and accompanying food shortages. In Major environmental security problems survival, are the clearest manifestations other words, to enjoy environmental stem from the effects of drought, of the unfolding environmental insecurity security is to satisfy the basic needs of desiccation, climatic variability, climate in the drylands of Africa. This article human existence and to overcome those change, population and human activities. reviews the extent and significance of environmental conditions that threaten Drought denotes a regional deficiency in environmental insecurity in the drylands the safety, health and well-being of human soil moisture which may be caused by a of Africa and the role that science and populations. combination of lower than normal technology can play in any effort to find The second perspective, which sees precipitation and higher than average solutions. security as a precondition for peace, evapotranspiration. Desiccation is a Environmental security is viewed assumes that peace cannot be attained if process of aridification resulting from a from two related perspectives: first, in the physical, social and political dry period lasting, perhaps. decades. terms of those environmental conditions environments are in a situation of Climatic variability denotes shorter- term that enable individuals and groups to imbalance (Buzan, 1983; Mohamed Salih, climatic variability, including interannual satisfy their basic needs, and those that ibid.). Thus, the depletion of natural variations, and climate change refers to Environmental Security in the Drvlands ojAfrtca: The Role of Science and Technology

secular trends or shifts in climate resulting families has become economically issue of scarcity of natural resources vis- from natural processes or human activity. niarginalized and lives outside the pastoral d-i'is human carrying capacity. For Every year, drought occurs in some system. According to the Office to Combat instance. Africa's population growth rate part or other of the and and semi-arid Desertification and Drought (UNSO) of 2.8 percent per annum puts pressure on lands (ASAL) of Africa. In fact, major [formerly the United Nations Sudano- an already scarce supply of water and droughts regularly affect large portions Sahelian Office] (1992), the effects of other natural resources. As Our ConIn?oIl of these drylands. Examples include the desiccation on pastoral communities have Future (World Commission on most severe drought in recorded history been even more serious than droughts. In Environment and Development(WCED). between 1968 and 1973 and others the Saliel, many peasant and pastoral 1987:1) reminds us: 'The issue is not just between 1982 and 1985 and 1990 and communities have 'simply ceased toexist numbers but how those numbers relate to 1992. In the Sahel, during the three after the desiccation of the last 20 years' available resources'. The ever growing decades front 1961 to 199 l.annual rainfall (UNSO. ibid.). demand for natural resources for human had been between 20 and 40 per cent less use orapplication, against the background than it was during the three previous Water of an ever growing population, not only decades (Kelly and Hulme. 1993). Over intensifies competition over these the last quarter of a century. the Sahel has Closely related to climate is the issue of resources, but has a number of other undergone severe desiccation and water. All life forms on earth depend important consequences. First, there are increasing deterioration of the soil quality upon water and water issues pose many problems created by the rapid depletion and vegetative cover. Some studies have challenges to environmental security in of non-renewable resources, which may pointed out that, within contiguous Africa, Africa. These challenges relate to water be associated with the extraction of more there has been a net shift of land area availability, shortages and quality. diffuse and inaccessible deposits. Second, towards aridity, especially toward hyper- Because of aridity, water is a scarce the exploitation of renewable resources aridity and a consequent net loss of resource in and and semi-arid lands and, exceeds their natural ability to renew semi-arid and dry sub-humid areas (Hulme in many areas, it is not possible to obtain themselves. This threatens their and Kelly, 1993; Kelly and Hulme, 1993; a ready source of sufficiently pure drinking availability. Third. the possibilities of 1-lulme, et. al., 1992). water. Rapid population growth and expansion into remaining natural areas Drought, desiccation, climatic urbanisation pose threats to water and resources are limited and could lead variability and other dryland climate utilization and depletion. Surface water to growing competition for natural characteristics greatly influence human that is used for food production and other resources. use of drylands. These factors influence domestic purposes is often a medium of vegetation productivity; carrying capacity pollution and transmission of disease. Human activities of the land; susceptibility of the land to Groundwater is not easily accessible and erosion; surface water availability and technologies for underground water Agriculture and pastoralism are the aquifer recharge (Williams and Balling detection, acquisition and monitoring are predominant human activities in the Jr., 1994). As such, they impose often lacking or underdeveloped, and drylands of Africa. Both have had more considerable constraints on the human generally have to be imported. direct negative impacts on the biophysical use of drylands. They tend also to Because of its scarcity, water may be environment. Soil erosion, soil and water complicate the management of drylands a source of strategic local and regional pollution, water supply and species and to impose limitations on food security conflicts in the drylands of Africa. In extinction have all become important and the quality of life for people. For Southern Africa, for example, the environmental issues. While impacts were example, drought, when it occurs, creates members of the Southern African initially small-scale and local, they a shortage of available moisture for plant Development Community (SADC) have increased in extent and severity as growth and limits total rangeland responded to the issue of limited water agricultural systems became more productivity. Since the use of resources in the region with a protocol on industrialized and less in tune with natural supplementary feeds is limited, lack of shared river basins like the Zambezi. ecosystems, processes and cycles. nutritious forage results in high rates of However, this creates conflict in the Modern agriculture of the type livestock mortality. As aresultoflivestock region. As I shall discuss elsewhere in common in high income nations is loss and the total impoverishment of this article, areas such as river basins and characterized by high levels of investment nomadic families, dependence on famine wetlands in African drylands, which are in technology, machinery, chemicals and relief food by a population which has naturally endowed with water, have genetics, a very extensive scale of traditionally been self-reliant has become the seed-beds of land use conflicts operation, and constant change (Applin increased (Oba, 1992). Recovery of and even international conflicts. et. al.. 1995). Indeed, change is so much livestock herds during post-drought a part of modern farming that it is difficult periods is low. Following the severe Population growth to describe a typical farming enterprise. weakening of the traditional security Animal and human labour have been system of reciprocity and opportunistic A matter closely related to the problem of replaced by machines and fossil fuels; lifestyles, a majority of former pastoral environmental security in Africa is the natural cycles of soil fertility have been

7 Desertification Control Bulletin, N 34, 1999 replaced by the use of chemical fertilisers: policies that are encouraging farmers to from a water catchment increases flood monocultures have been replaced by grow higher priced non-food cash crops, risks. complex polycultures and weed and pest have led to excessive pressures in arable The present trend of overexploitation control are dominated by commercial lands, rangelands, forests and other landed and mismanagement of forest resources chemicals. The geography of modern resources, leading to accelerated land can be reversed if the remaining forest agriculture reflects climate and soil quality degradation. lands are protected and the forest cover modified by human ingenuity and Land degradation is not just soil replaced where possible. Although technology. Among the most intense erosion; the term includes any change in afforestation programmes have been application of modern science and the condition of the land which reduces attempted in several countries, the technology are biotechnology, genetic its productive potential. In the drylands introduction of exotic species has not engineering and information technology of Africa, the primary agents of land restored the ecological stability that (Mannion, 1995). These innovations have degradation are overcultivation, over- existed when there was natural forest been developed as scientific and grazing, deforestation and poor irrigation cover. The rate of deforestation in Africa technological responses to management practices (UNEP, 1992). Of the four main is 30 times greater than the pace of problems. threats, three (deforestation, over- reforestation; in the early 1980s an In Africa, on the other hand, attempts cultivation and overgrazing) pose the estimated 3.7 million hectares were being at agricultural transformation have principal threat to the livelihood of the lost every year through farming activities concentrated mainly on the export sector, peoples of the drylands. and cutting down of trees to meet energy on which most African countries depend In the woodland savannas and forests and other needs, including lumbering by primarily for employment, income, of Africa, rapid population growth has an increasing population. Partly as a result foreign exchange and government revenue shortened the fallow periods, and the high of tree cropping, wildlife resources are while the traditional sector has been demand for agricultural land has caused being depleted. A fuelwood crisis is largely neglected. The technological an extension of cultivation into water manifested by severe fuelwood deficits content of African agriculture is among catchment areas with serious ecological in the savanna regions of West, Central the lowest in the world, which means that consequences, as the soils of these lands and East Africa and in the and areas of the agricultural production is largely degrade rapidly and become depleted of Sahel. South-Eastern and South-Western dependent on the exploitation of the major plant nutrients. In a natural forest Africa. natural resource base without much ecosystem, the nutrients released by plant Most of the fragile and and semi-arid replacement (Photo I). litter are rapidly used by living plant lands do not have the capability to support tissues and become locked up in the large scale arable farming for non- food Land degradation biomass for most of the forest's life. When cash crops. Their real potential lies in a forest canopy is cleared and burnt, the livestock production and wildlife Unprecedented population increase and nutrients are released, but the soil fertility management. However, with rapid the problem of feeding people with the is short-lived. Loss of vegetation cover, population growth and use of increasing use of technologies in farming that have therefore, accelerates soil loss. amounts of land for cash cropping rather shown little change, and agricultural Furthermore, the removal of forest cover than subsistence agriculture, rangelands in eastern and southern Africa are fast disappearing. Many large-scale mechanized schemes, irrigation projects, resettlement schemes and big dam projects have taken away lands used by pastoralists during droughts to alleviate pressure on the fragile drylands environment. The food security policies of African nations, which see the expansion of large scale projects as the key to agricultural development, rather than the improvement of production conditions for mobile animal husbandry and smallholder farmers, contribute to the insecurity of herders and small farming communities (Darkoh, 1994). The rights or needs of the indigenous populations and of small-scale producers and mobile livestock keepers in African drylands and river basins are often not given sufficient attention in development planning, a fact Photo 1 . oiI /CLithI1iiOiI 1/1 1RI bile, Lililopia.

8 Environmental Security in the Drylands of Africa: The Role of Science and Technology

which often aggravates conflicts. river basins in the world. Twelve of these Salinization and alkalinization are serious Because of their role as key river basins are shared by four or more problems in some irrigated areas in North production areas in drylands, African river countries. African river basins have an Africa, the Sahel, Eastern and Southern basins and wetlands have become seed- international character and, as such, many Africa. beds for land use conflicts. As elsewhere, countries cannot embark on large- scale All causes of land degradation conflicts arise between the various river basin projects without affecting the discussed so far lead to soil erosion, in production sectors or stakeholders, the interest of other countries. The one form or another, and desertification - major of which are agriculture, livestock, construction of dams for irrigation and two major environmental problems in the wildlife and urban development. Other hydropower upstream usually impedes drylands. The rates of soil erosion in the conflicts are caused by polarized similar developments downstream. Some drylands of Africa are among the highest population interests (for example, cases have shown that such projects may in the world. The continent's precious pastoralists versus peasants) over river precipitate inter-state conflict, as has topsoil is being lost at an incredible rate. basin and wetland resources. In broader happened between Niger and Nigeria over Data provided by the Global Assessment terms, land use conflicts reflect a lack of the two dams on the Lamido and River of Soil Degradation (GLASOD) (UNEP, land reforms and coordinated national Maggiya, and between Nigeria and 1992) shows that some 332.3 million land use policies for drylands. Each sector Cameroon over the Ladoo Dam on the hectares, or 27.6 per cent, of the views the key production areas as optimal Benue River. Because of their susceptible drylands in Africa, are already for their particular activity. What ensues international charticter and the polarized affected by different degrees of soil is intense competition for the same land. national interests over river basin degradation. Studies by Food and Without a mechanism to prioritize resources, river basins are good examples Agriculture Organization of the United competing demands, the resultant land of areas in African dry lands where national Nations (FAO) indicate that more than 35 use is not necessarily the most appropriate political and economic interests can per cent of land north of the Equator is in ecological terms. For example, in many transcend ecological considerations to affected by either erosion or salinity. countries, large chunks of riverine forests trigger off major social and political Zimbabwe alone could be losing, on and other wetlands, normally used by disasters. Witness, for example, the average, 1.6 million tonnes of nitrogen herders in the drylands as fall- back areas conflict between Senegal and Mauritania and 240,000 tonnes of phosphorus each for dry season grazing, have been in the 1980s over the utilization of year through erosion. FAO's findings designated as national parks or forest resources in the Senegal basin, and the show that sediment in many African rivers reserves, which has marginalized the potential conflict between Botswana and is increasing drastically: thus, sediment weakest sector, namely, pastoralism. Namibia over the Okavango Swamps. levels are increasing at approximately 5 As a result of the endemic Indeed, natural resources and per cent in Nigeria, Tanzania and niarginalization, the pastoralists have had environmental issues underlie most forms Zimbabwe, 4.3 per cent in the Sudan and little alternative but to utilize more of conflict in the drylands of Africa. 3.2 per cent in Tunisia (FAO, 1990, p. intensively and, at times, overexploit the Military conflicts between states and ID). range and water resources available to between groups within a state frequently Desertification, defined simply as them. The decrease in available pasturage, occur over access to, and control of, natural dryland degradation (UNEP, 1992; with a simultaneous increase in livestock, resources. Military conflicts may occur Darkoh, 1996a, 1998) affects millions of results in overgrazing. The consequent within and between states when hectares of arable land and grazing land overgrazing causes the destruction of environmental degradation and natural as pressure from humans and animals vegetation, soil erosion, desertification resource scarcities undermine social, increases, thereby removing the vegetative etc., and thus destabilization of the political and economic viability of cover through farming, overgrazing and ecological balance in the river valleys societies and lead to political instability, bush fires as the net shift of land area and their adjoining upland areas. a breakdown of law and order and towards aridity in the ASAL environments Commercialization of the pastoral increased flows of refugees. The refugee continues to gain momentum. The economy and land resources and flows across international borders have exposure of soil to wind erosion leads to sedentarization policies of African further aggravated the political and an extension of desert-like areas outside countries have also increased pressure on environmental security situation in several the climatic desert. As much as 34 per natural resources in many areas. The main African countries. cent of Africa's land area is under threat causes are the reduced distances which Improper irrigation practices are also of desertification. The extent of livestock now roam and the heavy turning large areas of precious irrigated desertification revealed by UNEP's 1991 concentration of men and animals around farmlands into wet, salty wasteland, assessment is alarming. About 61 per new high-capacity watering places. Also, causing declining yields and often loss of cent of the continent's rain-fed croplands, sedentarization or villagization without productivity. The problem is usually 18 per cent of its irrigated lands and 74 improved lifestyles and management inadequate drainage. Where excessive per cent of its rangelands are affected by practices have done little to prevent land volumes of water are used, groundwater desertification of moderate or high degree degradation in the region. levels rise, creating the twin problems of (UNEP, 1992). Nearly three-quarters of Africa has 57 out of the 200 major waterlogging and salinization. the total agriculturally used drylands in

9 Desertification Control Bulletin, N 34, 1999

Africa have lost at least 25 per cent or There is also the problem of unsafe would occur from over-intensified more of their productivity during the last housing sites subject to flooding and demand, say, for fuelwood; dumping solid few decades. And the process still goes exposed to other risks of natural disasters. wastes from city enterprises; poorly on. These problems are compounded at the prepared and maintained landfill sites next level, the small or medium town, which often contaminate water used by Urhani:ation and environmental where there are are added risks from toxic rural households because of the high securit chemicals used in the workplace without incidence of run- off and seepage during adequate safeguards; household, periods of heavy rain. The growth of human settlements in Africa occasionally industrial, solid wastes which today is marked by an unprecedented are dumped around houses, attracting Some way forward: science urban explosion, reversing the rural trends disease- causing agents like rats and flies, which had characterized the continent which feed on the uncontrolled garbage and tech noiogy until recently and compounding the dumps and dirty water pools caused by problems of land degradation and inadequate sewage disposal facilities and Most of the rural and urban environmental environmental security. There are certain drainage. problems outlined above are linked to the common characteristics in the general At the third level, the city or failure or inability of African countries to geography of human settlements and conurbation, problems centre on provide appropriate scientific and pattern of urbanization. At the macrolevel, inadequate and overcrowded housing; technical knowledge, effective regulations there tends to be an imbalance in the unplanned pen- urban development; and planning frameworks to address the relationship between people, resources, proliferation of squatters and shanties; problems of poor citizens and to protect environment and development which has high levels of air pollution caused by rural and urban environments from led to a geography ofdisparities, including poorly maintained vehicles on congested contamination or degradation. Rapid sharp disparities between the urban and streets and high levels of lead additive in population increase; urban explosion; the rural areas and between the towns and petrol; high levels of water pollution recurrent droughts; increasing scarcity of the villages, reflected in the sharp drop in because of inadequate and strained land and increasing pressure of environmental quality and services (Saha, systems, absence of drains and sewage exploitation of the limited resources of 1992). Over-concentration of wealth in treatment plants, inappropriate dumping soil, water and vegetation are some of the the big cities contributes to the practices and inadequate environmental majorfactors behind the repeated famines abandonment of the rural areas and the control on industry (UNCHS, HABITAT, and food shortages which occur on the small towns. Attempts to redress the 1990; Saha, 1992). continent. The cures for the problems of situation are beset with difficulties caused In the context of the potential impacts land degradation, low biological by the low level of investment available of industrialization, it is worth noting that productivity and food security in the to inject into the rural areas and lift them the contribution of cities in developing drylands of Africa can generally be from their existing level of deprivation or African countries to global environmental foniiulated as 'planned and improved land resource degradation, and also structural problems remains relatively small - it is use on a sound ecological basis' (Rapp issues such as institutional capacity and mainly the cities of the developed world and Hellden, 1979). This is true both for the absence of meaningful intersectoral that emit greenhouse gases. Thus, the small-scale traditional farming or herding linkages. This has led to a depletion of main threat from industry located in as well as for large-scale mechanized human resources and an inability to African cities is to the local population. projects (Photo 2). maintain infrastructure and provide Even so, African cities are threatened by services. global warming which may lead to more Understanding and knowledge In most African human settlements, severe storms as well as rising sea levels. large masses of people live in Finally, at the sub-national level, To be successful, planning for better land environments that are neither life- problems arise from the interaction use in African drylands must be based on sustaining nor conducive to positive between cities and their rural hinterlands. a sound knowledge of both biophysical development. Areas are poorly serviced Urban-based decisions have a powerful and social sciences; neither the and the inhabitants are susceptible to both influence on rural resource exploitation biophysical nor the social sciences alone man-made and natural hazards. These and rural areas suffer from the impact of will suffice, but neither will a reliance on can be identified at different spatial scales city-based activities or city-generated technology while neglecting basic science. of the settlement hierarchy. wastes. Among the most common We desperately need greater depth and At the very local level, the examples are the degradation of coastal breadth in our collective knowledge of neighbourhood or village, millions of and estuarine fisheries as a result of water dryland environments. We need, above Africans are exposed to pathogens. with pollution from city- based enterprises, all, to understand the processes operating serious impacts on human health; for and air pollution from city-based within the dryland ecosystems and the example, pathogens from human excreta industries which damages vegetation complex webofinterconnections between in water supplies and smoke fumes from through acid rain and by disrupting natural these component parts. Much of the stoves which cause respiratory problems. systems. Other resource degradation background data for planning better land

10 Environmental Security in the Drylands of Africa: The Role of Science and Technology

negatively, but which forms oftechnology are developed in the first place. Technology, then, must be seen in a social. economic and political context. There are at least five separate but closely related ways in which changes in technology can assist in avoiding environmental crises in drylands (Aplin et. al., 1995): • By reducing our dependence on diminishing resources; • By helping develop more effective ways of managing resources, such as soil and water; • By avoiding or reducing pollution of the environment; • By giving us better data on our activities, the environment, and the interactions between the two; Photo 2.5 (/u)oI c/ii/Jrcii LiIte1u/in' a 1 , /(/CO .vhoi on environmental awareness • By providing more powerful means organized by the environmental protection and land-use planning team or ARSI of analysing that data. Zone, Ethiopia. In the long run, the last two of these may turn out to be the most important, as one very real barrier to managing use can be provided by natural and social (ECA), 1995). Indeed, the research and environmental issues in Africa has been scientists. development effort in Africa has made inadequate data and the inability to analyse Combating land degradation requires little contribution to technological and it, build models and develop management scientific knowledge of available natural economic development during the last plans. resources, their conditions and thirty years and is not expected to make Many types of instrumentation will ecologically viable management methods. much contribution, either, in the years help increase the amount of information This, in turn, requires inventories of ahead (ECA ibid.; Jugessur and Hamel, available. Satellites provide the capacity natural as well as human resources, 1995). Under these circumstances, what to record enormous amounts of appropriate counter measures (cures) and is needed is international cooperation in information for every point on the earth's environmental monitoring (repeated, research and an easy and unselfish surface. Information can also be updated comparative surveys or registrations). exchange of ideas, data banks and other at very frequent intervals, providing a Repeated famines and food shortages information. This has become unique opportunity to analyse processes show that traditional knowledge of land increasingly simple with the advent of and to heed early warning signals of use in drylands. though highly useful international computer-based networks. impending problems. However, we have (Darkoh, I 996b), is not sufficient to meet to be extremely careful in interpreting the the challenge and the changing situations Technology data. Pretty maps on a screen are one of pressure from growing populations thing; making practical use of them and annually fluctuating rainfall. Research There is no universally accepted definition another. We still need to supplement is needed on improved land use and of technology or technology transfer. information gathered from satellite data alternative land management in drylands. Technology can be defined simply as with information collected from the We need to gain so much knowledge practical knowledge applied to satisfy ground or ocean surface. Environmental so rapidly that we cannot afford to work human needs; technological transfer can monitoring should utilize information in competition and unnecessarily replicate be defined as the process of assimilation from three levels: ground, air and space. the work of others, though that is not to and exploitation of technological Ground checks of sample areas should be say that a high degree of specialization is resources (ECA, 1995). Technology has combined with analysis of air photographs the answer. African developing countries a crucial role to play in any attempt to find and satellite images of Landsat or other are marginal producers of new scientific solutions, but we should note that available types. knowledge and technology. Their share technology by itself will not fix anything. Geographic Information Systenis of world research and development is less Technology is a social construct (GIS) is a young science, related to remote than 0.5 per cent and the research work responding to social, cultural, political sensing, surveying, geodesy and being done does not produce much and economic demands and priorities. photogrammetry, all of which deal with scientific and technological innovation These factors determine not only whether spatial data handling. We see GIS as (Economic Commission for Africa technology is used positively or essentially a tool for urban and regional

11 Desertification Control Bulletin, N 34, 1999 research, policy analysis, policy environmentally sound technology. It High-income nations and their simulation and planning. In addition to states that the basic goal is to place all transnational corporations may well try GIS, which holds a variety of applications nations in a position where they can make to impose their solutions because they see for planning arid land development, two informed choices as to which technology profit in doing so, but such attempts must other Spatial Information Systems need is most appropriate in their particular be resisted and more appropriate local to be mentioned: Land Use Information circumstances. This will then strengthen solutions sought wherever possible. System (LIS) and Computer-aided Design each nation's own technological Agenda 21 stresses the need for (CAD). LIS is primarily a tool for the capabilities, especially in the case of low- cooperative research and the sharing of legal, administrative and economic income nations. Both information and information on an international scale. management of land resources. It consists technology are vital if global Again, national and commercial interests of two main components: a database environmental catastrophe is to be can be at odds with the need to assist containing spatially referenced land- avoided. As Aplin et. al., (1995) have poorer nations. But it is also essential that related data and a suite of procedures and noted, both information and technology as much relevant information as possible techniques for systematic collection, are vital if such a catastrophe is to be is available so that each nation can make updating and querying of data. The avoided. However, information and its own informed decisions on differences between GIS and LIS, from technology transfer from high-income to environmental issues. the hardware and software perspective, low-income nations raises questions on are the fact that LIS is used primarily for what terms such transfers will occur and The challenges storage and retrieval of spatial data while the kind of information and technology GIS is used essentially for more complex that should be transferred. There are many challenges facing African spatial analysis (Scholten and Vlugt, Transfers of technology and countries in acquiring and gaining access 1990). CAD refers to graphical systems information frequently involve questions to appropriate and cost-effective which support the work of architectural of ownership, patent rights and information systems and technologies in or industrial designers. It provides commercial advantage. Much of the support of the proper management of facilities to perform calculations and to technology needed by developing physical environmental resources. For produce technical drawings and three- countries or low-income nations to example, in the field of information dimensional displays of designs. ameliorate or overcome serious science, in Botswana, where this author is In order to utilize and share existing environmental problems is too expensive working, we have ERDAS IMAGING knowledge on drylands, using some of to acquire at market rates. Some is 8.2-UNIX running on a SUNSPACIO + the powerful and sophisticated computer- certainly in the public domain and Digital Workstations (DECS). We have based tools such as those described above, therefore freely or relatively cheaply equipment to do much fundamental work we recommend that the high-income available, but what of emerging state-of- using Remote Sensing-GIS and a great countries (Australia, the countries of the the-art technology being developed deal of work is already in progress in the European Union, United States of commercially? Theirowners have definite development of a digital map base which America, etc.) should support research rights to profit from its sale, so ways must could be used with ARC/INFO GIS and development of methods in be found to subsidize costs to poorer package (Ringrose et. al., 1997). What environmental monitoring and control, nations. There is an obvious role for aid in we need for rangeland and crop particularly of desertification in the this area, as both parties can benefit the monitoring is to acquire software for drylands of Africa. They should identify low-income nations obtain subsidized georectification of standard aerial and work closely with local African access to desired technology, and the photographs to develop better base maps research institutes, universities and other commercial developers are appropriately and facilitate 3-0 modelling (digital research organizations. rewarded. elevation) for soil erosion studies, for Equally important is the question of example. We always need more hard disk Transfer of information and the suitability of technology transferred space. We need a mechanism for taking technology to low-income countries. The high- our own low level digital (still) or video income world is not the citadel of all photography, e.g. from a blimp (a small Sound technological transfer and technological wisdom, nor are excellent airship or captive balloon). Automated acquisition will have to play a greater role technological solutions to environmental meteorological stations and soil moisture in African development than they have problems in the high-income nations plus groundwater monitoring equipment up to now and they must receive greater necessarily appropriate for similar is required at about 10 to 15 different attention from policy makers than they problems in poorer countries. The belief locations around the country, and a have so far. In particular, human, that they are could only be maintained if database developed in Gaborone where institutional and legal capacity in one believed that all other circumstances conditions on the ground can be monitored technology transfer must be enhanced. were also the same, including levels of on an ongoing basis. This could be linked Chapter 34 of Agenda 21 deals at education, technological expertise, ability to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric length with the international transfer of to pay, social and cultural traditions, and Administration. US (NOAA) receiving basic data, scientific knowledge and so on. But the context clearly differs. station already in place (Ringrose. 1997.

12

Environmental Security in the Drylands of Africa: The Role of Science and Technology

pers. comm.). Some of the broad areas for • Integrated water management, just. Then, we can apply scientific scientific and technological cooperation focusing on water treatment and knowledge about specific problems and with the developing nations of the drylands recycling, water conservation, environmentally sound technology to find of Africa include: particularly in agriculture and acceptable solutions. • Sustainable management of industry, water pollution risk renewable natural resources; assessment and prevention, improved Acknowledgement • Sustainable improvement of water supply systems enhancement, agriculture and rangeland and water harvesting technologies; This article was first presented as a paper productivity; • Groundwater monitoring; at the International Workshop on Science • Health and disease. • Management systems of mountain and Technology for Drylands Security, Additional sectors of mutual interest environments; Albuquerque, New Mexico, USA, July 8 include information technologies, • Improved food systems in marginal to 11, 1997. lam indebted to the sponsors. biotechnologies; materials and production lands and fragile environments; and especially, to W. Franklin G. Cardy technologies. The European Union has • Biotechnology and genetic of UNEP and Sheila Nelson of Sandia recently identified areas of scientific and engineering for agriculture, medicine National Laboratories, Albuquerque for technological co-operation in developing and pollution control; their helpful comments on the original countries which include the areas outlined • Irrigation and water resource draft. above, and specific areas related to these potential: broad areas (Official Journal of European • Conservation and technologies References Communities, No. Cl 17/29, 1997). targeted at reduction of post-harvest Some of the specific areas posing the losses or quality deterioration; Applin G., P. Mitchell, H. Clough, A. greatest challenge for scientific and • Technologies for reducing post- Pitman and D. Rich, 1995. Global technical cooperation in arid lands harvest damages and spoilage; Crises, Oxford University Press, development in the developing countries • Improved rangeland management for Melbourne and New York. of Africa are: multi-purpose livestock and wildlife Botkin, D.B. and E.A. Keller, 1995. • Climate change and global warming production; Environmental Science, John Wiley in and and semi-arid lands; • Endangered species and habitat and Sons, New York. • Synoptic meteorological observations monitoring; B uzan, B., 1983. People States and Fear: of dust storms and other conditions of • Rangeland rehabilitation; The National Security Problem of high dustiness; • Animal health systems and resistance International Relations. University of • Changes occurring in chemical to infectious diseases; North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill. cycling during a disturbance of arid • Animal feeding strategies based on Darkoh, M.B.K., 1994. The deterioration ecosystems; the use of food crops products and qtthe environment in Africa's drvlands • Physical and social indicators of by-products, specialised forages or and Filer basins, Desertification desertification and land degradation; pastures; Control Bulletin, 24, 35-41. • Drylands management systems, • Aquaculture. Darkoh, M .B. K.. I 996a. Desertification avoiding the risk of desertification; its human costs. Forum for Applied • Land use conflicts in river basins and Conclusion Research and Public Policy, 11(3) wetlands; 12-17. • Land use changes, sand dune fixation Finding solutions to environmental Darkoh, M. B. K., 1998, The nature, causes and sediment control; problems in the drylands of Africa and consequences of desertifuation • Conservation of biodiversity: involves more than simply gathering facts in the drvlands of Africa. Land • Coastal zones and wetlands but understanding scientific issues of Degradation and Development. 9. management systems for enhanced particular problems and finding types of 1-20. long-term aggregate economic actions to he taken. Tb is cal Is for research Darkoh, M.B.K., 1996h. Towards an productivity: and technology development and transfer. adaptive LI/Id i'o,iiniiini(v-based • Revegetation of eroded and saline Cooperation with developed countries and appi'oacli to flu' /nana genie/it of , soils in rain-fed and irriatted areas: international organizations would appear naiio'al )'esourc c's in the drvla,,ds of • Dynamics of the contamination of to us to he a foremost priority if success is Sub-Sahajan Africa. in A. Hjort af soils and underground aquifers by to be achieved. Also, solutions of our Ornas (ed) Approaching Na/nrc Ironi agro-chemicals; environmental problems have much to do Local Conimu nities, Security • Waste reduction and pollution with our systems of values and issues of Perceived and Ac/ne i'ed. EPOS, abatement: social justice (Botkin and Keller. 1995). Research Programme on • The use of solid and liquid urban To solve our environmental problems, Environmental Policy and Society, wastes in soil improvement in pen- we must understand what are our values Institute ofTema Research, Linkoping urban agriculture; and which potential solutions are socially University, Sweden.

13 Desertification Control Bulletin, N 34, 1999

ECA, 1995. Technology Transfer in Jugessur, S. and J.L Hammel, 1995. The Botswana, Gaborone. Africa, Economic Commission for Science and Technology Protocol of Saha, V.L., 1992. Towards Sustainable Africa, NRD/STS/PUB/2/95, Addis the African Economic Community, Development of Human Settlements Ababa. Economic Commission for Africa, in Africa. Consultancy prepared for Frankie, R.W. and B. Chaisen, 1980. Seeds ECA/NRD/STS2 (A), Addis Ababa. United Nations Economic of Famine: Ecological Destruction Kelly, M., and M. Hulme, Commission for Africa, Background and the Development Dilemma in West 1993.Desertification and climate Paper, Addis Ababa. Africa Sahel, Allanheld Osmun, change, Tiempo, 8, 1-7. Scholten, H. and M. van der Vlugt, 1990. Monclair, New Jersey. Mannion, A.M., 1995. Agriculture and A review of geographic information Hjort af Ornas, A., 1982. A critique of Environmental Change, John Wiley systems applications in Europe, in L. ecological models for pastoral land and Sons, Chichester. Worrall (ed.) Geographic Information use,, Ethnos, 3-4. Mohamed Salih, M.A., 1992. Systems. Developments and Hjort af Ornas, A., 1989. Environmental Environmental and social insecurity Applications, Belhaven Press New security of dryland herders in eastern in the drvlands of the Sudan, in A. York. Africa, in A. Hjort af Ornas and M.A. Hjort af Ornas (ed). Security in African Spooner P. and H.S Mann, 1982. Mohamed Salih (eds) Ecology and Drylands, Scandinavian Institute of Desertification and Dc velopment in Politics: Environmental Stress and African Studies, Uppsala. Dry Ecology in Social Perspective. Security in Africa. Scandinavian Oba, G., 1992. Sedentarisation of Academic Press, New York. Institute of African Studies, Uppsala. pastoralists: right or wrong?, UNEP, 1992. Status of Desertification HABITAT, 1990. People, Settlements, Resources 31(1) 15-23. and Implementation of the United Environments and Development, Rapp, A., and U. Hellden, 1979. Research Nations Plan of Action to Combat United Nations Centre for Human on Environmental Monitoring Desertification. United Nations Settlements, Nairobi. Methods for Land Use Planning in Environment Programme, Nairobi. Hulme, M. and M. Kelly, (1993). African Drylands, Department of UNSO, 1992. Assessment of Desert-ification Exploring the links between Physical Geography University of and Drought in the Sudano-Sahelian desertification and climate change, Lund, Sweden. Region. United Nations Sudano- Environment, 35(6), 1-45. Redclift, M. 1984. Development and the Sahelian Office, New York. Hulme, M., R. Marsch, and P. D. Jones, Environmental Crisis: Red or Green Williams A.J. and R.C. Balling Jr., 1994. 1992. Global changes in humidity Alternative. Methuen, London and Interactions of Desertification and index between 1931-60 and 1961-90, New York. Climate. WMO and UNEP, Nairobi Climate Research, 2, 1-22. Ringrose, S., C. Vanderpost, R. M. and Geneva. Janzen, J., 1991 . Mobile livestock keeping Kwerepe and M.I. Mulalu, 1997. World Commission on Environment and - a survival strategy for the countries Comparison Development, 1987. Our Common of the Sahel, the case of Somalia, of range degradation in Botswana using Future. Oxford University Press, New Applied Geography and Develop- satellite imagery. (Unpublished) ODA York. ment, 38, 53-65. commissioned report, University of

14 Ecology, People and the Environment: a Challenge to the Educators of Managers of Drylands Restoration

VR. Squires A Dryland Management Consultant 497 Kensington Rd C Wattle Park, South Australia It

- Australia 5066 It

Introduction

Drylands cover 43 per cent of the earth's land surface and are the home to millions of people. Many are degraded to a greater or lesser extent. Drylands are extremely diverse in their topography, ecology and :0 productivity, ranging from desert margins - •flaU Vanab . to subhumid regions. They are used in a - 1 wide variety of ways - as rangelands, 20 20 ainta11 conservation areas, urban areas, croplands }0 and so on. All need management by people 1•' who are well acquainted with the complexities of integrating ecology, people and environmental concerns. Drylands in many countries, especially in the industrialized nations, ii III. are in public ownership and are managed with multiple use objectives in mind. 4 2b 3ljj Ranching, watershed management, forestry, wildlife management, conservation and tourism are often practised together on the one tract of land. Figure 1. Ran gelands are the last lands. The peripheral lands - according to the In Africa, parts of Asia and countries of theories of economic rent. Source: Heathcote (1988). the Middle East the drylands are communal grazing lands. There are large areas of and and semi-arid rangeland on residual lands - the peripheral lands (refuge) for wild things (animals and almost every continent and these are used (figure 1). In most situations they are the plants). Consequently, they are often rich to support millions of livestock and the lands for which no higher' purpose could in biodiversity (Stiles, 1998). In the human communities who depend on them be found (Squires and Sidahmed, 1997). coming decades the pressure on these (Thomas and Middleton, 1997). As residual lands they hold a special rangelands will increase in response to Many of these grazing lands are the place because they are the repository population growth. There will be pressure

15 Desertijication Control Bulletin, N° 34, 1999

to convert them to other purposes such as irrigated cropping, as

AOSTRAI.IA I - USA has already occurred in many countries (Squires and Sidahmed, l.,pu,CO Sandwich d Leufid Mnuted tt2t *d 1998). Much of the current controversy about the use of the

ndsclp. - rangelands, especially the public lands in the industrialized nations, stems from a failure to understand the 'resource il sandwich' concept put forward by Heathcote (1988). Those

74. people who use the forage and the water fail to recognize that other slices of the sandwich exist or that others may have a legitimate right to them (figure 2). It is clear that there are different users, or potential users, for almost any piece of L _ - rangeland. The role of government has been to try and reconcile the conflicts (figure 3). It is not surprising, therefore, that we can easily buy into an argument when setting out ideas about range science and Figure 2. Range/and resources can be thought of cis a management as a profession and the appropriateness of training 'sandwich ". Different users have access to derent slices to service the profession. An important trend over the past few in this example from two developed countries. Conflicts years is to recognise that the role of the natural resource arise over confusion as to which users have rights of access manager is as a mediator between the people who use the to which slice. Source: Heathcote (1988). resource and society at large. Natural resource managers operate at the interface of these two systems (figure 4). Clearly, an understanding of the forces at play from both the socio- economic/political system and the biophysical system is a prerequisite to any successful intervention. The emphasis should be on problem-solving skills and on methods for retrieving information rather than on knowledge acquisition and storage. In some cases decision support systems, including IAssessmen Resources expert systems, can be extremely useful ways to capture and Monitoring - renewable distil the accumulated knowledge about a particular region or I - non-renewable problem (Squires, 1998). Figure 3. Land management is a juggling of the demands The challenge for educators (and expectations) of various groups within society. It recognised that there are several users and several products Teaching rangeland management is as much about people, or outputs. Source: Squires (1990a). ideas and issues (this is called soft data) as it is about hard data like scientific facts, new assessment methodology and new production technology. However, despite the fact that many major rangeland problems involve the people in the system, rangeland management is rarely studied and taught as a soft system.

C", Rangeland production is a subset of the broader category '0 " C , C' 0. of agriculture. The terms agriculture and ecosystem (of which ecology is the study) are neatly linked by Conway (1985). In land management synt. a tp Is > this line of thinking, ecological knowledge is essential for a stable relationship between agriculture and ecosystems ever SOCIO— SUBSYSTEMS since farming and ranching began to replace hunting and ECONOMIC POLITICAL gathering. Agriculture has evolved both stable and unstable > inputs SYSTEMS systems. Evidence of this instability is to be seen in the 4 Natural A.p4 4, widespread land degradation which is a feature of many 4 Resource • C., drylands. Managers EIOPHYSICAL SYSTEMS The education of renewable resource managers (including those who will work in the drylands) is vital. The role of resource managers is a tough one. They must be trained to understand the many interactions of the various ecosystems in Figure 4. Natural resource managers work at the inteiface order to make balanced judgements as to how these systems between people and the environment. Source: Squires can be used and, just as importantly, how much use they can (unpublished). stand and still be productive (table 1). FigureS is a flow chart

16 Ecology, People and the Environment: A Challenge to the Educators of Managers of Drylands Restoration

Table 1 Expected competencies in natural resource management graduates

Competencies related to acquisition of knowledge Understand the scientific principles underlying renewable resource management; Understand the socio-economic principles underlying renewable resource management; Comprehend how the various disciplines involved in renewable resource management interact with one another.

Competencies related to attitude development • develop a positive affitude towards the need for continuing personal study and research; • be sensitive to the implications of changes to the total environment; • be sensitive to the impact of technological change; • be sensitive to the impact of sociological change.

Competencies related to the acquisition of skills • be able to communicate effectively; • be skilled in collecting, processing and interpreting data associated with resource inventory, baseline studies and survey (including sociological studies; • be able to carry out field operations associated with monitoring soils, water, air, flora and fauna; • be able to carry out routine laboratory operations associated with resource inventory, baseline studies and survey.

People trained in natural resource management require a programme of education which includes the study of biological, physical and social sciences relevant to renewable resources management. The integration of biological, physical and social sciences is most effectively achieved in the context of a systems approach.

setting out some processes by which EDUCATION AND TRAINING IN LAND RESOURCE MANAGEMENT education and training in land resource management can achieve better land Some processes which occur when moving from unmanaged/pooily managed systems management. to managed systems of tand utitizabon

Thejob of educators is to alert students UNMANAGED OR 1 PRINCIPLES, PHILOSOPHY, I POORLYMANAGEO I--- -- ETHICSOF to the fact that agricultural and pastoral LAND RESOURCEJ I pursuits themselves disturb ecosystems. ------Teaching should not be alarmist but as a r1 first step in the task of bringing [OWLEDJ understanding to what are complex and RESEARCH ON MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS, 4_ RESEARCH ON METHODOLOGIES AND ADMiNISTRATIVE SYSTtMS, COMMUNICAT1ON delicate systems. We should begin TECHNOLOGIES FOR IMPROVED LRU SYSTEMS AND HIJMAN FACTORS WHICH educating students to understand the relationship between rangeland use and RESSARCH ON MANAGEMENT AND I RESEARCH ON METHODOLOGIES REVEALS the environment and the difference PROCEDURES FOR LAM WHICH HAVE TO BE COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS REVEALS TRANSMITFEO THROUGH FORMAL EDUCATION STRATEGIES FOR COMMUNICATION OF between a production-orientation and PRINCIPLES OF IRM TO KEY TARGET GROUPS holistic rangeland development (Squires IMPUMENTATION OF and Andrew, 1998). Rangeland KNOWLEDGE ABOUT STRATEGIES development is a people-oriented activity LAM - EXTENSION ROLE which seeks to promote benefit to the whole community, whereas livestock I BEHAVIOUR OF L EWAR DS FORBETTERLRMt . production seeks to maximise returns. Often the objectives of commercially- oriented livestock producers (and their advisers) are not compatible with rangeland development and may even Figure 5. A badly managed system is one where it is used in such a way that the contribute to accelerated land degradation. capital stocks of the resource are being consumed. The managed system Many of the professionally trained/ represents a more desirable state and should ensure that the natural resources are educated rangeland researchers and being used in a sustainable way. Source.' Squires (1990b) Desertification Control Bulletin, N 34, 1999

Component Researched biological sciences. Humanities are an improve their situation. essential part of it. The relevance of a Conventional science approaches in systems approach lies less in its resource management involve 'experts' 011 IL methodology than in its philosophy. There solving problems with specialist is recognition that systems need to be knowledge and perspectives. This can

System Researched studied as entireties and not broken down result in confusion, frustration and further too quickly into the component parts - the problems. Methods which show so- called reductionist approach. The appreciation of human elements and danger of a reductionist approach is that communication skills are more realistic the people factors (culture, tradition, ReSearchng System approaches for many of the complex religious beliefs) are often ignored. problems found in rangeland Of several systems principles which management. The curricula of the past are important only one will be discussed did not reflect this need very well (Squires, here: the concept of emergent properties. Andrew and Biggins, 1991). This concept is based on the belief that Facing up to complex problems any change to the system (made by the comes as a shock to students schooled in Figure 6. The roles of extension manager) must be tested on a model of the the facts of chemistry, soils, biology, workers, researchers and the client whole to predict its outcome. Thus the genetics and the methodologies of (principally ranchers) can be viewed in soft systems (those which contain people) rangeland management. To find that there different ways. The recognition that the are said to be purposeful. It is assumed are no clear answers to systemic rangeland client is a co-researcher is growing. that a rangeland system is more than the problems is often viewed as heresy. But Indigenous knowledge can be combined sum of its parts. Thus certain additional alternative ways of seeing rangeland with other information and research properties 'emerge' when a holistic management must be established to findings to help improve a situation. approach is used (Bawden and Packham, improve many complex production and Source. Squires, Tow and Boast (1991). 1991). conservation problems (Behnke, Scoones The first step in learning the systems and Kerven, 1993). extension personnel hold the view that approach is to embrace the concept and to Conway (1981) developed an more efficient or profitable livestock understand the principles, including the approach based on the idea that rural concept of emergent properties. The development is beset by problems such as production is their key objective ( Behnke, Scoones and Kerven, 1993). Often, they second step is to learn to construct models. the inevitable conflict between production are poorly equipped to cope with the According to Spedding (1976), it is goals and environmental protection. When complexities of systems where socio- virtually impossible to communicate ecosystems are transformed into economic, political or cultural aspects about production systems without models. agroecosystems they become simpler and may dominate. In this context picture-type models more definable on one hand, but more Conway (1986) has developed the are not inferior to mathematical models. complex on the other, because of human concept of an agroecosystem to study the The models should be as simple as possible management activity. The complexity of relationship between natural systems and highlight parts and processes. They a diverse ecological system is replaced by (ecological) and managed systems must have a boundary and defined goals. a complex management/control process (agriculture). It should be obvious that The latter gives the systems its purpose (figure 7). people are the key element in this and drive (Rickert and McKeon, 1991). The agroecosystem concept can be agroecosystem and that we should, used to analyse the production system at therefore, involve them in the study of Rangelands and the various levels of complexity and at rangeland systems and how to improve environment different area! scales - a paddock them. Figure 6 is a series of diagrams to (pasture), ranch, district, watershed or show how our perceptions of the role of region for example. the end-user have changed. The shift from I wish now to return to the thesis that passive observer (receiver) of new studying renewable resource management The twin crises technologies to an active role as a co- is as much about issues and ideas as it is researcher is quite evident (Squires, Tow about science and economics. We must Sustainability is much talked about and and Boast, 1991). get away from the notion that everything now generally understood as a measure is knowable. Furthermore, not all of the capacity of the system to cope with, problems are solvable - often the best we and recover from, constant stress or The systems approach can hope for is to improve the situation sudden crisis. The effect on long-term Spedding (1982) argues that agriculture (Squires, 1991). A lot of work, therefore, productivity is the common yardstick. is a system. Clearly then, the study of in rangeland management involves The ability to take a long-term view of an agriculture (including rangeland dealing with imperfect knowledge and agroecosytem is the key to understanding production) should not be confined to helping people make changes that will sustainability (Squires 1992, 1998).

18

Ecology, People and the Environment: A Challenge to the Educators of Managers of Restoration

the assumption that all people in the may be the correct one. Either way, there Natural EtOsysteffi system should receive a fair share of the is a serious challenge to educators to Nicte OrganIzation time/Spate benefits generated from the resources. ensure that the new generation of resource Most forms of economic protection managers have the education and training (subsidies, price support schemes) are to address the issues and ensure situation examples of low equitability. This is betterment. ZVI because they unfairly benefit some people but are paid for by the whole economy. Conclusions ReInvestment Exclusive use of public land by one gan sector is another example, especially if The revision of curricula to encompass there are additional costs incurred by environmental issues and the systems people outside the production system approach to their reconciliation is MeCNCssItpa Agroeconystmn which are not borne by those who create necessary. This is a difficult and anne OrganItatian Natural Espi those costs. These are what are referred to sometimes lonely task, but it is ,,a,vaatad £tpoa-t a by economists as negative externalities. intellectually stimulating. From my It is clear that the environmental position as a former academic and a one- lobby sees a crisis in the current system of time farmer I urge everyone involved in

NjJRR rangeland-based production. Their range management education to pursue MatnnalS )eelramssment proposed solutions to the perceived this revision. But beware: there is danger acnaystate EnnQnY Orpanliatlan problems are not always compatible with that an open-minded approach will be the goal of producing ample quantities of rejected in favour of reductionist 'hard a quality product at low cost. It has always science' approach because the latter are Figure 7. Natural ecosvstens dfJer been relatively easy to identify ways of more academically respectable and from modern human-managed improving productivity but it is not so because national policy wants us to be in production systems in several ways. easy to describe ways of ensuring the technology and development race. The hiotic community of the sustainability and equitability. The race isjudged in terms ofproductivity; undisturbed system is more diverse This calls for a rethink of research it has yet to be assessed in terms of (indicated by the number of cells in the priorities. sustainability and equitability. Perhaps to niche space box) than that of the Currently, the whole rural social and date we have been too much influenced human-dominated system and exploits economic structure is in jeopardy because by Marx (Groucho not Karl) who said more fully the available niche space. of international trade wars, threats to 'Why should I worry about future The characteristics of individuals subsidies and support schemes and the generations? What will they ever do for (genetics, age, health) within a species broad-based opposition in many me?' (indicated by numbers within one industrialised countries to the continuation species' cell) tends to he varied in of rangeland operations on public land. natural ecosystems but more uniform in References At worst, many ranchers will be forced human- managed systems. Natural out of business. Even more, the Bawden, R.J. and R.G. Packham, 1991. ecosystems are more continuous in conservation- minded ones will be forced Improving agriculture through space and time, and they reinvest the to cut short- term costs by deferring systemic action research. In: V. hulk of their production in their own conservation programmes, or by taking Squires and P.Tow (eds). Dryland ecosystem organisation. The export of short cuts which may deplete biological Agriculture: A Systems Approach, food andfihrefroni human-managed and economic resources. Oxford University Press, Melbourne, systems limits such reinvestment, and What is the dangerthat existing range pp. 261-270. makes these systems dependent on management practices are affecting the Benhke, R.H. Jr., I. Scoones and C. materials inputs and work from the sustainability of our productive land base? Kerven, (eds), 1993. Range ecology human economy. Source: Squii'es Many commentators are quite pessimistic: at disequilibrium. New mode/s of (1991). they argue that the present systems are natural resource variability and not sustainable unless our land pastoral adaptation in African Short-term concerns for productivity management practices change savannas. Overseas Development must be contrasted with long-term, often fundamentally. Production targets must Institute, London. community-wide, concerns about be lowered to match the ecological reality Conway, R., 1985. Agricultural Ecology sustainability and equitability (including of diminished biological capacity. Dregne, and Farming Systems Research. In: intergenerational equity). Equitability is Kassas and Rosanov (1991) argue that J.V. Remenyi (ed). Agricultural a measure of the extent to which the use of the world's rangelands are continuing to Systems Research for Developing natural resources and the distribution of deteriorate at an alarming rate. This is a Countries. Proc. Intl. Workshop their production among the population is very grim view of the relationship between ACIAR Proceedings No. ii. ACIAR, fair or balanced. The concept is based on rangeland use and the environment but it Canberra.

19 Desert ifi cation Control Bulletin, N 34, 1999

Conway, R., 1988. Agroecosystem educators. Proc. Ecol. Soc. Aust. 16: Squires, V.R., M.H. Andrew and J.G. Analysis for Research and 4 19-425. Biggins, 1991. The ecosystem in Development, Winrock International Squires, V.R., 1991. A Systems Approach agricultural education. In: S. Field Institute for Agricultural to Agriculture. In: V. Squires and P. (ed), Smarter Agriculture, Aust. Inst. Development, Bangkok. Tow (eds). Dryland Farming: A Agric. Science National Conference, Dregne, H.E., M Kassas and B. Rozanov, Systems Approach. Oxford University Canberra 1991. A new assessment of the world Press, Melbourne pp. 3-15. .Squires, V.R. and Sidahmed. A.E., 1997. status of desert ification. Squires, V.R., 1992. Production and Livestock management in dryland Desertification Control Bulletin, No. productivity - sustainable land pastoral systems: Prospects and 20, UNEP, Nairobi. management in perspective. In: problems. Annals of the Arid Zone Heathcote, R.L., 1988. Arid lands: their Henriques. P.R. (ed)) Sustainable 36(2): 79-96. use and abuse. Longmans. Land Management. Proë Intl. Conf. Squires, V.R. and A.E. Sidahmed, 1998. Rickert, K.G. and G.M. McKeon, 1991. on Sustainable Land Management, Drylands: sustainable use of Modelling as an aid to systems Napier, New Zealand. pp. 430-433. rangelands into the twenty-first evaluation. In: V. Squires and P. Tow Squires, V.R., 1998. Sustainable century. IFAD, Rome, 470 p. (eds), Dryland Farming: A Systems development: a dream or an economic Squires, yR., P. G. Tow and C.M. Boast, Approach. Oxford Univ. Press, imperative? Desertification Control 1991 Future directions - meeting the Melbourne pp. 208-221. Bulletin no 33. challenge. In: V. Squires and P.Tow Spedding, C.R.W., 1976. The Study of Squires, V.R., 1998. Expert systems and (eds), Dryland Farming: A Systems Agricultural Systems. In: G.E. Dalton other computer-based decision Approach. Oxford University Press, (ed), Applied Science Publishers, support systems for managing Melbourne pp. 27 1-282. London. marginal rangelands, pp. 125-138. In: Stiles, D., 1998. Biodiversity Spedding, C.R.W., 1982. An Introduction V.R. Squires and A.E. Sidahmed conservation, conflict and migration Study of Agricultural Systems, to eds), Drylands: sustainable use of in Africa's drvlands: linkages and Agricultural Systems (2nd ed), rangelands into the twenty-first solutions. Desertification Control Elsevier Applied Science, New York century. IFAD, Rome. Bulletin 32: 13-21. Squires, V.R., 1990a. Rangelands. Squires, V.R. and M.H Andrew, 1998. Thomas, D.G. and N. Middleton, (eds), Agricultural Science, 27; 12- 17. Management interventions: are they 1997. World Atlas of Desertifi cation, Squires, V.R., 1990b. Major issues in feasible in arid zone livestock 2nd edition. Edward Arnold/UNEP. land management in Australia with production systems? Annals of the London. particular reference to the role of Arid Zone 37.

20 Baseline and Growth Indicators for - Desertification in the Saharo-Sahelian Area of Mauritania and their Monitoring from 1953 to 1998.

Monique Main guel Mauritania (figure 1). give rise to why it is of interest, with the help of environmental changes that demand objective tools such as land surveys using institut Universitaire de France, constant efforts on the part of the local aerial photographs and satellite imaging, Zonal Geography Laboratory for people to adapt to new constraints. That is to arrive at indisputable indicators of the Development. Université de Reinis Champagne-A rdenne, Rein2s. France

(I Frédéric Dumay C1uh2

Zonal Geography Laboratory for Development. Université de Rein,s Chanipagne-Ardenne, Reims. France 7 ------Mohamed Lemine Ould El Hacen I Faculty of Arts and Human Sciences, Université Lie Nouakchott, Mauritania. /

Ahmedou Ould Mahfoud fi4osakchat ..Mo+ -p " Faculty of Science and Techniques, 40 Liniversité de Nouakchott, Mauritania.

Introduction 0 The onset and pace of the increase of / f environmental degradation in the last four decades in the countries of the Sahel in Figure 1. General location of Mauritania, West Africa. Principal cities and road general, and more particularly in network.

21 Desertification Control Bulletin, V34, 1999 onset of the desertification process in Six photographic coverages at various time and space, and monitor them so as to dates and scales (National Geographic understand the dynamics ofdesertification Institute (IGN) France); in and around the urban fabric of Spot satellite images at a scale of 30 Nouakchott, along the 'Route del'Espoir' 1:100,000, from between 1987 and 1995 and, more generally, in the Hodh. for the monitoring of sand encroachment With a knowledge of how to evaluate on the Zouérate-Nouadhibou railway and natural and man-made mechanisms that in Nouakchott; are indicators of environmental A 1973 Landsat mosaic of Mauritania degradation and generators of at a scale of I : 1000,000, supplied to us by desertification, and avoiding the the United States Geological Survey, 18 formulation of strictly quantitative Flagstaff, Arizona. 16 1530 1520 estimates, we are putting forward an inventory of the tools used, particularly Time-frame of the onset Figure 2. Lo atiOn of Nouak hoti aerial photographs and satellite imaging and development of downwind of the Arnoukrou: erg; and the sequence of events, laterexpanded, junction qfAreich I'Abara erg and Tin using field data that enables an accurate desertification in the Yourgar erg. estimate of the geomorphological Nouakchott sector processes to be made. The Nouakchott site in 1954, the year our The first mission Analytic tools for the study study first deals with, consisted of a group evaluation 1954 AOF 096 of the symptoms and of longitudinal sand ridges, oriented NNE- SSW 30, ending south of development of the early Amoukrouz, beginning at Latitude The oldest photographs on record are stages of desertification 18' 37'N at the junction of the Areich those of 1954, taken while Mauritania I'Abara and Tin Yourgat ergs (figure 2, was still a colony, just after the Photographs and satellite imaging used map of Nouakchott to a scale of establishment of the town of Nouakchott (table I): 1:200,000). as the new capital in 1953.

Table 1. Documents used IGN France Aerial Photographs

Mission evaluated Date Scale

1 AOF 096 1954 1:50,000 2 AO 628/60 1963-1964 1:6,000 3 A0628/125 1963-1964 1:12,500 4 A0692/1060 1965 1:10,000 5 MAU4/125 1980 1:12,500 6 MAU 12/150 1991 1:15,000

Satellite Images Path and Row Date Scale Mosaic Landsat 1972-1974 1:1,000,000

Spot Images Spot HRV 1 P 023-307 10-03-88 1:100,000 Spot HRV 2 P 026-307 13-01-88 1:100,000 Spot HRV2 P 026-306 13-01-88 1:100,000 Spot HRV 1 P 025-307 13-01-88 1:100,000 Spot HRV 2 XS 050-316 17-10-88 1:100,000 Spot HRV 2 P 018-307 12-12-87 1:100,000 Spot HRV 2 P 024-307 10-03-88 1:100,000 Spot HRV 1 P 025-306 13-01-88 1:100,000 Spot HRV 1 P 019-307 02-1-88 1:100,000

Spot P + XS 021-314 04-02-95 1:200,000

22 Baseline and Growth Indicators fir Desertification in the Saharo-Sahelian Area of Mauritania

Photographs 073-074-075-076 from the previous unit, is made up of gardens: the 1954 AOF 096 mission to the scale of the third (3), to the north-east of the whole 1:50.000 cover the initial Nouakchott site, area, is the dense housing core of the five kilometres from the Atlantic coast, at town. In these photographs, the initial the northern edge of the Aftout depression urban site was established on the west (18' 7N, 15 SW). Situated on the edge of a complex interdunal corridor longitudinal dunes already fixed in 1954, which at times became a channel with which were called 'ogoliens' by geologists flowing water that threatens parts 2 and 3 and geographers, the city is swept by the of the town. Regional Wind Action System (SRAE). In 1954, the longitudinal dunes were This system consists of two wind currents: lxed by desert vegetation. Water erosion • The harmattan, acontinental trade wind has scoured out a dense maze of gullies, blowing NNE-SSW in Mauritania, the bottoms of which have been colonized which gives rise to the longitudinal by lines of concentrated plant cover sand ridges of Amoukrouz: (photographs 075-076). These gullies are • The N-S to NNW-SSE wind that generally on the sides of the dunes; some originates in Morocco, around the reach the top by regressive erosion. Runoff latitude of Essaouira (32 N) and water fills teniporary ponds of the 'sebkha' sweeps the Mauritanian coast across a type, which leaves salinization rings on to 60km belt to the latitude of Cap Mink evaporation. ;4c (18' N) and beyond, probably as far as The main facts emerging from an the latitude of the Senegal river. analysis of the 1954 photographs are: Photo 1 . Nouakchott, the capital of The stereopair 073-074 to a scale of • The absence of any wind reactivation Mauritania, suftersjroni severe sand 1:50,000 enabled us to determine that the up to that date: encroachment, as is evident from the town was still small in 1954, with about • The existence of water erosion on the wind-blown sand around and within all 75 houses and approximately 500 sand ridge slopes, with signs of manmade infrastructures. inhabitants, and was divided into three laminar and sheet erosion, mostly on units, as shown in figure 3, a stereoscopic SW-facing slopes. view of the Nouakchott section 4: the first It can be deduced from the 1954 The second mission of these (1) is to the south-west of that on aerial photographs that the early 1950s the summit of the sand ridge and is the was a period of calm wind, without any evaivation richest in vegetation; the second (2), in sand mobilization but with relatively the interdunal depression to the west of intense water action. The second mission evaluation was in 1963 and 1964 AO 628/60 to a scale of 1:6.000, immediately after Mauritanian independence in 1960. In photographs 009-0 10-01 I ,the first signs of man-made degradation could be detected, in connection with the opening of quarries to mine marine-shelly building material and the proliferation of paths used by livestock, mainly on the sand ridge covered by the centre of the stereopair 009-010. In 1963 to 1964 the density of the desert vegetation compared to 1954 had regressed, an observation corroborated by the disappearance of plant cover in the beds of gullies that was already< present in 1954—ten years earlier. In photographs 050-051 from the same mission, the first geomorphological change had taken l)lace in the sand ridge structure. The topographical surface had become more complex, more uneven, the Figure 3. Stereoscopic monhagc of 1954 aciial photograph, to a .vcalc / / :50.000 sand ridge less well defined, the first of the situation of Nouakchoit, showing a landscape of longitudinal vegetated sand signs or beginnings of reactivation sifs ridges with little degradation. were forming at the top of the sand ridges,

23 Desertification Control Bulletin, Ne 34 1999 which still had a convex profile, but the part of town in 1965, as is shown by the caused by the coastal current. The profile desert vegetation cover was becoming 1965 AU 692/100 fourth mission of this contact range is asymmetrical since more and more open. evaluation. the influence of the coastal current makes On the outskirts of Nouakchott, an itself more felt: the western side, where intrusive influx of sand can be deduced The fourth mission the runoff is more active, is steeper than from the protective walls erected around evaluation the eastern side, giving greater asymmetry, buildings, not to be confused with the which disappears on other ridges caused traditional fences in use in Islamic by the harmattan situated further inland, countries (photographs 056-057-058 of This mission evaluation gives the answer as in photographs 073-074 of the 1965 the same mission AO 628/60). In these to a question we asked several years ago: AU 692/100 mission, that is about 10 same three photographs, nomadic camps what the meeting oftwo majoraircurrents kilometres to the east of the area where were noted, already set up at the edge of would be like at the soil-air interface in a the two wind currents meet. the town in 1963 and 1964, long before sandy environment? The three In the aerial photographs Nos. 052- the onset of the 1968 Great Sahelian photographs 049-050-051 of the 1965 053 of the 1965 AO 692/100 mission, Drought. mission A0692/100toascaleof 1:10,000 somewhat further east, the longitudinal In photographs 059-060 AO 628/60 cover the meeting location of two wind ridges are different from those described of the same second mission, the flows, the harmattan and the coastal wind, above: they are more narrow, not more proliferation of tracks and the many animal previously referred to. The genesis of the than SOto 80m wide, while the interdunal enclosures demonstrate the primordial longitudinal sand ridges oriented WNW- depressions only reach a width of 300 to part human activities played in the ESE could be attributed to the coastal 400 m. Their summits are active (moving degradation of the outskirts of the town. wind: the ridges are 100 metres wide, the sand) and the first signs of sifs without interdunal depressions 50 m wide. The any specific orientation seems to indicate Third mission evaluation sand ridge occupying the most westerly a change towards sifs. Sand in transit in a location due to the harmattan. oriented WNW-ESE direction detected in aerial The foregoing observations made ENE-WSW, go up to 450 m in width, photographs by the nebkhas or ridge regarding the 1963 to 1964 AO 628/60 while the interdunal corridor between summits, intersect the ridge at an angle of mission were substantiated by the analysis ridges reaches a width of 150m. 20. In the interdunal corridors, nomads of the 1963 to 1964 AU 628/125 third The meeting of the harmattan and the have installed numerous livestock pounds mission to a scale of 1:12.500, basically coastal current gives rise to a longitudinal surrounded by brushwood fences, also a covering the town of Nouakchott, for ridge caused by the harmattan, which cause of degradation. It is alarming to which we have forty photographs. The cleanly intersects the longitudinal ridges count up to ten pounds per square plant cover, degraded by overgrazing, had in fact disappeared all along the livestock trails, which were clearly to be seen. As for the AO 628/60 mission, the beginning of reactivation of the sand ridge summits was confirmed. Following the opening of the plant cover, the sand at the tops of compact dunes was set in motion by a mechanism which it was possible to diagnose as deflatiori/corrasion. The temi deflation defines wind scavenging of loose sandy or silty material, while corrasion means this same erosion of coherent rock. and we propose the expression deflation- corrasion in the case of compact sand. In the stereopair024-025 of the same 1963 to 1964 AO 628/60 mission, it was quite clear that the opening of large- scale quarrying ofbuilding material in the north, namely upwind of the town, was a mistake because of the scale of the mechanisms set in motion. Leftover material subject Fi'uie 4 ..Steieo.e'anioie O/ 0(1101 j1ioiogia,ohs to a scale of I: / 0,000 of the 11ev! to movement by wind indicated that part 0/the town as it was in 1965. The significant feature of these photo graphs is problems of sand encroachment in the development qf the .ti;st sif (5) appealing to the lion/i of Nouakchott airport. Nouakchott have their origin right there, Also to be seen is the degradation of the steppe vegetation on the airport since the first sifs penetrated the northern peiiphei'y.

24 Baseline and Growth Inthcators for Desertitication in the Saharo-Sahelian Area of Mauritania

kilometre. The fifth mission In photographs 027-028-029 of the 1965 AD 692/10() mission, the signs of evaluation wind action were hardly noticeable in the urban area, except for some shelter effects The evaluation was of the mission carried and a reflection dune. In the stereopair out in 1980, 15 years after the 1965 030-03 I. the expansion of what was part mission, and was reported under the 3 of the town in 1954 was not yet in reference 80 MAU 4/125. This time, the danger from sand encroachment in 1963 signs of wind reactivation were to be seen and 1964, contrary to the findings of the , everywhere and showed up, throughout, following mission in 1980. an increased reflectance. Only the major The most westerly photograph. still gullies could still be seen: all the other in reference to the 1965 mission, is located runoff indicators had been covered over II Z LII over Nouakchott, since the flight path by sand, probably wind-borne. followed the old outline of the Route de II-- II Everywhere, sharp profile sifs topped the 'Espoir. In the stereopair00 1-002. a well- pre-existing sand ridges, and intersected developed sif south of the airport was, to these at the same angle of 20' previously that date, the first active built-up dune found in the analysis (figure 4): some 250 m in length, it had a N-S orientation. We - 0 toom noted that it starts off in contact with the IIi-uI Route de I 'Espoir. Further east, along this road (photographs 0 15-0 16-0 17-0 18-0 19 - of the 1965 AD 692/100 mission) no new -- - built- up dune was to be seen by this date, - but there were deep multi-branched gullies still well colonized by vegetation on both sides of the sand ridges, although, on the whole, the plant cover was quite degraded and the livestock paths more and more frequent. On figure 5, obtained from the stereopair 030-031, from the 1965 AD 692/100 mission, we measured 700 to 800 m of those paths per hectare, that is seven to eight well-defined trails per 100 in of terrain, trails that cut across the summits of the sand ridges so that they . t. became troughed paths and converged in the interdunal depressions in some sectors rrnTTTJrn 1 Figu; as isolated patches, where the vegetation -e 5. Map clrawntroni a had completely disappeared in 1965. In stereoscopic montage of photographs the trail convergence area, in fact, 030-031from the 1965 AO 6921100 degraded areas of 100 m in diameter had mission. Also to be seen is the density of trails and the aieas of concentration been created. Figure 6(a). Multi- time analysis o/ livestock herds trming patches of of Starting from the photograph 049 of sand encroachment and reactivation in degradation. the 1965 AD 692/100 mission, namely the sector of Toujinine along the Route Trails, some 30 km east of Nouakchott, the de l'Espoir, 7-8 knifrom Nouakchou in Patches o/ degradation. landscape changed: the sand ridges were 1980 and 1991. The IGN aerial intersected by gullies, the floors of which photograph missions used were: MA U were still covered by a vegetation cover sand ridge (C) (figure 4), which was 19804112 consisting of a bushy steppe. accompanied in the whole landscape by 5 Nos. 195-196 and Mau 1991 121150 To conclude this analysis, the true active sifs, with sharp summits No. 100-10: there is analysed MAU outstanding feature in 1965 was, near the oblique in relation to the ridges, a possible 1980 41125 No 195-1 96. 1. Sifs.2. First Nouakchott airport, the emergence of the reactivation of earlier sifs that had been huildin,gs.3. Isolated huildings.4. Route first true sif, oblique in relation to the fixed until then. LIe l'Espoir.

25 Desertif•(ati()1 Control Bulletin, N 34, 1999 mentioned for the nebkhas. This 20° angle between the sifs and the longitudinal ridges is a permanently recurring datum for eastern Mauritania, as is verified by the 1995 Spot P + XS 021-3 14 satellite image

The sixth mission evaluation

Comparison of the 80 MAU 4/125 mission (fifth mission evaluation) with that referenced 1991 MAU 12/I50 (sixth mission evaluation) enabled us to make a time-span analysis of the Toujinine locality 18 km east of Nouakchott, from photographs 195 and 196 of the 1980 MAU 12/125 mission and photographs 123- 123 (figure 6 (a) and 6 (b) of the 1991 MAU 12/150. The key findings of this analysis are as follows: • Densification of the population along the Route de l'Espoir, with a heavy build up of this trend over the past ten years. The concentration of population in this sector is higher than anywhere else, since these aerial photographs cover the Moughataa de Toujinine, the eastern suburbs of Nouakchott. This population densification is accompanied by uncontrolled urban growth which is indiscriminately spread over interdunal corridors and longitudinal sand ridges; • Sifs are endangering buildings everywhere. Figures 6(a) and 6 (b) were based on the aerial photographs 197 of the 1980 MAU 4/125 mission and 124 of the 1991 MAU 12/150 mission, and show exactly the same location as can be seen from the quadrilateral urban structure (Q). They 1991 reveal the explosive expansion of the 1 EEl 2 [Ifl 3 [71] 4 [llIfl 5 ED 6 town of Nouakchott (N), and even more the devastation of the steppe (S) south of Figure 6(h). Multi-time analysis of sand encroachnient and reactivation in the the town and the proliferation of sifs, now sector of Toujinine along the Route de I' Espoir, 7-8 km from Nouakchott in 1980 developed into real fields of sifs, and 1991. The IGN aerial photograph missions used were: MAU 1980 4112 endangering all man-made infra- 5 Nos. 195-196 and Mau 1991121150 No. 100-101: there is analysed MA U 1991. structures: for example, a road engulfed 121150 No. 100-101. in sand (R). These two photographs reveal 1. Sifs.2. Fence. 3. Route de l'Espoir. 4. Residential sector. 5. Habitat sector an alarming situation for anyone developed on the longitudinal ridge. 6. Habitat sector developed in the interdunal concerned by environmental degradation, corridor.It is clear that in the decade 1980 to 1991, real desertfication has taken and this concern is confirmed by field place starting with some sifs. Desertification is shown by afield of active dunes observations made in 1997 and 1998. difficult to master in an urban setting.

26 Baseline and Growth Indicators for Desertification in the Saharo-Sahelian Area of Mauritania

Scaling up of the constituting new light orange- continuous sand sheet; this is the real coloured dunes; definition of desertificatin in observations carried out • A tendency for ergs (areas of shifting Mauritania. locally to apply to the sand dunes) to extend at the edge The action of wind mechanisms is, whole of Mauritania downwind, while the upwind side above all, one of thinning out the ancient loses body, an inverse situation to ergs and the intersection of hollows, The multi-level wind daniage (figure 7) that observed in the north of the depressions and the interdunal corridors consists of: Sahara in the Great Western Erg and by new active dune structures. • The setting in motion of ferrimorphic the Great Eastern Erg, in which the material compacted during ancient upwind part gains ground, while the Proposal for an observable soil-forming processes, which yields downwind part loses ground; definition of desertification sand with the definite orange-red • Progressive wind deflation that colour of the new generation of red removes the sand veils and the upper barkan-type sif dunes; part of the sand sheets. The IGN map A term such as desertification deserves • The deflation of white sandy material of Moudjeira to a scale of 1:200,000 an analysis of its causes, its mechanisms from wadis or whitened by hydromorphy shows in 1969 a lean sand deposit and the time and spatial scale into the interdunal corridors; this yields which has now disappeared; encompassing it. the new generation of white barkan- • A new generation of active dunes, The definition we previously type or sif dunes; both barkan and sif types, in which proposed (Mainguet, 1993), namely • At times, a mixture of the two loose material replaces ancient fixed irreversible environmental degradation in previously mentioned sands, and vegetated material organized in a a human time- span, since the generation

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Figure 7. Overlapping of a system of open sifr (i.e. that are not joined) on a closed erg (i.e continuous) made up of longitudinal dunes. K(The design was partially borrowed from Raunet 1985, but the caption was completely ch anged.) This figure shows quite well how, along the Route de l'Espoir, sifs develop in roughly a N-S direction. 1. Longitudinal sand ridge with a convex top. Ia. Wind-borne sand with a true reddish colour and compacted,from the Amoukrouz and Trarza ergs. lb . Wind-borne sand with a beige to white colour (called 'paradise sand'), discoloured by hydromorphy, probably from contact with perched groundwater. 2. interdunal corridor or Goude, at times with a sequence of quaternary water deposits. 3. Blackish sand-limestone aggradation of underlying water ('Tarouss') called 'Chadian'. 4. Erg floor. This constitutes a continuous sheet. 5. Reactivation sif. 5a The head of the sif on the top of the longitudinal ridges is composehd of reddish sand.5h The mid- structure of the soil is of clear beige to orange sand from reactivation of sandy material discoloured by hydromorphy, which gradually merges with the red sand transported from the summit. 5c The sit end is always of clear white-beige to orange sand and has still-isolated white hachan-type structures which get caught up and are incorporated into the sifs when these extend. 6. Route de l'Espoir.This figure clearly shows the differentiation to he made between winds that here form part of the wind flows on a synoptic scale (the harmattan and the coastal wind flow) and aeolian sand transport. The different sand colours reveal the local deflation along a regional or synoptic wind cu,•, -ent, hut it also indicates a rapid mixing of sand particles taking place in the space ofa few dozen metres.

27 Desertification Control Bulletin, N'-' 34, 1999 responsible for it is unable to reverse the situation, owing to a lack of technical and financial resources, in Mauritania takes on a new sense because of the change in the spatial and time scales. This is because the deflation phenomenon, normally harmless enough, here becomes a genuine geological mechanism country-wide. progressive in time, resulting within a few decades in a total flight of soil cover and the loss of a wide slice of arabIc land. While irreversible degradation, or desertification, is due to salinization in all the dry ecosystems that practise large- scale irrigation: the Aral Basin States, Pakistan, Uzbekistan, at very different latitudes, and in Egypt at similar latitudes, the desertification mechanisms in Mauritania are not chemical ones, but natural wind processes magnified. Photo 2. In zikfoui. Maiiiiiuii,,i, soo/ e/uIoac///lIcl/l i/I 0 011)11/I) n//he loon. It is a well-known fact that to arrive at irreversible degradation, that is desertification, in a human time-span of one generation, the cause has to be a replaced on the pediment (rocky surface) coarse residual sand: combination of natural and man-made when the wind dies down, by mega- Stony deserts (regs), whether mechanisms. Natural causes include: barchans sustained by a wind current more alluvial or from dissociation, which are • The inherent vulnerability of dry or less from NE 70'. Oumm Ghreid, a particularly large and numerous in semi-arid environments (Saharo- structure with a height of 30 m, is an Mauritania, are areas favourable for wind Sahelian and Sahelian) with an open example of these mega-barchans. East of transport, especially saltation, because of plant cover due to low rainfall and, these structures. Adrar constitutes atransit the size of the ground material. These are above all, to the thinness of the soil area and is perhaps a source area of sand. also deflation areas, where thin veils and and its lack of cohesion that makes it The sandy material, set in motion by the sand sheets still existing in the 1950s fragile, especially if it is sandy, dhar (escarpment), forms large fall-out were carried off by the wind, substituting because loose sand is easily set in deposits as it comes down from the sub-sterile stony areas in place of sandy movement by wind, and sand with plateau. The local nomads say that, during areas suitable for grass cover: all the more plant cover and fixed by ancient soil- the rainy period, the sand from wind- so because the matrix between the pebbles forming processes is susceptible to driven fallout is transported by water from and the angular blocks of these regs has a degradation by wind corrasion: the wadis and accumulates on the slopes, cavity structure that impedes the • Drought crises, which,given the basis from where the wind then carries it off, infiltration of rainwater. To make such of vulnerability, can be accelerators resulting in a mixture of local fiuvial sand areas cultivable requires the very special of degradation. and wind- driven sand from further away. strategy used effectively by the Russians Man-made causes add to natural On the pediment, the transported sand is in the semi-arid areas in Central Asia: causes when the plant cover and soils are thus mixed with the weathering material The Hodh belongs to the third degraded by normally harmless peasant to form a complex wind-driven material. type of desertification area. It is a fiat practices which become harmful under Part of the sand transported from fixed sandy area, whose heads, at the increasing demography; often noted are Adrar is transported on the pediment by upwind ends, are situated between 20 and overgrazing and the uprooting of plants forming nebkhas, sheets of sand covered 30 km west of Dahr Néma and Dahr and, perhaps even more, the trampling of by a desert pavement; these lie mostly in Oualata, while the opposite endO is herds of livestock. areas of confluence and where the wadis anchored at the eastern slope of the Massif The thinning out of ancient soils are dense. of Assaba. This large sandy area made happens in various ways that have been The sifs and the mega-barchans at the into dunes may be termed an erg. The studied, mainly for the top of the Akchar head of Akchar are thinning out, which is, originality of its eastern side is the erg, the many alluvial stony deserts and in in this sector, the major process of transverse orientation to the NE wind of the Hodh: desertification; this loss of material is its highest built-up dunes: this was an erg (a)The head of the Akchar erg, because of an increase in deflation and with a positive sediment balance (SB +), adjacent to Adrar as we saw in 1997, winnowing, shown by the mega- not surprisingly, given its location south consists of sifs which, downwind, are ripplemarks made up of granules and of the Aouker erg.

28 Baseline and Growth indicators for Desertification in the Saharo-Sahelian Area of Mauritania

Up to a few decades ago, this erg was IGN map to a scale of 1:200,000 at the of the erg; in sectors where the erg is fine grazing land: its rapid deterioration end of the 1970s. particularly thin, sandstones with an iron in the last two decades poses serious The Hodh erg with transverse dunes crust at their surface with some problems of redeployment of the nomads. has undergone a change and is levelling ferruginous gravel mixed with the material The analysis of the erg will be made out. Originally composed of chains of at the base of the erg - for example, by proceeding in an east to west direction, active barchans the dunes have been between 20 and 25 km to the east of Kiffa. in line with the wind dynamics and the smoothed out into flattened mounds with Up to the great drought of 1968. this sense of the wind actions responsible for vegetation. Hodh erg was millet- growing land in the deposit of the Hodh erg. The remarkable and complete certain sectors near towns, and, in otljer On its eastern side, east of 9 West, obliteration of a fluvial relief by sand sectors, was land suitable for livestock the Hodh erg is a continuous sand cover. encroachment causing, in a second step, grazing. On the western side, it is subdivided by the transverse Hodh sand sea explains the Nowadays, it is undergoing a phase the range of typically flat hills of Avolé many closed depressions, where a fiuvial of reactivation and intense degradation, (Affolé). These typical hills are not only feature is intersected by one caused by with sifs developing and extending. Over bypassed by the wind-borne sand, but the wind, depressions that combine with the lengthy sections, this moving sand is the falling and rising of wind-driven sand, otherfamily of depressions located at the source of sand encroachment on the Route probably one of the most beautiful sights foot of transverse barchan dunes, wedged de l'Espoir, by the enlargement of sifs or in the world, indicates a saltation capable between two transverse chains. by the appearance of sand strikes. of passing over the top of them, in spite of The Hodh Chergui, in short, is an The ancient erg of Hodh, under the their relatively large height of over 100 ancient fixed and vegetated sand sea as is effects of desertification, is in the process m. This group of hills, moreover, gives shown by: of suffering from the twofold danger of: rise to 'venturi', corridors between • Its reddish colour; Loss of soil and a major loss of land obstacles that cause the wind to accelerate. • Its light compaction that allows it to suitable for growing millet; Sand It is mainly because ofthe venturi that the be cut up like coherent rock, giving encroachment on communication routes, large numbers of sifs appear, although the corrasion shapes and near- vertical including the Route de l'Espoir between sif phenomenon already existed in the sides in gullies, particularly in the Kiffa and Aioun El Atrous. Therefore, it early 1950s. north of the degraded desert Devara area, which was carefully is the Hodh Chergui that needs tto be river Tayaret Oumm Seboua, between studied and sampled (N16°26'03 5 - protected and rehabilitated in order to 1045' and 755 West. W10 27'03 5) next to the bridge achieve the protection of the Route de The Chergui Hodh, a southern fixed built in 1974 and the result given in l'Espoir in the section east of Tagant. prolongment of the active transverse erg another paper. of Aouker, was strongly reactivated by The colour of the surface material Results obtained and numbers of sifs existing long before the changes depending on the depth reached chronology drought and quite well mapped on the by earlier and current corrasion-deflation

Based on the patterns of the dunes, their value as indicators of degradation, changes in dynamics and the impact of man-made effects on the physical - 4 environment, especially in the outskirts 4 of Nouakchott and along the Route de I l'Espoir. Mauritania's major , 4 communication route, the present analysis N has facilitated the dating of the combination of several mechanisms tv leading to desertification and the determination of the pace of its establishment and its build-up. In 1954, a group of fixed longitudinal ridges NNE-SSW 30, all covered with a 4 Sahelian steppic vegetation. The inven- tory of their surface condition showed a fairly rough surface with: • In relief, vegetated sandy alignments, generally oriented obliquely to the Photo 3. Mauritania, between Chourn and A tar, depicting uprooted balanities at longitudinal ridges and corridors, the SW foot of the Guelb Zarget. mostly at an angle of 20;

29 Desertification Control Bulletin, No 34, /999

• Alignments of small depressions patterns had disappeared. The sifs The main consequence of towards which the runoff lines had become more defined, their peaks desertification is, therefore, the loss of converged. The depressions were had matured into sharp crests, their soil, by the conversion of wind-built lined with organic material carried overall orientation had become cultivable structures into loose along the gullies by the runoff. straighter, their pat tern more sinuous uncultivable dunes, as in the case of the By 1963 and 1964, there was a steady since the increasing range of what Hodh and, above all, through loss of the increase of the complexity of the caused them is more accentuated; matrix due to dust winds. topography: • Development ofnebkhas, which have In Mauritania, to avoid the serious • The longitudinal ridges still had a become widespread since the 1980s damage engendered by major hydraulic vegetation cover, but their reflectance and indicate a massive sand works, including salinization, the was increased, various early signs of movement and more— efficient recognized special precautions must be sifs with convex tops and more open saltation: taken in connection with large projects. vegetative cover began to be detected; • Intersection of interdunal corridors Unless precautions are taken to avoid • Fields of nebkhas showed deflation by sifs in the course of extension: this adding salinization to the wind processes, and saltation. On the increasingly indicator is the most striking and the resulting in an even more serious form of rough longitudinal ridges. 'blow- most alarming. desertification, since it would be even outs' (wind depressions) proliferated. The man-made causes of degradation more difficult to reverse it. Mauritania They were separated by converse that we could detect were: would, in a very short space of time, ridges, perhaps the first signs of sifs • The establishment and mining of become a desert-like area. which were becoming more and more quarries, especially those upwind of individually distinguishable. the urban site; Bibliography • In 1965 the observations were: Near • Overgrazing, the proliferation of the Nouakchott airport, the develop- animal trails, and trampling; Maingiiei M., Letolle R., 1993. A,al. ment of the first sif, obliquely • The numerous livestock pounds; Pringer Verlag, Paris, 357 p.Mainguet orientated with respect to the sand Earth roads upwind of the Route de M., 1994. Desertification. Natural° ridges. Overall appearance, in the I 'Espoir: Background and Human whole landscape, of genuine active • The population concentration and its Misniunagerne,it. 2nd. ed. Springer sifs, obliquely orientated in relation settlement; Study Edition, Springer Verlag, 314 to the ridges. These could have been • Housing construction up to the top of P. —the result of the reactivation of sifs the sand ridges. Mainguet M., 1995. L'Homme et Ia of a previous generation fixed until Sécheresse. Masson, Paris. 355 p. then; Conclusion Traduction anglaise rio Springer • Growing deflation resulting in light Verlag en preparation. sand re-deposition deriving from the With ongoing desertificatiomi Mauritania Mainguet M., Dumay F., 1995. livestock trails, the main paths and today appears like an emaciated body. In Transaharan Wind Flows analyzed on areas where the degradation of the the Saharo-Sahelian environment of Meteosat 4 satellite imagery. vegetation cover was almost total; Mauritania, desertification is the Resources, urban, sand and wind, • Obliteration of the lines of water degradation of sand fixed by the soil- Desert Technology III, Oct. 15-20, erosion by wind-driven sand: the forming ofan old dune system, continuous 1995, Lake Motosu , Japan. In Journal gullies were being filled in; in space, ferromorphitic and compacted, of Arid Land Studies, Vol. 53:89-94. • Disappearance by deflation of the which is disturbed by wind to form mobile Mainguet M., Dumay F., 1997. Remote organic matter that was lining the non-contiguous mobile dunes in which Sensing Indicators of Desertification depressions in 1954. detlation-corrasion plays a major role. in the Sahel South of the Sahara. H.N. From 1980 to 1991: There is, therefore, a substitution of Barakat and A.K. Hegazy eds, • Proliferation (to say the least) of active structure - fixed material becomes loose Reviews in Ecology: Desert sifs dating from the 1980 - to which should be added a different Conservation and Development. observations. The embryonic sifs with organization of dunes: fixed joined dunes Printed by Metropole, Cairo, Egypt: curved convex peaks and irregular become isolated mobile dunes. 59-72.

IIt India's Approach to Combat Drought and Desertification

An Analysis

R.N. Kaul, as natural desert. The dry areas of the been 29 per cent as against 23 per cent for peninsula are better described as semi- the country as a whole (Government of Forestry Consultant. F-8, South arid, although portions of them have a India, 1991). The livestock population Extension, New Delhi combination of partly induced increased from 9.4 million in 1951 to 14.4

Ajai Kumar

Assistant Inspector General of Forests, Ministry of Environment and Forests, New Delhi

S.K. Pun Director, NAEB, Ministry of k(JJI 1W Environment and For'sts, New Delhi P(.K [ IIIlI_r.Z

/

Introduction ITfl!rnR, =

The arid (19.6 percent). semi-arid (37 per L'EE cent) and sub-humid (21 per cent) areas of India (figure 1) occupy 77.6 per cent of AN $'M .D 9 pOOIk LA the total land area of 328.73 million hectares (Government of India, 1994). These comprise a large belt of country running from the Pakistan border in the Figure 1. Arid, semi-arid and sub-humid, ecosystems of India. north-west through Peninsular India to Source: adapted from from agro-ecological regions map prepared by the National the southern tip of the country. Aridity is Bureau of Soil Survey and Landuse Planning, ICAR, 1992. most severely developed in Western Rajasthan, which is an eastern extension unfavourable factors, which now create general and zone standards, there is a of the much larger arid areas of the Middle conditions approaching the arid. These high population density, ranging from East. This part of Rajasthan, together lands comprise what are called drylands' 264 persons per km 2 in Jhunjhunu to 9 with the adjacent portions of Haryana and and where desertification is occurring. persons perkm inJaisalmer(Kaul. 1993). Gujarat States may be regarded as truly These drylands have long been The population growth rate during the and or in transition to semi-arid, but not occupied by mail and his livestock. By decade 1981 to 1991 in this region has

31 Desertification Control Bulletin, N 34, 1999 million in 1961 (53 percent increase) and 15.52 million in 1971 (8 per cent increase). The density of livestock per 100 ha of grazing lands increased from 72 in 1951 to 175in 1971 (293per cent increase) with an especially high increase in the numbers of bovines (cattle and buffalo) and camels. The percentage of net area sown in the truly and Thar Desert area has been steadily increasing, leading to intensive use of land and other natural resources, contributing to their degradation. Impact of desertification

The general problem of and areas with large populations is essentially one of human ecology. Where large-scale water resources from outside the arid and semi-arid regions cannot be tapped, the inherently limited water resources within these L iuie .. Loss iIj egeta1ioii iliie / 'x esviie g/a:111g regions set the ultimate limit of production of plant material, on which both human and animal populations finally depend. However, the recovery of such land depends upon its Furthermore, erratic rainfall results in widely fluctuating resilience, which may be completely lost if the land is not production and this, in turn, leads to famines which impose treated carefully and in good time. Drought, through its short- stress on these populations. As the population increases, these lived but recurrent stress, can advance the process of stresses become greater and the demand on natural resources is desertification, especially when man fails to respond properly, magnified. In consequence there is an imbalance between the accentuating its effects and interfering with the land's natural human and animal population on the one hand, and plant, water powers of recovery. Thus desertification causes: and land resources on the other. As the demand by the first persists and increases, the resources tend to become depleted and, as depletion progresses, the stress upon them becomes even greater. Thus, a process of progressive degradation of - 4 resources is set in motion, which intensifies in every famine and the period following it. If unchecked, it leads to permanent - .- - damage in the form of loss of valuable plant species through excessive grazing or cutting for fuel, and vegetal cover is - ... •'rwf.. - . - replaced by bare land or, at best, less useful plant communities (figures 2 to 4). Although the total precipitation may be low, . - ', rainfall is often in the form of sudden heavy storms which may

lead to flooding. The loss of surface soil by water or wind 77 erosion leads to lower soil fertility and the conversion of large --' areas into wasteland cut up by erosion channels, or the formation I of unproductive barren sand dunes.

Figure 4. Desertified landscape bereft (?t 1egelatio/l.

I . tri4 '- .L a • A diminishing food security base; _•____ • A deterioration of the rural environment, which affects - .- tIy , .l. •• - .-.. adversely the socio-economic conditions and livelihood v. :.-- • .• - - systems of the inhabitants; • A reduction of irrigation potential; • A loss of biodiversity.

. r Urgency of the problem

' 4i Although the drylands of the country have low productivity per unit area, their total production, especially of milk, meat, pulses, millets, fibres and hides, is substantial, and they support Figure 2. Pressure of population on vegetation for meeting 68.7 per cent of the country's population. It is, therefore, their firewood needs. necessary to realize the full agricultural and other biomass

32

India's Approach to Combat Drought and Desertification

production potential of these lands. drought-prone areas of the country have role in the process of degradation and Moreover, as ecotypal reserves with a been divided into four classes, as shown desertification. The distribution of areas variety of interesting and useful natural in figure 5 (Das and Pandey. 1989). under various land uses is given in table 1. settings, these constitute a precious hunian Out of the total geographical area of328.73 heritage and, in recent years, they have Flood mha, about 43 per cent is cultivated and also become areas of tourist interest. 22.3 per cent is legally recorded forest The process of desertification is Like drought, floods occur every year and area. However, according to the Forest dynamic and self- accelerating, so some cause untold misery over an average area Survey of India, 1995, only 19.47 per cent fundamental preventive measures need of 8 mha out of which 3.7 mha are cropped. of the total geographical area is covered to be introduced without delay. This The total affected area is estimated to be by forests. The vast stretch of the Irido- intervention should be in the form of 40 mha Annual estimated damages due to Gangetic Plain, Deccan Plateau and the land-use practices which are both socio- floods has been put at Rs. 6,268.5 million Thar Desert has few forests. Barren and economically and environmentally (US $1 = Rs. 40). Areas affected by flood uncultivable wasteland constitute 6.4 per appropriate; ameliorate micro-climates are shown in figure 5. cent, cultivable wastes 4,9 percent, fallow and soils and which prevent desertification land 7.9 per cent and permanent grassland from encroaching further. Land Use Distribution 3.8 percent of the whole area (Government Any delay not only makes of India, 1994). The net area sown has rehabilitation time-consuming and Erosion problems vary according to the increased by 19.08 per cent during the expensive, and the degradation may even land-use practices which play a significant period 1950/1951 to 1991/1992, whereas reach a threshold beyond which it is irreversible in practical and economic terms. The magnitude of the problem is reflected in the occurrence of frequent drought and floods. Drought and Flood I / Hazards

Drought J5

The country experiences drought in one part or another every year (e.g., in Rajasthan, 18 drought years of different intensities have been observed in the past 32 years). About three million people with their livestock migrate annually in search of new pastures (Das, 1977). This migration has often resulted in excessive grazing along the migration route and in neighbouring areas. The consequent destruction of the protective vegetal cover leaves the soil bare to the erosive action of both wind and water. The role of drought in conservation land-use management in India is very LEGENO great. About 70 percent of the net cropped I. ft= PROW AM A area of the country is rainfed and produces 40 per cent of the country's food grains (Government of India, 1988). It is estimated that, even after all irrigation -tARG ------3 'S potential is achieved, at least 55 per cent A. of the cultivated land will remain rainfed (Das, 1977). Vast stretches of non- agricultural land in these tracts have scanty rainfall and are suited only to grassland Figure 5. Drought and tlood-prone areas in India. development and livestock farming. The Source: D.C. Das, 1997.

33 Desertification Control Bulletin, N 34, 1999

PTable 1 Land use distribution (in million hectares)

Heading 1950-51 1991-92 % of % change Reporting between Area 1950-51 and (1991-92) 1991-92

I. Geographical area 328,73 >

Il. Reporting area for Land Utilization statistics (1-5) 284.32 305.06 100.00 7.29

1. Forests 40.48 68.02 22.30 68.03

2. Not Available for cultivation (a + b) 47,52 41.02 1150 -13.68 Area under non-agricultural uses 9.36 21,53 7.10 130.02 Barren and unculturable land 38.16 19.49 6.40 -48.93

3. Other uncultivated land excluding fallow land (a + b + c) 49.45 30.39 9.90 -38.54 Permanent pastures and other grazing lands 6.68 11.68 3.80 74.85 Land under miscellaneous tree crops and groves not included in net area sown 19.83 3.64 1.20 -81.64 Culturable waste 22.94 15.07 4.90 -34,3 1

4. Fallow Lands (a + b) 28.12 24.22 7.90 13.87 Fallow lands other than current fallows 17.44 9.85 3.20 -43.52 Current follows 10,68 14.37 4.70 34.55

Net area sown (6-7) 118.75 141.41 46.40 19.08

Total cropped area (gross cropped area) 131.89 182.73 - 38.55

Area sown more than once 13.14 41.32 - 214.46

Source: Government of India, 1995 the areas under pasture and other grazing Measures taken to combat and the National Wastelands lands, cultivable waste and fallows or mitigate desertification Development Board (NWDB) in the decreased by 16.39 per cent*, 34.31 and Ministry ofRural Areas and Employment, 13.87 per cent respectively. (*H owever, are responsible for the development of from 1950-51 to 1960-61, this increased Structures forest and non-forest wastelands from 6.68 to 13.97 mha Thereafter, it has respectively. In addition, the Ministry of steadily come down to 11.68 mha.) Under India's federal structure land is a Agriculture and Cooperation and the It is, therefore, seen that there is a State subject and there is no national Ministry of Water Resources move towards greater intensity of land legislation. However, there are two apex Development also implement various use and increase in the amount of bodies: the National Landuse and schemes for afforestation and soil and cultivation on what were formerly reserve Wastelands Development Council water conservation, which have a bearing or common grazing lands. The grasslands, (NLWDC), chaired by the Prime Minister, on combating desertification and drought. by and large, are poor and overgrazed and and the National Landuse and At the State level, the State Land Use so are the wastelands. Both suffer from a Conservation Board (NLCB), chaired by Boards are chaired by the respective Chief high degree of degradation and the Deputy Chairman, Planning Ministers. Various line departments such desertification. and wind occurs over large Commission for Policy. Planning and as Forests. Agriculture. Soil and Water areas. This results in the loss of top soil Coordination. The National Afforestation Conservation, Rural Development, and reduced productivity, the most serious and Eco-Development Board (NAEB) in Animal Husbandry, etc. are responsible land degradation problem. the Ministry of Environment and Forests, for the implementation of related Central

34 India's Approach to Combat Drought and Desertification

to Panchayati Raj Institutions (village. Table 2. Current assessment of the extent of various types of land block and district levels). A host of degradation in India. subjects, such as agriculture: land improvement; implementation of land Type of Land Degradation Area Percent of total reforms; land consolidation and soil mha geographical area conservation; water management and watershed development; animal Water erosion 57.15 17.42 husbandry; fuelwood and fodder: social forestry, etc. were handed over to the Wind erosion 10.46 3.18 Panchayati Raj Institutions. This was a significant step towards creating an Ravine formation 2.67 0.81 institutional mechanism, which would help in the proper formulation and Salt affliction 6.32 1.92 effective implementation of Local Area Development Programme (LADPs). Water logging 3.19 0.97 Major development Mining and Industrial wastes 0.25 0.08 programmes and strategy Shifting cultivation 2.37 0.72 Afforestation programmes Degraded Forest 24.89 7.58 Targets for afforestation or tree-planting Special Problems 0.11 0.30 activities are fixed annually by the Ministry of Environment and Forests in Source: Government of India, 1994 consultation with the State Governments. These afforestation activities are taken up under various schemes and and State schemes and programmes major milestone and has initiated a process programmes of the different Central by which India's forests are treated as an Ministries or Departments and of State Policies and policy instruments environmental and social resource rather Governments. From 1985 to 1997,a total than as a revenue or commercial resource. of 22.61 mha were covered under National land use policy outlines have The Act provides strict controls on the afforestation and/or tree planting been prepared which take into account diversion of forest land to other uses and, activities. the environmental, social, demographic, in rare cases when this is permitted for economic and legal issues. The policy has developmental purposes, compensatory Drought Prone Areas been circulated to all concerned for afforestation is a prior requirement. The Programme (DPAP) adoption and implementation through the guidelines issued by the Government of enactment of suitable legislation. The India on I June 1990 formalized the The Rural Works Programme (RWP). National Conservation Strategy and process of the people's participation in initiated in 1970/1971 with theobjectives Policy Statement on Environment and forest resource management. It envisages of creating durable assets which could Development also addresses the issues of active involvement of village contribute towards reducing the severity natural resource management and communities and voluntary agencies/non- of drought wherever it occurred, and to development. governmental organizations (NGOs) in provide wage-earning employment to the The National Forest Policy (NFP) of the regeneration of degraded forest areas, affected population, was the first major 1988 states: 'the principal aim must be to on the basis of their taking a share of the and conscious effort in this direction. The ensure environmental stability and usufruct from the forest areas that they RWP was redesignated as Drought Prone maintenance of ecological balance protect and rehabilitate (Society for Areas Programme (DPAP) in 1973/1974 including atmospheric equilibri urn which Promotion of Wastelands Development and focused on problems of the drought- are vital for sustenance of all life forms, (SPWD). 1993). prone areas only. At present. the DPAP is human, animal and plant. The derivation The policy ofempowerment ofvillage being implemented in 946 Blocks of 149 of direct economic benefit must be communities and their involvement in Districts in 13 States. The total area subordinated to this principal aim'. NFP developmental activities, including covered under different components of states further that one of the essentials of natural resource management, has been the programme since its inception to 1995 forest management is to increase forest further strengthened through the is about 5.7 mha. cover on semi-arid, arid and desert tracts. Constitution (Seventy-third Amendment) The Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980 is a Act, 1992. This gives constitutional status

35 Deserrificarion Control Bulletin, N 34, 1999

Desert Development Programme Indira Gandhi Nahar (Canal) collaboration with State agricultural (DDP) Project (IGNP) universities, have been engaged in research into the problems of With the realization of the fragility of the The Indira Gandhi Canal, in north-western desertification and drought. The emphasis arid land ecosystem. the Desert Rajasthan, covers part of the Thar Desert. is on the development of appropriate and Development Programme (DDP) was It provides irrigation facilities to over 2.5 cost-effective technologies to combat initiated in 1977 and is now being mha of the Desert, of which 1.2 mha is desertification and drought processes and implemented in 227 Blocks of 36 Districts cultivable command area. Under an to increase the productivity of affected in nine States. Since the programme's externally aided OECF project, a total areas. In addition, the International Crops inception, by 1995 552,669 ha have been area of 33,725 ha., which includes sand Research Institute for the Semi-Arid covered under different components of dune stabilisation (16,1 14ha.):canalside Tropics (ICRISAT) at Hyderabad is the programme. plantation (11.522 ha.); roadside intensively studying the resource Sectoral activities under DPAP and plantation (603 ha.); block plantation conservation and management aspects in DDP are: (2,279 ha) and pasture development (3,207 its farming systems research. It serves as Land resources development; ha.) has been covered since 1991 to protect a world centre to improve the genetic Water resources development; IGNP against sand deposition and to potential, yield and nutritional quality of Afforestation and pasture develop- develop adjoining arid lands. sorghum, pearl millet, pigeon pea, ment. chickpea and groundnut. ICRISAT has Since 1996 these two programmes, Other initiatives mainly used soil loss as an index for DPAP and DDP, are being implemented desertification progress. The thrust areas on a watershed basis only. However, in Other measures and/or schemes, such as of the most important institutes are given hot sandy arid areas where it is not possible Jawahar Rozgar Yojana (JRY). for in table 3: to delineate a watershed, the programmes poverty alleviation and rural employment In addition, three All India are taken up on the basis of a cluster of with a focus on horticulture and watershed Coordinated Projects of the Indian Council villages/index catchment. To ensure development; Integrated Wasteland of Agricultural Research (ICAR) have people's participation in planning and Development Projects scheme (1 WDP); been established; one on forage crops at implementation, there is provision to Integrated Afforestation and Jhansi, the second on dryland farming at create watershed associations, comprising Ecodevelopment Project Scheme Hyderabad and the third on agro-forestry the adult population of the watershed; 80 (IAEPS); soil conservation in the at Delhi. These projects, with a network per cent of the project funds are placed at catchments of river valley projects; of subcentres in the arid and semi-arid the disposal of the committees elected by integrated watershed management in the regions of the country, have been the associations. catchments of flood-prone rivers; established to conduct location-specific reclamation of special problem areas and research on problems related to mitigating National Watershed improvement of productivity, to mention the effects of drought. Development Project for Rainfed a few, are relevant in this context. In Problems related to the development Areas (NWDPRA) addition, the National Remote Sensing of suitable technologies for afforestation Agency (NRSA) is preparing land and and improving forest productivity are NWDPRA, initiated in 1990, envisaged water resource management maps and being addressed by a network of research treatment only of arable lands and plans in 174 chronically drought- affected institutes under the Indian Council of consisted mostly of crop production districts (Dutt, pers. comm.). Forestry Research and Education components. The programme was (ICFRE). Dehradun. These include the redesigned in 1993 with a focus on Research and Development Arid Forest Research Institute, Jodhpur; development of micro-watersheds as Efforts the Tropical Forest Research Institute, models of comprehensive and integrated Jabalpur and the Institute of Forest development in different agro-climatic Besides creating an institutional Genetics and Tree Breeding, Coimbatore. regions of the country. The new framework and through the formulation programme contains measures to conserve of policies and policy instruments, the Constraints in combating rainwater in micro-watersheds, to promote Government of India has substantially in situ moisture conservation on arable augmented research efforts by desertification lands and to develop three-tier appropriate strengthening relevant National Research vegetation, consisting of grasses, shrubs Institutions and by adopting development Human and livestock pressures and trees for fuel,fodder, timber and fruit programmes which focus on combating exceeding sustainahilitv levels species on non-arable lands. At present desertification and drought. work is being undertaken in 2,500 India has pursued an active population watersheds spread over different agro- Research policy. Educated people, especially in the climatic zones of the country (Government urban areas, consciously restrict family of India, 1995). Over the years the research institutes, in numbers in order to give their children

36 India's Approach to Combat Drought and Desert ification

Table 3. Research institutes of the Indian Council for Agricultural Research (ICAR) dealing with problems related to desertification and drought and their thrust areas of research.

Research Institutes Thrust Areas (Basic and applied Research)

Central Arid Zone Research Institute (CAZRI), Repository of information on the State Jodhpur. of natural resources and desertification process and its control. Development of sustainable farming systems.

Central Research Institute for Dryland Development of strategies for sustainable Agriculture (CRIDA). Hyderabad. farming systems in the rainfed areas.

Central Sail and Water Conservation Controlling degradation of soil through erosion Research and Training Institute, Dehradun and rehabilitation of degraded lands.

National Research Centre on Agroforestry Evaluation and improvement of multi-purpose (NRCAF), Jhansi. tree species (MPTS) suitable for agroforestry; basic and applied research on all aspects of agroforestry.

Central Soil Salinity Research Institute Development of strategies for salinity control (CSSRI), Karnal. and management of salt-affected soil and use of poor quality water.

Indian Grassland and Fodder Research Forage crops and grassland management; Institute (IGFRI), Jhansi. sustain, enrich and enhance germplasm of these crops.

Central Sheep and Wool Research Institute All disciplines relating to sheep and rabbit (CSWRI), Awikanagar. production; developed update and standardised meat, fibre pelt technology.

The National Bureau of Soil Survey and Land Inventorise and upgrade scientific information Use Planning (NBSS & LUP). Nagpur. on the nature, extent and distribution of soils and associated climatic features.

Note: These institutes serve as repositories of information in their respective fields and have excellent training facilities. improved facilities and abettereducation. and in combating desertification. of human and natural resource ecology In rural areas tradition still favours a large Although different States have attempted that many of them are invariably left number of children whom it is anticipated to coordinate their land management underfunded. will work on the farm and later look after efforts in various ways, it is not surprising their parents when they become old. that coordination is often inadequate. At Inadequate expertise and trained As pastoralism is, by necessity, a national level the various bodies manpower major land use in and areas a larger human mentioned above have contributed population is reflected in a larger livestock significantly but there is still room for This constraint could be partly resolved population. This overpopulation makes it improved coordination at the State level. by increasing training facilities. However, impossible to sustain the resources of for benefits at the grass-roots level a much India's arid zone regions. It is a major Inadequate financial provision more effective and well-funded extension problem which has so far proved insoluble. service is needed. This would require At all levels, India is conscious of the improvements in rural health services in inadequate coordination between need to allocate financial resources fairly, addition to the more obvious aspects of implementing agencies but it is never possible to satisfy so many livestock and crop husbandry. Much conflicting needs. Combating greater financial resources would be Many agencies are involved in land use desertification involves so many aspects needed, together with considerable

37 Desertification Control Bulletin, N 34, 1999 institutional change and reallocation of protecting about 1.5 mha under this by some sort of natural catchment priorities. arrangement. Some successful joint zone. These plots were rigorously forest management models which built and managed to make the entire Lax enforcement of proper land have been documented are Arabari, system a self-contained unit for winter and water use Orissa, Phulbani, West Bengal cultivation. Under conditions of (Chandra and Poffenberger, 1989, intense evaporation, the moisture The frequent condoning improper land Kant et. al., 1991); Jammu in Jammu threshold and soil fertility were use is a common problem in rural areas and Kashmir (Chatterji and Gulati, maintained. The total energy input, throughout the tropics, even though there 1991); Harda, Madhya Pradesh rainwater, sand/silt/clay may be State and local regulations which (Bahuguna, 1992); common lands in accumulation and the cultivators' own attempt to ensure sound land- use practice. the Aravallis of Haryana (Srivastava activities were interwoven into a Sometimes there are political reasons why and Kaul, 1995); Khariya nala complete production system ofwinter regulations are broken, or officials turn a watershed, Jhansi (Hazra et. al., crops. There was a progressive blind eye to misdemeanours. Although 1996), etc. However, the success of increase of yields every year as more such difficulties are by no means restricted these arrangements have thrown up and more fresh silt and clays to India, they are serious restraints which certain second generation issues accumulated and widened the vertical are not easy to resolve. which need to be resolved to and horizontal dimension of such strengthen the movement (Kumar and plots (figure 6). The ratio of farm Changes in Strategy Kaul, 1996). land and catchment area was Similar arrangements in the form of regulated to be 1: 11 so that a critical Analysis and review of different watershed associations have been made supply of moisture was maintained programmes and/or schemes related to to implement the Ministry of Rural Areas (Tewari, 1988). This is known as the natural resource management reveal three and Employment's DPAP and DDP Khadin system of cultivation. The major weaknesses: the absence of an programmes. Panchayati Raj Institutions nearby uplands and rocky grounds integrated approach, lack of participation have a pivotal role in this arrangement. have also been used as local by the people and the neglect of traditional catchments for collecting rainwater. practices in various natural resource Traditional practices for natural Similarly, village ponds (nadis') and development programmes. This resources conservation and tankas' were common for meeting realization has led to shifts in the focus management the drinking water needs of the and strategy of these programmes. The inhabitants; two major shifts have been: While these changes in strategy would Conservation of forage resources. • Sectoral to integrated approach. In result in better implementation of the The pastoralists (nomadic cattle order to maximize production in good programmes, there is a need to incorporate breeders) have developed a unique rainfall years and to minimize losses traditional best practices of water method of water harvesting, based on when the monsoon fails, all the major harvesting, natural resource management centuries of experience, for the most programmes related to natural and land use. Though the participation of effective utilization of their grazing resources management and local communities in the programmes lands and also for ensuring their development are now implemented may lead to greater acceptance of revival and growth during successive on an integrated watershed traditional practices, a conscious effort is years. With the start of the rains, the management basis; required to document and include them in population divided into different caste • From governmental programmes to the programmes. Some of these traditional groups and dispersed to their 'tobas' people-oriented programmes. practices are (small dug-out ponds) along with their Involvement of people at all stages Water harvesting. Traditional livestock. The tobas were situated from planning to implementation is systems of land use met within the confines of the village at the core of all the schemes and environmental challenges in various boundaries but outside the settlement programmes. In pursuance of the ways. The limited crop growing proper. As the water in one toba Government of India guidelines season in the Thar Desert led early became exhausted its users were not issued on 1 June 1990, 16 State inhabitants to rely on animal grazing, allowed to come back to the village, Governments have so far issued their or scattered rainy season (summer) but had to make use of another toba, guidelines to involve the village farming of hardy millets. However, where water and fodder might still be communities and voluntary agencies one group of indigenous cultivators available and, by convention, they to protect and regenerate degraded (Pal iwals) devised a rain-harvesting had to be allowed the facility of using forest areas, on the basis of their technique fully capable of growing the water and grazing resources there. taking a share of the usufructs from winter season crops. The cultivators It was only when the water in all the the forest areas that they protect and followed a unique practice of water tobas were exhausted that the entire develop. More than 10,000 forest harvesting and moisture conservation population, along with their stock, protection committees (FPCs) are in suitable deep-soil plots, surrounded returned to the village proper and

38 India's Approach to Combat Drought and Desertification

dimensions are equally important as they provide a framework within which change and development take place. rm 4p. References Components of Kha din System

1 Low Rocky Catchment Area Bahuguna, V.K., 1992. Collective Contared Catchment Channert Resource Management: An Kha din Faims with Ponds KNAtYN rARM Earthen Bund Spiliways SIuce Experience in Harda Forest Division, KOCKY Sc, KY Seepage Area 4 Bhopal. Regional Centre for 8 Dug Wetis 7. Paliwal sethements Wastelands Development, Indian / Institute of Forest Management, 43 ".------__-__--_/ pp. P KY, '10'' AlYK / Central Water Power Commission, 1987. Flood Atlas of India. New Delhi, Central Water Commission, Ministry Figure 6. Different components f Khadin system of cultivation. of Water Resources. Chandra, N.S. and M. Poffenberger, 1989. Community forest management in West Bengal: forest protection were allowed to use the water in the conserve vegetation. An incident that committee case studies, p.22-47. In. village tank and the lush growth of occurred over 25 decades ago in Forest Regeneration through grasses around the village (Malhotra, Khejadala village in Jodhpur district Community Protection, edited by 1988); is an excellent example, where Malhotra, K.C. and Poffenberger, M., Combined production system. The Bishnoi women zealously sacrificed Calcutta, West Bengal Forest practice of agro-forestry, namely their lives by embracing their 'khejri' Department, 47 pp. cultivation in spaces between rows (Prosopis cineraria) trees rather than Chatterji, J. and M. Gulati, 1991. of trees and shrubs, has been allow them to be cut down (Mathotra, Corn anaging the Commons: The J&K traditionally practised by the desert 1986). Experience. Society for Promotion of dwellers. For example, Prosopis These technologies were designed Wastelands Development, New Delhi. cineraria in cultivated fields and for a certain carrying capacity of human 47 pp. Ziziphus mauritiana in rangelarids and animal populations. However, they Das, D.C., 1977. Soil conservation are common in arid and semi-arid could not withstand the increasing practices and erosion control in India parts of Rajasthan. There is a strong population pressure, change in lifestyle a case study. p. 1150. In. Soil belief that trees and shrubs not only and value systems and over time have Conservation and Management in provide livestock feed but also fallen into disuse. Developing Countries, Rome, FAO increase crop growth under their Soil Bulletin No. 33, 211 pp. canopy. Moreover, as cultivation of Conclusion Das, D.C. and C.M. Pandey, 1989. Soil crops alone is a big gamble in arid conservation for perspective water areas, most desert dwellers follow The growth in demand for produce from management, environment and land mixed farming to minimise risk land and livestock is directly linked to productivity. National Seminar on against total crop failure; human and livestock numbers. The current New Perspective in Water Preservation of vegetation. There pressures are due both to ignorance and Management (Indore). New Delhi, were inbuilt customs for the the need for survival. The demands of Indian National Academy of preservation of vegetation on certain human and livestock populations on the Engineering and Central Water types of lands and also for raising environment need to be regulated through Commission, V-1-20. certain trees for religious reasons; for developing alternative sources of Forest Survey of India. 1993. The State of example it was religiously prohibited livelihood and the means to meet the Forest Report. New Delhi, Ministry to cut any vegetation from the lands subsistence needs of the population. of Environment and Forests, 82 pp. in the immediate vicinity of temples Unless a holistic view is taken of Government of India, 1988. Agricultural and religious places, known as 'oran' ecological sustainability, the environment Statistics at a Glance. New Delhi, (protected forest) lands. Serious will continue to be vulnerable. The short- Directorate of Economics and punishment was prescribed for using and long-term objectives of combating Statistics, Department of Agriculture an axe in orans, and only dry wood desertification and sustainable and Cooperation, Ministry of was allowed to be collected for fuel. development are not attainable if we look Agriculture, 140 pp. Some customs observed by the at the problem only from the technological Government of India, 1991. Census of Bishnoi community helped to perspective. The human and behavioural India 1991, Series I; Provisional

39 Desertification Control Bulletin, Ne-' 34 1999

Population totals; Workers and their Kaul. RN., 1970. The Indian participation in development of distribution. New Delhi, Registrar Subcontinent. p.155209. In wastelands in the arid :o,ie (4 General and Census Commissioner. Afforestation in Arid Zones, edited Rajasrhan. pp.129-140. In. 509 pp. by Kaul. R.N. The Hague: Dr. W. Wastelands Development and Their Government of India, 1994. Draft Report Junk N.V. Publishers. 435 pp. Utilisation,edited by Shankarnarayan, on Status of Land Degradation in India. Kaul,R.N.. 1992.GreeningofSandDunes K.A., Jodhpur, Scientific Publishers, New Delhi. Soil and Water and Inter Dunal Plains. New Delhi, 496 pp. Conservation Division, Department National Afforestation and Srivastava, J.P.L. and R.N. Kaul, 1995. of Agriculture and Cooperation. EcoDevelopment Board, Ministry of Desert ifi cation in the Aravalli Hills of Ministry of Agriculture, 102 pp. Environment and Forests, 95 pp. Harvana: progress towards a i'iahle Government of India. 1995. Report of the Kaul, RN., 1993. Strategies for solution. Desertification Control High Level Committee on Wastelands conservation of biodiversity in the Bulletin, No. 26, UNEP, 37-43. Development. New Delhi, Department Thar Desert, p.91-103. In Biodiversity Society for Promotion of Wastelands ofWastelands Development, Ministry Conservation; Forests. Wetlands and Development, 1993. Joint Forest of Rural Areas and Employment, 70 Deserts, edited by Frame, B., Victor, Management Update 1993. New pp. J. and Joshi, Y. New Delhi, Tata Delhi. Society for Promotion of Hazra, C.R., 1995. Advances in Forage Energy Research Institute, 153 pp. Wastelands Development. 185 pp. Technology. Jhansi, Indian Grassland Kumar, A. and Kaul R.N., 1996. Joint Tewari, A.K., 1988. Revival of water and Fodder Research Institute, 51 pp. forest managenlent in India: points to harvesting methods in the Indian Hazra, C.R., B.P. Singh and R.N. Kaul, ponder. Commonwealth Forestry desert. Office of Arid Land, University 1996. Greening of Common Lands in Review. 75 : 212- 216 of Arizona. Arid Lands News Letter. Jhansi through Village Resource Malhotra, S.P., 1986. Bishnoi,s' - their Vol. 26: 3-8 Development: A Case Study. New role of conservation of desert Yadav, M.S. 1988. Improving natural Delhi, Society for Promotion of ecosystem, p. 23-24. In Desert rangelands by reseeding with Wasteland Development. 50 pp. Environment and Management, edited improved pasture grasses in arid Kant. S., N.M. Singh and K. Singh, 1991. by Shankarnarayan. K.A and Shankar, regions, p.294-301. in Wastelands Community Based Forest V. Jodhpur, Central Arid Zone Development and their Utilisation, Management Systems (Case studies Research Institute. 134 pp. edited by Shankarnarayan, K.A. for Orissa). Bhopal, Indian Institute Malhotra, S.P., 1988. Traditional ,node Jodhpur, Scientific Publishers, 496 of Forest Management, 69 pp. of resource use and community pp.

40 Gender Dimension in Relation to Desertification Control Initiatives in the Southern African Development Community

William Rugumamu Botswana the catch- phrase is Handbook, 1991; Doorn-Adzobu et. al., 'desertification', in Tanzania it is 1991: Ford et. al., 1992). Professor of Geography University 'accelerated soil erosion', in Lesotho it is Noting that, at production level, otDar-es-Salaarn, Tanzania 'watershed managenlent' while in women are more involved in agriculture Swaziland it is simply referred to as and related activities than men they, 'environmental degradation' therefore, play a more crucial role in the Introduction (Rugumamu. 1989). It may be speculated utilization and management of land that the different terms used are aimed at resources in arid and semi-arid areas winning sympathy and international (Rugumamu, 1997). They (women) are Statement of the problem support from the international (donor) thus referred to as land managers. It is community. against this background that the United Within the member countries of the Because of the magnitude of the Nations Convention to Combat Southern African Development agricultural and livestock sector and its Desertification (CCD) and to mitigate the Community (SADC), the major contribution to the national economies in effects of drought, as postulated by the environmental problems include the SADC, the fact that both men and women Intergovernmental Negotiating spread of the Kalahari-Namib desert and are predominantly engaged in agricultural, Committee on Desertification (INCD) set the surrounding semi- arid zone; drought and agriculture-related, activities and also up by the United Nations General and soil erosion hazards; the depletion of because the impacts of desertification and Assembly, underscores the need to forests, rangelands and wetlands; drought are more directly felt by this promote awareness and to facilitate the overcultivation and declining food and sector and the population engaged within effective participation of local people, energy yields. These features are simply it (Wade 1974; Wiggins, 1985: especially women and youths in this symptoms of an underlying set of complex Timberlake, 1985: Tarrant, 1990), SADC initiative (INCD, 1994). physical and anthropogenic factors that scholars and policy makers are duty-bound are a cause and effect of poverty (Darkoh. to search for strategies to combat these Conceptual framework 1989: Rugurnamu, 1989). Ii azards. Furthermore, these inter-related There is, therefore, an urgent need to According to the 1992 United Nations hazards tend to vary in severity across the transform the contemporary resource use Conference on Environment and subregion, nationally and locally, causing systems into environmentally sustainable Development (UNCED), desertification a serious reduction in the quality of life of ones in order to prevent the depletion of refers to land degradation in arid, semi- the people and their natural resource base the natural resource base and widespread arid and dry subhurnid areas resulting (Caring for the Future. 1996). In fact, the rural poverty. This calls forapplication of from various factors, including climatic impact on society varies between race, appropriate 'people-centred' natural variations and human activities (Agenda religion and gender. resources management systems which will 21; Cardy, 1993). The Convention to In view of the severity of the only come about when problems and Combat Desertification, based on the desertification hazard, there has been a solutions are defined in conjunction with INCD of Paris 1994, notes that the proliferation of terms among SADC states the local population and theirdevelopment desertification disaster is caused by the to describe the problem. For instance, in partners (Tukahirwa and Veit, 1990; PRA complex interactions among physical.

41 Desertification Control Bulletin, 34, 1999 biological, political, social, cultural and activities, access to and control of At regional level, Rugumamu (1996) economic factors (INCD, 1994). resources as well as benefits which are reports that the African Ministerial Drought means different things to judged, by all standards, to be Conference on the Environment different people in different disciplines, discriminatory and unprogressive (AMCEN) meeting in Cairo in 1985 either conceptually or operationally (Mahmoud, 1991; Wilson, 1993). established four environmental (hydrological drought, meteorological committees. These committees were drought, agricultural drought and so on). Past efforts to combat charged with the responsibility to To a farmer, however, a drought hazard is strengthen regional cooperation, an extended period of dryness; usually desertification particularly as it affects essential natural any period of moisture deficiency below resources, namely water, forests, normal for a specific area to support crop In SADC member countries, concern for rangelands, energy and seas through a growth, leading to crop failure and hence the environment has been used as a gradual reorientation of economic famine. The vulnerability of a community justification for unpopular government development strategies towards a more to drought is in part dependent upon its interventions in land developments (Berry productive and less destructive approach. capacity to mitigate the disaster. In 1996 and Townshend, 1973; Rugumamu and The committee dealing with drought and 1997, for example. Tanzania, one of Kishimba, 1992). Western scientists and desertification, referred to as the the poorest countries, faced a period of perceived the African environment as African Deserts and Arid Lands Committee drought and had to import relief food threatened or in need of control and/or (ADALCO), set out to establish pilot worth millions of US dollars which protection. Further, solutions to these villages and stock-raising zones in 30 reversed her development inertia. perceived problems were generally countries. So far there has been no progress The concept of a household, imported from abroad' and, while they report on these projects, which were under according to Nindi (1992), has been may have worked in temperate the umbrella of the Organization of African conceived as 'socially produced and environments were often not beneficial Unity (OAU), UNEP and the United culturally constructed'. In essence, a to the drier and more fragile environment Nations Economic Commission for Africa household is a basic unit of operation in of Southern Africa and hence the (ECA) and especially on their impacts on society whose labour, resources, roles protracted resistance by local people the ecology and economy at subnational, and benefits are shared for the perpetuation (Fiermari, 1990). national, subregional and regional levels. of life. It constitutes a husband, wife and It was not until 1977 that the United No wonder this initiative has ended in thin children interacting for survival. Nations Conference on Desertification air! Rugumamu (1997) notes, however, that (UNCOD) was convened in Nairobi, in It may be stated that, although in the the unit is heterogeneous with respect to response to a problem of ecological above-cited efforts it was recognised that roles and responsibilities resulting in degradation causing serious threats in destructive human activities were the core asymmetrical gender relationships in many parts of the world (UNCOD. 1977; of the desertification disaster, and that the society. Westcoat, 1991). It was commonly agreed solution to the problem was to be based Gender is a socially constructed that desertification is a kind of land on improved and ecologically adapted concept referring to defined rules, roles degradation resulting primarily from management of soil, water and vegetation and responsibilities between men and adverse human impact. To this end a Plan cover, the gender- environment women and boys and girls in a society of Action to Combat Desertification interrelation was not underscored. through a process of socialization (PACD) was first drawn up. The key (Rugumamu, 1997). Basically, all issues addressed included overcultivation, The gender dimension in societies organise their lives and activities overgrazing, deforestation and wood desertification control on the basis of a division of labour between cutting, among others. On the basis of males and females which is reinforced by PACD, the solution to the problem is 'an initiatives other factors such as culture, race and improved and ecologically adapted religious beliefs. The gender analysis management of soil, water and As the problem of desertification approach seeks effectively to involve men vegetation'. escalated, it was not until Agenda 21 was and women as individuals, interacting In a review of the United Nations launched in Rio in 1992 that the issue was with the environment within a society in Environment Programme (UNEP) placed high on the global agenda. As a the CCD programmes and policies beyond progress in implementing PACD, follow-up to this global conference, INCD their biological sexual identities. Wangari (1997) notes that the population was set up to formulate an international The fact that desertification control threatened by desertification in 1984 had convention to combat desertification. aims particularly to improve the quality increased approximately threefold (from It is noted that the major output of the of life of the rural poor, it calls for the 80 to 230 million). It was also revealed Convention to Combat Desertification, integration of the gender factor in the that some six million hectares of land which came into force in 1996, is the development equation. It is in this context continued to be lost annually. All this development of national environment that one is able to analyse the multiplicities meant that the implementation of PACD action plans (NEAPs) through which to and overlappings of women's and men's fell way below expectations. identify causes of desertification and

42 Gender Dimension in Relation to Desertification_Control Initiative develop action programmes to combat it, capacity of the stakeholders to carry the community self- development (Seidman mitigate drought effects and promote initiative forward is dependent upon the and Anang, 1992; Bandyopadhyay and sustainable development (INCD, 1994). available resources at household level Shiva, 1989). The strategic focus is placed on popular (men's, women's and children's access Gender-centred development has, participation and assisting local to and control over resources) on the one indeed, a socio-cultural dimension, one communities, particularly women and the hand, and upon the effective collaboration which is critical to success, particularly youth, in design, implementation and with and support by other development in traditional societies predominantly monitoring and evaluation of programmes partners (non-governmental dependent on biodiversity for their and policies. organizations, subnational level livelihood. It has the potential to broaden The United Nations Educational, authorities, central government, donors) the base of the role occupants and instil a Scientific and Cultural Organisation on the other. sense of responsibility and accountability (UNESCO), Dakar office, unlike other at respective levels (Seidman and agencies, boasts of having appreciated Analytical framework Seidman, 1994). A generally valid lesson the need to integrate gender issues in its is that when change in behaviour is Man and the Biosphere (MAB) activities In view of the foregoing observations, the contemplated, it is advisable that human in Africa (UNESCO- Dakar, NST, 1997). process of combating desertification and development policies and programmes Women's participation is reported to be drought hazards should take a gender and take socio-cultural concerns into account, well articulated in such projects as the participatory approach using Participatory instead of ignoring them, as has been Cooperative Integrated Project on Rural Appraisal (PRA Handbook, 1991) done in the past. This calls for a gender Savanna Ecosystems in Ghana (CIPSEG) tools, whereby all stakeholders, both men awareness initiative for all the key and Mananara North Project in and women, including their development stakeholders. Madagascar, etc.. partners, from household through sub- In introducing new ideas and At national level, the Government of national and national to international practices, (technology), it is important Tanzania report to UNCED also devotes levels get involved in decision-making that people see these concepts as meeting a whole chapter on gender and the regarding and and semi-arid resource their needs (Badyopadhay and Shiva, environment (Government of Tanzania, utilization and management. 1989; Cook, 1991). If perceived needs do 1992). It underscores the fact that the role There is, however, a heated debate on not exist, they must first be generated by played by women in society makes them participatory methodologies and the a consciously planned action. The deep- daily managers of the environment and concept has now become a catchword rooted beliefs in the infallibility of modern acknowledges that their knowledge and among development researchers and scientific knowledge prevents technical awareness are key factors to achieving politicians (Carruthers and Chambers, experts and decision makers from seeing the goal of sustainable development. 1981; Leighton, 1986; Conyers, 1986; the potential use of local knowledge which By and large, there is no consensus as Kalyalya, et. al., 1988). A consultative is possessed by men and women to how the gender relations-environment and participatory process (PRA (Bowman, 1974; Peatti, 1968; Blaikie, nexus should be pursued despite a growing Handbook, 1991) should form the basis 1989). It is against this background that focus on development research, policies for strategic design, implementation and post-modern technologies can be and programmes. monitoring and evaluation of programmes generated. Indeed, men and women are a Following on from the above and policies. In this article it is advanced source of much useful knowledge for observations, two main objectives form that PRA is capable of capturing the combating desertification and the effects the core of this article: the first is to dynamic qualities of gender in particular of drought for sustainable self- underscore the fact that for a programme and society in general, including their development (Baunier, 1990; Shiva, and policy formulation, implementation development agencies and resources 1991). and evaluation for combating which are essential inputs in formulating Further, gender-based participatory desertification and promoting and implementing strategic plans and methodologies are deemed capable of environmentally sustainable development informed policies and legislation capturing the needs and aspirations of the to be viable, it has to be gendered and (Kalyalya et al., 1988; Rocheleau et. al., community as individuals as well as participatory. It is hence hypothesized 1988; Agarwal and Narain, 1992; Slocum, national development priorities aimed at that at household level the key decisions et. al., 1995). promoting equity and efficiency. This on land use made by men and implemented Based on the philosophy of potential will subsequently lead to evaluating the by women are rarely successful. The community solidarity at all levels, requirements of the life- support systems second objective is to understand better development research should be directed based on ecological potential in the search the importance of gender as a tool in this at ensuring that the community formally for a sustainable development strategy initiative and so form the basis for the undertakes more thorough work on what (Bremer, 1984; Agarwal and Narain, next research agenda on desertification was and is being done by government for 1992). The process constitutes gender control policies and programmes from them (Kalyalya et. al., 1988). This is participatory design, implementation, local level upwards (a bottom-up community empowerment, a prerequisite monitoring and evaluation of development approach). It is hypothesized that the for democratic decision-making and programmes and policies at all levels

43 Desertification Control Bulletin, N 34, 1999

(Grindle, 1981; Conyers, 1986; Rocheleau factors influencing activities, access and gender-based participation (Overholt et. Ct. al., 1988; Herrick and Green, 1993). control, the focus should be directed on al., 1986; Slocum et. at., 1995). The operation requires that national and the underlying factors which determine Principally, the good will and cooperation international support be sought to the gender division of labour and the of men and women must he gained if strengthen local initiatives. gender-related control over resources and development programmes and policies The proposed framework on gender benefits. are to succeed. Since it is not possible that analysis in programme and policy design, It is further noted that these analyses every member of the community be implementation and monitoring and identify the factors which create approached individually, the practical evaluation, seeks to concretize the differential opportunities or constraints thing to do is to secure the support of definition of general programme and/or for men and women in, and benefits from, individuals whose views command policy objectives, assess how these relate the programmes and policies. In view of respect in the community, together with to the involvement of men and women in the fact that gender roles change over the views of the cross- section of the the programme and finally anticipate the time with technological development, an peoples, community and groups effects of the programme and/or policy understanding of the underlying trends concerned. on both sexes (Overholt et. al., 1986). The within the broader economic and cultural It is important that full participation main thrust of the framework is an environment should be incorporated in of the adult and youth population are adequate data base which considers what this analysis. invited in the consideration of problems women and men do and why (Slocum et. In analysing benefits there are three that confront the community. It goes al., 1995; Rugumamu, 1997). questions to be considered: without saying, therefore, that there is The data and information required in I. What are the products which are a need to involve and promote traditional this model should revolve around four source of income? organizations (community-based themes (Overholt et. al., 1986): first, What are the uses and desirable organizations, indigenous non- activity profile; second, access and control characteristics of these products? governmental organizations) serving profile; third, analysis of factors Who has access to or control of the wider interests of the community at all influencing activities, access and control products and the income they levels that have existed through centuries and fourth project cycle analysis. produce? Will this pattern be an in all cultures (Kjekshus, 1977; Rodney, Overholt et. al. (1986) note that the incentive or hindrance to the 1980; Fierman, 1990; United Republic of activity profile should be based on a gender allocation of any additional labouror Tanzania, 1992; Koimowitz, 1997). This division of labour. The profile will be resources required by a new is where the involvement of state, private able to portray, firstly, gender and age technology? and popular sectors and groups holds desegregated economic activities in the For programme sustenance, gender strongly at all phases and levels of the programme. By asking the questions criteria and indicators have to be programme and policy process (UNSO. related to who' we start with female developed and integrated in the 1986; DANIDA, 1989; l-Ierrick and adults and male adults, but other categories implementation process. In the final Green, 1993). may be equally important: female-headed analysis, disaggregation of costs and It is proposed that a multi- households, female spouses, male-headed benefits by gender helps anticipate which disciplinary team consisting of households. Secondly, it will indicate the technologies will be accepted and by development scholars, committed policy amount of time spent by each category to whom. It is in the programme cycle makers, representatives of a vibrant accomplish these activities. analysis that we seek to predict the life- community of peasants, pastoralists, Further, by asking a series of cycle of the programme in the light of the members of the public and the private and questions related to what' we map the foregoing basic data and the trends that popular sectors be formed to embark on a resources available and who has access are likely to affect it and/or be generated search for sustainable socio-economic to, or control of, them. Control of a by it. ecological development through resource or input implies decision-making Programme and policy monitoring combating desertification at different about its use. Access to a resource implies and evaluation should be conducted spatial and institutional levels (Wade, conditionality about using it and how it is through public meetings of all the 1974; Bremer, 1984; Conyers, 1986; used; these inputs include labour, land, stakeholders. The event should be carried Cooke, 1991). water, seed, implements. It is proposed out on completion of each scheduled Further, local level institutions, both that the access and control profile phase. The above operation has to be public and private, are keys to generating produced will show what resources promoted by a facilitator who acts as a programme and policy inputs that promote individuals may command to conduct their catalyst - neither a funding agent nor an the quality of resources and the infinite activities and the benefits which they implementor. character of human demands upon them derive from them. By and large, this framework provides (CaIdwell, 1970: Fierman, 1990). In order to capture fully the pattern of sufficient basis for designing, Development initiatives should be and constraints upon labour the calendar implementing, and evaluating directed towards empowering the should be constructed with all gendered programmes and policies which can best community to make decisions and production activities. As for analysis of benefit both men and women through a implement them. The process would

44 Gender Dimension in Relation to Desertification Control Initiative facilitate the integration of local second focuses on sustainable utilization Adams, P., 1991. Odious Debts: Loose development plans into district and of the potential natural resources Lending, Corruption and Third national plans. Finally, conflicts between endowment, based on industrialization in World's Environmental Legacy. local and national level interests are likely the study area. Earthscan, London. to be minimized and the chances of local Agarwal, A. and S. Narain, 1992. Towards needs being met increased (Conyers, Conclusion Green Villages. A Strategy for 1986). Environmental Sound and At the subnational level, a district, an Now that national governments, the donor Participatory Rural Development. agroecological zone or a constituency community and United Nations agencies Centre for Science and Environment. may be an appropriate institutional and have resolved to combat desertification Amini, A. Z., 1986. Country Profile: natural resources management unit for and drought and promote the quality of Tanzania. UNEP Nairobi. sustainable development planning life of the affected populations, a gender- Bandyopadhyay. J. and V. Shiva, 1989. (Luttlrel, 1973: Tukahirwa and Veit, based participatory design, Political Economy of Ecology 1992). At this level, government and non- implementation and evaluation of Movement. Ifda Dossier 71. May/June: governmental institutions and the private programmes and policies forms the basis 37-60. and popular sectors operate in the for promoting sustainable self- Baumer. M., 1990. Agroforestry and development process. These institutions development. The proposed framework, Desertification. TCARC, The should be coordinated in order to effect backed by education and training, is but a Netherlands. 250 pp. positive change and hence the need to platform upon which to build development Berry, L. and J. Townshend, 1973. Soil effectively mobilize the apparently fixed initiatives. It may be postulated that gender Conservation Policies in the Semi- scarce resources at this scale. The focus analysis will better specify research and arid Regions of Tanzania. A Historical should be on four main issues: support for action toward specific gendered groups Perspective. In: Rapp. A. et. al. (ed), local initiatives; developing and linking in order to increase both efficiency and Studies of Soil Erosion and up horizontal and vertical networking of equity amongst stakeholders by making Sedimentation in Tanzania. BRALUP existing institutions; coordinating training explicit the actual biases inherent in Research Monograph, 1: 241-53. and representing local needs at national technologies. Blaikie, p.. 1989. Explanation and Policy level. It is proposed that the next research in Land Degradation and Going up the scale, the strategy agenda would test the model outlined Rehabilitation for Developing should, at the national level, strive to above in field situations using Countries. Land Degradation and accomplish five goals: to win the participatory methodologies in specific Rehabilitation, 1(1): 23-37. commitment of government leaders and soc io-cultural-econom ic-ecological Bowman, W. D., 1974. Research in heads of private institutions regarding the settings. The research thrust would be on Natural Resources: A Review and plight ofmarginal communities and zones; scaling up gender, household and Commentary. Natural Resources to integrate con sery ati on -based resource community participation in local Journal, 4: 42-66. use with other socio-economic activities; resources utilization and management in Bremer, J. A., 1984. Building Institutional to coordinate research and training; to arid and semi-arid zones in SADC in the Capacity for Policy Analysis: A ii delegate responsibility to subnational light of contemporary interactions Alternative Approach to institutions; to obtain feedback through a between community based socio-cultural- Sustainability. Public Admin. and monitoring and evaluation process and to economic activities, on the one hand, and Dev. 4:1-13. invite, wherever necessary, international the sustenance and promotion of the Brown, M. B. and P. Tiffen, 1992. Short support. productivity of the natural resource base Changed: Africa and World Trade. At the international level, the strategy on the other, within the local, subnational, Pluto Press, London. should seek to coordinate exchange of national and international socio-cultural- Caldwell L. K., 1970. TheEcosvsteniasa information and expertise: and to analyse economic and political climate. It is Criterion for Public Land Policy. and evaluate national and subregional or anticipated that the research output will Natural Resources Journal, (10) 2: regional resources management projects i n form desert I fi cation control 203- 221. and programmes with a view to assessing programmes and policies by capturing Cardy, F., 1993. Desertification: A Fresh their sustainability. the forces that drive human behaviour to Approach. Desertification Control It is within this framework that two destroy their natural resource base Bulletin, 22: 4-8. complementary development paths, unknowingly or otherwise. Carruthers, I. and R. Chambers, 1981 which seek to strike a balance between Rapid Appraisal Jr Rural gendered socio-economic activities and References Development. Agric. Admin. 8: 487- sustenance of the life- support systems in 422. desert-like conditions, are pegged. ADALCO, 1989. Report of the 3rd Cooke, R.U., 1991. 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British Geographers, 17: 131-151. America. World Development, 21(7): Rugumamu, W., 1993. Outline of an Conyers, D., 1986. An Introduction to 1139-1150. Action Program to Combat Social Planning in the Third World. Kalyalya, D., K. Mhalanga, A. Seidman Desertification and Promote Food and John Wiley and Sons. New York, 224 and J. Semboja, (ed) 1988. Aid and Energy Production in the Southern pp. Development in Southern Africa: African Subregion. Desertification DANIDA, 1989. Environmental Profile: Evaluating a Participatory Learning Control Bulletin, 22: 69-76. Tanzania. Danida Department of Process. Afriëa World Press, Inc. Rugumamu. W., 1996 The State of the International Corporation, 71 pp. Trenton N.J. 148 pp. Environment in Semi-Arid Tanzania: Darkoh, M.B.K., 1982. Desert ification in Kjekshus, H., 1977. Ecology, Control A Search for A Strategy Toward Tanzania. Geography, 67: 33 1-420. and Economic Development in East Environmentally Sustainable Darkoh, M.B.K., 1989. 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Peasant Intellectuals: Mahmoud, F. B., (1991) African women Tanzania, Chapter V. UNFPA. Anthropology and History in feminist school ofthought. In Suleman Seidman, A. and F. Anang. 1992. (ed). Tanzania. The University of (Ed) Environment. Women, Vol. 2. Towards a New Vision of Self- Wisconsin Press. IFAA. Sustainable Development. Africa Ford, R. F. Lelo and J. Ayieko, 1992. Overholt C., M. B. Anderson, K. Cloud World Press Inc. Trenton, N.J. Community Action: Water, Trees and and J. E. Austin, 1986. Women in Seidman, A. and R. B. Seidman, 1994. PRA in Pwani. Program for Development: A Framework for State and Development. Problem International Development, Clark Project Analysis. in. Overholt C., Solving, Law and Institutional Change University, Paper No. 5, 40 pp. Anderson, M. B., Cloud, K., and in the Third World. (mimeo). Glaeser, B., 1984. Ecodevelopment in Austin, J. E. Gender Roles in Shiva, V., 1991. Ecology and the Politics Tanzania: An Empirical Contribution Development Projects, Kumarian of Survival: Conflicts over Natural on the Needs, Self-sufficiency and Press, p 3-15. Resources in India. United Nations Environmentally Sound Agriculture Participatory Rural Appraisal Handbook, University Press. on Peasant Farms. Mounton 1991. Conducting PRAs in Kenya. Slocum, R., L. Wichhart, D. Rocheleau Publishing, Berlin. World Resources Institute, and B. Thomas-Slater, (Ed) 1995. Gomes, P. and R. Houssian, 1982. Rainfall Washington DC and Clark University, Power, Process and Participation: Variability, Types ofGrowing Season Mass. Tools for Change. Intermediate and Cereals Yields in Tanzania. Peatti, L. R., 1968. Reflections on Technology Publications. CMEWS Project. Dar-es-Salaam. Advocacy Planning. American Tarrant, J. R., 1990. Food Policy Conflicts Herrick, B. and J. Green, 1993. Institute of Planners Journal, 34 (2): in Food-deficit Developing Countries. Institutional Analysis. World Bank 80-88. Progress in Human Geography, 14 Mission on Environment Tanzania. Rocheleau, D. E., 1992. Shared Use of (4): 467-487. 47 pp. Private and Public Property: The Timberlake, L., 1985. Africa in Crisis: Harrison, C. M. and A. Warren, 1970. Commons Between. (mimeo) Grad. The Causes, The Cures of Conservation, Stability and Sch. of Geography, Clark. Environmental Bankruptcy. London, Management. Area 2: 26-32. Rocheleau, D., F. Weber and A. Field- Earthscan. Intergovernmental Negotiating Juma, 1988. Agroforestry in Dryland Tukahirwa, E.M. and P.G. Veit, 1990. Committee for the Elaboration of an Africa. ICRAF. Nairobi. 311 pp. Public Policy and Legislation in International Convention to Combat Rodney, W., 1980. How Europe EnvironmentManagement: Terracing Desertification in Those Countries Underdeveloped Africa. Oxford in Nyarurembo, Uganda. From the Experiencing Serious Drought and/or University Press. Ground Up Case Study Series No. 5. Desertification, Particularly in Africa. Rugumamu, W., 1989. Outline of an WRI, ACTS Press, 41 pp. June 1994. UN, New York. Action Plan to Combat Desertification United Nations, 1977. Desertification: INCD 17 J Kaimowitz, D., 1993. The and Promote Food Production in the Its Causes and Consequences. New Role ofNGOs in Agricultural research Southern African Sub-region. Mission York, Pergammon. and Technology Transfer in Latin Report to ADALCO. UNEP Nairobi. United Republic of Tanzania, 1992.

46 Gender Dimension in Relation to Desertijication Control Initiative

National Report for the 1992 UN Wangari, E.O., 1997. Desertificarion and 15(1): 81-93. Conference on Environment and Environmental Degradation: Wiggins, S., 1985. The Planning and Development. Dar-es- Salaam. Background to the Problems within Management of Integrated Rural UNSO, 1986. Assessment of the Problem Africa. In. Smith T. and Wangari, E. Development in Drylands: Early of Desertification and Review of 0., Desertification Control and Lessons from Kenya's Arid and Semi- Ongoing and Proposed Activities to Natural Resources Management: arid Lands Programmes. Public Implement the Plan of Action to Case Studies from SADC Countries. Administration and Development. 5 Combat Desertification in Tanzania. Report Series of UNESCO, No. 21. (2): 91-108. UNSO, New York. 15-2 1. Wilson, F., 1993 Reflections on gender as Wade, N., 1974. Sahelian Drought: No Westcoat Jr. J. L., 1991. Resource interdisciplinary study. Paper Victory for Western Aid. Science 185: Management: the long term global presented at the IDS-CDR seminar on 234-237. trend. Progress in Human Geography, Agrarian Change in Tanzania, Dar- es- Salaam.

47 Integrating Gender Issues into NAP Process in Zimbabwe

Emmanuel Chinyamakobvu fully to these processes, hence, without the major key stakeholders in NAP process commitment and concerted actions to and beneficiaries for NDF. The NAP Programme Officer involve them, the successful participation of women in all activities of Department of Natural Resources implementation of NAP process and, NAP is viewed as critical, as these P 0 Box Cy 385 Causeway Harare, hence, the Convention to Combat programmes and strategies are gender Zimbabwe Desertification, becomes uncertain and sensitive. The underlying rationale is that obscure. women are mostly an untapped resource who can contribute to development Summary Introduction through sustainable environment management. Recognizing the fundamental role played In Zimbabwe, it has since been recognized by women in the management of natural that problems related to land degradation The concept of gender resources, the Parties to the United Nations and drought, such as fuelwood and water Convention to Combat Desertification shortages, affect women more than men, The concept of gender is used as a tool to (CCD) committed themselves to thus women are identified as a key understand the relationship between men promoting awareness and to facilitating stakeholder group in NAP process. The and women in a given society. It refers to the participation of all affected people, goal of including gender issues in NAP specific rules, roles and responsibilities particularly women, in the decisions that process is the emancipation of women that society assigns to men and women. affect them. It has become clear that the from their subordination and their Almost each and every society organizes success of the Convention depends on the achievement of equality, equity and its activities on the basis of a division of full participation of women at all levels of empowerment. The process focuses on labour between males and females, and the implementation process. Over the last gender roles and needs, control over this socially-based division of labour few years, since the United Nations resources and decision- making in the determines how men and women relate to Conference on Environment and civil society. The background to this focus each other. Gender roles and Development in Rio de Janeiro in 1992, is well known. The United Nations Decade responsibilities are, therefore, socially debates on how to achieve this has pointed for Women (1976 to 1985) highlighted constructed through the process of to the realisation that gender-sensitive the important but often invisible role of socialization, varying from one society to approaches are required during all phases women in the social and economic the other. Female and male sex roles are and at all levels of implementation of the development of Third World countries different from gender roles. Sex roles are Convention to Combat Desertification, and communities. The Convention to inherently biological/physiological and to build on existing and available resources Combat Desertification stressed the cannot be exchanged or reversed. On the to meet the needs of all stakeholders. important role played by women in regions other hand, gender roles are socially The National Action Programme affected by desertification and or drought, constructed and may be performed by (NAP) on desertification attempts to create particularly in rural areas of developing either male or female and can be reversed. opportunities and to address existing gaps countries, and the importance of ensuring Consequently, the gender notion excels and deficiencies related to the role of the full participation of both men and biological reductionism through women in the CCD implementation. It women at all levels in programmes to providing a framework for interpreting aims to strengthen and promote the role combat desertification and mitigate the the relationships between women and men of women in the decision-making process effects of drought. In addition, the first as cultural constructs which result from and in project implementation. The national forum on the establishment of imposing social, cultural and fundamental assumption at play is that NAP process and the National physiological meanings upon biological women do not currently have equal Desertification Fund (NDF) in Zimbabwe sexual identities. Emphasis is placed on opportunities to participate and contribute identified women and women's groups as the complementarity of the roles of men

48 Integrating Gender Issues into NAP Process in Zimbabwe

and women for the ultimate well-being of Definition of gender rather than in terms of their gender - the households, communities and societies. social relationship between men and The integration of gender issues into 'Gender' as opposed to 'sex' refers to women, in which women have been NAP process aims at making women's relationships between men and women, systematically subordinated. and men's concerns and interests and and boys and girls and the different rules It is perceived in NAP process that experiences an integral dimension of the and roles and responsibilities assigned to the focus on gender, rather than women, design, implementation, monitoring and them by society. Hence gender makes it critical to look not only on the evaluation of projects and programmes in relationships, rules, roles and category 'women', but at women in all social, economic and environmental responsibilities are socially constructed relation to men, and the way in which spheres, such that women and men benefit through the socialization process, relations between these categories are equally from development, with the differing from one society to the next, and socially constructed. Men and women ultimate goal being the achievement of reinforced by factors such as religion, play different roles in society, with their gender equality through equity-led culture, individual inclinations, etc.. The genderdifferences shaped by ideological, growth. The strategy links with one of the particular society and culture one lives in historical,religious, ethnic, economic and key principles for the successful constructs their attitudes, views, cultural determinants. These roles show implementation of CCD that calls for an behaviours, customs and values. These similarities and differences between other integrated approach based on are generally learnt or acquired from role social categories such as class, ethnicity, development of solid partnership among models in a person's life who contribute race, and so on. Social categories all stakeholders. greatly towards changing the particular differentiate the experience of inequality Genuine gender participation in NAP person's gender identity, the way they and subornation within societies. process guarantees that decisions are taken see and carry themselves in society and by communities who will be affected by the way they act and interact with others. Women and the these decisions. The integration of gender The meaning of gender at times is therefore facilitates the desegregation and difficult to understand as it translates into environment differentiation of the roles of men and concrete frameworks that are visible and women confronted with desertification obvious. It is difficult in that it deals with It is a known fact that the breakdown in (land degradation) and drought. Gender, the daily interactions and relationships ecological equilibrium weighs more on poverty and environmental degradation between men and women which everyone women because of their daily intimate are intertwined and reinforce each other, comes to take for granted and which some interaction with the living environment particularly in rural areas where the people may even come to assume as given in their bid to satisfy basic survival needs. majority of the population live and interact and unchangeable. Occasionally, the term Women in many societies have the very closely with the environment. Hence, gender is used to refer to 'women' or to a responsibility of providing the family with NAP process gives attention to the person's sex, but usually, the word refers its basic needs such as diet, water, energy configurations of gender, environment to the relationships between men and fuel and short-term economic needs. With and development to influence the capacity women and to the ways in which roles of vast expanses of land becoming rapidly of the affected populations to respond to women and men, girls and boys are infertile and unproductive, the livelihoods challenges posed by drought and land socially construed and shaped. and lives of many women and their degradation. Understood in this way, the term gender families as well as their economic It is believed that, unless the people transcends biological reductionism by prospects continue to be threatened by who are most affected by desertification interpreting the relationships between men environmental degradation. and drought are completely involved in and women as cultural constructs which Although women feel the immediate NAP process and are committed to its result from imposing social, cultural and effects of the degrading environment, its implementation, the Convention would physiological meanings upon biological consequences affect their families, the not achieve its objectives. Both men and sexual identities. communities they nurture and the women must participate in NAP process resources they manage. The roles of and activities at all stages, ranging from Why gender and not women in environment and resources needs assessment, problems women management is central to resource-base identification, action planning and project sustainability and development. As implementation, management, poverty is a most direct consequence of monitoring and evaluation. Equal gender NAP process has since recognized the environmental degradation, an participation in NAP process is expected limitations of focusing on women in appreciation of the role of women in to increase ownership and control of the isolation hence the focus on gender in the environmental management for implementation process by the affected process. Focusing on women in isolation sustainable development becomes more populations. would result in their problems being imperative than ever before. perceived in terms of their sex, that is Women, because of their dependence their biological difference from men, on, and daily contact with, natural

49 Desertification Control Bulletin, V 34, 1999 resources have acquired deep and official and administrative government on a daily basis with the environment for extensive knowledge of the environment, practice and, sometimes, by their survival. Unfortunately, the burdens thereby unavoidably becoming active discriminatory legislation. It has been a of ecological decline and overexploitation environmental managers, caretakers, and practice for generations in Zimbabwe, as of natural resources fall most heavily on repositories of knowledge relevant to in other countries, that women cannot women. Integrating gender, poverty, sustainable living. Examples abound in hold title to land which means they do not resource decline and land degradation is Zimbabwe where, after a series of have access to credit as they are not able the fundamental challenge for NAP devastating droughts, women have to provide the necessary collateral. In process to achieve sustainable realized the importance to maintain and cases where loan capital could be provided environmental and economic to manage sustainably their environment without need of collateral, women, by development in rural areas among affected and have embarked on tree planting law, would need the consent of their communities, as it is central to positioning projects. It is reality to such women, more husbands to execute the necessary the interests of both men and women in than anyone else, that shorter term agreemen.&s. Considering women's the process. Thus the equality between economic needs can only be met contributions and the high incidence of men and women, boys and girls is basic to continuously if longer term measures for female-headed households, such the integration of gender in development sustainability are not overlooked for short- restrictions impose severe limits to through NAP process. term gains. For these women, effective and substantial management of Consequently, a framework for environmental conservation and natural resources and to development. linking gender and environment and sustainable development are livelihood In recognition of the limits imposed natural resources management in necessities. on Zimbabwean women, it is fundamental Zimbabwe should involve some of the Women are constantly engaged in a to move away from largely unsustainable following components: continuous exercise intended to maintain development towards development that • Identification of interfaces and a healthy balance between short-term is economically, socially, and interactive processes between gender, economic needs on the one hand and the environmentally sustainable by resources, and environmental issues; longer term ecological imperatives on the embarking on a transition to include • Recognition of diversity of natural other. This emanates from the realization gender-expanded rights and participation resources and social/cultural that both these factors are crucial to their of women in the development process. communities and the range of options very survival and those of their families The rationale of such an argument is that available for particular resource users; and the communities they nurture. Hence, any national development which fails to • Analysing the ways in which local women have become increasingly aware reach, involve, and benefit the poor communities and their environmental that what they do as producers and majority, being both men and women, management/resource utilization resource managers is central to the cannot lead to sustainable development. approaches, strategies and activities sustainability of the resource base and The issue of placing Zimbabwean are structured by gender; thus to development. women in the development mainstream • Building upon relevant and strong process must attract increasing priority viable local institutions and Women and the society and must place gender firmly on organizations for effective and community sustainable development sustainable resource use, Despite immense contributions to initiatives and strengthen efforts to environmental management and survival, Zimbabwean women are more achieve gender equality. Thus an enabling sustainable development activities; often confronted with rigid socio-cultural environment for gender equality and • Reformation of policies to give barriers and a lack of access to means of equity must be established and promoted ownership, control and management production, including land and capital. by addressing both practical and strategic of resources such as forests, grazing Traditionally they have been marginalized gender needs in order to bring about an areas, water and wildlife to local both in private and public life, as important egalitarian society in which men and communities. decisions can only be taken by the heads women can have equitable access to and of their households who happen to be control over decision making, resources NAP vision for gender males. Consequently, they are usually and their benefits. projected as passive recipients of project empowerment benefits, not being involved in the higher Gender and the levels of decision-making which denote a It is recognized that the success of the more active role in the development environment in the NAP NAP process and hence the Convention process. process to Combat Desertification in Zimbabwe At the level of tradition and social will depend on the full participation of practice, discrimination against women Gender, poverty and land degradation are women at all levels of the implementation in Zimbabwe is prevalent. In some interwoven and reinforce each other, process. The consensus that gender- circumstances, this is further aggravated especially in rural communities where sensitive approaches are essential during by discrimination against women in the majority of the people live and interact all phases of NAP implementation has

50 Integrating Gender Issues into NAP Process in Zimbabwe been reached so as to realize the needs of participate fully in decision-making strategies for development, and the all the major stakeholders. The guiding structures on issues pertaining to implementation of the CCD in particular, principle in the involvement of gender NAP process; to be defined and articulated. into NAP process is to build a receptive Provision of skills to women: It is known and acknowledged that and enabling environment at the key equipping women with the necessary the problems of women are directly linked decision-making points where policies skills to implement programmes and to the social relations between men and are formulated, programmes designed and projects of NAP process. women in the society. If the NAP process resources allocated resulting in increased in Zimbabwe fails to take into account chances of alleviating poverty and Conclusion these relations and view them in their improving the lives of the affected proper perspective and manifestations, populations. The formulation and implementation of they can lead to the increased Several areas of an action plan NAP process is designed in a manner that marginalization of women. The roles, towards gender empowerment in ensures that both women and men responsibilities, access to and control over Zimbabwe have therefore to be identified: participate and benefit from the resources, decision-making powers, needs • Awareness creation: creation of implementation of the CCD. However, in and constrains of both women and men continued awareness of NAP process view of the disadvantages that women should be analysed on the basis of target among women and local often start off with in Zimbabwe, there is group identification, stakeholder analysis, communities, and the need for their need for a continued and concerted support and impact assessments. participation in desertification for special inputs targeted at women Ultimately, cumulative positive programmes and projects as well as wherever and whenever necessary. changes in communities' lives, through experience sharing of undertaken In the process of NAP process NAP process, in both time and space, activities; formulation, it has become apparent that should lead to the improvements that • Provision of resources: increase gender issues should be viewed and enhance the quality of life of the affected women's access to financial resources analysed in the broad Convention to people, which is one important outcome by providing seed funds for projects Combat Desertification contextual of any development process. Such an for income-generating activities framework. It has not been adequate outcome is attained through mutually linked to desertification control; simply to describe women as subordinate, beneficial activities and undertakings by • Access to land: facilitation of easy vulnerable and disadvantaged. The all members of society: women and men. access to land resources by women underlying causes and consequences of Women and men have special interests through reviewing laws and customs this subordination and vulnerability has and needs and these should be addressed affecting women's access to land; had to be clearly identified in NAP and taken into account in any development • Involvement of women in decision- process, for sound and sustainable process. making: encouraging women to

51 Extent, Severity and Causative Factors of Land Degradation in the

Ali TahaAyoub second cause of soil degradation affecting The Sudan derives more than 75 per cent 22 mba. Cropping without appropriate of its energy requirements from fuelwood United Nations Environment nutrient inputs have degraded about 12 estimated at 22 million m 3 per year (WRI/ Programme, P. 0. Box 47074, mha, particularly in small-scale farming UNEP/UNDP/PAVB, 1996). This is Nairobi, Kenya on sandy and loamy soils. When these equivalent to about 400 million Acacia processes of resource mismanagement trees being uprooted annually for rainfed coincided with the recent recurrent cropping. Rangelands cleared for Summary droughts, collapse of the economic base mechanized rainfed agriculture and of fragile areas took place. shifting cultivation increased from about This article examines the status of land 2.0mhain I954toabout 14mhain 1994, resources in the Sudan after over half a Keywords: desertification; land a rate of 300,000 ha year' (Tothill, 1954; century of unsustainable use. Several degradation; Sudan; assessment; erosion; Ministry of Environment and Tourism, studies indicate that about 120 million nutrient depletion; severity; extent; 1996). Range fires, set deliberately by hectares of land, including 64 mha of overgrazing. herders to improve grazing, annually take soils, are degraded to varying degrees. A out about 35 per cent of the natural range remarkably high correlation seems to exist productivity, estimated to be about 300 between human population densities and Introduction million tonnes (Atta El Moula, 1985). degraded soil in different aridity zones. Being dry and hot most of the year, The most degraded zones were the and The first serious sign of soil degradation livestock in the Sudan concentrate around and semi-arid zones where 76 per cent of in the Sudan was reported by Kennedy- boreholes during dry periods, causing the human population of the Sudan live. Cooke (1944). It was reported that rapid vegetation denudation and soil Wind erosion was the most widespread deterioration of soil and vegetation was pulverization by trampling. About 5,500 soil degradation type in the and zone, occurring in parts of the Red Sea Hills; wells and boreholes were opened during while water erosion was dominant in the this was considered as a warning that the period 1960 to 1990 in anti-thirst semi-arid zone. Chemical deterioration similar problems might be developing campaigns without proper land-use through nutrient loss was affecting all elsewhere, particularly around town studies (Salih, 1996). The repercussions climatic zones. The central clay plains peripheries and settlement areas in of the challenge to alleviate thirst went far and the ironstone soils of the south-west Kordofan and Dai-fur Provinces of western beyond its intention. were the least degraded soil types. Sudan. Overgrazing is the most widespread cause At present, in the flat clay plains and Location and environment of soil degradation, particularly around sandy areas of the Sudan Sahel, permanent settlements and watering overgrazing, overcultivation and cutting The Sudan, Africa's largest country and centres, affecting about 30 mha (47 per of trees for domestic purposes are still with the biggest agricultural potential, is cent) of the total degraded areas. Clearance continuing. After several years of bad a microcosm of the continent. The country of forests and woodlands cover for rains grasses are unable to reproduce, can be divided into five aridity zones firewood and charcoal making and creating a condition known locally as which form a consecutive series from overexploitation of vegetation is the 'mahal,' synonymous with desertification. north to south (figure 1). Statistical areas

"This article was originally published in Journal of Arid Environment (1998).

52

Extent, Severity and Causative Factors of Land Degradation in the Sudan

of these zones are shown in table I. The Congo and the Central African Republic The soil resources hyperarid and arid zones consist where the tallest grass in Africa, the essentially of a plain of loose red sand elephant grass (Penn isetun? purpureum). The Sudan sits on the little-disturbed with broad undulations. The hyperarid abounds. The famous Sudan mahogany Basement rocks of the African continent. zone has little binding vegetation, (Khaya senegalensis and Khaya The Basement is overlain by the Nubian particularly early in the summer season. grandifoliola), Sudan teak (Te'tona Sandstone formation in the centre and In the and zone the natural vegetation of grandis) and the ebony (Diospyros north-west, and by the Umm Ruwaba short grass and sparse thorn scrub provides mespiliformis) were abundant here. formation in the south. The Basement a period of good grazing for sheep, goats, During the last 40 years of civil unrest in rocks protrude to the surface in the eastern cattle and camels. Opportunistic rain southern Sudan, uncontrolled tree felling part of the country forming the Red Sea cropping of sorghum and pearl millet is for timber and bush fires have severely Hills. Soils of the Sudan are products of practised in depressions and foothills. In reduced the abundance of these trees. these parent materials plus the alluvial this zone the strong winds associated with summer thunderstorms cause dust- storms. The semi-arid zone of tall grass plus Acacia woodland is cultivable by rain. The main granaries of the Sudan lie in this zone. To the south and south east, talh (Acacia seval), from which gum arabic of inferior quality is collected, attains its best development on heavy clay. On the sandy soils to the north and north-west open grassland is found with abundant hashab (Acacia senegal) which produces the best quality of gum arabic. This zone is also a cattle region. Thus, this semi-arid zone is distinguished as the zone of both animal and rainfed husbandry. The western part is traversed by the cattle-owning tribes moving south and north with their herds to seek new Hper pastures. The more reliably watered LII And rangeland of Bahr Al-Arab provides an [IIIII Semi-a important seasonal resource for grazers myu from the overgrazed pastures of Darfur EII1 Mowt and Kordofan. An area of about 24 mha of this semi-arid zone is swampy and Figui-e 1. Arid/tv :ones and severity of soil degradation in the Sudan (UNEPI seasonally inundated by the White Nile ISRIC (GLASOD), 1990; UNSo, 1997). and its tributaries. The Sudd and Machar swamps act as a reservoir, absorbing the irregular stream flow from the south while discharging a regular flow, much reduced by evaporation, in the north. The seasonally inundated parts of the flood Table 1 Extent of aridity and population density per aridity zone (source plain are vast meadows of almost pure UNSO, 1997) grass which maintain the very important cattle industries of the Dinka and Nuer Dry Moist tribes. Soil on the surface is sandy with Aridity zone Hyperarid Arid Semi-arid sub-humid sub- humid iron concretions and is underlain by a dark heavy clay which accounts for Area ( mha) 77.6 63.0 77.6 16.2 14.4 standing water. The dry sub-humid and moist sub- Population humid zones are loamy leached lateritic (millions) 3.6 10.8 10.4 1.6 1.4 catena soils in an area of 30 mha (12 per cent of the total area of the country). The Population density most luxuriant vegetation occurs at the (per person km 2) 4.6 17.1 13.3 10.1 9.2 border with The Democratic Republic of

53 Desertification Control Bulletin, N2 34, 1999 deposits of its rivers and their tributaries. to erosion than many soils in the country, Soil Reference and Information Centre]; According to Food and Agriculture other than the Vertisols. (GLASOD) [Global Assessment of Soil Organization of the United Nations (FAO) The rocky soils of the Red Sea Hills Degradation], 1990; Dregne, 1991). (1995), soil resources of the Sudan can be and parts of Mara mountains, classified Figure 2 shows such attempts. From these divided into seven broad regions. as Leptosols, constitute about 18 mha studies one can conclude that of the land Soils of the hyperarid area (about 78 The soils of the Red Sea Hills are shallow surface of the Sudan (excluding the mha) of Xerosols comprising part of the and poor in nutrients with high gravel hyperarid zone), of the agricultural land, Sahara Desert are superficial deposits of contents. The Mara mountain soils are pasture, and forest and woodland (170 sand with bare rock debris, shifting dunes, relatively rich volcanic soils. Because of mha in total), nearly 75 mha (45 per cent) and consolidated dunes. Recent alluvium the limited soil depth and sloping terrain have been degraded severely to very provides a basis for productive agriculture these soils are liable to erosion by water. severely by human factors in recent in the narrow Nile valley north of Cambisols are the smallest soil group in history. The highest estimate was that of Khartoum. Elsewhere soils are sandy with the Sudan (about 2 mha), but could be Dregne (1991), while the estimates of little agricultural potential. among the most productive soils in the UNEP (1977) and FAO/UNEP (1984) To the south of this region are the country. These soils lie along the were similar. GLASOD soil degradation soils known locally as 'goz' and 'gardude', undulating Ethiopian Highlands under dry assessment shows that severe and very classified as Arenosols and about 28 mha and moist sub-humid conditions, and thus severe degradations totalled 58 mha. The in area. Further to the south are 12 mha of are prone to water erosion. difference between GLASOD and other the more weathered Arenosols in the semi- assessments could be vegetation arid climate of western and central Sudan. Freshwater resources degradation without significant soil These soils are low in nutrients and organic degradation. This may indicate that matter and have a high sensitivity to Much of the present economic activity desertification in the Sudan is more linked erosion. The sands are free draining, with and most of the future activities envisaged to soil degradation than to vegetation some clay or ferruginous clay as a bond in the Sudan will depend on the country's degradation. The GLASOD methodology near the surface, making them firm after share of the 18.5 billion m 3 annual flow of of assessing human-induced soil the rains. Under high torrential rains their the RiverNile and its tributaries. However, degradation was considered a definite nutrients could be easily leached. 75 per cent of the population of the Sudan progress from those used in the other Vertisols (about 70 mha) have currently depend on groundwater and assessments (Thomas & Middleton, considerable agricultural potential in the rainwater for their domestic water for 1994). Moreover, GLASOD data are semiarid zone of the Sudan. They form most of the year. A total of about 1,100 stored in a geographic information system the central clay plains extending billion m3 of rain falls annually on Sudan's (GIS) which allowed reasonable estimates southwards to the eastern part of the flood land surface with very high potential of different aspects of soil degradation in plains. Special management practices are evapotranspiration rates. Underground a large country like the Sudan. required to secure sustained production water is very localized and is estimated at of these Vertisols. Their problems lie in 9,000 billion m3 (Ministry of Environment Extent and severity of soil the area of physical soil characteristics and Tourism, 1996). degradation and water management, while their assets are a rather high chemical fertility and The forest resources their location in extensive level plains Table 2 shows data calculated by where mechanical cultivation is possible. According to the WRI/UNEP/UNDP/WB overlaying the aridity map of the Sudan The irrigated Gezira/Managil, New HaIfa (1996), an area of about 44 mha, mostly over the GLASOD portion of the Sudan. and Rahad schemes and the extensive in the moist sub-humid, dry sub-humid, Though the GLASOD database came with forms of rainfed mechanized cropping and southern fringes of the semi-arid warnings against extracting data on a are classic examples of low- input zones, is covered by natural forest and country level, the huge size of the country agriculture increasingly confronted with woodlands. Annual deforestation, which (8.5 per cent of Africa) and the great soil physical deterioration, among other mostly takes place in all these zone, is expanse of well demarcated degraded things. 482,000 ha (rate of 1.1 per cent of the areas made it possible to determine the Ferrasols (about 30 mha) are the soils forest cover), 90 per cent of which is for following data. of the dry sub-humid and the moist sub- fuel and charcoal making. About 64 mha of soils are degraded humid zones embracing the tropical rain in the Sudan, 88 per cent of them highly forest of the Sudan and the lush tall grasses. Land degradation to very highly. Of the total degraded area These soils have good physical properties 81 per cent is in the susceptible drylands but are chemically poor. Their low natural Several global or regional attempts of (arid, semi-arid and dry sub- humid). Most fertility and very low nutrient retention land degradation/desertification degradation (74 percent of total degraded capacity are serious limitations. Their assessments have covered, among other soils) is in the arid and semi-arid zones, great depth, high permeability and stable countries, the Sudan (UNEP, 1977; FAOI but significant percentages of land are microstructure make them less susceptible UNEP, 1984; UNEP/ISRIC[lnternational also degraded in the dry sub-humid and

54 Extent, Severity and Causative Factors of Land Degradation in the Sudan

along the River Nile banks in the hyperarid zone is also affected by water erosion. About 16 mha of the ocean-like expanse of reddish yellow sandy soils of Dregne, 1991 the and and semi-arid zones in central and southern Kordofan and Darfur, and the dry sub-humid and the moist sub-humid GLASOD, 1990 zones of western Equatoria and Bahr Al- Arab areas are experiencing high rates of nutrient depletion (table 3). These soils FAO/UNEP, 1984 are inherently poor in nutrients. The situation is aggravated when all biomass has been cleared, and when agriculture is UNCOD, 1977 practised without sufficient application of manure or other fertilizers (Ibrahim. 1987). It is worth noting that all the zones, 0 10 2 J .)V '*'J )U ou iv ou Extent of degradation (million ha) except the hyperarid zone, are experiencing soil degradation through loss of nutrients at almost equal levels. In the Figure 2. Various assessments of soil (UNEP/ISRIC (GL14SOD), 1990) and land hyperarid zone agriculture is mainly degradation (UNEP (UNCOD), 1977; FAOIUNEP, 1984; Dregne. 1991). () = practised in the narrow Nile valley, the moderate; (U ) = severe; (, ) = very severe. fertility of which is replenished annually

moist sub- humid zones. As per cent of total area per aridity zone, the dry sub- Table 2. The extent and severity of soil degradation in different aridity zones (mha) (UNEP/ISRIC (GIASOD),1990; humid and moist sub-humid zones have UNSO. 1997) figures higher than the semi-arid and hyperarid zones, 28 per cent and 29 per Degradation Dry Moist cent respectively. severity Hyperarid Arid Semi-arid sub-humid sub-humid Total

Types of soil degradation Very high 8.0 24.7 8.8 2.1 2.3 45.9

Erosion by wind affects 27 mha, most of High 0 43 5.4 0 0 10.1 it in the hyperarid and and zones of Kordofan and Darftir where vegetation is Medium 0.2 0.5 2.1 2.2 1.7 6.7 poor and soil particles are loose, and further accentuated by the strong winds Low 0 0 0.9 0.2 0.2 113 characteristic of the region (table 3). The narrow fertile strips along the Nile River Total 8.2 29.9 17.2 4.5 4.2 64.0 north of Khartoum are being encroached by sand dunes on both banks of the river, while very active overblow of sand, sometimes becomingthickdust(habub'). is an extreme form. The and loamy soils through alluvial deposits. are now frequent phenomena in most of of the Butana area between the Nile and About 3 mha of the Sudan's central northern Sudan, particularly along the Atbara Rivers, with an area of about 8 clay plains in the mechanized rainfed Red Sea coast. The total area affected by mha, experiences high water erosion agriculture of the Gedaref area are wind erosion in the hyperarid zone is (Shepherd, 1985; Akhtar & Mensching, experiencing high physical deterioration about 6 rnha. Just over one mha is affected 1993). The Nuba Mountains in southern due to the use of heavy machinery and by wind erosion in the semi-arid zone, Kordofan, and the Jebel Mara volcanic monocropping. Physical degradation is while the dry sub-humid and the moist soils in Darfur, are also experiencing high the least common of the four types of soil sub-humid zones show no sign of wind topsoil loss through water erosion. These degradation, but it could spread if such erosion. are rich soils covering an area of about 10 inappropriate management practices About 18 mha of soils are affected mha vulnerable to erosion due to their continue. by water erosion (table 3). Topsoil loss sloppy terrain denuded of their vegetative About 30 mha of the Sudan's soils through sheet erosion is a common type cover. Water erosion occurs mostly in the are stable under natural conditions. These of water erosion, and formation of gullies semi-arid and and zones, but 2.4 mha are lands under forest, swamp or marsh.

55 Desertijlcation Control Bulletin, N2 34, 1999 mostly in southern Sudan. Another 4 rnha Table 3. Soil degradation types by aridity zone ( mha) (UNEP/ISRIC are stable under sustainable agriculture. (GLASOD). 1990; UNSO, 1997) These mostly include the large irrigated schemes such as the Gezira, Managel, Wind Water Chemical Physical Total New Haifa. etc., and some parts of the Aridity zone erosion erosion deterioration deterioration degraded rainfed mechanized agriculture. Hyperarid 5,8 2.4 0 0 8.2 Causes of soil degradation Arid 200 69 30 0 299 Major causes of soil degradation are overgrazing (47 per cent), improper Semi-arid 1.2 7.7 5.3 3.0 17.2 agricultural practices and mechanized rainfed agriculture (22 per cent) Dry sub humid 0 0.7 3,8 0 45 deforestation for firewood and urban demand for charcoal (19 per cent), and Moist sub-humid 0 0.5 3.7 0 4.2 overexploitation of vegetation for domestic use (13 per cent) (table 4). Total 27.0 18,2 15.8 3.0 64.0 Overgrazing of rangelands by livestock ------affects 30 mha, mostly in the and zone, causing widespread wind erosion. The combination of overgrazing, of the Arenosols and 58 per cent of the and extensive rainfed mechanized overexploitation of vegetation and Leptosois are severely degraded. croppingare increasingly confronted with deforestation resulted in some sheet and Arenosols are mostly depleted of their soil physical deterioration, nutrient gully erosion in the semi-arid zone. In the nutrients and partially affected by wind depletion and loss of soil organic matter. dry sub-humid and moist sub-humid zones erosion. The Leptosols are rocky soils of soil, mining through low input agriculture the Red Sea Hills and part of Mara Discussion and deforestation are causes of soil mountains. These soils are severely eroded degradation. There is a very high because of overuse. About 31 per cent of The Sudan is the one most and county in population imbalance in the Sudan (table the Ferrasols are degraded, mainly through Africa. Of the entire territory, 31 per cent I). The majority of the population live in nutrients loss. The least degraded are the is hyperarid, and 63 per cent is drylands the and and semi-arid zones. extensive level clay plains of Vertisols. susceptible to desertification and where Figure3shows percent soil degraded Only 16 per cent of the total area is 82 per cent of the population live (table versus soil types. degraded. Dry Vertisols have a very hard I). About 64 mha of the Sudan's soils are Per cent degradation varies from 16 consistency, and become very plastic and affected by degradation, 81 per cent of to 73 per cent for different soils types. sticky when wet. These characteristics which is inside the drylands susceptible The most extensively degraded soils are add to their resilience to erosion by wind to desertification, thus contributing to the the Arenosols and Leptosols; 7 1 per cent and water. However, the irrigated schemes desertification of 33 per cent of such susceptible drylands. Over 65 per cent of the causes of the extensive wind erosion on the sandy soils of western Sudan is attributed to overgrazing by all types of domestic 50 animals (tables 3 and 4). These continental sands of Kordofan and Darfur, which 40— support bushes and grasses for grazing and the production of the lucrative cash 30 crop gum arabic, are experiencing the most severe soil degradation in the 20 country. in this area hashab (Acacia senegal), which produces the best quality 10 of gum arabic, is under threat. Hashab is losing its dominance because it is the

0 most favoured tree for building, fuelwood VerUwts Ferrasols Arenosols Leitosols Major .i1 types and charcoal making (Al-Awad et. al., 1985). Areas around the permanent settlements and watering centres (deep Figure 3. Severity of deg,'adation of mayor soil types. () = moderate; (•) = - . - bores and shallow wells) were the first to severe; () = very severe.

56

Extent, Severity and Causative Factors of Land Degradation in the Sudan

other things. Overgrazing has also caused Table 4. Causes of soil degradation in different aridity zones(mha) decline in plant species diversity as well (UNEP/ISRIC (GLASOD). 1990; UNSO, 1997) as vegetation coverage (Ibrahim, 1978: Ingrouille et. al., 1991). lngrouille et. al.. Inappropriate ( 199 1 ) reported that the droughts of the agricultural Over late 1960s to mid-1970s have destroyed Aridity zone Overgrazing activities Deforestation exploitahon the whole of theAcacia tortilis belt of vegetation north Kordofan, while frequent fires in the semi-arid zones has destroyed Acacia Hyperarid 5.3 1.6 1.3 0 mellifera and replaced them by fire- resistant species such as Acacia seya/ and Arid 20,2 4.2 2.5 3.0 Acacia nuhica. Suliman (1988) also reported a substantial and steady decrease Semi-arid 4.5 4.3 3.3 5.1 in the number of plant species in the Sudan's rangelands. Dry sub-humid 0 2.0 2.5 0 The severe wind erosion experienced in the Sudan results in dust-storms which Moist sub-humid 0 1.8 2,4 0 occur throughout the year, but are most intense in summer. Middleton (1985) Total 30.0 13.9 12.0 8.1 reported that the number of dust-storms (visibility less than 1,000 m) per year in

be denuded at large scales. Nomadic grazing in the arid and semi-arid areas is an environmentally compatible system, pansion of agriculture but collapses of such systems are being F noted with increasing frequency in the arid zone where about 68 per cent of soil degradation is due to overgrazing (table 4). I Grasshoppers. Invasion of woody rats and iocusts Grazing weeds An increase in grazing intensity can be induced by many factors (figure 4). Fire incidents have effects equal to overgrazing. Infestation of the area with grasshoppers, rats and locusts also Nodal growth More rural of settlements Recurring r water supply produces a situation similar to overgrazing. Overgrazing around settlements is often related to the sedentarization of nomadic herders. Figure 4. Factors contributing to grazing pressure. Settlement of these former nomads has meant that their herds have been concentrated on grazing around their new and vegetation degradations in the arid enhanced levels of nutrients because of homes. Drought conditions have also zone of Kordofan. They showed steady the high input of dung and urine around forced herders to concentrate their animals increase of bare soil around boreholes the watering centres. in areas where drinking water was with time, increasing from 20 to 55 per Roughly a quarter (24 per cent) of the available causing the complete cent in 30 years and the livestock carrying Sudan's livestock is raised in Kordofan disappearance of herbaceous cover in capacity of the area decreasing from 44 to alone and this region has been subjected many places, particularly around 20 LSU per 1,000 ha. during the same to severe rangeland degradation. A FAO boreholes which provide drinking water period. However, Hellden (1984) reported report (1988) indicates that 26 per cent of for humans and animals all year round, that the sacrifice zones' around watering the nation's rangeland is degraded, 10 per with consequent sheet erosion and centres do not necessarily expand cent irreversibly. Until recently, windblown loss of topsoil and reactivation significantly over time in the manner pastoralism in the Sudan was based on the of ancient sand dune deposits. Al- Awad found by Al-Awad et. al., (1985). As a system of common property administered et. al., (1 985) reported the impacts of matter of fact, Thomas & Middleton by community leaders. Abolition of the sedentarization of nomads and animal (1994), citing several authors, reported native administration system in 1970 concentration around boreholes on soil that the sacrifice zones' soils may have adversely affected rangelands, among

57 Desert ifi cation Control Bulletin, N 34, 1999

El Fashier, capital of northern Darfur heavy clays (Vertisols), wherein varying vulnerable to physical deterioration and state, had increased more than five-fold capacity hafirs' (water hollows) may be would need careful management during 1970 to 1980. Dust-storms were excavated to collect rainwater for part of practices. almost negligible before 1970, but the year. This shows that in the more Table 1 shows the population increased dramatically to over45 incidents fragile sandy soils of the and and semi- distribution in the Sudan's different zones. per year during the period 1970 and 1980. arid zones of the Sudan, watering centres The majority of the population lives in the Dust-storms peaks seemed to coincide are mostly boreholes providing water all and and semi-arid zones. This has resulted with low rainfall. year round while in the more resilient in uneven human pressures on the Water resources are meagre in most clayey soils watering centres are hafirs available land resources. Figure 5, of the Sudan. The problem of water supply which provide watering for part of the calculated from tables I and 2, shows the in rural areas is a growing one. Surface year. The controversy arising from these fragility index of different aridity zones water is available in only about 16 per situations is that fragile areas are under in the Sudan. The fragility index was cent of the country (Allan, 1996). During more stress than less fragile areas resulting calculated by dividing area degraded the last 30 years, groundwater extraction in more and more imbalance in human (mha) in each zone by its population for irrigation and human and livestock and livestock distribution in different parts density (person km 2). Fragility index consumption increased steadily and has of grazing areas as drought and dry seasons values were highest in hyperarid and and currently reached about 2 billion rn' year' progress. zones, moderate in the semi-arid zone, (Ministry of Government and Tourism, Soil degradation due to nutrient and lowest in the dry sub-humid and the 1996), and this is believed to have depletion is found all over the Sudan but moist sub-humid zones. The hyperarid contributed to the desertification of wide is largely critical in the and and semi-arid and and zones are particularly fragile due tracts in the central and western Sudan. parts in southern Kordofan and Darfur, to the nature of their easily erodible soils During the period between 1960 to 1991, and the dry sub-humid and moist sub- (see figure 3), recurring droughts and the over 5,500 wells and boreholes were humid zones of south-western Sudan. erosivity of the prevailing winds. The opened in central Sudan without adequate Such degradation is clearly related to semi- and zone is less degraded because land-use studies. While increased water agricultural activities and deforestation of the dominance of the extensive erosivity supplies are necessary for a proper use of at ratios of 45 and 55 percent respectively, resilient Vertisols. Fragility indices were the natural resources and to alleviate particularly in the dry sub-humid and low in the dry and moist sub-humid zones adverse living conditions, the almost moist sub-humid zones. UNEP/ISRIC because of the low grazing pressures and inevitable result was concentration of the (1990) data show that soil deterioration because of the less intensive agriculture population and their livestock around by nutrient depletion is very high in the in these zones. Currently much of the dry watering centres thus disturbing the fragile Sudan. Percentagewise, it is about three and moist sub-humid zones are without ecological equilibrium. Using data from times as high as the average of the world livestock, particularly cattle, due to the Ingrouille et. al., (1991) the degraded and over twice that of Africa. This is due presence of tsetse fly (Glossina moritans). area around these watering points would to the very low fertilizer inputs in the Data available from Nachtergaele be in the vicinity of 25 mha, about 39 per Sudan, currently less than 5kg of nutrients (1996) of FAO on the 32 Sudan GLASOD cent of the total degraded soils. In parts of per ha of cropland. This is a quarter of the Sudan annual rainfall in 1965 to 1984 Africa's average fertilizer use, and less was 40 per cent below 1920 to 1939 than one-fifth of the world average (WRIt levels, and the wet season length had UNEP/UNDP/WB, 1996). Inappropriate contracted by 39 to 51 per cent. agricultural practices and deforestation Hydrological consequences were reduced combined account for 35 per cent of wind frequencies of wadi flows, major decline erosion. None of the causative factors are in shallow aquifers recharge, and earlier clearly related to water erosion. This may exhaustion in the dry season of shallow indicate that water erosion is caused by a wells, surface pools and reservoirs (Walsh combination of all of the above-mentioned et. al., 1988). Actually, water points did factors. not help in population and livestock The heavy clays of central and eastern distribution; instead, they led to their Sudan are experiencing physical concentration (Al-Awad et.al ., 1985). deterioration due to an inappropriate About 42 per cent of the and and semi- mechanized farming system. Atta El arid zones of the Sudan are underlain by Moula (1985) cited literature that showed water- bearing aquifers, mostly in the there was a direct positive correlation western and southern parts of the country. between discing frequency and The rest is underlain by Basement development of compaction layer. The complex offering little possibility of Vertisols of the Sudan's central clay underground water availability. The plains, though resilient to degradation by Figure 5. Re/afire fraxility index of Basement complex areas are overlain by erosion and nutrient depletion, are very th/jerent ark! it v :ones in the Sudan.

58 Extent, Severity and Causative Factors of Land Degradation in the Sudan units show no relation between the severity A new comprehensive approach in Soil Map of the World. Rome: Land of soil degradation and the density of the research and development with a major and Water Development Division, human population, either collectively or focus on rehabilitation of degraded land FAQ. by land-use type. In the FAQ data, and prevention of further degradation is Hellden, U. (1984). Drought impact population densities varied from 4 to 120 required. Such an approach is outlined, monitoring - a remote sensing study persons km2 as compared to population among others, in the relevant chapters of ofdesert ification in Kordofan. Sudan. densities ranging from 4.6 to 17.1 reported Agenda 21 (United Nations Conference Rapporter och Notiser 61. Lund: Lund by UNSO (1997) shown in table I. Several on Environment and Development, 1992), Universitetes Natugeografiska GLASOD units with population densities and in the Convention to Combat instituten. 61 pp. less than 10 persons per km 2 had severely Desertification. Ibrahim, F.N. (1978). Anthropogenic and very severely degraded soils, while causes of desertification in Western several other GLASOD units with References Sudan. Geogr, J., 2: 243-254. population densities between 25 to 66 Ibrahim. F.N. (1987). Ecology and land persons km 2 show light and moderate Ahlcrona. E. (1988). The impact ofclimate use changes in the Sudan. In: Little, degradations. These data from FAQ show and man on land transformation in P.D., Horowitz, M.M. & Nyerges, that human population density had little central Sudan- applications of remote A.E. (Eds), LandsAtRisk in the Third relationship with the degree or severity of sensing. Doctoral thesis, World; local level perspectives. pp. soil degradation. However, the impact of Meddlelanden Fran Lund 213-229. Boulder, CO: Westview the presence of some 650,000 refugees Universitets, Geografiska Institution Press. 310 pp. from Eritrea and Ethiopia around Kassala Arhandlingar No. 103. Ingrouille, M., Kordofani, M. & Baleela, area of eastern Sudan for some 20 years Akhtar, M. & Mensching, H.G. (1993). A. (I 99 1). Changing patterns of (from 1973 to 1993) is evident. Thousands Desertification in the Butana. Acacia variation as an indication of of square kilometres are denuded of their Geojournal, 31: 4 1-50. climatic change. In: Stone, J. C. (Ed.), vegetation, leaving the soil vulnerable to Al-Awad, A.A., Mohammed. Y.A. & El- Pastoral Econoniies in Attica and wind and water erosion. It is not clear Tayeb, S.A. (1985). In: Davis, H.R.J. Long-term Responses to Drought. whether these refugees are included in (Ed.), Natural ,esoç and 111 -al Proceedings of a Colloqium at the the population data provided by FAQ. development in arid lands, case studies University of Aberdeen. Aberdeen: froni Sudan. Tokyo, Japan: The United Aberdeen University, African Studies Conclusions Nations University. Group. 278 pp. Allan, J.A. (1 996). Attica South of the Kennedy-Cooke. B. (1944). The Red Sea Soil resources in the Sudan are inherently Sahara (25th Edn of a survey and Hills. In: Sudan Government Soil poor and their utilization is based on reference book of all the countries Conservation Committee's Report. extensive land use with minimum inputs south of the Sahara Desert). London: Khartoum: McCorquodale & Co. and, therefore, the extent of land Europa Publications Limited. 1084 pp. (Sudan). 174 pp. degradation and the impacts of disasters Atta El Moula, M.E. (1985). On the Middleton. N.J. (1985). Effect of drought such as drought, locusts, pests, etc. are problem of Resource Management in on dust production in the Sahel. quite substantial. Rainfed crop production the Sudan. Environmental Monograph Nature, 316: 43 1-434. and grazing enterprises in the arid and Series No. 4. Sudan: Institute of Ministry of Environnient Tourism (1996). semi-arid areas are based on unsustained Environmental Studies. University of Towards a National Plan for management and are subject to variable Khartoum. 131 pp. En vironniental Action in the Sudan. climates. Inappropriate grazing Dregne, H.E. (1991). Desertification Khartoum, Sudan: AOAD. 121 pp. management strategies have caused Costs: land damage and (In Arabic). changes in pasture composiflon, invasion rehabilitation. Lubbock. 31 pp. TX: Nachtergaele. F. (1996). Population in of woody weeds, a reduction in total International Centre for Arid and GLASOD units of the Sudan. Rome: vegetative cover and increased soil Semiarid Land Studies, Texas Tech. FAQ. (pers. comm.). erosion. This degradation has reduced University. 31 pp. Qlsson, K. (1985). Remote Sensing for productivity, increased variability in FAO/UNEP (1984). Map of Fuelwood Resources and Land production, and threatened the long-term Desertification Hazards: explanatory Degradation Studies in Kordofan, the sustainabi lity of the land resource base. It note. Nairobi. Kenya: United Nations Sudan. Doctoral thesis, Meddelanden is highly recommended that authorities in Environment Programme. 14 pp. Fran Lunds Universitets, Geografiska the Sudan urgently identify, map and Food and Agriculture Organization of the Institution Arhandlingar No. C. assess the potentials and constraints of United Nations (1988). The Sudan. Salih. E.M. (1996). The Geographical the land resources in different aridity Assessnient ?t the .tood. agriculture E.vtentofDesertitIcation in the Sudan. zones, map current land use, accurately and livestock situation. OSRO Report Khartoum, Sudan. 18 pp: Drought and assess the present conditions of land No. 04/881E. Rome, Italy: FAQ. Desertification Control Programmes resources, predict foreseeable hazards and Food and Agriculture Organization of Coordination and Monitoring Unit. develop methods for their sustainable use. the United Nations. (1 99 5). Digital 18 pp.

59 Desertification Control Bulletin, N2 34, 1999

Shepherd. A. (1985). Water, pastoralism myth. Chichester. England: John Soil Degradation. Nairobi: UNEP. and irrigation schemes in Eastern Wiley & Sons. 194 pp. UNSO (1997). Aridity Zones and Drvland Sudan: development of the Butana Tothill, J.D. (1954). Agriculture in the Populations: an assessment of prairie. Paper No. 22, OAE. Sudan. London: Oxford University population levels in the world's Birmingham: University of Press. 953 pp. drylands with reference to Africa. Birmingham. 21 p. UNCED(1 992). Earth Summit 1992. The Discussion Paper prepared by UNDP Sombroek, W., Brinkman, R. & Gommes, UN Conference on Environment and Office to Combat Desertification and R. (1993). Land Degradation in Arid, Development, Rio de Janeiro, 3-14 Drought (UNSO), New York, Semi-arid and Dry Sub-humid Areas: June 1992. New York: United Nations. Walsh, R.P. D., Hulme, M. & CampeU, 1. Definitions, concepts and 486 pp. M.D. (1988). Recent iainftill changes databases. Rome: Agriculture UN EP (1977). United Nations Conference and their impact on hydrology and Department, FAO. on Desertification, 29 August-9 water supply in the semi-arid zone of Suliman, M.M. (1 988). Dynamics of September 1977. World Map of the Sudan. Geographical Journal, 154: range plants and desertification Desertification at scale of 181- 198. monitoring in the Sudan. 1:25,000,000. A/CONF. 74/2. WRI/UNEP/UNDP/WB (1996). World Desertification Control Bulletin, 16: Prepared by FAO, UNESCO and Resources: A Guide to the Global 27-31. WMO. Environment. The Urban Environment Thomas, D.S.G. & Middleton, N.J. UNEP/ISRC (GLASOD) (1990). World 1996-97. Oxford: Oxford University (1994). Desert ification: Exploding the Map of the Status of Human- induced Press.

60 Indicators of Desertification in Kuwait and their Possible Management

ShabbirA. Shahid 30 05' N, and between longitude 46' 33' 1995) for natural resource management. and 48 30' E. Similar to other parts of the These NAPs would then serve as an Samira A. S. Omar Arabian Peninsula, Kuwait is operational framework for the characterized by a desert type environment implementation of the CCD in affected Samir Al-Ghawas with scanty rainfall, and a hot, dry climate. regions and countries, such as Kuwait. Summer is very hot, especially in July The present article presents a framework Arid/and Agriculture Department and August, with a mean temperature of to identify the key processes of natural Food Resources Division 37.4°C and a maximum mean temperature resource degradation in Kuwait and future Kuwait Institute for Scientific of 45°C (Al- Kulaib, 1984). The mean management options to moderate the Research, total precipitation is approximately 100 environmental effects. P.O. Box 24885 Saftit 13109 mm yr- ', the rate of evaporation which exceeds precipitation is approximately State of Kuwait Land degradation in 16.6 mm day'. The winds usually blow from the north-west and, to a lesser extent, Kuwait Abstract from the south-east. Dust and dust-storms, locally known as 'toze', are common An overall view of land degradation in Desertification is a world-wide problem, throughout the year, but more frequent Kuwait revealed water and wind erosion; but intensified in and zones as in the case during the spring and summer months, disappearance of vegetation; soil salinity of Kuwait. This article identifies some of March to August. and sodicity; sand encroachment; dust- the major factors and processes causing The United Nations Convention to storms; oil pollution; disturbance of desertification specific to Kuwait, with Combat Desertification (CCD) defines rangeland productivity and soil crusting possible management strategies to combat desertification as land degradation in arid, as the main components of land it. It identifies aridity, overexploitation of semi- and and subhumid areas resulting degradation. Types and processes of land land resources and inappropriate land use, from various factors, including climatic degradation and possible improvement insufficient water resources and pollution variations and human activities. It is a strategies with special reference to Kuwait as the main causes of degradation. The world phenomenon of the degradation of are described below. major degradation processes occurring in the world's ecosystem (Lanly, 1995), Kuwait are erosion (wind and water); which can be assessed by looking at the Erosion salinity and waterlogging; loss of soil resilience, which is a qualitative vegetative cover; soil disturbance category to capture the ability of land to Wind erosion causes serious problems. (mining); soil sealing/crusting and regenerate its capability after sustaining a This is due to loose, dry, sandy soils, poor hardsetting; depletion of organic matter shock (Bie, 1989). Kuwait signed and vegetation protection and periods of strong and soil fertility, and oil pollution. The ratified the Convention in 1995. The winds (Skidmore, 1988). Erosion,caused article also addresses management Convention adopts an integrated approach either by wind or water, induces scoring strategies to either reduce or moderate the to ensure that all aspects of the problems of unprotected land. Runoff, in particular, extent of land degradation in Kuwait. are addressed. It also suggests that a causes rills and gullies. The erosion is national action programme (NAP) should enhanced due to vegetation loss as a result Introduction be set up to overcome, or at least to reduce of salinity, loss of fertility, grazing, and or moderate, the problem, with the purpose human-induced factors such as military Kuwait is situated in the north-eastern of identifying factors which contribute to activities. Water erosion is divided into corner of the Arabian Peninsula; it covers desertification and practical measures to sheet, nil, gully, tunnel erosion and land approximately 17,818 square kilometres combat desertification and mitigate the slips. The majority of these erosion forms extending between latitude 28 30' and effects of drought (Sourang and Ahmad, are observable at Jal Az Zour watershed

61 Desert ifi cation Control Bulletin, N 34, 1999

(±145 metres above sea level). One of the most dramatic events in Table 1. Particle size distribution at three locations in Kuwait Kuwait is the dust- storms. Not only is the Mass % soil lost in the erosion process but also a Size Class larn proportionally higher percentage of plant 788894 E 3282827 N nutrients, organic matter, pesticides and Location 1 Grid Reference: <63 6.1 fine soil particles in the removed material 77.6 are lost. The surface is usually overlain 63-500 16,3 by several types of recent sediments that >500 include aeolian, residual, playa, desert 214268 E 3162931 N plain, slope, and coastal deposits. Of these, Location 2 Grid Reference: 7.6 the aeolian deposits are the most <63 55.9 predominant and account for 50 per cent 63-500 36.5 of the surface deposits (Khalaf, 1989). > 500 Khalafet. al., (1984) estimated that mean Grid Reference: 741847 E 3240681 N monthly falloutof soil deposition is 191.3 Location 3 <63 10.4 km2, while the mean monthly maxima 63-500 67.7 and minima were recorded in July 1002.7 >500 21.9 km2 and November 9.8 t km2 respectively.

Mechanism of soil particles movement suspension movement would the material with the soil so it reacts with automatically be reduced. the soil; this usually enhances the soil On the basis ofsizes of soil particles three binding forces and therefore soil different modes (Bagnold, 1973) of Future strategies for wind absorption of moisture; it also increases transport can be distinguished, they are: erosion control organic matter and nutrients in the soil if creep (> 500pm); the mulches are organic based. Recently, saltation (63-500pm) Efficient stabilization of Kuwait's very a new technology, synthetic hydrophylic suspension (<63pm). fragile soil is required to enhance the polymers, is emerging. They effectively There are three distinct phases environmental quality. A number of increase soil stabilization, decrease both (Schwab et al., 1993) of wind erosion: approaches have been evolved and tested wind and water erosion of soil, increase Movement; on desert soils, including heavy loads of infiltration rate, and act as a soil Transportation; farmyard manures, green manuring, conditioner (Agassi and Ben-Hur, 1992; Deposition. mulching, shelter belts, etc. The practice Ben-Hur and Keren, 1997). The polymers Table I reports the distribution of which maintains soil structure and induce flocculation of dispersed clay soil particles in various size fractions, conserves moisture should be followed. particles, bridge soil particles and collected at three different locations from The conservation of soil water, therefore develop soil structure. These the soil surfaces. The soil profiles of all particularly in and regions, is of utmost polymers may also be used in turfgrass the three sites have been classified as importance to control wind erosion. In an landscaped areas under Kuwait typic torripsamments at the subgroup level and environment, such as Kuwait, plants Municipality and are a very attractive of the Keys to Soil Taxonomy (USDA, with low water requirements should be new technology. 1994). Table I illustrates that the surface planted, particularly before high intensity soil material from the deserts of Kuwait winds. The vegetation used should have Water erosion are dominant in the size range which is the ability to grow on sandy soils and to predominantly susceptible to saltation grow in the open, firmness against the Water erosion in Kuwait is active only movement, and, therefore, saltation moves wind, and be long-lived and should during the October to March wet season, the main mass of windblown particles provide an obstruction to reduce wind when intensive rainfall (more than 20 (Chepil, 1945). In Kuwait, this isfollowed velocity. Under Kuwaiti dry conditions, mm in 8 to 10 hours) causes severe water by creep to a lesser extent and the least as the combination of shrubs and trees may erosion by runoff flows. Misak and suspension movement. The loss of plant be successful to minimize the effects of Dousari (1997) reported water erosion to nutrients from agricultural soils is usually wind erosion. The filtering brush matting, take place at the slopes of watersheds in attributed to losses by suspension (Leys debris, rock and gravel may also be Jal Az Zour (+ 145 m), Al-Ahmadi-Adan and McTainsh, 1994). As the suspension suitable in stabilizing sandy areas. (+ lOOm) and Wadi Al-Batin (+265 m). movement is caused by saltating particles A variety of mulches are available in Moreover, accelerated erosion prevails when hit at the surface, so that if saltation the market, both organic or inorganic. in grazing and camping areas, for example movement is initially controlled The best way of mulching is to incorporate Mesherif (Kuwait city), Ras Al-Sabiyah

62

Indicators of Desertificarion iii Kuwait and their Possible Management

(north-eastern portion of Kuwait Bay) shallow water-table and north-west Al-Jahra city. Runoff causes salinity. Irrigation scouring and deposition are the most with brackish water can significant indicators, further compound the problem. Proper manage- Soil salinity, sodicity, ment measures may be adopted, and salt-loving waterlogging and their plants, halophytes, may management be grown with potential for grazing (Photo I). The difference between rainfall and evaporation is invariably negative, Development of imposing severe restrictions on the development of agriculture in Kuwait. soil salinity The groundwater is mostly saline with some limited fresh and brackish water ThearidregionofKuwait (Al-Sulaimi et. al., 1996). The total receives inadequate and available groundwater in Kuwait is 247 irregular precipitation to million imperial gallons per day (MIGD) effectively leach the salts with total dissolved solids (TDS) ranging originally present in the between 2,000 and 5.000mg II and even soil profile. Normally higher in some places. The groundwater when the precipitation is is pumped from the regional aquifer more than 1,000 mm per systems found in the Kuwait Group and annum, salinity should Dammam Formation. The TDS of ground not develop (Chhabra, water of the Kuwait Group varies from 1996).Thisisnotthecase about 4,000 mglI along the Saudi Arabia in any arid zone, and in border to about 12,000 mg 11 along the Kuwait salinity occurs in north-eastern corner. Municipal and most of the areas which industrial wastewater are the two sources are classified under the Photo 2. Saline u'artelancls in Kuwait (e.vtrenic' ilortli- of recycled waters. The concentration of order Aridisols (USDA, easter/i coiner of Kuwait. TDS in the municipali water is reported 1996). The soils of as2.SOOmgll (Akbar and Puskas, 1992). Kuwait belonging to the order Entisols salinity, with the exception of the Wafra The high salt content in the soil and the andthesuborderpsamnientsdonotpresent area in the south of Kuwait where the high water-table causes soil salinity in entisols. In the coastal areas saline water seeps laterally from the sea and through capillary action reaches the surface (Photo 2). The loss of vegetation in this area is an early- s amine indicator of the effect of soil salinization as a land degradation process. . 1 he preseiice of salinity in the fields of Kuwait can be observed by these indicators: 4 . ' - a. Presence of white salt eftiorescence (crust):

. ft Reduced plant vigour or stunting in crops: * V c. Salt stains visible on dry soil surface: • . ci. Small to large bare areas can he seen: Affected area may worsen after high seasonal rainfall: Some species show marked changes in leaf colour and shape due to salt V stress: Photo 1. G/a:i/i on i,'/OO in,' halop/ivtes in the .vali,ic laiuh o/ luu at! ( l)u/ia. g. Only salt-tolerant species are present: north-east (?tKit)V Ii. Trees are dead or drying:

63 Desertification Control Bulletin, V34, 1999

I. High water-table, usually less than blending drainage and fresh water in in future. However, such activity usually 2 metres; suitable ratios prior to irrigating crops, improves the physical properties of the j. Collapse of green belts, buildings and conjunctive use of brackish and fresh mined refilled area without stones and and roads due to the corrosive effects water. If these targets are met, the benefits gravels. of salinity. will be felt by the whole community. Loss of vegetation and Research on salt-affected soils in Crusting, hardsetting and organic matter Kuwait soil structure impairment Very limited research has been done on The Kuwait terrestrial ecosystem is being the salt-affected soils of Kuwait, and so In Kuwait, off-route trafficking of heavy subjected to various stresses, for example the current extent is unknown, but some machinery, holiday camping and raindrop low rainfall; high temperature; insufficient of the most productive lands are impact have introduced compaction and good quality water; salinity; sodicity and threatened. Salinity control options have structural problems resulting in surface waterlogging and oil pollution, which not been tried on a large scale. Research sealing and crusting. This hinders plant collectively reduce vegetation. Loss of needs to determine the best practices for growth, infiltration rate and enhances vegetation cover, and particularly the soil soil reclamation and management, such erosion hazard. Crusting and hardsetting organic matter, presents a formidable and as the best mix of plants and possibly (15-40 cm) is a significant land unique research challenge. The vegetation subsurface drainage to achieve salinity degradation process. The impact is evident types in Kuwait are controlled by four control. The following are suggested as in severely degraded rangelands at majorecosystems, i.e. sandy desert plains, the pre-requisites to initiate research on Sulaibiya, Umm El-Eish and Meshrif. desert plateau, salt marshes and saline salt-affected soils: The problem was manifested by the depressions (Halwagy and Halwagy, A detailed soil survey of Kuwait; movement of heavy military machinery 1974). The major plant communities are Identification and characterization of and equipment during the armed conflict Cvperus con glomeratus, Rhanteriurne salt-affected soils; between 1990 and 1991. The use of papposum and Haloxylon salicornicurn. Identification of causes and sources synthetic polymers effectively increases The rangelands of Kuwait are in poor of salts; final infiltration rate and reduces runoff condition due to the armed conflict crisis Analysis of the soils for ECE, ESP, and erosion on soils subjected to raindrop and subsequent activities. Plant cover texture, lime and gypsum. impact (Agassi and Ben-Hur. 1992; Ben- was destroyed due to mechanical It is hoped that the project 'Soil Hur and Keren. 1997). Shallow ploughing activities and plant communities were Survey and Associated Activities for the (10-15 cm depth) is recommended to altered and subjected to pollution State of Kuwait' (Omar and Ghawas, overcome the soil crusting problem. following the explosion and ignition of 1995) will fill the above gaps and form over 700 oil wells (Omar and Zaman, the basis for future research. The soil Mining construction 1995). In agricultural areas, vegetation is survey of the whole of Kuwait material lost through salinity and waterlogging (reconnaissance I: 100,000) and detailed while open overgrazing has devastating (1:25,000) of 200,000 ha is due to be effects on land degradation. Soil organic completed in June 1999 according to Local activities produce gravels for roads, matter is an important component of soil, USDA (1993 a & b; 1994) specifications. landscaping and concrete from the being a major natural resource and Quaternary Dibdibba Formation constitutes a carbon pool three times Salinity control strategy (Kwarteng and A1-Ajmi, 1997). The larger than the atmospheric poo1, and Dibdibba occurs only in the northern organic matter also changes soil The strategy should aim to reduce desert of Kuwait, and consists of north- properties such as nutrients, pH and significantly the future effects of salinity. east- south-west, subparallel, elongated structure (Tisdale, et. al., 1990; Brady, This may be achieved by revegetating the ridges parallel to Wadi Al- Batin (Khalaf 1990). The strategy should be to maintain high water-table areas. The main emphasis et. al., 1982) which introduces dust into soil cover and soil organic matter levels, should be to provide further encourage- the atmosphere, covers buildings and which in turn improve soil structure and ment, assistance and technical support to households through wind transport, aggregate stability. An overall view of the scientists to identify the areas where creates surface crusting when brought to the vegetation cover in Kuwait revealed most effort should be directed. These the soil surface. The tailings from the that there are some controlled fenced areas, once identified, should be gravel mines appear as north- east-south- sites where open grazing cannot be considered as 'hot spots'. To achieve west trending artificial sand dunes practised; in these sites there is a success on salinity two targets need to be (Kwarteng and Al- Ajmi, 1997). Although significant build up of vegetation cover met: first, revegetation of saline lands gravel quarrying was abandoned in 1997, and an increase in the soil organic matter with salt-tolerant species and second, this activity has disturbed the natural soils, level, therefore, controlled grazing is installation of subsurface drainage and formed deep depressions and may develop suggested to tackle this issue of great proper disposal of saline water, or into anthropogenic soils (human activity) environmental concern.

64 Indicators of Desertification in Kuwait and their Possible Management

Oil pollution long-term productivity and the amenity environment (Keynote Address), p. value of the area. Grants and incentives 13-18. In: N. Al- Awadhi, M.T.Balba Kuwait is a major oil exporting country, should be made available to conduct and C. Kamizawa (eds). 'Restoration where the land resources are also subjected research, educate the community, to and Rehabilitation of the Desert to oil pollution, particularly during the enhance awareness on land degradation Environment'. Technical papers armed conflict in 1991 (Al-Awadhi et. problems and to protect farmers' presented at the Joint Kuwait Japanese al., 1996). The Greater Burgan oilfield, livelihoods. Symposium, March 3-4, 1996. consisting ofBurgan, Ahmadi and Magwa Elsevier. fields, is the second largest oilfield in the Conclusions Al-Kulaib, A.A., 1984. The climate of world after Saudi Arabia's Ghawar Kuwait: Meteorological Department. oilfield. During the conflict more than The state of Kuwait faces a number of Kuwait: Directorate General of Civil 732 oil wells and some oil refineries were desertification interventions of varying Aviation. Proc. Symposium on Land set on fire to create one of the world's degrees such as erosion; salinization and Degradation and Poverty, Rome 16 worst environmental disasters. At the waterlogging; crusting and hardsetting; June 1995, p. 13-14. Burgan oil field, 365 oil wells were set loss of vegetation and soil organic matter; Al-Sulaimi, J., Viswanathan, M.N., M. ablaze(Kwarteng and Bader, 1993). Since mining construction material and oil Naji and A. Sumait. 1996. Impact of then the surface of the oilfields and the pollution. A national action programme irrigation on brackish ground water surrounding productive soils turned into is required to reduce or moderate lenses in northern Kuwait. pools of oil lakes, tar mats and soot which desertification in the first instance, and Agricultural Water Management, eventually turned into black soil,degraded urgent attention by the Government is 3 1:75-90. forfurther uses (Al-Awadhi, 1996; Shahid needed. Possible management strategies Bagnold, R.A., 1973. The physics ofblown et. al., 1998). to enhance the environment quality are sand and desert dunes. 5th ed.. The crude oil spills have accumulated suggested. Chapman and Hall, London. in shallow depressions resulting in about Ben-Hur, M. and R. Keren, 1997. Polymer 70 oil lakes of 50 billion barrels of oil Acknowledgments effects on water infiltration and soil covering about 3,500 ha or 0.2 per cent of aggregation. Soil Science Society of the State of Kuwait; the soil contaminated The authors wish to express their sincere America Journal, 6:565-570. by soot is estimated to be in the order of gratitude to Dr. Mohammed Al-Attar Bie, Stein, W., 1989. Dryland Degradation 6 per cent of Kuwait (Fitzpatrick, 1996). (DDG, Life and Environmental Sciences, Measurement Techniques. Policy and These areas are in the north (20 km x 20 KISR), Dr. Nader Al-Awadhi (Director, Research Division, Environment km) and in the south (100 km x 50 km). Food Resources Division, KISR) and Dr. Department, World Bank, Washington Remote sensing data (1992 to 1995) show Afaf Al-Naser, Department Manager, DC. that the aerial extent is progressively Aridland Agriculture Department, KISR) Brady, N.C., 1990. The nature and decreasing (Kwarteng, 1998). The for their deep interest, support and properties of soils. 10th edition, hostilities in the region have greatly encouragement to complete this article. Macmillan Publishing Co. modified the chemical, physical and Chepil, W.S., 1945. Dynamics of wind biological characteristics of Kuwait's soil References erosion. I. Nature of movement of soil environment. by wind. Soil Sci. 60:305-320. Agassi, M. and M. Ben-Hur, 1992. Chhabra, R., 1996. Origin and Stabilizing steep slopes with soil Distribution of Salt -Affected Soils. In: Landcare - management of degraded lands conditioners. Soil Tech .5:249-256. Soil Salinity and Water Quality. R. Akbar, A. and K. Puskas, 1992. Water Chhabra (Editor) Oxford and IBH availability. Sub-task 2b. In: Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi Landcare is a partnership between Development study for the agricultural and Calcutta. production and conservation; it is about a sector in Kuwait. Progress report, Fitzpatrick, R., 1996. Soil taxonomy and whole community caring for their land - Kuwait Institute for Scientific laboratory analysis. Quality Assurance government agencies, the farming Research, Kuwait. Report May 16 to June 2, 1996, Soil community, awareness in schools and Al-Awadhi, N., R. Al-Daher, A. El Survey and Associated Activities for interested individuals. Working together Nawawy and M.T. Balba, 1996. the State of Kuwait, pp. 15. to tackle land degradation problems is Biorernediation of Oil-Contaminated Halwagy, R. and Halwagy, M., 1974. sensible, especially when the cause may Soil in Kuwait. I. Landfarming to Ecological studies on the desert of not necessarily be confined to one Remediate Oil-Contaminated Soil. Kuwait, Part II. The vegetation. property. The Government of Kuwait Journal of Soil Contamination, Journal of University of Kuwait should take appropriate steps in forming 5(3):243-260. (Science) I (1):87- 95. landcare groups in collaboration with Al-Awadhi, N., 1996. Overview of Kwarteng, A.Y. and Bader,T.A., 1993. government agencies and the farming Kuwait experience in restoration and Using satellite data to monitor the community. This will help in improving rehabilitation of the desert 1991 Kuwait oilfires. Arabian Journal

65 Desertification Control Bulletin, N 2 34, 1999

of Science and Engineering, 18:95- causetor concern. Aust. J. Soil Water Workshop (Classification. correlation 115. Conserv. 7:30- 35. and Management of Anthropogenic Kwarteng, A.Y. and AI-Ajmi. D., 1997. Misak, R. and Dousari. A., 1997. Soils) September 21 to October 2, Satellite remote sensing applications in Controlling land degradation at several 1998, Las Vegas. USA. the state of Kuwait. Publication of the areas in Kuwait. Phase-I: Mapping Skidmore, EL., 1988. Wind erosion. pp. Kuwait Institute for Scientific and Assessment. Proposal submitted 203-233. In R. Lal (ed.) Soil erosion Research, The State of Kuwait, pp. 101. by Remote Sensing Group of E&ED, research methods. Soil and Water Kwarteng, A.Y., 1998. Multitemporal KISR, November 1997. Conserv. Soc., Ankeny, IA. Remote Sensing data analysis of Misak, R., A. Kwarteng and Al Eneizi, Sourang. C. and Ahrnad, N., 1995. The Kuwait's oil lakes. Environment A., 1997. Assessment and controlling Global Response: The United Nations International, 24(1/2): 121-137. water erosion in Kuwait. The Convention to Combat Khalaf, F.I., 1989. Desertificcition and International Symposium on Soil Desertification. Remarks from the aeolian processes in the Kuwait Erosion and Dryland Farming, Xian, statements by Messrs Cheikh Sourang Desert. Journal of Arid Environment People's Republic of China, (IFAD) and Nessirn Ahmad (IFAD). 16:125- 145. September 15-19, 1997. Proc. Symposium on Land Khalaf, F.1., Gharib, I.M., and Al- Omar, S.A.S. and Ghawas, S., 1995. Degradation and Poverty, Rome 16 Hashash, M.Z., 1984. Types and Proposal: Soil Survey and Associated June 1995. P. 13-14. characteristics of the recent surf ce Activities for the State of Kuwait. Tisdale, S.L., Nelson W.L. and Beaton deposits of Kuv'ait, Arabian Gulf. KISR publication No. 0077 R9/84. J .D., 1990. Soilft'rtilitv ancltertili:ers. Journal of Arid Environment 7:9-33. Omar, S.A.S. and Zaman, S., 1995. Post- 4th Edition, Macmillan International Khalaf, F.I., Gharib I.M. and Al-Kadi. war rangeland status of Kuwait. Proc. Co. USDA, 1993a. Soil Survey AS., 1982. Sources and genesis of Fifth International Rangeland Manual. USDA-NRCS Agric. Handb. Pleistocene gravel/v deposit in Congress, pp. 414-415. 18, U.S. Govt. Print. Office, northern Kuwait. Sedimentary Schwab, GO., Fangmeier, D.D., Elliot Washington, D.C. Geology 31:101- 107. W.J. and Frevert, R.K., 1993. Soiland USDA, 1993b. National Soil Survey Lanly, J.P., 1995. Desertification: What Water Conservation Engineering. Handbook, title 430-VT. USDA- it is and why it matters. Remarks from Chapter 6: WinclErosion and Control NRCS, U.S. Govt. Print. Office, the statement by FAO presented by Practices, 4th Edition, John Wiley & Washington, D.C. Mr. J.P. Lanly. Proc. Symposium on Sons. Inc. p. 114- 133. USDA, 1994. Keys to Soil Taxonomy. Land Degradation and Poverty, Rome Shahid, S.A., Omar, S.A.S. Al-All. E. 6th Edition. U. S. Govt. Print. Office, 16 June 1995. pp. 9-10. and AbdElgawad, M., 1998. Washington, D.C. Leys, J. and McTainsh, G., 1994. Soil loss Anthropogenic soils in Kuwait. and nutrient declines by wind erosion- Abstract submitted for International

66 The Social Work Research Centre Barefoot College

A Success Story in Desertification/Land Degradation Control *1

Mutsa Chasi and Edith institution is decentralized to eight field It was found that the technical Mussukuya** centres with resident local staff' across the interventions based on surveys were not project area. These function as training achieving the expected improvement and The project received UNEP's 1998 and resource outreach centres for discernible impact in the existing 'Saving the Drvlands' award* communities. SWRC considers livelihood and management of the land The authors were consultants hired environmental conservation and resource base by the poor. by UNEP, with funds from IFAD, development as one and this is achieved The SWRC experience of the 1970s through human resource development led toachange in its policy and strategies, to evaluate the success ot'the within communities. from technical interventions delivered by Projec t* * graduates of external institutions to a Background community-based development approach Introduction where attitude-change processes featured. They had to learn from the people in order Barefoot College. also known as the Social Early resource base surveys to reach out for their effective Work and Research Centre (SWRC), is a participation. Consequently. SWRC voluntary organization founded in 1972, SWRC's environmental work began in changed its philosophy and thrust. They and provides services to the rural poor in 1973 when it carried out a water survey would assist communities to improve on Silora Block. The College is located in for mapping of the existing, potential and the capacity to handle problems with the rural area it serves, Tilonia village, quality of water resources. At the time, locally available resources, while meeting situated 55 kilometres from Ajmer, the the provision of drinking water in the arid basic needs and improving their district headquarters in the state of environment constituted one of the main livelihoods. Human resource Rajasthan. India. The area extends over programmes. Socio-economic surveys development of local residents would 82,349 square kilometres with 110 were carried out to identify viable contribute towards this initiative. The villages and a population of 100,000. solutions for the alleviation of drought, strategy was to combat desertification Silora falls under the arid region and particularly for the rural poor, in Silora through an integrated approach with short, experiences frequent droughts. Block. medium- and long-term goals which The College has relied on building In 1976, the College worked directly respond to the written project request and and using local capacity. The eight with the community in planning and priorities of the people. programmes run by the college include implementing land-use plans for the water, education, health, social forestry, environmental improvement of villages. Financial sustainahility of agriculture, animal husbandry, women's SWRC and Panchayats focused on Barefoot College and programme, communications and rural community land leases, grazing land, p1'og!.annn(s industries. Of the 178 staff up to 95 per deforestation, afforestation and the cent are local staff members who have inadequate access to infrastructure and Barefoot College programmes are received training from the college. The services, especially water and sanitation. financed by its own core funds which

/ I Ins article was rei'iewed and ieclinnaIlv edited h' Eli:aheth Migongo Bake, Programme Officer. tJNEP.

67 Desert ifl cation Control Bulletin, Ne 34 1999 amount to 30 per cent of project budget, the extensive grazing land-use system together with important basic the Government of India contributes 30 was replaced by intensive grazing; components, and inputs into long-term per cent and 40 per cent comes from • Increase in land-use pressure, as a and sustainable environmental international agencies such as Hivos, result of the above, leading to land programmes. It is anticipated that the USAID and Save the Children Fund. degradation with productivity and human resources that are developed bring Barefoot's own core funds are generated carrying capacity of the pastures about the desired change from within the from professional services and goods. falling below the natural potential of community. Government grants are allocated the ecosystem. This retrogression There is an intricate interface of the towards eight programmes where the gave rise to the formation of degraded or reclaimed resource base with College has a comparative advantage over 'wastelands' (photo I); the people and communities. SWRC's Government for programme • Communities being faced with success is on the community and human implementation. The devolution of power inadequate fodder and grazing, giving element interface with the natural resource and of funds to Panchayats implies that rise to low livestock productivity. base conservation and preservation so communities will now have access to The Wasteland Development and that the environment is in harmony with public financial resources for Goat Programme were initiated to the sustainable development of people. development programmes oftheirchoice, redress these constraints. including services of SWRC. Achievements/successes in The Barefoot approach Land use constraints in Silora the implementation of block The Barefoot approach to reclamation SWRC community- based and prevention of dryland degradation is programmes The Silora block was facing land use focused on people. It is estimated that up constraints arising from: to 80 per cent of the investment in the • Increase in human and animal programme is in people and processes, Wasteland development and goat population; while 20 per cent is in tangible strategies programme • Encroachment on open-access such as wasteland reclamation; water grazing land or village commons; conservation; rooftop rainwater Approximately 2.4 km2 of wasteland have • A breakdown of the effective village harvesting and non-conventional energy been successfully reclaimed and level institutions for land alternatives. This has given rise to an regenerated with trees over a total area of management, which contributed to integrated and intersectoral development 1,295 km2. Out of the eight wasteland overgrazing and deforestation, approach where livelihoods and short- development projects reviewed there was especially of the village commons; term basic community needs (food, a failure rate of 25 per cent due to • Cows and buffaloes being replaced energy, water, health, literacy, community land- use conflicts at Gundli by small ruminants, in consequence employment) are central requisites, and Singla, where reclamation was not effected. The successes in the implementation of this programme include: Vegetation and the ecosystem have been revitalised on reclaimed wastelands. There has been an increase in wildlife species, soils have improved, with reduced soil erosion rates. There has been a notable rise in the water- table in the watershed resulting in increased areas under irrigation due to the improved water yield of wells; Rehabilitation of vegetation incorporates biological diversity with three vegetation strata, including indigenous species with amixture of trees, legumes and grass planted. The economic value of species, palatability and preferred livestock feed is important in species selection (photo 2); The programme has successfully Photo I Ti/onia wasteland, adjacent to the SWRC Campus Laud degradation as a decentralized nurseries for communities result of intensive grazing with high stocking rate of small ruminants. outside wasteland development areas.

68 The Social Work Research Centre Barefoot College: A Success Story in Desertification/Land Degradation

underground storage tanks. This is a low cost effective solution in areas of brackish water where the community has direct control over the water resource; • Digging man-made depressions for monsoon rain collection for livestock watering and recharging ground- water. This has had positive impacts in desalinization, environmental protection and raising the water-table level; • 600 jobs have been created through training local people (the youth, women and the illiterate) in water pump management and technical operation within their communities (photo 4); • The water programme generates Photo 2. Aftrestation and land reclamation activities in Tilonia. income for staff salaries. Education, training and Night schools and village communities water supply in cases of areas with employment programme participate in this reforestation brackish water. A pipeline water programme where seedling survival rate supply is installed where lower caste Communities operate 85 night schools is up to 80 per cent; households cannot have access to with a total of 3,000 pupils who cannot There has been increased productivity water pumps due to caste attend day school as they help their of wastelands through vegetation discrimination. Piped water has families in agricultural and other regeneration with financial returns from benefited 14,000 families in six economic activities. In this programme the sale of fodder. Other benefits include districts; 114 local teachers have been trained and direct grazing and fuel: Nine million litres of water were acquired employment. The programme Wasteland development incorporated conserved through the SWRC instils environmental awareness and the management of the indigenous Sirohi improvement and application of local protection in the 3,000 children. A goat by the expansion of a phenotypically knowledge in harvesting rooftop rain children's parliament is an innovation and genotypically superior animal through water and redirecting it to concrete under the education programme. The selected buck servicing at field centres. The centres also maintained pure breeds and quality Sirohi does. Goat stall feeding was not adopted due to labour, economic and production constraints. It was envisaged that participating communities would demonstrate that planned and systematic management of village commons was beneficial and this would lead to a demand for the development of remaining areas. However, this process has been slow.

Rural water programme

The rural drinking water supply programme has benefited 1.9 million people in the following areas: • Well drilling and successfully installing 1,300 hand pumps (photo 3); Photo 3. (ommiinitv-built sustainable water pumps provide oaIee'/or Ii eesto(A • Construction of a pipeline for sweet and household use.

69 Desertification Control Bulletin, N 34, 1999

sustainable as it is issues-based and does not receive external funding.

Achievements of SWRC in other programmes

In its portfolio, SWRC includes other successful programmes which contribute towards the well-being of the people, their livelihoods, environmental protection and preservation. These include a successful rural communication system, a community health programme and the solar programme. SWRC research, trials and demonstrations which seek to explore options and alternatives of environmentally friendly farming systems and livelihoods incorporate biogas, l'li oto 4. I$ulia, -u 1 / IIot c 11 a[c] C mmii ace and Woniemi Group Coiimnii 11 c mi/cu ihci,\ organic farming, and vermiculture. The development programmes Government of India has established 275 The women's programme directly contribute to infrastructure more such schools in other remote areas. improvements for the communities in Up to 50 per cent of project budgets The women's programme consisting of terms of access to water through storage is channelled towards alternative 58 groups with a membership of 2,000 is tanks, piped water and pumps; sanitation, employment creation benefiting the poor instrumental in the initiation of wasteland solar lighting (photo 6 ), day and night to break the vicious 'poverty and land reclamation, water schemes and schools, crèche, clinics and the eight field degradation cycle'. There are 2,500 construction of mechanical conservation centres. The main campus hosts the post artisans employed through the rural works. Through their collective action office, a telephone exchange which industry programme while projects and lobbying, the women's groups have operates on solar power, a clinic, school employ up to 2,600 people in the Silora gained a minimum wage status and equal and training facility for the community community. Impressive achievements opportunities for relief work. This is one and the State. The Tilonia craft shop and have been made with respect to SWRC sector of the community which believe export company which is a member of the training and employment of the youth as they have been empowered through the Alternative Trading Organisation is Barefoot doctors, engineers, etc. activities with SWRC. The programme is housed at the SWRC campus.

Social capital

Institutions and sustainahility in project opc'rations and maintenance The Barefoot approach develops sustainable local institutions through broadly based participatory processes resulting in elections of committees who administer projects. Committees collect service fees and operate their own bank accounts. The impact of institutional building was reflected in the 1995 Panchayat elections when 40 per cent of the elected leadership had SWRC linkages as staff or committee members. giving SWRC philosophies an upper hand in (4 community politics and priorities. Photo 5. Fetching, (•uz/'!ving and rending: just a fl'w of the activities in an ordinar' day .tor the women of Ti/on ía.

70 The Social Work Research Centie Barefoot College: A Success Story in Desertiflcation/Land Degradation

achievements in the services sectors, there is a conflict of interest, ideas, practices and standards with formal institutions. That graduates and technical reports are not always the prerequisite to development has been demonstrated by the approach. Nonetheless, technical problems < still require systematic attention of specialists and researchers. There is a need for benchmark surveys for monitoring and evaluation since SWRC is experienced in application and dissemination of local knowledge systems. This could be shared with a wider community. From this perspective, do c u men tat ion and collaboration with formal institutions remains valid, perhaps in the context of Barefoot practices of participatory approaches.

Photo 6. Bwe/oot solar enneer on so/ar-powered telephone e.vcliange with 200 lines. Next to him are ftthricated solar lanterns. Replication and the impact of' Baretoot programmes on policies

Sustainahility of essential collective decision making, self reliance Barefoot has had an impact on policy at services and austerity. These principles imply that all levels. At local institutional levels the institution is accessible, approachable communities now submit written requests Communities sustain their own basic and flexible in its approaches. This for development proposals. Proposals service needs, such as education, water provides the ability to reach the poor, include c om in unity financial and developed wasteland. It is evident disabled and disadvantaged who contributions, labour, implementation and that the culture of financial contributions participate in all programmes. project management arrangements. and Shramadan (community voluntary Consequently, SWRC service delivery SWRC receives more requests than its labour) is now acceptable where systems have remained relevant and capacity to implement projects in Silora communities require services. sustainable while achieving notable Block. Consequently, programmes that matter achievements across socio-economic The State Government now runs to the community are economically classes and castes, especially the poor, various education programmes based on sustainable and their maintenance is throughout its 24 years of existence. Barefoot principles, such as the Lok institutionalized, so ensuring reliable Jumbish and the Shiksha Karmi infrastructure and service provision once Socio-econo,nic constraints. programmes. A community-based water the project has been implemented. attitudes, and social pump maintenance system has replaced contlict the three-tiersystem which was controlled Villages select their representatives who problems are trained at Barefoot College. The by the district level. Barefoot College is trained manpower return to their Problems remain, despite the massive the official State training centre for community to operate and maintain input and efforts by SWRC into attitude mechanics in water pump programmes. project infrastructure under the change processes, social cohesion and At national level, SWRC's Director supervision of committees. organisational structures. The desired has influenced a shift from the charity or impact through human development is a welfare approach for the rural poor to Preservation of local culture, slow process. Some of the projects have technology-oriented and sustainable skills and knowledge systems failed to make the expected impact due to participatory development programmes. problems at community level: To this extent 0.02 percentof the national The Barefoot approach respects, builds • Laud-use conflict between budget is now allocated to voluntary upon and gives legitimacy to local culture, communities and individuals: organization work with the rural poor at skills and knowledge systems. The rooftop • Social problems of resource sharing; village and grass-roots levels. water harvesting and rural communication • Attitude problems prohibit adoption Up to 23 voluntary organizations programmes are examples of of innovations: (VOs), which share similar aspirations improvements of indigenous practices. • Management of common property with the SWRC, are affiliated to Barefoot The college has five non-negotiable remains problematic. College through a network. The majority principles: equality, decentralisation, While SWRC has made remarkable of these VOs were founded by former

71

The Zabre" Women Agro-Ecological Project Burkina Faso

A Success Story in Desertification/Land Degradation Control *1

Racine Kane : HenriM. Lo** ,

The project received UNEP's 1998 'Saving the Drvlands' award. * The authors were consultants hired by UNEP, with funds from IFAD, to evaluate the success oft/ic t: project. * *

Introduction

Established in 1987 through the will of the Association of Zabré Women, better known as PLY Women's Association, to .. I work for the improvement of agricultural Photo 2. Good 1/00/UI coOl/ni iT ii 1 1).11 , i ijic in Zoaa.

productivity through better management of soils, this project involved the preparation and intensive utilization of compost and manure, composted in pits (photos I and 2) in peanut, millet and soybean fields and in vegetable gardens. It also included a training prograrnnle. The other component of the project consisted of water erosion control through training and the construction of bunds and stone cordons. Among the significant results obtained with organic fertilizers is the improvement in soil structure and fertility. which resulted in a significant increase in agricultural productivity. These results were met with so much enthusiasm that many women joined the association, along Photo 1. Compost pit and a/it! -elision diI..cs in l-akoioit,'ou. with other new actors such as men and

/ This article i'as reviewed amcl technical/v edited hr Eli:aheth Migongo Bake, Programme Ojjicer, UNEP.

73 Desertification Control Bulletin, N 34, /999 herdsmen who contributed input in the 100000 residents. The population in the living conditions of communities, making of compost. The income drawn PLY's zones of intervention is also very especially women. This purpose is, in a from these crops has consequently young (60 per cent are under 20). The way, a sine qua non for achieving the increased, thus allowing farmers, women average density is relatively high (56/ basic objective of self-promotion in rural in particular, to achieve better living and kni2 ). areas occupied by the PLY Wonien's working conditions. The main ethnic groups in the Association. Having started with this agro- Département are Bissas. Koussassis and Specific objectives: ecological project, PLY's activities are Mossis. There are also Fulanis, but these • To restore the fertility of soils through today diversified to include socio- are hitherto generally in transhumance. Four organic improvement techniques, economic units oriented towards mother religious groups are present: Animists. since chemical fertilizers are and child health, the conservation and Muslims, Catholics and Protestants. inaccessible to farmers, especially processing of fruit and vegetables, cereal The economic activities are women: banks, a savings and loan scheme, and dominated primarily by agriculture, • To control land erosion through even the management ofa filling station, especially food crops, and cattle rearing simple techniques than can easily be with education and training as the under its two main forms, traditional mastered by the communities: backbone of all these activities. These sedentary and transhumant. There are • To promote income-generating new activities may appear as competing many constraints to efficient agricultural activities so as to improve the living with the agro- ecological project, but they production, among them are: the conditions of the communities in are in fact complementary and concentration of farmers on exhausted general, but especially the economic indispensable to the improvement of lands (no fallow), lack of organic manure status of women. working conditions and to a greater and difficulty in accessing credit for inputs financial autonomy of the association. such as chemical fertilizers. As for Evaluation methodology pastoralists, they are faced with the lack Location and general of zones for animal husbandry, rustling Evaluation was carried out with PRA background and animal health problems. tools such as the use of secondary data, Commercial activities are rather group interviews and key informants and PLY carries out activities in three embryonic: the bulk of trade takes place focus groups. These different tools of provinces of Burkina Faso: Boulgou, during markets organized every three days. inquiry were combined with direct Yatenga and Zoundwéogo. Agro- One notes the presence of some economic observations during field visits and visits ecological activities (preparation and units (millet mills, cereals banks, to the various socio-economic units. utilization oforganic fertilizers and green maintenance units, etc.) as well as a number manure) initiated by this association are ofvillage groupings, development support Evaluation findings carried out in the various administrative services (governmental and non- units (Departements) in these three governmental) and projects. The evaluation of composting activities provinces. This report deals, however, The agro-ecological project was initiated by PLY women reveals many with the Départernent de Zabré only. initiated in 1987 through the will of PLY positive aspects that ought to be located 185 kilometres north of women to work for the improvement of highlighted. These results, noticeable in Ouagadougou, in the Sudanian Sahel part agricultural productivity through better several areas, include the following: of the country. management of soil fertility. To achieve From a physical standpoint, this zone this objective, the association requested Environmental protection and corresponds to the central plateau. The and obtained formative training sessions improvement climate is of a Sudanian type and is in agro-ecology at Pierre Rhabi Centre in characterized by the alternation between Gorom-Gorom, northern Burkina Faso. In this sector, mention must be made of a long dry season (November to May) and The training initially involved 25 women the following: a rainy season from June to October and from various villages of the zone, and Soil fertility improvement. There is linked to the incursion of the monsoon. focused on techniques for making and evidence that the uninterrupted use Rainfall varies between 5.8 millimetres utilizing compost (compost and manure of soils that have lost their fertility in March and 204.4mm in September: the pits). not only has adverse effects on yields annual average for the period 1993 to but also provokes, in the medium and 1997 is 883 mm. Long-term overall long term, destructuring and, According to the latest census in 1985, objective of the project therefore, accelerated degradation of there were 84.274 inhabitants in the lands that thus become prone to Département de Zabré (PQD. September erosion (wind as well as water). 1997). With an annual population growth The long-term objective of the project is Composting has thus contributed not rate of approximately 2.8 per cent, this the control of land degradation resulting only to increasing soil fertility and population is presently estimated at from drought and poverty, and to improve yields (twofold increase in most

74 The Zabré 14/omen Agro-Eco/ogical Project - Burkina Faso: A Success Story in Desertijication/Land Degradation

association brings together 11,000 members (women and men), through 703 . 4. grass-root groups in 200 villages. j Composting activities started with a group of 25 women who received initial training. Today, thanks to the popularity

_..-. - of the training, there are more than 8,000 farmers who have mastered the technique of composting and the preparation of manure pits. Composting with organic ss - matter is the only source of fertilizer used in communal and individual peanut and cereal fields, as well as in vegetable 4' gardening. 41 In the framework of the other -. - activities (socio-economic units, savings W, and credit, child and mother health) which support agriculture, the main activity, Photo 3. A n/i -ei'o loll Icchniques are ,ilasIel'e(I In hi 11 /a/ldst upcs o/ Biiigu area. training and education (literacy and learning of basic French) are essential and enable populations to fully participate cases), but also to the opening to from vegetable gardens (photos 5 and in the project. Furthermore, these have agriculture of lands hitherto deemed 6), however, achievements are less become conditions for being entrusted sterile and exposed to desertification remarkable: with management responsibilities. (photos I and 2); Significant improvement of Measures for the protection and agricultural yields has therefore been Diversification of activities restoration of soils and significant made possible by the application of reduction of water erosion. Excessive organic fertilizers (compost, manure) Having started with initiatives ainied at deforestation and mismanagement of and green manure (nitrogen-fixing improving agricultural productivity and soils have exposed these to erosion, plants also used in reforestation, such food security, activities carried out by especially water erosion. Addition of as Acacia aihida). PLY are now much diversified with the compost to the soil to improve fertility main objective of removing constraints cannot, therefore, have the expected Raising the level of participation to a more active participation of women benefits if it is not accompanied by through education and training in the local development process. measures aimed at preventing water Activities have been initiated involving from washing off the top layers of the Five women are responsible for the mother and child health (family planning, soil and the organic fertilizers applied; establishment of PLY in 1975. Today, the fight against malnutrition. etc.). primary In the framework of its support to training and to the popularization of composting techniques. CEAS also initiated the training of trainers in waterand soil conservation and, more specifically, in the construction of biinds and stone cordons. This technique, now mastered by populations (both men and women), enabled the recovery of a wealth of degraded lands and the practice of strip cropping on hillsides (photos 3 and 4 ): Production of seedlings and reforestation activities so as to allow an artificial regeneration of the vegetation. These activities are easily noticeable in vegetable gardens. where (association of fruits and Photo 4. .4 PLY member .siandiin' in .tioiit (t her field in Palouii i0i1; note the stone vegetables) is a clear option. Apart anti- erosion bonds.

75 Desertijication Control Bulletin, N 34, 1999

populations, thanks to the economic impact of certain activities carried out by the association. This is part and parcel of the struggle against poverty, an important factor contributing to the degradation of natural resources and to desertification; Literacy classes and training in management techniques, agricultural techniques (composting, manure pits, stone cordons, etc.), learning of basic French, etc. with a special focus on training of trainers for the replication and sustainability of actions. This training creates much more awareness and effective participation; • Awareness of excessive dependence compost fits in the fore ground on external funding and a quest for financial autonomy in the medium to health care and village pharmacies, etc. the compost-utilizing (agro-ecological) long term through the development In general, however, the activities carried project and, in general,to all the activities of income-generating activities out are far more lucrative and are designed carried out by the association and which (economic units) such as the to support traditional subsistence ones. bear enough complementarity for the most conservation and processing of They include the conservation and part or generate income likely to supplant agricultural products and vegetables, processing of agricultural products, the external funding in the long term. the management of the only filling production of shea butter, natural Lessons learnt from this experience station in Zabré, the refreshment stall, insecticide (from neem trees) and soap, and which constitute indicators of etc.; weaving, the sale of drinks, the sustainability are the following: • Education in savings and credit issues; management of a filling station, etc. • Women's awareness of the role they • Good interaction with the local All these activities may appear to have to play in the social and administration; have no connection with the agro- economic life of the region and their • Further decentralization of decision- ecological activities of the project; capacity to fulfil this role; making centres within the association; members of PLY are nevertheless • Improvement in the living conditions • Development of mechanisms for the unanimous in recognizing that this of women and, in general, of all management of social conflicts; diversification, this orientation towards financially profitable activities is indispensable and, after all, they do have complementarity with agriculture, the main activity. Two examples can be cited in this regard: • Misola flour intended for children suffering from malnutrition is made from peanut, soy and millet cultivated in individual or community fields; • Income drawn from the refreshment stall and the filling station also contribute to support agricultural activities. These economic units are also perceived as investments that could contribute to greater financial autonomy.

Sustainability of activities -

This aspect was evaluated in relation to activities undertaken in the framework of Photo 6. tv/embers oJ PLY have access to water in their vegetable gardens.

76 The Zabré Women Agro-Ecological Project Burkina Faso: A Success Story in Desertifi cation/Land Degradation

• Development of mechanisms for the Government, through decentralized the struggle against environmental management. technical structures (regional agro- degradation; the improvement of soils Achievements of the agro-ecological pastoral promotion centres, regional cultivated using newly popularized project are judged excellent by many department of the environment and organic fertilizer production observers. The significant increase in forestry, etc .). techniques, etc. yields and in the quality of production The launching of PLY's endeavours • With 11,000 members, PLY is today resulted, however, in the arrival of new in 1975 triggered the setting up of many the most important women's actors, i.e. men and herdsmen who refuse associations, all of which are striving for organization in Burkina Faso; it is a to let women collect dung. Despite the self-promotion in the rural areas. powerful means of lobbying in the income they could generate from the sale The impact of the agro-ecological struggle for more equity and social of dung, the price for a cart having project as the first activity of PLY cannot justice; increased from CFA 250 to CFA 500, be dissociated from that of the association • The elevation of women's aspirations they refuse to sell it, preferring to maintain itself, especially as regards the status of also constitutes an important element their compost and manure pits and to women. To better understand the determining their capacity to take up spread the manure preferably in their own qualitative changes that have occurred, it challenges; this is a major factor fields; would be necessary perhaps to recall that contributing to development; 'the condition of rural women depends to • Lastly, thanks to PLY, many women Replicability of activities a large extent on their status in their own have access to knowledge (literacy, society'. In the PLY zone of intervention, practical training), which frees them The rate at which membership to the 'they have a status of wives, mothers and from ignorance, poverty and men's association increased, bringing together workers. They are encouraged to have as domination. as many as 11,000 active members in the many children as possible' (PQD, In many respects, the experience of agro- ecological project is solid evidence September 1997). 'Tedious and multiple PLY has generated substantial direct or of the replicability of actions; the Savings domestic chores leave no time for women indirect benefits. Among the direct and Credit Co-operative (COOPEC) to participate in literacy, education and benefits, one notes: launched in 1990 with 23 members, today training activities intended for them' • Actions undertaken in the framework boasts 390 members. (PQD, op. cit.). In general, women have of PLY activities that started with the Agriculture remains the main land- no say when it comes to making decisions agro-ecological project (awareness- use/income-earning activity, either in concerning family life or to managing raising, literacy, education and vegetable gardens or in individual and crop production from family fields, even training) have allowed women in this community cereal and peanut fields. The though they have to bear the brunt of most region of Burkina Faso to have more diversification of activities takes into expenses (education and child support, power from political, financial and account not only the complementarity school fees. etc.). socio-cultural standpoints; between activities, but also their financial The following conclusions emerge • Regular income for women who were profitability; from the reports consulted, interviews busy previously only for part of the • Replication has been made possible with resource persons and field year with rainfed crops from which by the following: observations: they drew little profit, because of the • Use of simple techniques, methods • Female members of the association critical decline in soil fertility and a and forms of organization; are more open-minded than non rainfall deficit. This income is • Training of trainers, basic literacy members and they have a higher generated through the sale of and post-literacy classes, learning of economic and educational standing. vegetable and cereal production basic French; They are more confident, they can (individual fields) which have notably • Utilization of locally available and express themselves in public and they improved with compost and manure inexpensive inputs; have therefore a more positive image pits (where they hardly obtained five • Sound organization and sense of of themselves. Today, in the zone of millet bags from previously exhausted responsibility; intervention of PLY, especially in lands, they now obtain up to nine • Invitation by PLY of non members to Zabré, it is impossible to make bags and a better quality of ears); various activities, including training important decisions without women's (with the diversification of activities, sessions; participation; income is also generated through the • Exchange of experiences with • The impact of PLY is remarkable at sale of beverages and gasoline by the organizations in other regions. different levels, including food Association); security (with the creation of cereal • Savings made possible with this Social Capital and vegetable banks) in a zone where income give them access to small there was a critical production gap, loans for the acquisition of Before the establishment of PLY, sometimes resulting in food shortages agricultural equipment or for interventions in rural areas were mainly and malnutrition; literacy in national commercial operations; PLY has set under the responsibility of the languages; agricultural equipment; up a modern and flexible enough

77 Desertification Control Bulletin, Ne-' 34 1999

savings and credit system for which and a coordinator in Ouagadougou in the region in general, and within the the membership fee is CFA 500, with with limited support personnel; association in particular. an annual contribution of CFA 600. • Setting up of infrastructures. PLY A membership share in the Savings has built a school for girls, the Conclusions and Credit Co-operative (COOPEC) objective of which is not only to fill is CFA 2. 500 and all members can the gap in girls' schooling but also to The main objective of the Zabré women obtain a loan up to CFA 50.000. propagate the basic tenet of PLY; agro-ecological project was to enhance Established in 1990 with 23 members, • Marked improvement in living soil fertility so as to increase agricultural the cooperative today has 390 conditions and of child and mother productivity and improve food security. members and ready cash worth CFA health; In this process, needs assessment led to II million; • Improvement in the status of women the organization of a number other Jobs generated. Socio-econornic units and better understanding by men of activities with a view to diversifying and are generally managed by women the complementary role played by generating income likely to improve (this is the case with the village women and, consequently, better populations' conditions of living and, in pharmacy in Zabré); all the activities relationships within families; particular, to securing future opportunities closely connected to agro- ecology, • Better management of funds for the for financial autonomy. such as the processing and public school. Indeed, These activities have not conservation of fruits and vegetables, misappropriation of funds contributed overshadowed imperatives of the preparation of natural insecticide by parents was previously the rule; environmental preservation, which still (from neem trees and tobacco) or of since the establishment of the Savings have a proud place in the association's flour for children suffering from and Credit Co-operative (COOPEC), programmes, through intensified use of malnutrition (misola), are the the school has its own savings account. compost to abate land degradation, soil responsibility of persons paid by the Apart from the utilization of compost protection and restoration through anti- association. Literacy and training in for the regeneration of lands and erosion erosion control (construction of bunds management and basic French have control, the comniitment of PLY women and stone cordons), agro-forestry become conditions for access to these to natural resource and environmental (production of seedlings and jobs. One also notes the participation protection is perceptible through reforestation), environmental education. of female organizers in the agro- reforestation programmes and the Although some achievements remain to ecological project (12 such organizers production of seedlings, the be strengthened, especially those relating recruited directly by the association). popularization of improved stoves to to the regeneration of vegetation and bush In addition, there are female trainers offset deforestation (the association uses fire control, the project is nonetheless a in literacy and in basic French, a solar ovens for the production of dried real success in the struggle against land secretary, a communication officer, fruits and vegetables) as well as education degradation and desertification through a driver, a guard, nursery attendants and sensitization on environmental issues poverty alleviation and literacy.

78 Collective and Family Woodlands Project in Tiogo Forest Reserve, Burkina Faso

A Success Story in Desertification/Land Degradation Control*l

Racine Kane and Henri M. Lo** Management Groupings (Groupements de 46,000 hectares, now reduced to 30,000 Gestion Forestières (GGFs)) to reserved ha. The co- ordinates of Tiogo reserved The project received UNEP's 1998 forests of the zone and the rational forest are approximately 2'39' and 2 'Saving the Drvlands' award* exploitation of wood, the main source of 52'W, 12'1 land I224 N. The authors were consultants hired energy in BurkinaFaso. The project covers The vegetation of Tiogo forest reserve by UNEP, withfunds from IFAD, to four locations, including Tiogo forest is characterized by two main physiognomic types: evaluate the success of the reserve, the case-study being reported here. p,.o/ec.t* * In evaluating the self-reliance phase • A predominant tree savannah of the project, the evaluation team occasionally alternating with a shrub confirmed the effective involvement of savannah: Introduction village GGFs around the Tiogo reserved • A riparian layer consisting of forest in the preservation of forest Pterocarpus santalinoides, 1W Over the last two decades, Burkina Faso, resources, under the supervision of ytrangyna inerrnis, Vetivera like other Sahelian countries, as a result regional forestry technical services. nigritana, Sporoholus pvran;idalis of drought and desertification experienced Indeed, measures for the preservation and and Orv:a Ion gistaminata, along the an accelerated degradation of its natural development of natural resources have Mahoun River and its tributaries. resources, especially forests. Faced with been carried on in a stable organizational Also present are various groves of the threat of human population pressure framework and through management in Taniarindus indica, Capparis corvnihosa on increasingly fragile resources, the partnership, which facilitate self-reliance and Cissus quadrangularis. Government of Burkina Faso and its of wood producers without threatening Tiogo forest reserve has a Sudanian development partners launched the natural resource base. type of climate within average annual programmes to combat the degradation rainfall of 700-850 millimetres. The dry of ecosystems. The project was launched Location and physical season is from November to April and the by the Office to Combat Desertification rainy season from May to October. and Drought (UNSO) [formerly the background United Nations Sudano-Sahelian Office], The self reliance phase and in 1984 and taken over in 1994 by the The Tiogo reserved forest is located south- objectives communities, the self-reliance phase, in west of Ténado District. Province of the the Sanguié and Bulkiemdé provinces, Sanguié, on the Kodougou-Dédougou located in the central part of the country, axis, approximately 15 kilometres from This phase corresponds to the withdrawal on the Mossi plateau. Tenado and 40 km from Koudougou. of the donor and to the management of the The objective of the project was to Reserved by Decree No. 114 of 17 January project by populations themselves within preserve natural resources, while ensuring 1940, it was established as a reserved area forest management groupings, with the access of populations organized in Forest that covered initially approximately support of national technical structures.

'This article was reviewed and technical/v edited hr Eli:abet/, Migongo Bake. Pro granune Officer. UNEP

79 Desertification Control Bulletin, N 34, /999

Thus, the Tiogo forest reserve project was placed under the vegetal resources, even though they do not participate directly responsibility of the Office of the Forestry Commission for the in the activities of the GGF, due to their adoption of a different Central West Region. way of life. In the same village, populations are against clandestine General Ion g-ternl objective cropping in the forest. This attitude is no doubt enhanced by the shortage of land for farming because the village is surrounded The long-term objective of the project was to protect and by the forest. regenerate the natural resources, especially forests, with a view Activities have been carried out to set up fire-breaks and to to improving living conditions in rural areas through, among apply early controlled fires. These measures are deemed others, an increase in vegetal productivity. necessary for a good protection of the reserved forest. Despite these efforts, bush fires are still to be entirely controlled. Specific objectives Lastly, stone cordons or small anti-erosion dikes around fields in the main villages visited are among the most noticeable The first specific objective is to contribute to meeting the needs protection measures. These stone cordons are erected by the of populations in terms of fuelwood, building poles and in population, with the assistance of non-governmental forest products in general, through better management and organisations, such as Projet de Développement Intégré dans development of wood resources. les Provinces du Bulkiemdé et du Sanguié (PDISAB). These The second specific objective is to support the reconstitution were not introduced by the UNSO project; instead, they were of a favourable environment for agro-pastoral activities and adopted by the communities because of their great efficiency thus the reconstitution ofsoil fertility and increased productivity, in erosion control. through the quest for farmers' self- promotion. To achieve these objectives activities were carried out with populations organized in GGFs under the supervision of regional structures. Evaluation findings

Natural resources

In Tiogo forest reserve, the self-reliance phase pursued the objectives of conservation and sustainable management of resources by carrying out activities for the protection and rehabilitation of the vegetation cover. These activities allowed the preservation of the forest ecosystem, especially important when the decline of rainfall throughout the Sahel over the last decade is taken into consideration.

Protection

The Government of Burkina Faso reaffirmed the status of reserved forests, in force since 1940, through the new Forest Code and the Land Reform Programme (RAF). This took place in an exceptionally political context, marked by the will to embark on the 'three struggles' with the communities, namely, against stray animals, bush fires and excessive logging in reserved forests. Once the post-project period was underway, populations in villages bordering the reserved forest took over the enforcement of regulations on pastoral activities in forests and the move against illegal grazing of domestic animals. Unlike other Sahelian regions, herdsmen and farmers arrived at a consensus, which made it possible to avoid the often violent conflicts. In Négarpoulou. Fulani herdsmen entered into an agreement that restricts the presence of animals in the forest to the daytime only, these having to imperatively return to the village at night. According to them, this arrangement isjustified Photo I. Detarium inicrocarpum o/tshoo!s three years after by the will to create conditions for a good regeneration of harvest in Tioof,est reserve.

80 Collective and Family Woodlands Project in Tiogo Forest Reserve, Burkina Faso

Rehabilitation of the vegetation cover

Protection activities are concomitantly carried out with the rehabilitation of the trees. The involved communities continue to put into practice the lessons learnt during the UNSO phase, concerning the production of planting materials, direct planting of forest species seedlings and direct seeding. To this must be added a good mastery of harvesting techniques at the level of GGFs, thus enabling the production of offshoots and inducing good regeneration (photo 1). In the three villages visited, thousands of seedlings are produced in pots. These include species such as eucalyptus and some fruit varieties. On the other hand, direct planting, which consists of placing the seedling in lIito 2. //L1rvtl

81 Desertification Control Bulletin, N 34, 1999

housewives fetching it. The time saved can be dedicated to other activities. The impact of improved stoves is also appreciated by contractors who speak of a 'falling- off of hassle.' that is, less pressure from clients. Similarly, dolo brewers view this situation as a means of substantially reducing their energy bill. On the other hand, manufacture of improved stoves isan employment- generating activity for both men and women; Capacity-building in organization and negotiation was brought to the forefront with the conflict around the price of wood. Reports on activities concerning the management site in Tiogo area point out a persistent claim Photo 3. Fuel-efficient stoves at Negarpoulon village of GGFs for an increase in the price of the cubic metre of wood set by the exploitation. Among these actors, mention economic value, in so far as they Government in 1985. To put an end must be made of development partners generate income. Apart from income to this claim, negotiations were whose financial and technical contribution generation. by-products of wood initiated during the general in the first phase of the programme made harvesting often have other uses, assemblies of groupings and with it possible to create conditions for especially those related central authorities at the national and preservation: conservation activities, pharmaceutically; regional levels. Unable to find a training and use of wood resources in a Capacity-building through training satisfactory solution, GGFs decided specific framework. The Government's in new methods for harvesting, to stop selling wood to contractors in role in the regulation and the organization production of seedlings and April 1998. In the light of this of forest areas, as well as in the regulation reforestation, methods unknown situation, central authorities requested of resource management, resulted, among before the launching of the direct negotiations between foresters others, in stabilizing the field of programme but that are now and contractors. For lack of agreement intervention, despite an apparent bias in frequently used by the communities on the price of the cubic metre at favour of contractors, at the expense of after withdrawal of donor support. CFA 2,500 as demanded by foresters, foresters. These two categories of actors Besides these methods for the the Government set the new price at can be singled out from all the other rehabilitation of the tree cover, linear CFA 2,200. Thus, it appears that the beneficiaries (dolo brewers, retailers, rural erosion control, through the idea of pursuing and defending their and urban households) for their establishment of small anti-erosion own interests has taken root among complementarity-confi ict relationships dikes (stone cordons) has been foresters, eveii if their claims have which determine the availability of wood implemented through new training been met in part only. This means resources. One can thus speak, on the sessions. The most significant aspect that they are aware of their strength, phase of self-reliance of the programme, lies in the fact that these training which may contribute to changing of a stabilized management of forest sessions took place during the self- relationships with the Government resources, despite the constraints that need reliance phase, which suggests that and contractors; to be taken into account. there is awareness of an interplay in Intra-community relationships have • Overall, the experience gained in the the various factors influencing the benefited from a better organization framework of this programme in the degradation of resources (linear of forest areas and activities. The Tiogo reserved forest can be erosion, degradation of the canopy, typical case is the reorganization of summarized through some features for example); pastoral practices in the framework regarding social achievements which Impact of improved stoves: it is clear of an agreement between herdsmen i nc I ude: that the introduction of improved and farmers. On the other hand, a • Changes in the perception and stoves has had it positive impact on sentiment of accountability vis-ô-vis attitudes with respect to the forest: women's daily chores. The use of resources of the Tiogo reserved forest the conimunities are aware of the improved stoves reduces the encourages the local communities to need to preserve forest resources consumption of fuelwood, hence a fight illegal exploitation and the which are viewed as having an substantial saving of time spent by destruction of the forest resources by

82 Collective and Family Woodlands Project in Tiogo Forest Reserve, Burkina Faso

outsiders; • Income is generated by populations better defend their interests as a group: Community investments facilitated through the sale of green wood and • Harvesting methods are mastered an by revolving funds (Fonds de fuelwood, following a well-organized d they facilitate the regeneration of roulemeiit (FDR)) constitute assets programme and a clearly defined wood species: resulting from endogenous financial allocation of resources: • Villages have joined the programme efforts. Achievements are important. • This situation is directly profitable to because of its overall positive results. These include: rehabilitation of GGF members and indirectly to non- Certain aspects likely to jeopardize schools and earth roads, construction members who enjoy infrastructures the outstanding outcomes of this of inverts, village maternity centres, financed with income accruing from experience, such as the lack of a etc. These achievements give a forest resource management; management plan that would enable better tangible dimension to the efforts put • Harvesting and sale of wood have planning in the utilization of forest in the management of forest resources generated jobs among the different resources, and that would offset by populations and encourage them categories of population and put a discouragement resulting in some villages to strive for proper management these. brake on rural exodus; from problems connected to the producer • The adoption of improved stoves by price policy have, however, been noted. Conclusions rural households, especially women, Despite these considerations, the allows considerable savings in terms management programme of Tiogo The management of Tiogo reserved forest of energy and time; reserved forest is considered as a success is an experience that reveals several • Foresters have learnt to negotiate with in desertification control. positive points: the Government and other partners to

83 News From UNEP

UNEP's Effort Towards the Implementation of the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification 1997-1998

Summary because of reduced allocations the programme The present report, prepared in accordance of work could not be with Governing Council decisions 19/17 implemented as envisaged. of 7 February 1997 and SS/V/7 of 22 May In terms of activities at 1998, covers assistance provided by the national level. UNEP United Nations Environment Programme supported the implement- (UNEP) to countries affected by ation of the Convention in desertification and drought, especially the countries members of the those in Africa, in the context of the Commonwealth of implementation of the United Nations Independent States (CIS), Convention to Combat Desertification in using resources from the Those Countries Experiencing Serious Russian Fund, in line with Drought and/or Desertification, the decisions of the Almaty particularly in Africa. Such assistance is and Tashkent conferences of seen as being provided through direct 1995 and 1997, respectively. support of countries, regions and The US$ 4 million worth of subregions, especially in the context of contributions to UNEP from formulating and implementing action the former Union of Soviet programmes. It is also detailed under Socialist Republics, held in support to project development and the Russian Fund, were unfrozen in 1995 of the Convention to Combat implementation through the Global for use specifically on UNEP projects in Desertification by the Russian Federation Environment Facility (GEF) and in direct the Russian Federation. and to catalyse action. UNEP assisted and indirect support to the Convention to Following the development of the with awareness-raising activities in the Combat Desertification, especially national action programme for the Kalmyk region, by supporting the locally produced through UNEP's work on behalf of the Republic in the Russian Federation, UNEP newsletter on desertification. In addition, Committee on Science and Technology is now supporting the implementation of the Kalmyk sequences of a film made for of the Convention. a project on the reclamation and UNEP by Television Trust for the management of the Black Lands and the Environment (TVE) and financed by the Implementation of the stabilization of moving sands in Government of Norway, have been United Nations Convention Kalmykia. The completion of the national repackaged into Russian. Accompanied action programme for Kazakhstan in 1997 by a booklet and posters, the film is being to Combat Desertification was followed by awareness- raising disseminated to schools throughout the campaigns on the issue in 1998. The steppe region. A film in Russian on the Pursuant to Governing Council decisions programme for Uzbekistan is still under problem of shifting sands invading south- 19/17 and SS V/7, UNEP has continued preparation. UNEP also supported a eastern Europe was completed and an to support countries in the implementation training course in desertification control English version has been produced to of the Convention to Combat for 28 participants from CIS countries, ensure wider circulation. Desertification in Those Countries held in Volgograd in the Russian UNEP, with counterpart funds from Experiencing Serious Drought and/or Federation, in October 1997. the Government of Norway, is assisting Desertification, particularly in Africa, but In a drive to promote the ratification in the awareness-raising component of

84 News from UNEP the national- action-programme UNEP also hosted and supported the degradation in the Asia and Pacific region formulation process in South Africa, as a Special Consultation of the African were undertaken. Further, UNEP. in pilot project for outreach in the southern Ministerial Conference on the cooperation with the World African region. A strategy meeting in Environment on the United Nations Meteorological Organization (WMO), the December 1997 resulted in an action Framework Convention on Climate International Centre for Agricultural programme of activities tobe undertaken Change and its Kyoto Protocol and Research in Dry Areas (ICARDA) and for the launch of the awareness- raising Related Multilateral Environmental the International Crops Research Institute campaign in June 1998. The launch took Agreements, held in Nairobi in October for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT), place on 17 June in Pretoria at the end of 1998, for which the UNEP Land Unit organized an expert workshop for 19 the National Environmental Film Festival. gave substantive inputs. In addition, participants entitled Wind erosion in UNEP has been particularly involved UNEP supported a workshop on a network Africa and West Asia: problems and in the regional and subregional action for the integration and management of control strategies', held in Cairo in April programme process, through participating international river, lake and 1997. Jointly with the International Fund in and supporting subregional meetings hydrogeological basins in Africa, held in for Agricultural Development (IFAD). on the Convention. In 1997, such meetings Abidjan in September 1998. The latter UNEP evaluated several potential success were held in Burkina Faso, China, Cuba, was one of the seven workshops called stories in desertification control, with Spain and the Syrian Arab Republic. In for in the context of the regional action Saving the Drylands' awards being 1998, UNEP supported meetings for West programme to combat desertification for presented to worthy projects at the Asia in Oman. for Asia and the Pacific in Africa by the Panafrican Conference on twentieth-anniversary meeting of IFAD Japan and Thailand, and for Latin America the Implementation of the United Nations and at the second meeting of the and the Caribbean in Antigua. Barbuda Convention to Combat Desertification and Conference of the Parties to the and Brazil. UNEP offered to assist in Follow-up in Africa of the Results of the Convention to Combat Desertification. coordinating the thematic programme United Nations Conference on As a co-sponsor of CGIAR and networks which are to be established under Environment and Development, held in partner of many of its centres, such as the regional action programme for Asia Burkina Faso in March 1997. The report ICARDA. ICRISAT and the International and the Pacific. UNEP further offered to of the proceedings formed an input to the Centre for Research in Agroforestry host a regional coordination unit within second session of the Conference of the (ICRAF). UNEP actively contributed to the UNEP Regional Office for Latin Parties to the Convention. UNEP has many projects and programmes which America and the Caribbean, and the expressed its willingness to host the add to the body of knowledge related to associated memorandum of understanding network through the African Ministerial land degradation: one example being the between the Government of Mexico. the Conference on the Environment. Desert Margins Programme (DMP) in Secretariat of the Convention to Combat Cooperation continued with other nine sub-Saharan African countries, Desertification and UNEP was signed in United Nations organizations and leading another multi-focus, multidisciplinary July 1998. science and technology institutions and project which is being prepared partially Assistance was also provided for the non-governmental organizations, such as for GEF funding. DMP implementation development of subregional action the Food and Agriculture Organization of was facilitated by ICRISAT which has programmes for the southern European the United Nations (FAO), the World established a coordination office in (Dagestan, Kal mykia and Tatarstan 1-Iealth Organization (WHO), the United Sadore, Niger. UN EP serves as a member republics. Astrakhan, Samara. Saratov Nations Development Programme of the Steering Committee on behalf of and Volgograd regions) and Asian (the (UNDP),the United NationsEducational. United Nations organizations and republics of Buriatia, Khakass and Tuva) Scientific and Cultural Organization agencies. parts of the Russian Federation. (UNESCO). the United Nations Preliminary discussions were held in As part of a special focus on Africa. University (UNU), IUCN - The World June 1998 between the Executive Director IJNEP promoted the development of Conservation Union - the members of the ofUNEP and the Chief Executive Officer subregional action programmes for the Consultative Group on International of GEF on UNEP'S role in land members of the Southern African Agricultural Research (CGIAR), the degradation projects and U N EP-U N DP Development Community (SA DC) and Scientific Committee on Problenis of the collaboration. U N EP initiatives in land the Inter- Governmental Authority on Environment (SCOPE) of the degradation, as it relates to the four other Development (IGAD), by supporting International Council of Scienti t'ic U nions focal areas of G EF. foc used on workshops to establish multidisciplinary (ICSU) and others, contributing to a better assessments, regional, subregional and scientific and technical consultative understanding of the factors leading to transboundary projects: demonstration, committees in Namihia in June. and in land degradation and assisting countries pilot and experimental approaches: Nairobi in July. 1998. At the request of to take action to control desertification. targeted research and methodological the Permanent Inter- State Committee on In this context, case- studies on population frameworks: capacity-building and Drought Control in the Sahel (CILSS). dynamics in the drylands of central Asia technical assistance and environmen1(1 UNEP supported a workshop on women and the affected areas of eastern Europe, information and reporting. and decision-making, held in Dakar. and on land tenure and environmental UNEP has started to implement a

85 Desertificarion Control Bulletin, N'2 34, 1999

project largely financed by GEF and meetings, and for government and non- meeting of the Conference of the Parties entitled People Land Management and governmental organization experts to to the Convention. Several films have Environmental Change' (PLEC), participate in topical workshops and also been developed to raise global executed by the United Nations University training courses related to desertification. awareness of the drylands in accordance (UNU), which is a multidisciplinary At the request of the Committee of with the articles of the Convention. One project on the conservation of Science and Technology of the film, on migration and social problems agrodiversity in Africa, Asia and the Convention, during the first meeting of and set in Ethiopia, was completed in Pacific, and South and Central America the Conference of the Parties to the November 1997. Another film for the that was initiated in February 1998. Convention, and with funds provided by World Service of the British Broadcasting Activities began in March 1998. A the Convention Secretariat, UNEP is Cooperation (BBC), on desertification as meeting of the Steering Committee (of leading a consortium to undertake a the legacy of past politics, featured which UNEP is a member) was held in preliminary survey of organizations able Kalmykia and South Africa, while several Tokyo in July 1998, and the first meeting to form part of a global network to support short features were compiled for youth of the Advisory Group was held in Paris implementation of the Convention. UNEP audiences, more information in September 1998. National and also contributed to the consultative dissemination. subnational activities under the project process on benchmarks and indicators of In the context of the second session continued in all project clusters: East desertification held in Geneva in of the Conference of the Parties to the Africa, West Africa, Amazonia, China September 1998. Convention to Combat Desertification, and Papua New Guinea. In line with the request for greater UNEP organized a workshop for 15 Two other projects, on conserving awareness-raising contained in the participants from non-governmental biological diversity in the arid and semi- Convention, UNEP also produced and organizations, on synergies and the role arid transboundary areas of Mauritania disseminated targeted information on of civil society and non-governmental and Senegal and on managing indigenous desertification control to a broad range of organizations in the implementation of vegetation to rehabilitate degraded media and public at both national and the Convention, which was held in Nairobi rangelands in Botswana, Kenya and Mali, global levels. Four issues of the from 4 to 6 November 1998. The results have both been developed by UNEP and Desertification Control Bulletin (Nos. 30, of this workshop, stressing the need for UNDP and approved for GEF funding. 31, 32 and 33) were produced, and new better coordination between various Several others covering different countries publications included National Land environmental conventions, formed an of Africa are at earlier stages of Degradation Assessment and Mapping in input to the Conference of the Parties, and development under GEF funding. Kenya and Wind Erosion in Africa and especially to the forum organized by As an overall contribution to the West Asia: Problems and Control IUCN on linking the biodiversity and implementation of the Convention to Strategies. The second edition of the desertification agendas, which was Combat Desertification, UNEP has World Atlas of Desertification was supported by UNEP and held in Dakar provided assistance to enable government published in 1997. It summarizes the latest from 4 to 6 December 1998, in conjunction representatives and non- governmental scientific knowledge on the drylands of with the meeting of the Conference of the organizations to attend Convention related the globe and was launched at the first Parties.

86 News from UNEP UNEP and UNDP Join Forces in the GEF Land Degradation Cross-Cutting Area

The Executive Director of the United include: UNEP/UNDP Joint Venture environmental agreements and Nations Environment Programme Mechanism through the Office to Combat regional conventions; (UNEP), Dr. Klaus Topfer and the Desertification and Drought (UNSO) for • Development of policy, legal and Administrator of the United Nations the implementation of the Nairobi Plan of institutional responses which more Development Programme (UNDP), Mr. Action to Combat Desertification, adopted fully integrate land degradation with Gustave Speth have signed in New York by the United Nations Conference on biodiversity/climate change/ an agreement between their two agencies Desertification held in 1977; the Joint international waters activities; to collaborate in land degradation Statement on UNEP and UNDP • Development and management of activities as they relate to biodiversity, partnership for collaboration in the global, regional and/or transboundary climate change and international waters implementation of the United Nations activities which advance cooperation, in the context of the Global Environment Convention to Combat Desertification in increase technical and scientific Facility (GEF). The memorandum of Those Countries Experiencing Serious knowledge and information exchange, understanding is the result of joint Drought and/or Desertification, and associated catalytic support. initiatives to respond to the particularly in Africa, signed by the heads This agreement establishes an recommendation of the GEF Council's of the two organizations on 26 April 1995, institutional framework for upstream call for the implementing agencies and and the Framework Agreement for consultation through bi-annual reviews the GEF Secretariat to take appropriate Cooperation in Capacity- building of the pipeline of the two agencies. It is steps, consistent with the GEF guidelines between UNEP and UNDP of 28 expected that the adoption of the and in full consultation with interested November 1995. memorandum of understanding will foster recipient countries, to identify, prepare According to the memorandum of the promotion of a meaningful pipeline in and implement GEF-financed land understanding UNEP will focus on the the GEF cross-cutting area of land degradation activities as they relate to following issues: degradation, in particular in Africa. biodiversity, climate change and • Strategic scientific and technical It must be noted that this is the first international waters'. analyses, such as assessment, time that such a contractual agreement The memorandum of understanding monitoring and remote sensing, has been signed in the context of GEF builds upon a long and successful methodology development and with a view to strengthening the GEF collaboration between UNEP and UNDP testing, and programme leadership; inter-agency collaboration and in the area of desertification. These • Implementing inter-country protocols, partnership.

For more information, please contact: UNEP/GEF Coordination Office P.O. Box 30552 Tel: (254) 2-624166 Fax: (254) 2-624041 Nairobi, Kenya

87 Book Review

three separate groups each of which is The Lost Camels of severely threatened by hunting, mining, Tartary and despoiling of their habitat. Water is continually scarce. To save these camels A quest into forbidden China is a race against time. John Hare's expeditions furnished by John Hare compelling evidence of the need for swift action if the camels were to be protected. So well was this evidence presented, and so As a child I loved to read books about compelling the arguments, that the Chinese eighteenth-century explorers. How Government has agreed in writing to create courageous they were: trekking off into the Lop Nur Nature Sanctuary. This huge the absolute unknown where, inevitably, refuge for the wild Bactrians will cover they were beset by all manner of dangers 107,768 square kilometres in remote north- - hostile tribes, disloyal partners, wild west China. It will protect a unique and animals and sickness. But when they quite unspoilt desert ecosystem, with its returned, what amazing tales they had to diversity of life-forms, as well as saving tell. I felt sad that those days had gone - the wild Bactrian camels living there. And but, 50 years later, I met a modern version this decision comes only just in time, of those old adventurers: John Hare. because since the suspension of nuclear Accompanied by a small team of Chinese tests the area is under increasing threat colleagues, John set out to explore one of from hunters and miners. The Government the most hostile and desolate regions on will maintain the sanctuary for a minimum earth, the Gashun Gobi desert in the of ten years; John must find the money for Xinjiang Province of China, where there the infrastructure. is no fresh water at all in an area three- Chinese. He gained high-level support And so this sanctuary will exist quarters the size of Germany. This is the and became the first foreigner to receive because of one dedicated and utterly home of the mysterious, shy and fast- permission to enter that portion of the determined individual. How wonderful vanishing wild Bactrian camels. Gashun Gobi which had been closed for to know that people like John Hare still This is a book rich in adventure, nuclear testing in the early 1950s. John exist in the materialistic and greedy filled with fascinating historical facts and became involved with the plight of the western world. The Bactrian camels and legends, shrewd observations about the Bactrian camels because of his love for their desert environment are fortunate in people encountered and their way of life. adventure, not because he was passionate their champion. And I feel honoured to and vivid descriptions of landscapes as about camels. But as the team learned know John, and that he asked me to write alien to most of us as the surface of the more and more about these magnificent an introduction to his book. When you moon. Each expedition brought its share beasts, with their aloof faces and twin have read it, you will understand why I of excitement, hardship and danger; humps, he became increasingly concerned feel this way. I hope you will recommend indeed, the adventures of John Hare and about their survival. The wild Bactrian is it to friends, too, not only because raising his companions were every bit as amazing one of the most endangered species in the awareness will help John help the camels, as those I had read about with such awe as world - more so than the giant panda. but because it reaffirms one's faith in a child. There are, of course, many domestic human nature, and the fact that, with John's expeditions were not financed Bactrians, but new research indicates that imagination, courage, diplomacy, dogged by some wealthy society; he struggled for they are genetically different from their tenacity, self-confidence - and a funding, and for permission from the wild forebears. There are no more than wonderful sense of humour - it is still Chinese, on his own. He was successful 1,200 wild Bactrian camels in the world possible to accomplish the impossible. partly because of his ability to establish today; probably less than 800. Of these, such an excellent relationship with the 650 are to be found in China, divided into Jane Goodall

88 Book Review

Man in the Desert the fragile ecosystem. Overgrazed lands, Reclamation and shrinking forests, eroded agricultural fields and overcultivation, deforestation Management of Eroded Drought, Desertification and and cutting of vegetation show the Soils Proceedings of Indigenous Knowledge for imprints of man's activities on his UNEP/CIP/VNIALMI Sustainable Development environment. The way of life of the people and their sources of livelihood have chiefly International Training been conditioned by disturbances in Course, 15 September by L.P. Bharara ecological balance due to the severity of 5 October 1997 the and climate, which has led to the degradation of vegetation and the Recently, world concern has been diminution of crop potential through Edited by Pavlovsky Ye. S. expressed over the social aspects of the decreasing productivity per unit area. This Volgograd. VNIALMI, problem of drought and desertification in poses a potential threat to the resources 1998 -38Op the desert ecosystem. Though the desert and, ultimatel the lives and livelihood of environment is harsh and rainfall is the inhabitants. Thus, to protect these unreliable, rural people based on resources from conversion to a desert- The collection contains materials of the traditional knowledge have been living in like situation to desertification, there is a UNEP/CIP/VNIALMI international balance with the natural environment for need to study indigenous technical training course. There are theoretical ages. The people depend on an agro- knowledge for sustained production and problems of soil erosion and deflation, pastoral economy which operates in the conservation of resources. An appropriate evolution, classification and monitoring mix of new technologies and traditional of eroded lands, projecting and fulfilling wisdom is extremely important. the systems of anti-erosion and anti- This book synthesizes the problem of deflation measures, medical- social and drought and desertification from a social legal aspects of soil degradation angle and encompasses indigenous consequences, items of using foreign technical knowledge for sustained experience and organizing international production and survival. Applying a socio- collaboration on the struggle against ecological approach, the author shows erosion and deflation. how different socio- economic and caste The collection is intended for groups adopt different adaptive strategies scientists and nature conservation and for survival. The book focuses on new environment monitoring, agriculture and dimensions of the problem of drought forestry, agroforestry and erosion and desertification and the use of specialists, university and college teachers indigenous technical knowledge to and students. overcome them. The use of the materials is permitted if a source reference is given.

Available from: context of great uncertainty about rainfall The Centre for International Projects and subsistence. They have evolved (CIP) P0 Box 165, CIP 117292, traditional knowledge, skills and practices Moscow, Russia for dryland agriculture, soil, water and vegetation conservation, livestock rearing Tel: (095) 165 0562/165 0890 and management. The techniques of Fax: (095) 165 0890 natural resource conservation, the role of E-mail: cipmepnt.msk.ru physio-cultural institutions and biotechnological capacities to sustain a variety of life forms, form the basis of their sustenance living. But enormous increases in human and animal populations have disturbed

89 News of Interest

Request for Articles and Photographs

The editorial board of the Desert ification The technical advisor also seeks All contributions should be sent to: Control Bulletin is always looking for photographic submissions for use on the Mr. Leonid Kroumkatchev photographs and articles for publication cover of the Bulletin. Photographs should Technical Advisor in the magazine. In particular, the be colour transparencies of subjects Desertijication Control Bulletin editorial board is interested in receiving related to desertification, land UNEP, Land articles which describe success stories degradation, humans, animals, structures P0 Box 30552 in controlling dryland degradation and affected by desertification, reclamation Nairobi, Kenya desertification, follow-up to the of degraded lands, etc.. Please include a Tel: 254-2-623266 implementation of the United Nations brief caption giving a description of the E-mail: Convention to Combat Desertification subject, place and country name, date of [email protected]. and also NGO activities in the field of photograph and name of the For information regarding desertification control in all regions of photographer. manuscript preparation, please see page the world, particularly in Africa. ii of this issue of the Bulletin.

Submitting Success Stories to UNEP

UNEP is seeking projects or community- based activity forthe 'Saving the Drylands' 5. Area (sq km) covered by the project; 6. based activities that satisfy the preceding award please send a I to 2 page summary Cost of project (US $ equivalent); 7. Source criteria or indicators of success as much of the project or activity you are proposing of funds; 8. Project period (years); 9. as possible and which have been with the following information in the given Problems; 10. Solutions; 12. Results! sustaining themselves without donor order: I. Name of Project; 2. Country; 3. Impact; 12. Why the project is a success; support for at least two years. Location in country including biophysical 13. Names and addresses of three referees To submit a project or community- descriptions; 4. Numberof people involved; outside the project; 14. Contact person.

The contact

For more informatiOn on success stories or request for reports please contact: The Coordinator, Success Stories Initiative, Social Dimensions & Sustainable Practices, Land United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) P0 Box 30552, Nairobi, Kenya Tel: (254-2) 623261; Fax: (254-2) 623284; E-mail: [email protected]

90 News of Interest Agroenviron -98 Statement

The international symposium on International symposia on farming and chemical free agriculture Agroenvironmental Issues and Future agroenviron issues be held at be promoted at all levels through Strategies: Towards 21St Century, held at appropriate venues and intervals to farmers' organizations. the University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, pool and share internationally Since considerable quantities of Pakistan between 25 and 30 May 1998 available information and knowledge. sewage and/or industrial waste waters with 350 participants from all over the Centres of Excellence in are used for crop irrigation, minimum world, having considered the importance Agroenvironmental Studies standards for bacterial, viral and urgency of addressing (CEAES) be established at pathogens, suspended loads be agroenvironmental issues (agro- appropriate places all over the world followed, especially in the developing chemicals, acid rains, soil erosion, in order to investigate and delineate world. Nevertheless, treatment of deforestation, sewage water use environmental issues in agriculture. waste water at source is strongly implications, environmental legislation, All countries should develop a recommended. farm waste management and recycling) National Agroenviron Policy (NAEP) Rural Community Health Centres at urges international organizations, to streamline the management of town level be staffed with an governmental organizations, non- agricultural systems for sustainable environmental specialist to create governmental authorities, faers'groups environment, especially in awareness as to agroenvironmental and citizens to adopt the guidelines, developing countries. control programmes. measures and recommendations set out Partnerships between agricultural below: Specific recommendations services institutions and producers' organizations should be established General recommendations Waste disposal with resource for sustainable agriculture. Incentives recovery offers a valuable approach like rebates in land revenues or taxes Establishment of the International to waste management. Soil waste can be introduced for adopting sustainable Agroenvironment Foundation (IAF) be utilized in food and feed industries technologies. was conceived as a catalytic agent for and also for energy generation. Indiscriminate use ofpesticidal sprays explicit handling of environmental Increasing nitrate- nitrogen on vegetables, especially before issues generated by present day concentrations in shallow marketing, present a great health agriculture. Structure, operation and groundwater of irrigated areas with hazard. Strict legislation and control promotion of the foundation would intensive agriculture indicate a is urged. be developed by a group of scientists potential danger, especially when the System of Environmental Impact from the international community. water is pumped for human Assessment (EIA) for all agro- 2. In view of the serious dimensions consumption. Regular programmes projects, similar to industrial ones, of agroenvironmental issues, public be developed for monitoring should be strictly followed for the motivation necessitates celebrating groundwater qualities in the sustainability of the system. 25 May every year as the international intensively cultivated areas. Nature 'Ageoenv iron Day'.

Copies of the proceedings are available at a reduced rate. For further information and copies of the proceeding contact:

Dr Jehangir Khan Sial (Symposium Director) or Engr Sajid Mahmood (Symposium Secretary) Department of Structures & Environmental Engineering, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan. Fax: 0092- 41-647846.

91 Desertification Control Bulletin, N 34, 1999 Pollution can be controlled, says Pakistan scholar

"The pollution imp can be bottled", blessed with knowledge, has the power to expressing his gratitude for the kind words Khwaja Shamsuddin Azeem said during eliminate pollution of every kind. of advice said that it was an honoured a special lecture held at the University of When one resolves to do something, privilege for the University to have had Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan, on he succeeds. "We have to do something such a thought-provoking lecture which World Environment Day 1998. Since practical to resolve this problem, mere should go a long way in concentrating the environmental pollution is a result of the words won't take us anywhere". he faculties of the students and enlightening misdoings of man, so man himself has to opined. After describing various forms of their souls. Dr Jehangir Khan Sial, curb this menace. This was stated by environmental pollution, he explained the Chairman, Department of Environmental renowned spiritual scholar Al-Sheikh importance of plantations, which on one Engineering, in his welcome address Khwaja Shamsuddin Azeemi. He was hand are oxygen-producing factories and emphasized the need for informal addressing a large crowd of students and on the other consume poisonous gases education of students on environmental teachers in Old Senate Hall on World and maintain the CO, balance. Students issues in the light of Quran, Sunnah- and Environmental Day as a guest speaker. should form committees to ensure Spiritual Sciences. Angels predicted that man would plantations of trees. One tree per person For more information about the create trouble on the earth. "Pollution is a would reduce the problem by up to 75 per special lecture contact: form of creating trouble," he said. Major cent. Moreover, they should ensure manifestations of this deterioration are personal hygiene besides keeping the Dr. Sajid M. Azeemi, Lecturer, greed, selfishness and lack of environment clean, he suggested. Department of Structures & understanding on the part of man. And, Sheikh Muhammad Akram, Registrar Environmental Engineering, University man being a cardinal child of nature of the University of Agriculture, after of Agriculture Faisalabad, Pakistan.

About the Guest Speaker: Khwaja Shams-ud-din Azeem the Chief Editor of the monthly Roohani Digest, is a Pakistani scholar of international eminence and has authored a number of books besides many pamphlets and articles covering almost every aspect of metaphysical sciences. His appearance in a number of international TV channels in USA, participation in various BBC programmes, private radio channels in England and special lectures at universities in European countries, Japan and tI'e United Arab Emirates, to answer questions and queries about the most complicated and enigmatic phenomena of nature, is his incredible success in promoting the art of spiritual thought in a scientific manner to others without any distinction of caste, creed or colour.

Culture and the Environment: The Case of Cameroon

Rose Ateng Mbah management in general, and the of resource use by humans. Land-use conservation of forest and vegetation planners need to consider the impact of General Coordinator of Rural cover in particular, in parts of Cameroon. land-use policies on the environment at Women Environmental Protection The challenge involved in blending the alpha, beta, and gamma levels. At the indigenous practices with formalized alpha level, within communities, species Association (RWEPA) science and conservation of forest and richness is influenced by the intensity of B.P. 2186 Sonac Street, vegetation is very formidable. disturbance in relation to land use. At the Bamenda NWP Cameroun In Cameroon, more than 60 percent beta level, turnovers in plant and animal of its approximately 14 million people communities across boundaries are Introduction depend directly or indirectly on natural influenced by differences in land use. At resources for survival. In this part of the the gamma level, regional biodiversity is The aim of this article is to identify and world, conservation of forest, vegetation related to the mosaic of land-use types in review various cultural practices and cover and natural resources is influenced an area. In this article, emphasis is laid on beliefs, and their corresponding effects by anthropogenic factors, such as the what happens at the alpha level in and linkages to environmental livestock stocking rate and the intensity Cameroon by using a few examples to

92 News of Interest show the link between cultural beliefs and try to adopt other foodstuffs as their always turn them off their land when they and practices and conservation of the staple food, otherwise with the massive realize that the crop yield is encouraging. environment. exploitation of timber from the tropical This relationship between culture and rain forest without reafforestation, the Belief about trees on farms conservation has, in some instances, massive demand for 'eru' might lead to negative impacts and, in others, positive the extinction of this very highly nutritive In some remote areas in the Adamawa effects. plant species. Province of Cameroon there is a belief that trees on the farm attract animals, like Cultural beliefs and Bush burning monkeys, to the farm. This belief or wrong conception is also shared by farmers who practices that have a In some parts of Cameroon, notably in the live in the forest zone. According to them, negative impact on the North-West and Western Provinces, bush trees and forest cover provide a habitat for environment burning is still considered to be the best wild animals that would destroy their farm method to prepare a piece of farmland for crops. They then make sure that all the cultivation. This leads directly to the trees on the farmland are either burnt or Reliance on certain plant species destruction of vegetation cover and of cut down before they can cultivate the micro-organisms in the soil, leaving the land, thus destroying the environment. A general reliance on some plant species landscape bare, leading to soil erosion This may account partly for the lack of by the population, because of the belief and land degradation (physical component trees and vegetation cover in most parts of that they have a medicinal value, can of the environment). Soil fertility is greatly the Northern Provinces of Cameroon. All have a positive impact on the environment. reduced since the organic manure that this is because they are unaware of how In the coastal zone of Cameroon, and would have added fertility (through long it takes for trees to mature, and also even in parts of south-eastern Nigeria and decomposition of the grasses and other because it has been their cultural belief neighbouring Gabon, there is an edible plants) is no longer available once the over the years. weed called 'eru', scientifically known as vegetation has been burned off. Ginetum afticanum.. In the East, South, Sometimes, the village women construct Traditional hunting habits and Centre Provinces of Cameroon, it is their ridges and burn them to produce called 'okok'. The 'eru' dish delights 'Ankara'. This they do in the belief that There is a traditional hunting habit in palates in many Cameroonian households the fertility of the farmland would be some areas of Cameroon in which a target today because it is said to contain a very improved, in complete ignorance of how area during the dry season is encircled high nutritive and even medicinal value. much damage they are causing to the and the vegetation cover burnt. This The plant's natural environment is piece of land. This particular practice is practice destroys the vegetation cover the wild, damp and dark undergrowth of like a cancer that has already developed and the beauty of the area. Thus, the area the rain forest found in the southern part right into a person's bone marrow and the which served as habitat for other living of Cameroon. The liana does not grow, chances of clearing it all out are seemingly species of organisms is also destroyed, nor can it be cultivated, other than in the very slim. It is really an uphill task for with most of them killed in the process. natural tropical rain forest. It extends for those of us who happen to be aware of the The soil remains bare and subject to 15 metres and more into the tree canopy. after-effects and whose duty, it would physical degradation. Once the forest is cut down, for instance seem, is to preach against this habit or The Moghamo area (from where the to open up a farm, the vine shoots up belief. A reasonable number of them have writer comes) in Batibo, North-West again but dies shortly after. The demand begun to realize the reality of our gospel Province of Cameroon, has a total surface for 'eru' for local consumption among all because, after the first year of farming, area of about 873 square kilometres with Cameroonians and some of their the crop yield is generally very poor a population of about 67,000 people. neighbouring Nigerian and Gabon tribes because of leaching of the soils. Traditional rulers (chiefs) in this area has become extremely high. As a attach great importance to elephant tusks. consequence, it has become a powerful Gender-biased belief It is what distinguishes the 'Fon' (chief) economic weapon for the indigenous from any otherperson in theircommunity. people of these zones. Because of this, This is the belief that women should not There is also the leopard skin which is there has been massive destruction and own landed property. This gender-biased used as the Fons' carpets, on which they unsuitable harvesting of the 'eru' liana to tradition leads to a negative consequence are supposed to sit in their palaces. The sell. It is even exported to Europe and the on women, who happen to have been the demand for these parts of the elephant United States of America, where main users of the land. It prevents them and the leopard' is so high that these two descendants of these tribes reside, siiice from carrying out any long-term species of animals are almost becoming they believe in it as a staple food. It is investment or commitment to the welfare extinct in this area. obvious that these people have to open up of the land, because the male landlords

93 Desertification Control Bulletin, N2 34, 1999

Cultural practices with a in the morning, is a sign of fertility for the homes for other living organisms positive impact on the woman or young girl in the future. The (completing the ecosystem). This protects green fat caterpillar often found on the the soil surface from the effects of environment kola nut tree is also a sign of fertility. desertification, etc. When it drops in front of elderly women, The practice of creating and they pick it up with a leaf and take it home Agroforestry practice keeping sacred areas to a childless couple to put under their matrimonial bed. The belief is that it In the villages of the grasslands of Almost every village and every clan in would draw children to the couple. In the Carneroon the people plant fruit trees on Cameroon consider the particular area end most of the species of organisms of their farmlands. The trees help to draw where their ancestors first settled to be a these environments are protected and the water-table nearer to the surface for sacred area. Every year certain traditional conserved because of the cultural the plant roots to absorb easily. Some of rituals are performed in these areas. An importance attached to their existence. the trees planted help to increase the example is the Tadkon area in the The 'Queen of the Night' plant fertility of the farmland. The traditional Moghamo clan, regarded by all Moghamo produces a nice and refreshing scent at practice is that these trees are never men as the home of their ancestors. It is night. destroyed whether they are fruit-bearing also believed that every son or daughter Cameroonians believe that the scent or not. In Cameroon, trees play an of Moghamo dies and goes to live in from this plant helps to send away devils important role from a social and cultural Tadkon, in any form (life after death is a or evil spirits from their homes. point of view. They provide food for real belief in this area). Because of the Consequently this plant species is well people and animals. For example, the belief in the area's sacred nature all the propagated everywhere and well cared mango trees, in addition to providing components have always been well for; the plant is protected and sustained fruit, also provide essential soil fertility, protected from time immemorial. In these Traditionally, the rural woman protection of soils from erosion, and also sacred areas no burning, no farming, no believes that after cultivating a piece of moderate climate, etc. The disappearance hunting, not even fetching of fuelwood farmland for three or four years, it should of trees threatens the stability of both takes place. There are no guards but all be allowed to fallow. This is very rural and urban societies. In this light, members of the society are acutely aware important because, during this period, the efforts are made in favour of of this traditional belief and individually vegetation cover and the fertility of the reafforestation and the prevention of and collectively act as guards to the sacred land is re-established. deforestation. The Cameroonian area. At the beginning of every farming community has realized that there can be season, the Fon of each village, in Mixed farming method no development without lasting collaboration with other notables, reafforestation. As a consequence of this performs traditional rituals, believing that In the rural areas, indigenous farmers realization, the Rural Women the ancestors of their village would help practise mixed farming where a variety of Environmental Protection Association increase the crop yield for that farming crops are planted on the same piece of (RWEPA), a non-governmental season. farmland during each planting season. In organization for which the writer is the The general belief is that if this is not this way, and without any conscious effort general coordinator, lays emphasis on done, crop yield would be very low leading by the farmers, leguminous plants (like activities that would enhance sustainable to starvation. The salient result of this groundnuts) help to increase the nitrogen development and encourage the protection cultural belief is that these sacred areas, content of the soil through the nitrogen of the environment in general. including their natural resources and the found in their root nodules. This nitrogen various species of living things found helps improve the fertility of the soil. there, are well protected. It is a practice Conclusion worth encouraging. Planting of medicinal plants by traditional healers In all, cultural practices and beliefs have The belief in non-consumption or always been thought of as having only killing of some animal species This is a very common practice and needs negative impacts on the environment. The to be expanded because many plant above, however, illustrates that these In the Babungo Area of the North-West species have a medicinal value. By beliefs and practices can have both Province there is a cultural belief that creating awareness among even non- positive and negative effects. It is possible some animals and certain organisms of traditional practitioners of each that the relationship between these cultural their society are of the utmost significance community, trees which are of the utmost practices, beliefs and the management of to their clan. When a pregnant woman importance to our environment would the environment can be expressed as a sees the two-headed earthworm it is a equally be propagated. Apart from their function whose variables would be: sign of twins and as such it is never killed. medicinal value, trees generally provide A=People; B=Nature of their Activities To see the greenish frog on a leaf, when water to the environment which is equally and C=Cultural beliefs and practices. If harvesting vegetables behind the house indispensable to human life and serve as f(x) = f(A+f(B)+ f(C), where f(x) is the

94 Nci's of Interest

relationship between cultural practices. would give more meaning to the information could reveal the beliefs, and the management of the management of the environnient; iniportance of understanding cultural environment. 2 It will be useful that organisations diversity as a way of trying to set up working at the grass roots carry out the link between it and the protection Recommendations research and document in detail of the environment. cultural beliefs and practices which 1. Cultural beliefs and practices should relate to the environment. This well- be supported and protected since they researched and documented

International Conference on Desertification and Soil Degradation Moscow, Russian Federation, 11-15 November 1999

Russian Academy of Sciences Moscow Lomonosov State University Russian Academy of Agricultural Sciences First Announcement

Topics of the Conference Conference languages format not later than 1 July 1999. The printed size of plenary lectures must not Desertifcation assessment method- The languages for the conference will be exceed 20 pages printed by Times New ology and concepts; English and Russian. Roman, 12 single spaced. Definition, criteria and indicators; Desertification mapping: Proceedings of the Presentations Desertification control, monitoring Conference and prognosis; Except ordered key lectures the Soi Is and lands restoration and Organizing Committee also welcomes reforestation: Each participant will he provided with poster presentations devoted to general Social and economic problems of the proceedings of the Conference. topics. desertification and land degradation: comprising: Desert i ficat ion and sustainable • it printed volume of texts of the Costs development: plenary lectures and summaries of S. Russian experience in desertification posters: There is no registration fee for those assessment and combating. • a detailed programme of the Conference participants who present key conference; lectures and for the citizens of the former General structure and • list of participants with contact USSR Republics. For others the schedule of the Conference addresses. registration fee is US$ 150. All The Organizing Committee also plans participants will pay for themselves for to publish all conference materials on: hotel, meals and transportation. Il Nov Arrival at Moscow, http :/w ww.soilinst.msu.ru The closing day for registration fee is welcome and registration. This http address will also be used for II November. 12 Nov Opening session. Plenary new information of the conference after I lectures. May 1999. The fulltext ofplenary lectures Information 13-14 Nov Round tables, seminars, and summaries of posters must he sent to discussions. the organizing committee by e-mail in The notice of intent form for participation 15 Nov Departure. Microsoft Word, 2.0. 5.0. 6.0. 7.0 or RTF in the Conference must be sent to the

95 Desert itication Control Bulletin, N 34, 1999

Secretariat before 15Apr11 1999 by mail, fax ore-mail. Address of the Secretariat: Conference will be held in Moscow University. Participants will stay in the hotel, 15 minutes walk from Institute of Soil Science, Vorobiovy Gory, Moscow State Moscow University. There are only single rooms at US$30 per University, Moscow, 119899, Russia. day (including registration and breakfast). Tel/Fax: (7-095- 939-37-74)

Organizing ( ommittee: E-mail: mainsoil.msu.ru Chairman: Prof. G. V. Dobrovolskiy geo(soil.msu.ru Deputy Chairman: Prof. G. S. Kust kust(soil.rnsu.ru Senior Secretary: 0. V. Andreeva Secretaries: I. A. Martynenko Tel: (7-095-939-35-23) T. I. Malysheva Fax: (7-095-939-09-89)

96 Desertification is land degradation in arid, semi-arid, and dry sub-humid areas resulting from various factors, including climatic variations and human activities. This latest, internationally negotiated definition of desertification was adopted by the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, in June 1992. The United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification was formally adopted on 17 June 1994 and opened for signature in Paris on 14 October 1994. This Convention is notable for its innovative approach in recognizing the physical, biological and socio-economic aspects of desertification; the importance of redirecting technology transfer so that it is demand driven; and the involvement of local populations in the development of national action programmes. The Convention came into force on 26 December 1996.

Desertification Control Bulletin United Nations Environment Programme