Music and Myth in Modern

This book is the first major study that explores the intrinsic connec­ tion between music and myth, as Nietzsche conceived of it in The Birth of Tragedy (1872), in three great works of modern literature: Romain Rolland’s Nobel Prize winning Jean-Christophe (1904–12), ’s modernist epic (1922), and ’s late mas­ terpiece Doctor Faustus (1947). Juxtaposing Nietzsche’s conception of the Apollonian and Dionysian with narrative depictions of music and myth, Josh Torabi challenges the common view that the latter half of The Birth of Tragedy is of secondary importance to the first. Informed by a deep knowledge of Nietzsche’s early aesthetics, the book goes on to offer a fresh and original perspective on Ulysses and Doctor Faustus, two world-famous that are rarely discussed together, and makes the case for the significance of Jean-Christophe, which has been unfairly neglected in the Anglophone world, despite Rolland’s status as a major figure in twentieth-century intellectual and literary history. This unique study reveals new depths to the work of our most enduring writers and thinkers.

Josh Torabi is a literary scholar, and currently a visiting research fellow in the School of Languages, Linguistics and Film at Queen Mary Uni­ versity of London. He works on European , with a particular focus on the relationship between literature and music. He has published articles on Friedrich Nietzsche, James Joyce and Thomas Mann. Among the Victorians and Modernists Edited by Dennis Denisoff

This series publishes monographs and essay collections on literature, art, and culture in the context of the diverse aesthetic, political, social, tech­ nological, and scientific innovations that arose among the Victorians and Modernists. Viable topics include, but are not limited to, artistic and cultural debates and movements; influential figures and communities; and agitations and developments regarding subjects such as animals, commodification, decadence, degeneracy, democracy, desire, ecology, gender, nationalism, the paranormal, performance, public art, sex, socialism, spiritualities, transnationalism, and the urban. Studies that address continuities between the Victorians and Modernists are wel­ come. Work on recent responses to the periods such as Neo-Victorian novels, graphic novels, and film will also be considered.

Desire and Time in Modern English Fiction: 1919–2017 Richard Dellamora

Catherine Crowe: Gender, Genre, and Radical Politics Ruth Heholt

Peril and Protection in British Courtship Novels A Study in Continuity and Change Geri Giebel Chavis

The Intelligent Unconscious in Modernist Literature and Science Thalia Trigoni

Music and Myth in Modern Literature Josh Torabi

For more information about this series, please visit: https://www. routledge.com/Among-the-Victorians-and-Modernists/book-series/ ASHSER4035 Music and Myth in Modern Literature

Josh Torabi First published 2021 by Routledge 52 Vanderbilt Avenue, New York, NY 10017 and by Routledge 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2021 Josh Torabi The right of Josh Torabi to be identified as author of this work has been asserted by them in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe.

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ISBN: 978-0-367-55079-0 (hbk) ISBN: 978-1-003-09188-2 (ebk)

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Contents

Acknowledgements ix Prelude: Chasing the Ineffable 1

PART I First Movement 13

1 Schopenhauer, Wagner and Nietzsche: The Musicalization of Myth and the Mythologization of Music in The Birth of Tragedy 15 Musico-Mythic Beginnings 15 Schopenhauer’s Metaphysics of Music in The World as Will and Representation 16 Wagner: Musicalizing Nation and Myth in Beethoven 22 Nietzsche’s Aesthetic Models of Music and Myth in The Birth of Tragedy 31 Towards a Nietzschean Configuration in the Modern Novel 39

PART II Second Movement 47

2 Jean-Christophe: The Silent Music of the Soul 49 The Genesis of Jean-Christophe 49 A Born Musician: Jean-Christophe’s Early Years 55 The Roots of Artistic Creation: Jean-Christophe the Creator 62 Music Fictionalized: Jean-Christophe’s Compositions 70 Divisions: , Dionysus and Franco-German Musico-Literary Relations in Jean-Christophe 80 Jean-Christophe’s Final Voyage: Improvisation, Italy and Late Music 89 viii Contents PART III Third Movement 103

3 Joyce’s ‘Gesamtkunstwerk’: Performative Music and Mythic Method in Ulysses 105 Approaching Music and Myth in Ulysses 105 -Dionysus: A Portrait of the Artist’s Aesthetic Theory in “” 110 From Apollo to Bloom: Resisting Songs in the “Sirens” 120 And Behold: Leopold Could Not Live Without Stephen! The Apollonian and Dionysian, Side by Side in “” 132 Myth Updating in Ulysses 150

PART IV Fourth Movement 161

4 The Pact: Music and Myth in Thomas Mann’s Doctor Faustus 163 Demonic Origins 163 Mann and Myth 165 Part I: Adrian Leverkühn’s Education 168 Kretzschmar’s Lectures 168 Part II: Why Adrian Leverkühn Writes Such Good Music 178 The Early Works 178 Apocalypse Now! 186 The Great Lament: Adrian Leverkühn’s Masterpiece and Faust’s Redemption 193

Reprise 205 Bibliography 207 Index 219 Acknowledgements

To Isabel Wall, who has read, commented on, and contributed to this book at every stage of its development, I cannot adequately express my thanks. During the early stages of my research Robert Vilain and Steffan Davies offered critical assistance and encouraged me to pursue doctoral research. It was during my time studying for an MA at the University of Bristol, under their guidance, that my interest in the music and myth connection, and the scope for future research, was established. My doctoral thesis, upon which this book is based, would not have come to fruition without the encouragement of Sonu Shamdasani, Martin Liebscher and Rüdiger Görner. Their unwavering support, crit­ ical suggestions and insightful comments were of profound importance to the completion of this work. I’d like to thank Sonu for overseeing every aspect of this project from its inception; Martin for his integral contribution to the Nietzschean elements of this work, including his help in determining the scope of Nietzsche’s presence in it; and Rüdiger, who was instrumental in the development of this project, not least for introducing me to Romain Rolland’s Jean-Christophe, and for being an inexhaustible well of knowledge on musico-literary matters. I am grateful to the readers of my thesis, Ernest Schonfield and John Walker, whose helpful comments have undoubtedly improved the quality of this monograph. From 2015 to 2019 I was a doctoral student in the School of European Languages, Culture and Society at University College London (UCL) and would like to thank UCL’s Doctoral School for nominating my application for an Exchange Scholarship at Yale University and for the generous funding which allowed me to take up this unique opportunity. I’d like to extend my thanks and gratitude to Professor Kirk Wetters for supporting my application, and for welcoming me to the Department of Germanic Languages and at Yale; his perceptive feedback and generosity during my time at Yale are truly appreciated. I’d like to thank the Zürich James Joyce Foundation for deeming my project worthy of generous scholarship funding. There is nowhere better x Acknowledgements to study Joyce and his works. I owe a particular debt of gratitude to Fritz Senn, Ursula Zeller, Ruth Frehner, Frances Ilmberger and Silke Stebler. I’d also like to extend my thanks and gratitude to Michelle Witen, who kindly agreed to meet with me in Switzerland. Her work on Joyce and music is an inspiration, and her specific suggestions helped me formulate my chapter on Ulysses. I’d like to thank my mother Valerie and my late father Hamid for the years of unwavering support and unconditional love, which got me to this point. I’d also like to thank Catherine and William Wall for their generosity in trying times. Thanks to the Institute of Modern Languages Research, University of London, for offering me a Visiting Scholarship, which provided me with the time and resources needed to complete this book. Conversations with friends and colleagues at UCL helped shaped this work in various ways. In particular I would like to thank Gaia Domenici, Arthur Eaton, Matei Iagher, Oliver Knox, Sarah Marks, Jelena Martinovic, Tommaso Priviero, Dee McQullian, Kazue Niki, Jennifer Rushworth, Jonathan Shann, Francisca Stutzin, Alex Woodcock and Dangwei Zhou. I am grateful to have been a part of the research seminars regularly held at the Centre for Anglo-German Cultural Relations at Queen Mary University of London. Many valuable discussions have taken place dur­ ing these sessions, which helped sharpen my thinking and develop my research. At Routledge I would like to thank Michelle Salyga, my editor, and Bryony Reece, for their enthusiastic response to this project, and for seeing it through publication. Parts of this work have benefitted from publication in journals, and I am very grateful to a number of editors and readers. The third move­ ment first saw light as a conference paper presented at the XXI Simposio de la Sociedad Española de Literatura General y Comparada and was subsequently published in Estudios de Literatura 1 (vol. 1): Las Artes de la Vanguardia Literaria (2018), ed. Ana González-Rivas Fernández. Sections of the fourth movement appeared in The Journal of Comparative Literature and Aesthetics (vol.42, 2019), ed. A. C. Sukla. The compara­ tive foundations of the third and fourth movements were first presented at the Thomas Mann Forschungskolloquium at the Center for Advanced Studies, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München (2016) – I am grate­ ful to Rüdiger Görner, Oliver Jahraus and Friedhelm Marx for organ­ ising this workshop, and for their helpful questions. This presentation was significantly developed into an article published in Sprachkunst (2020), 1. Halbband, ed. Christoph Leitgeb. I’d like to offer my thanks the editors for allowing me to reprint portions of these works and to the anonymous peer reviewers associated with these publications for their encouragement and useful suggestions. Prelude Chasing the Ineffable

Heard melodies are sweet, but those unheard are sweeter. —John Keats, “Ode on a Grecian Urn”

Music is indeed the mediator between the spiritual and the sensual life. —Ludwig van Beethoven

Music and myth have perpetually functioned as sources of inspiration for artists, philosophers, and writers over the centuries. Friedrich Nietzsche (1844–1900) was amongst the first to communicate the significance of the relationship between the two. Nietzsche’s preoccupation with music and his conception of the “Dionysian”, remain a central focus through­ out his œuvre, not only in his philosophical writings (for which he is most famous), but also in his poetry (particularly the Dithyrambs of Dionysus, 1888) and, naturally, evidenced by his musical compositions.1 Nietzsche considered himself,2 and is remembered, as one of the great stylists in the German language, and in his writing, the poetic, musi­ cal, and philosophical often converge. For the generation of writers who came after Nietzsche, who were interested in breaking down discipli­ nary and artistic boundaries, his presence was unavoidable. Following on from the rise of the novel in nineteenth century Europe, the early to mid-twentieth century saw an unprecedented shift in the novel’s role as an artistic medium. The novelists of this period of literary moder­ nity3 sought to renounce, modify, and in some instances abandon alto­ gether, the rules and conventions of the traditional novel in a bid to inject new life into what they considered to be a stagnant art form and thus make it a suitable vehicle through which to tell the story of their turbulent epoch. As such, the novel became one of the most successful art forms in which to explicate the cultural crisis of the first half of the twentieth century. Artistic introspection, the quest to understand the “creative impulse” and artistic creation per se, along with the hyper- aesthetic representation of life in all its grandeur and minutiae, became entwined in the modern novel. This experimentation led to a number of philosophical questions: What is art? What is the role of the artist? 2 Prelude Where does the “creative impulse” come from? What is artistic crea­ tion? How do the arts interact? Indeed, it led to a more fundamental questioning of “man’s position and function in the universe.”4 It is there­ fore unsurprising that so many artists of the period sought to represent alternative artistic media in their own, leading to a deeper exploration of the role and nature of art and culture in a manifestly tumultuous period of world history. This re-evaluation ultimately led to an inter­ play of artistic media, which is still being cultivated today. The literary works that occupy the three main movements of this book are: Romain Rolland’s Jean-Christophe (1904–12), James Joyce’s Ulysses (1922) and Thomas Mann’s Doctor Faustus (1947).5 These novels span the first half of the twentieth century, a politically tempestuous, though artistically rich period, in which the novel underwent this radical transformation. The long novel offered a unique platform in which authors could attempt to recreate an emotional and performative condition of music in prose (as opposed to rendering music in its more closely related medium, poetry), as well as providing a medium in which to expound on technical and philosophical ideas about music. The prominence of music and indeed of fictional composers as subjects in late nineteenth and early twentieth century literature evidences the development of an interplay of the arts. In much the same way as the romantic composers looked to myth, to classical literature and beyond, for stories to set to music, modern nov­ elists looked to music, and philosophies of music, to achieve something like the emotional resonance and artistic unity that music was distinctly capable of. However, the relationship between music and literature is by no means one-sided: as Peter Dayan emphatically declares: “without literature’s demonstration of the import of that which escapes and can­ not be seen, thought, analyzed, or represented, we would have no means to maintain that music, as such and in general, could exist,”6 denoting the close and symbiotic relationship between the two art forms. The relationship between music and literature is, however, often nebulous. Rolland, Joyce and Mann, among numerous other modern authors, were drawn to the ineffability of music. However this preoccupation has led, as Emilie Carpoulet noted, to a muddying of the term “musicality” in literary criticism. Carpoulet asks: “If musicality denotes the inherent musical qualities of music, then what do we make of a musical novel whose musicality cannot be understood apart from its non-musical con­ text, since a musical novel is not an association of two distinct media but a fusion of the two?”7 Carpoulet’s solution is to see “musicality” as “a travelling concept which belongs neither to music nor to literature” and that we should “consider […] music in terms of a living, fluid and unbounded musicality, that we may legitimately study the implications of a musical conception of art.”8 Following from Carpoulet’s evocation of Mieke Bal’s Travelling Concepts in the Humanities: A Rough Guide (2002), in which Bal (and subsequently Carpoulet) argues that the issue Prelude 3 at stake is not whether the concept of musicality “is used rightly or wrongly but whether it is used relevantly”9 and “whether it may help us to better understand, express and communicate our thoughts rather than merely stirring up the already muddied terminological waters of interdisciplinary scholarship.”10 This work seeks to explore a notion of musicality in the novels discussed in order to elucidate some of the most infamously challenging prose fiction ever written. The three novels exist on a distinct musical spectrum: Rolland attempts to evoke some­ thing akin to an emotive musical experience in his readers (as one might experience when listening to a Beethoven symphony) by depicting, in a loosely symphonic form, a life to death account of a heroic fictional composer; Joyce presents the reader with radical musical poetics in lan­ guage, most famously in fugal form in his “Sirens” episode; and Mann offers a meditative, technical, and evocative explication of music in a faux biography of an anti-heroic, modern fictional composer, placing his text on the scale somewhere between Jean-Christophe and Ulysses. The innovative approach of this work, however, is to explore the unique musicality of each novel via the intrinsic connection that exists between music and myth. In an atmosphere of crisis, modern writers felt a profound disillusion­ ment with a cumulative and therefore positive teleological view of his­ tory and, like Wagner and Nietzsche before them, they felt the pull of myth.11 As J. B. Foster points out: “myth is […] a direct response to the mood of , since it is capable of providing a long-term continu­ ity to replace the one that was lost, of giving a better perspective from which to assess the significance of the loss, or of creating a sense for new cultural possibilities.”12 Nietzsche had captured the spirit of the inter­ play between music and myth in The Birth of Tragedy (1872), a book which, though he would later scathingly critique in his “Attempt at a Self-Criticism” (1886), had great appeal for writers attempting to grap­ ple with the relationship between intellect and life, instinct and ration­ ality. Nietzsche’s compelling cultural analysis, which anticipated the mood of modernity and encapsulated its crisis, was expressed in a highly literary prose style, which understandably appealed to the authors that followed him. There are myriad fruitful points of connection between Nietzsche and the modern novelists of the early to mid-twentieth cen­ tury. However, rather than attempt a further study of influence (of which there are now a plethora), the aim here will be to expound the relation­ ship between music and myth that Nietzsche gave license to in his first major work. Nietzsche’s aesthetic mythology, in relation to the “spirit of music,” is the basis, he argues, of all art. This book critically evaluates this intrinsic relationship between music and myth13 and demonstrates how such ideas are taken up in three modern novels, which are rarely discussed in relation to one another. Of the few notable literary scholars who have worked on myth and modernism, Michael Bell in Literature, 4 Prelude Modernism and Myth (1997) has come closest to uncovering the signif­ icance of the relationship between music and myth, and its relevance to modernist writing. This occurs in his discussion of the “Sirens” episode of Ulysses (which will be explored at length in the third movement). Bell rightly observes that “music has been a vital metaphor and struc­ tural device for modernist writers seeking a transcendence of time.”14 In addition, he states that Bloom’s mathematical musings about music (which, in keeping with the Homeric myth, ultimately free him from its intoxicating effects and allow him to journey on) can “direct us towards the corresponding aspect of the narrative technique: what is perceived as an emotional or spiritual experience in time is in fact a structure of mathematical, spatialised relations.”15 The link to myth becomes pal­ pable when Bell implicitly moves from Bloom’s response to the music in “Sirens” to his broader role as and the Homeric myth in general:

The importance of the spatialised form is that the larger intuition of the timeless figured in the Homeric parallel is not imported as a ready-made significance somehow inherent in the mythic parallel as such, but is actually created anew within the momentary pro­ cess of the narrative. In other words, the timeless order apparently enshrined in myth is the product of a secular aesthetic structure, as when Nietzsche spoke of putting ‘the stamp of the eternal’ on expe­ rience. The aesthetic is the condition by which modern sensibility creates an equivalent of the mythic. The story of Odysseus, in so far as it is a cultural myth, suggests a timeless structure of experience given to the writer, but Joyce’s spatialising holds the archaic struc­ ture in counterpoint to its modern re-enactment. As the modern construction of a world enfolds the older sense of a given form, nei­ ther has its complete meaning by itself. Mann’s sense of the mythic […] as being at once a primitive condition from which it is neces­ sary to escape and the most sophisticated condition to which one should strive, is embodied in this self-conscious reconstruction of the already given.16

In linking the timelessness of music and myth (and the attraction of mod­ ern writers to such timeless qualities), as well as invoking Nietzsche’s aesthetics and Mann’s view of myth, Bell is implicitly denoting the strik­ ing significance of the relationship between the two, a connection that the present study makes explicit. Bell also continually stresses the impor­ tance of Nietzsche and Mann to modernist conceptions of myth: Mann, he claims, owing to his “self- about the mythic makes him an excellent lens through which to consider both modernism and the period of its break-up.”17 Indeed, Bell’s study takes as its broadest line of enquiry the notion that modernist writers, in their self-conscious Prelude 5 “mythopoeia” (to use Bell’s preferred term), recognize a world view as such while “living it as conviction, […] a paradox formulated by Thomas Mann: ‘although in the life of the human race the mythic is indeed an early and primitive stage, in the life of the individual it is a late and mature one’.”18 Bell continually returns to Mann’s phrase in his theo­ rization of myth and discussion of . However, Bell’s study, besides this transitory foray into the musical dimension of the “Sirens” episode of Ulysses, is not overtly concerned with music and therefore his brief discussion of Nietzsche’s The Birth of Tragedy19 does not rely heavily on the Apollo/Dionysus dichotomy, nor does it contain any substantial evaluation of Dionysian music, the central bases for this work. It is evident from the secondary material concerning modern literature that conversations surrounding myth and music as separate subjects often recourse to mention Nietzsche, whose impact on literary modernity can hardly be understated. This fact makes it particularly striking that there has yet to be a critical study that explores the pro­ found relationship between the two and how this connection is taken up in the novels that occupy this study. Musicologists have long been fascinated with composers who set myth to music,20 as myth often func­ tions as an emblem of a kind of literature which transcends conventional historical subject matter and compliments the idea of “universality.” For modern writers, too, music performed this function. In the novels to be discussed, music’s ineffability paradoxically provided a similarly holis­ tic, universal expression to myth. The intersection of music and myth therefore presents a unique challenge for modern novelists attempting to depict them. Nietzsche’s The Birth of Tragedy, which theorizes music and myth and denotes the intrinsic connection between them, is there­ fore a most compelling starting point. Northrop Frye in his seminal Anatomy of Criticism: Four Essays (1957) argues for the value of analysing metaphor, rather than eradicating them or analysing with the sole aim to debunk material as “nothing but” a metaphor. In the fourth essay “Rhetorical Criticism: A Theory of Genres” Frye identifies an “ancient diagram of the four principles of substance, hot, cold, moist, and dry,”21 and argues that this formula helps explain a list of commonly held oppositions, one of which is that “the intellect is cool and sober and the emotions warm and drunk”.22 Frye conjures the metaphoric imagery of the Apollonian and Dionysian here, and by affirm­ ing the value of metaphor, is indicating the significance of archetypal, symbolic categories. For C. G. Jung, whose ideas Frye was building on in his development of “archetypal literary criticism”, the Dionysian:

is a flood of mightiest universal feeling, which bursts forth irresist­ ibly, intoxicating the senses like strong wine. It is a drunkenness in the highest sense. In this state the psychological element sensa­ tion, whether it be sensation of sense or of affect, participates in the 6 Prelude highest degree. It is a question, therefore, of an extraversion of those feelings which are inextricably bound up with the element of sensa­ tion; for this reason we define it as feeling-sensation.23

In contradistinction to this, the Apollonian for Jung “is a perception of the inner image of beauty, of measure, of controlled and proportioned feelings. The comparison with the dream clearly indicates the character of the Apollonian attitude: it is a state of introspection, of inner contem­ plation towards the dream world of eternal ideas: it is therefore a state of introversion.”24 Jung, therefore, expands Nietzsche’s aesthetic cate­ gories into psychological types (introvert/extrovert) that are arguably better known today than those (Apollonian/Dionysian) on which they are partly based.25 Notably, Jung’s depiction of the Dionysian as a “flood of mightiest universal feeling” is also reminiscent of Rolland’s descrip­ tion of “oceanic feeling”, which is of central importance to the artis­ tic development of his fictional composer protagonist Jean-Christophe, as will be explored in detail later. The point here is that Nietzsche’s early aesthetic mythological duality of the Apollonian and Dionysian resonated with thinkers from varied intellectual and artistic traditions. Nietzsche’s early thought is, for example, as significant for psychological discussions (particularly regarding notions of the unconscious) as it is for literary ones discussed here.26 This work will demonstrate how the central novelists of literary modernity similarly responded to, developed, and redefined Nietzsche’s rich Apollo/Dionysus dichotomy. The dis­ tinct conception of Dionysus, and Dionysian music, as presented in The Birth of Tragedy, particularly influenced modern novelists. As Foster argues, Dionysus is the “mythic figure [that] best captures all aspects of the fascination writers felt for him. In its very broadest implications, it can be identified with Nietzsche himself, who signed several letters with the name Dionysus shortly after his collapse into insanity” as well as epitomizing “the open-ended spirit in which Nietzsche hoped to be read”27 but Nietzsche’s Dionysus is also attractive for writers concerned with portraying music in literature. The Apollo/Dionysus dichotomy in itself evokes the nebulous enterprise of representing music in the novel form. Nietzsche, as Surette rightly notes, “aligns myth and the language arts, along with dream and sculpture, as “material” arts in contrast to the “spiritual” art of music”,28 and so to depict music in literature is in other words to represent a Dionysian art in an Apollonian art form. This makes Nietzsche’s argument in The Birth of Tragedy fundamental for novelists interested in depicting music, and helps elucidate all the artistic and philosophical connotations of doing so. It is therefore unsur­ prising that artists interested in crossing and fusing artistic boundaries found a guide in early Nietzsche, who was among the first to traverse this nebulous plane and advocate an interplay of the arts, an aspirational project that is still coming to fruition today. I build on and develop the Prelude 7 substantial lines of enquiry hinted at by Bell, Foster, Surette, and oth­ ers, in illuminating the significance of music and myth as theorized by Nietzsche in The Birth of Tragedy. This book is written in four movements with a reprise, the first deals with the inception of Nietzsche’s The Birth of Tragedy to clarify its sig­ nificance to, and impact on, the literary works that occupy the remainder of this study. In particular it looks at how and to what extent Nietzsche’s reading of Schopenhauer’s The World as Will and Representation (first edition of 1818/19, second edition of 1844 and third edition of 1859) and Wagner’s Beethoven essay of 1870 nourished his thinking about the roles of music and myth and his development of the Apollo/Dionysus dichotomy and of Dionysian music: the central tenets of Nietzsche’s book (which subsequently form the basis of this work). The movement will focus on the origins of Nietzsche’s dualistic thinking but it will be predominantly concerned with exploring notions of Dionysian music, which consists of a musico-mythological tie in itself. As Foster rightly notes: “Among writers his first book had a special place”,29 and so it is necessary to explore how Nietzsche’s dichotomy emerged, which will shed light on how Rolland, Joyce and, Mann incorporate or respond to it in their prose fiction. The second movement offers an exposition of Nietzsche’s aesthetic mythology in relation to Romain Rolland’s music novel Jean-Christophe (1904–12). It juxtaposes Nietzsche’s aesthetic models of music and myth in The Birth of Tragedy, as elucidated in the first movement, with Rolland’s narrative depiction of music and his central charac­ ters, particularly the novel’s protagonist, the fictional genius composer Jean-Christophe Krafft. Nietzsche’s Apollo/Dionysus dichotomy can elucidate Rolland’s novel in varied and distinct ways: it demonstrates how Rolland’s philosophical and literary exploration of musical genius is uncannily reminiscent of Nietzsche’s depiction of the Dionysian (as a fundamental artistic impulse). It goes further to evidence the multifarious modes through which the Dionysian is brought into dialogue with the Apollonian, both in terms of Jean-Christophe’s foil characters, Olivier Jeannin, for example, and in broader terms of the relationship between music and literature. As Rolland does not retell a particular myth (as in Ulysses and Doctor Faustus), I consider Rolland’s Jean-Christophe specifically in relation to Nietzsche’s early aesthetic mythology and show how Nietzsche’s mythic dichotomy can illuminate Rolland’s prose, which evidences the value of the methodological approach of this work. Moreover, Rolland’s novel sequence explicitly concerns German music, a preoccupation of Nietzsche’s writing, which is discussed and theorized at length in The Birth of Tragedy (and explored in the first movement), most prominently in relation to Wagner. Jean-Christophe can be seen as a foundational novel of the twentieth century, given its lengthy intro­ spective narrative style and its exploration of the genesis of artistic and 8 Prelude scholarly genius in the characters Jean-Christophe and Olivier respec­ tively (reminiscent of Stephen Daedalus in A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man and Ulysses) and the impressive sculpting of a fictional composer (foreshadowing ’s Vinteuil in and Adrian Leverkühn in Mann’s Doctor Faustus). That there has not yet been a significant study that considers Jean-Christophe and Doctor Faustus together, given that both Rolland and Mann’s protago­ nists are fictional composers, and that both novels can be read in relation to Nietzsche’s aesthetics, is striking. Indeed, as Theodore Ziolkowski writes “Jean-Christophe […] along with Thomas Mann’s Doktor Faustus […] is one of the two greatest musician-novels of the twenti­ eth century.”30 This work resituates Jean-Christophe within the current secondary literature and affirms Rolland’s rightful place as one of the twentieth century’s great novelists. The third movement introduces a new mythic layer by considering James Joyce’s Ulysses, with particular reference to the literary uses of music in relation to what T. S. Eliot coined Joyce’s “mythic method” in relation to his use of ’s . It demonstrates how Joyce responds to (and challenges) Wagner’s aesthetic concept of the ‘Gesamtkunstwerk’ (often translated as ‘total artwork’) and how he implements and devel­ ops the leitmotif with the aim of clarifying the philosophical, as well as the pragmatic and aesthetic, relevance of this technique in Ulysses. It reintroduces Nietzsche and juxtaposes his Apollo/Dionysus dichotomy in The Birth of Tragedy with Joyce’s narrative depiction of music and myth and his central characters in Ulysses. I turn first to the “Proteus” episode in order to expound Stephen’s Dionysian nature in relation to his aesthetic perception. I then move on to the “Sirens” episode to ana­ lyse ’s response to music and his Apollonian character in Joyce’s “music chapter”. In this section, I offer the most detailed elabo­ ration of the musical potential, and performative qualities, of language in Ulysses, marking the significance of the relationship between music and literature. Finally, I turn to the “Eumaeus” and “” episodes, in which Stephen and Bloom are finally brought together in what is in many ways the climax of the book, in order to explore what happens when Joyce’s Apollo finally enters into dialogue with Dionysus, and vice versa. This section highlights the striking ways in which Joyce mod­ ernizes Nietzsche’s aesthetic categories, and in doing so draws atten­ tion to Joyce’s affinities with, as well as divergences from, Nietzsche’s early thoughts as expressed in The Birth of Tragedy. This movement treats Homer’s Odyssey as counterpoint, as the Homeric correspond­ ences are introduced independently in the chapter though relating to the overarching theme of music and myth, often striking through the prose, much like songs do in Ulysses. The new mythic layer introduced in this movement explores the intellectual development of the literary uses of myth for modernist ends in Ulysses (with reference to ). This Prelude 9 emphasizes the unique perspective that can be gained on the relationship between music and literature through a broader consideration of myth and sets the tempo for: The final movement, which develops the notions of myth-updating introduced in the third movement and recapitulates the distinct impact of Nietzsche’s aesthetic mythology on literary modernity in turning to Thomas Mann’s late music novel Doctor Faustus. This novel offers argu­ ably the deepest exposition of intersections of music and myth, given Mann’s retelling of the Faust myth, along with the palpable presence of the Apollo/Dionysus dichotomy, in connection with the book’s innova­ tive musical focus. I explore how and to what effect Mann reacts to, and presents, the formulation of music and myth, with the aim of enhancing our understanding of his famously complex novel, while simultaneously adding to the reception history of Nietzsche’s The Birth of Tragedy. Rather than focus on the biographical parallels between Mann’s pro­ tagonist Leverkühn and Nietzsche (which are already well documented), I focus on the palpable Apollonian and Dionysian elements that Mann presents in the intimate portrayal of both his chief characters’ psycholo­ gies and that exist in the act of artistic production itself. As with Joyce, the act of artistic creation leads us directly back to the core issues of Nietzsche’s The Birth of Tragedy, such as where artistic impulses come from (the Apollonian and Dionysian) and how they manifest themselves in the modern world. While the core preoccupation of this book is aes­ thetic, broader issues are drawn on: for example, the “artistic impulses” as Nietzsche defined them, can be seen to surface in unforeseen ways, which Mann explores in the parallel he draws between the fate of his fic­ tional composer and Germany following its descent into Nazism, a key theme of Doctor Faustus and one which is explored at length in the final movement. Mann, like Rolland and Joyce, chose the arduous task of representing ineffable subjects such as music and myth in prose, in a bid to test the limits of language and the novel as an art form. Unlike Joyce, and yet in line with Rolland, Mann chooses an imaginary composer as his protagonist, yet this time (unlike in Jean-Christophe) the composer is situated within a rich mythic tradition (the Faust tradition), as Joyce situates Ulysses in a tradition that started with Homer’s Odyssey. This combination ultimately provides the most pertinent example of how productive and fascinating the relationship between music and myth in prose can be. In approaching the often nebulous relationship between music and literature through a consideration of myth, I will add a unique and illuminating dimension to both Mann studies and Nietzsche studies, as well as contributing to comparative literary scholarship more gener­ ally. Mann’s retelling of the Faust myth, his negation of the prior ver­ sions of the myth, along with various episodic negations of high cultural achievements, such as Beethoven’s Ninth Symphony, give the novel an air of finality. In essence, Doctor Faustus is a novel of conclusions, both 10 Prelude in music and myth, in which the fate of both are intimately bound to the fate of Germany. It is therefore fitting that the book ends here. This work seeks to open up the interplay of music and myth, and indeed the interplay of the arts (particularly music and literature) for further inves­ tigation. This prelude may therefore equally be considered a conclusion, as the extent of the musico-mythic connection outlined here can only be understood once the reader has reached the conclusion of the fourth movement and then, it is hoped, the reverberations of the fictional music discussed and its intersection with myth, could inspire a circumnaviga­ tion back to this point. This study evaluates the interplay of music and myth in a turbu­ lent period of literary and intellectual history, during which there was a palpable move towards interdisciplinarity in the arts. Notions of self-reflective artistic creation were burgeoning, conventional modes of storytelling were radically readdressed and the relationship between the arts were profoundly scrutinized by modern authors. The novelists of the period sought to recreate an emotional and practical condition of music in their prose in original ways. Rolland, Joyce and Mann were all directly reacting to a formulation set out by Nietzsche in 1872; this study seeks to address the significance of this and ultimately demon­ strate how Nietzsche can help elucidate a connection that can in turn help us understand some of the most challenging prose fiction in the twentieth century. The first question to be explored, then, is how this musico-mythic relationship comes into being in The Birth of Tragedy.

Notes 1. For examples listen to: Friedrich Nietzsche, Compositions of his Youth (1857–63) released in 1995 and Compositions of His Mature Years (1864–82) released in 1996, Albany Records (Albany, NY). 2. See “Why I Write Such Good Books” in Friedrich Nietzsche, Ecce Homo: How To Become What You Are. Translated by Duncan Large (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001), pp. 36–88. 3. I avoid using the term “modernists” to collectively describe the three nov­ elists I am to discuss. While “modernist” is a label that is certainly, and frequently, attached to James Joyce, the other two authors, Romain Rol­ land and to some extent, Thomas Mann, resist such neat categorisation. 4. J. A. Cuddon rev. by C. E. Preston, The Penguin Dictionary of Literary Terms and Literary Theory (London: Penguin, 1979), p. 516. 5. Since Harry Levin’s famous Harvard course “Proust, Joyce, and Mann” there have been a number of studies that treat these three figures together, the most well-known and recent example being Gerald Gillespie’s Proust, Mann, Joyce in the Modernist Context (Washington: The Catholic Uni­ versity of America Press: 2003). There is yet to be a major study that treats Rolland, Joyce and Mann together. One of the aims of this book is to address this critical gap in the secondary literature. 6. Peter Dayan, Music Writing Literature: From Sand via Debussy to Derrida (Surrey: Ashgate, 2006), p. 95. Prelude 11 7. Emilie Carpoulet, “Voicing the Music in Literature” in European Journal of English Studies, vol. 13, no. 1 (2009), pp. 79–91, p. 86. 8. Ibid., p. 89. 9. Mieke Bal Travelling Concepts in the Humanities: A Rough Guide (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2002), p. 32. Cited in Carpoulet (2009), p. 89. 10. Ibid., p. 82. 11. In each movement I use the term “myth” in the manner that the author who is the subject of the movement employs the term. In the case of the fourth movement, that is concerned with Thomas Mann’s Doctor Faus­ tus, the term requires re-formulation and I therefore dedicate a subsection (“Mann and Myth”) to this issue. 12. J. B. Foster, Heirs to Dionysus: A Nietzschean Current in Literary Modern­ ism (New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1981), p. 418. This incredibly useful study denotes the significance of Nietzsche’s early aesthetic thought, including the relevance of the Apollo/Dionysus dichotomy, to literary modernism. Foster’s primary literary examples are D. H. Lawrence, André Gide, André Malraux, and Thomas Mann. While this study does point toward the often overlooked significance of The Birth of Tragedy to literary modernism, it does not address what the present work seeks to analyse: the intrinsic relationship between music and myth in modern literature. Foster does explore the relevance of The Birth of Tragedy to Mann’s Doctor Faustus but he only makes cursory reference to Joyce and does not men­ tion Rolland. Moreover, his study is not much concerned with music, its relation to myth, or indeed the relationship between music and literature, all of which are of central concern to this study. For more on Gide in rela­ tion to Joyce and Mann specifically see: Joseph Gerard Brennan, Three Philosophical Novelists: James Joyce, André Gide, Thomas Mann (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1964). 13. As Rüdiger Görner perceptively explains in relation to The Birth of Trag­ edy: “Nietzsche established a causal relationship between music and (tragic) myth. In doing so, he shifted creation (and creation myths) back into the musical sphere.” [„Nietzsche stellte eine kausale Verhältnisbes­ timmung zwischen Musik und (tragischem) Mythos her. Damit verlagerte er die Schöpfung (und die Schöpfungsmythen) ins Musikalische zurück“]. Rüdiger Görner, ‘Mythos und Musik. Versuch einer Verhältnisbestim­ mung’ in Das Geheimnis der Wirklichkeit. Kurt Hübner zum 90. Geburt­ stag. Edited by Volker Kapp and Werner Theobald (Freiburg im Breisgau: Verlag Karl Alber, 2011), pp. 211–19, p. 217. The English translation is my own. 14. Michael Bell, Literature, Modernism and Myth: Belief and Responsibil­ ity in the Twentieth Century (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997), p. 76. 15. Ibid., p. 77. 16. Ibid., pp. 77–78. 17. Ibid., p. 161. 18. Ibid., p. 2. 19. Ibid., pp. 24–30. 20. For more on various composers’ attraction to the aesthetics of myth see Eero Tarasti, Myth and Music: a semiotic approach to the aesthetics of myth in music, especially that of Wagner, Sibelius and Stravinsky (The Hague: Mouton Publishers, 1979). 12 Prelude 21. Northrop Frye, Anatomy of Criticism (London: , 1990), p. 336. 22. Ibid. 23. C. G. Jung, Psychological Types. Translated by R. F. C. Hull, in The Collected Works of C. G. Jung. Sir Herbert Read, Michael Fordham, Gerhard Adler (eds.); William McGuire (executive ed.), 21 vols, vol. 6 (London: Routledge, 1971), pp. 179–80. 24. Ibid., p. 180. 25. Walter Kaufmann in his ground-breaking study Nietzsche: Philoso­ pher, Psychologist, Antichrist (New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1974/2013) was amongst the first to note, in his discussion of a general misunderstanding of the Apollonian and Dionysian, that Jung had incor­ rectly related Nietzsche’s categories to his own and that the Dionysian is in fact closer to a state of introversion and the Apollonian to extraversion, if we follow Kaufmann’s interpretation of Nietzsche’s Apollo/Dionysus dichotomy. For more on this see Kaufmann (1974/2013), p. 168. 26. See Martin Liebscher “Friedrich Nietzsche’s perspectives on the uncon­ scious” in Thinking the Unconscious: Nineteenth-Century German Thought. Edited by Angus Nicholls and Martin Liebscher (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2010). Liebscher expresses the significance of the Dionysian in The Birth of Tragedy to conceptions of the unconscious as Nietzsche “characterizes this state [the Dionysian] as corresponding with the disappearance of the subject into complete self-forgetting. […] The redemption from individuality, from the principium individuationis, leads to a common primal oneness “Ur-Eine”. The Apollonian, conscious ego has been abandoned; the boundaries separating individuals have ceased to exist. In this way, it could be said that the return to the primal one is also the descent into the unconscious. In The Birth of Tragedy the unconscious is first and foremost defined by the collective aspect which is opposed to the Apollonian principium individuationis.” Nicholls and Liebscher (2010), pp. 258–59. I return to this notion in the second movement. 27. Foster (1981), p. 15. 28. Leon Surette, The Birth of Modernism: , T.S. Eliot, W.B. Yeats, and the Occult (Montreal and Kingston: McGill-Queen’s Univer­ sity Press, 1993), p. 196. 29. Foster (1981), p. 40. 30. Theodore Ziolkowski, Music Into Fiction: Composers Writing, Composi­ tions Imitated (New York: Camden House, 2017), p. 170. Bibliography

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I will be referring to the following volume throughout: Friedrich Nietzsche, The Birth of Tragedy and The Case of Wagner. Translated by Walter Kauf­ mann (New York: Random House, 1967). 2. See Georges Liébert, Nietzsche and Music. Translated by David Pellauer and Graham Parkes (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 2004); Adrian Del Caro’s chapter “The Birth of Tragedy” in Paul Bishop (ed.), A Companion to Friedrich Nietzsche: Life and Works (New York: Camden House, 2012); Martine Prange, Nietzsche, Wagner, Europe (Berlin: de Gruyter, 2013) and David Came’s “Nietzsche on the Aesthetics of Character and Virtue”, in D. Came (ed.), Nietzsche on Art and Life (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014). 3. Henceforth The World as Will and Representation or WWR in the text. I will be referring to the following edition: Arthur Schopenhauer, The World as Will and Representation: In Two Volumes, Volume I and Volume II. Translated by E. F. J. Payne (New York: Dover Publications, 1966). 4. Alongside these three novels (and others by Rolland, Joyce and Mann), there are numerous works of literary prose in the first half of the twentieth century which depict music and can be read successfully in terms of Nietzsche’s dichotomy, for instance: Gabriele D’Annunzio’s The Flame (Il fuoco, 1900), E. M. Forster’s Howard’s End (1910), Proust’s In Search of Lost Time (À la recherche du temps perdu, 1913–27) and Hermann Hesse’s Steppenwolf (1927). All these texts allude to the conflict between the sober act of artistic creation and the intoxicating effects music, fic­ tional or otherwise. Though less explicit in terms of the Apollo/Dionysus dichotomy, one could add to this list works of fiction by D. H. Lawrence, , and many others. 5. Georg Simmel, Schopenhauer and Nietzsche. Translated by Helmut Lou­ iskandl, Michael Weinstein and Deena Weinstein (Massachusetts: Univer­ sity of Massachusetts Press,1986), p. 93. 6. For further discussion of Schopenhauer’s influence on twentieth century musicians specifically see Lydia Goehr’s essay “Schopenhauer and the musicians: an inquiry into the sounds of silence and the limits of philoso­ phizing about music” in Dale Jacquette (ed.), Schopenhauer, Philosophy, and the Arts (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996). 7. Walter Pater, The Renaissance: Studies in Art and Poetry. Edited and introduction by Adam Philips, (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1986), p. 86. According to Surette (1993) p. 179: Pater, and the aesthetic school of which he is a representative, warmly received the early work of Nietzsche. 8. Lionel Trilling, E. M. Forster (New York: New Directions, 1965), p. 131. 9. Friedrich Schlegel, Literary Notebooks, 1797–1801. Edited by Hans Eich­ ner (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1957), p. 147 10. G. W. F Hegel, Aesthetics: Volume II: Lectures on Art. Translated by T. M. Knox (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1975), p. 952. 11. Ibid., p. 937. 12. For more on this see Lawrence Ferrara’s essay “Schopenhauer on music as the embodiment of Will” in Schopenhauer, Philosophy and the Arts (1996) in which Ferrara espouses that, for Schopenhauer, the individual arts in the hierarchy correlate specifically to the hierarchy of the organic world. 13. It should be noted that many critics of Schopenhauer have exposed a fault in relation to his musicological (not philosophical!) treatment of melody and harmony. Robert Ralph, for example, complained that: “He [Schopenhauer] falls upon that cardinal mistake which is so common to non-musical minds, of calling minor keys necessarily plaintive or sad, and major keys lively and jolly. Also in endeavouring to reconcile the basis of harmony with some cosmic scheme he is responsible for stating that bass parts always move most slowly as the representative of the crudest mass, and that bass only rises and falls by large intervals, never by one tone (!) He perpetrates one glorious ‘howler’ as a result of this line of thought when he declares that a quick run or shake in the low notes cannot even be imagined! ! ! On the other hand he avoids the popular error of conceiv­ ing melody as distinct from harmony.” Robert Ralph, “Schopenhauer and Music” in The Musical Times, vol. 54, no. 850 (1913), p. 793. 14. “Among the most glorious conditions of his [Schopenhauer’s] existence was the fact that he was able, in accordance with his motto vitam impen­ dere vero, really to live for such a task and that he was oppressed by none of the petty necessities of life”, taken from “Schopenhauer as educator” in Friedrich Nietzsche, Untimely Meditations. Translated by R. J. Holling­ dale (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983), p. 182. 15. Nicholas Matthew and Benjamin Walton (eds.), The invention of Bee­ thoven and Rossini (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2013), p. 283. 16. Jeremy Tambling, On Reading the Will: Law and Desire in Literature and Music (Eastbourne: Sussex Academic Press, 2012), p. 172. 17. Richard Wagner, Beethoven. Translated by Roger Allen (Woodbridge, The Boydell Press, 2014), p. 3. 18. Nietzsche will later align Schopenhauer (to his estimation) and Wagner (to his denigration) with the French in Nietzsche contra Wagner: “In this France of the spirit, which is also the France of pessimism, Schopenhauer is even now more at home than he has ever been in Germany; his main work has already been translated twice, the second time excellently, so that I now prefer to read Schopenhauer in French (he was an accident among Germans, as I am such an accident; the Germans have no fingers for us, they have no fingers altogether, they have only paws). […] It remains a certain fact for anyone familiar with European cultural movements that French and Richard Wagner belong together most closely. All dominated by literature right into their eyes and ears […].” Cited from The Portable Nietzsche. Edited and translated by Walter Kaufmann (New York: Penguin Books, 1976), pp. 671-672. 19. Allen (2014), pp. 13–14. 20. Allen (2014), p. 24. 21. See Wagner, Beethoven, p. 45 for a discussion of Schopenhauer and p. 60 for the evocation of Goethe and Schiller. 22. Nietzsche arrived in Bayreuth on 22 July 1876 and was disappointed while listening to Götterdämmerung. He left the rehearsals on the 24 July [See KSB, vol. 5, no. 544, p. 179]. On 25 July Nietzsche started to regret his visit: “Denn bis jetzt war es jaemmerlich” [ibid, p. 178] and began to suffer severe headaches. On 31 July, Nietzsche wrote to his sister about his ongoing head­ aches and stated that he could only listen to the Walküre in a dark room. He asked her to sell his tickets and to find someone to rent his accommoda­ tion [KSB, vol. 5, no. 146, p. 181]. Friedrich Nietzsche, Sämtliche Briefe: Kri­ tische Studienausgabe. Edited by Giorgio Colli and Mazziano Montrinari, 8 vols. (Munich: Deutscher Taschenbuch, 1986). On 4 August, Nietzsche gave away his tickets and left for Klingenbrunn. A description of the surpris­ ing departure can be found in Elisabeth Förster-Nietzsche’s biography of her brother, Das Leben Friedrich Nietzsches, vol. 2, part 1 (Leipzig, 1897), pp. 244–45. Finally, on 12 August, one day before the first public perfor­ mance of Das Rheingold and after some imploring by his sister, Nietzsche returned to Bayreuth. 23. Nietzsche (1876/1983), p. 254. 24. See Nietzsche’s letter to Carl von Gersdorff (Basel, March II, 187): “It is an infinite enrichment of one’s life to know such a genius closely. For me, all that is best and most beautiful is associated with the names Schopen­ hauer and Wagner […]” in Selected Letters of Friedrich Nietzsche. Edited and translated by Christopher Middleton (Indianapolis: Hackett Publish­ ing Company, Inc., 1996), p. 65. 25. See the preface to The Case of Wagner in Nietzsche (1888/1967), pp. 155–56. 26. Ibid., §5, p. 164. 27. Ibid., p. 156. For a recent study of Wagner’s impact on modernism more generally see: Juliet Koss, Modernism after Wagner (Minneapolis, Minne­ sota: University of Minnesota Press, 2010). 28. Ibid., §9, p. 174. 29. See Rose Pfeffer, Nietzsche: Disciple of Dionysus (Lewisburg: Bucknell University Press, 1972), p. 271. 30. For more on Nietzsche’s early divergence from Schopenhauer’s thought see: Robert Bruce Cowan, ‘Nietzsche’s Attempted Escape from Schopen­ hauer’s South Asian Sources in “The Birth of Tragedy,”’ in German Stud­ ies Review, vol. 30, no. 3 (2007), pp. 537–56. 31. Nietzsche (1888/1967), §1, p. 157. 32. Jean-Christophe Krafft (the protagonist of Romain Rolland’s novel Jean-Christophe) also complains about the “oppressive” atmosphere in his native Germany and, amongst other reasons, this compels his move to the south, to France. Rolland’s response to Nietzsche’s ideas will be further explored in the following pages upon turning to Jean-Christophe. 33. Though the choral symphony his “Ode to Joy” is an exception and one in which Beethoven became something of a trend-setter. 34. See Paul A. Swift’s book Becoming Nietzsche Early Reflections on Dem­ ocritus, Schopenhauer and Kant (Maryland: Lexington Books, 2005), particularly chapter two “Nietzsche on Schopenhauer in 1867,” for a broad exploration of Nietzsche’s relationship to Schopenhauer’s theories. Swift asserts “The peculiar secondary literature that suggests Nietzsche was completely taken over by Schopenhauer’s theory of the will in his early years is oversimplified and misleading. The reason why this miscon­ ception continues to persist is due to the explosive Dionysian content of the Ausser-sich-sein (literally to be outside of oneself) which Nietzsche puts forth in The Birth of Tragedy Out of the Spirit of Music. Nietzsche’s view is in fact much more nuanced than a blanket rejection or accept­ ance of Schopenhauer’s theory of the will”, p. 62. However, contrary to Swift’s claim, Jörg Salaquarda in numerous articles on Schopenhauer and Nietzsche republished in Broese, Konstantin, Matthias Koßler und Barbara Salaquarda’s Die Deutung der Welt: Jörg Salaquardas Schrif­ ten zu Arthur Schopenhauer: Beiträge zur Philosophie Schopenhauers, (Würzburg: Königshausen & Neumann, 2007), pp. 173–268, maintains Schopenhauer’s unique impact on Nietzsche is sustained and incontro­ vertible throughout his writings. For specific examples see: „Zur gegen­ seitigen Verdrängung von Schopenhauer und Nietzsche“, p. 191 and „Die metaphysische Bedeutung des Daseins. Schopenhauers Religionstheorie und ihre Radikalisierung durch Nietzsche“, p. 225. 35. Allen (2014), p. 25. 36. Prange (2013), p. 185. 37. Ibid. 38. Ernst Bertram in his classic study Versuch einer Mythologie, originally published in 1918, expressed Nietzsche’s belief in Wagner in a beautiful way when he called Nietzsche: “The disciple of Wagner who is intoxicated with hope, for whom the art of his master is the true “music of the future” heralding a completely new culture”, Ernst Bertram, Nietzsche Attempt at a Mythology. Translated by Robert E. Norton (Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 2009), p. 12. 39. Prange (2013), p. 204. 40. According to Wagner: “Perhaps his [Schopenhauer’s] only reason for not probing even more deeply was that as a layman he was insufficiently com­ petent and familiar with music”, (Beethoven, p. 47). 41. Allen (2014), p. 4. 42. Ibid., p. 24. 43. M. S. Silk and J. P. Stern, Nietzsche on Tragedy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981), p. 222. For a more detailed account of Plutarch’s use of the Apollo-Dionysus duality see Radek Chlup’s “Plutarch’s Dualism and the Delphic Cult” in Phronesis, vol. 45, no. 2 (2000), pp. 138–58: “The agreement of the Apollo-Dionysian imagery in De E and Plutarch’s philosophical concepts in De animae procreatione is obvious. In view of this, it might seem rather puzzling that in De E the Apollo- Dionysus opposition is associated with something that one would be inclined to identify as the Stoic theory of cosmic cycles. Yet […] Clearly what appeals to Plutarch in the first place is the notion of cyclicity as such which he finds easy to connect with the cyclical alternations of Apollo and Dionysus in their presiding over Delphi”, pp. 141–43. 44. Kaufmann’s footnote at the end of §15 reads as follows: “The book might as well end at this point — as the original version did: Friedrich Nietzsche: Sokrates und die griechische Tragödie: Ursprüngliche Fassung der Geburt der Tragödie aus dem Geiste der Musik (Socrates and Greek tragedy: orig­ inal version of The Birth of Tragedy out of the Spirit of Music). Edited by Hans Joachim Mette (Munich, Beck, 1933). The discussion of the birth and death of tragedy is finished in the main, and the following celebration of the rebirth of tragedy weakens the book and was shortly regretted by Nietzsche himself” (BT, pp. 98–99). 45. Schopenhauer is borrowing the term “veil of māyā” from his reading of Indian texts. See Raymond Schwab’s chapter on Schopenhauer in The Ori­ ental Renaissance: Europe’s Rediscovery of India and the East, 1680– 1880 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1984). 46. See Schopenhauer, WWR, Vol II, p. 448. 47. Nicholas Matthew and Benjamin Walton (eds.), The Invention of Bee­ thoven and Rossini, Historiography, Analysis, Criticism (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2013), p. 283. 48. For more on Nietzsche’s critique of Italian music see Prange (2013), pp. 13–16. 49. Nietzsche’s own reference. 50. Georg Friedrich Creuzer deserves a mention here, as Douglas Burnham and Martin Jesinghausen point out in their immensely useful Nietzsche’s The Birth of Tragedy: A Reader’s Guide (London: Continuum Interna­ tional Publishing Group, 2010): “Unmentioned, but one of the most sig­ nificant influences (apart from Schopenhauer, Wagner and Schiller, who are cited) is Friedrich Creuzer (1771–1858) who wrote the pioneering Sym­ bolik und Mythologie der alten Völker, besonders der Griechen (Symbol­ ism and Mythology of Ancient Peoples, Particularly the Greeks) in 1812. Creuzer clearly had an impact on Nietzsche’s central theory of symboli­ zation in The Birth of Tragedy”, p. 5. Apollo and Dionysus were used as symbolic categories prior to Nietzsche in the nineteenth century context, particularly by well-known figures such as: Bachofen, Creuzer, Müller, Schlegel, Schelling and Welcker. For more on this context see: Cornelia Isler-Kerényi, “Modern Mythologies: “Dionysos” versus “Apollo”’ in Dionysos in Archaic Greece: An Understanding Through Images. Trans­ lated by Wilfred G. E. Watson (Leiden: Brill, 2007). However, Nietzsche went further and developed this symbolic dichotomy as the foundation for a rebirth of tragedy in contemporary Germany via Wagner’s music-drama. 51. In Nietzsche’s view, this decay is the result of Socratism which is deter­ mined to destroy myth: “let us now picture the abstract man untu­ tored by myth; abstract education; abstract morality; abstract law; the abstract state; let us imagine the lawless roving of the artistic imagination, unchecked by any native myth; let us think of a culture that has no fixed and sacred primordial site but is doomed to exhaust all possibilities and to nourish itself wretchedly on all cultures — there we have the present age, the result of that Socratism which is bent on the destruction of myth” (BT, pp. 135–36). 52. Thomas Mann’s anti-hero in Doctor Faustus, the fictional composer Adrian Leverkühn (a character inspired by Nietzsche), named one of his major compositions after Dürer’s Apocalypsis cum Figuris in a bid to strengthen the connection between his protagonist and Nietzsche, and by implication his novel and The Birth of Tragedy. See the fourth movement for more on this. 53. Interestingly, in a chapter aptly titled “Knight, Death and Devil”, Ernst Bertram drew attention to Nietzsche’s preliminary notes to Richard Wag­ ner in Bayreuth, in which he writes: “It was a particular form of Wagner’s ambition that he placed himself in relation to the great men of the past: to Schiller and Goethe, Beethoven, Luther, the Greek tragedians, Shake­ speare, Bismarck. […] But he invented the German spirit in opposition to the Romantic one. Interesting of the German spirit in his image” cited from Bertram (1918/2009), pp. 34–35. The idea that Wag­ ner has created a German spirit in his own image anticipates Nietzsche’s critique of Wagner as a tyrant and more significant still is the fact that Nietzsche will later associate Wagner, and his music, as “romantic” — in every sense of the term. 54. will famously use this line in his poem Nietzsche, see: Wal­ ter Kaufmann, Twenty German Poets: A Bilingual Edition (New York: Random House, 1963). 55. Liébert (2004), p. 27. The letter Liébert cites is dated 6 September 1863 in KSB, vol 1, p. 253. 1. Stefan, Zweig, Romain Rolland: The Man and His Work. Translated by Eden Paul and Cedar Paul (New York: Thomas Seltzer, 1921), p. 6. 2. The following editions of Romain Rolland’s Jean-Christophe will be referred to throughout the chapter: Dawn and Morning Volume One of John Christopher. Translated by Gilbert Cannan, introduction by Rich­ ard Church (London: Heinemann, 1966), Storm and Stress, Volume Two of John Christopher (London: Heinemann, 1968), John Christopher in Paris, Volume Three of John Christopher (London: Heinemann, 1961), Journey’s End, Volume Four of John Christopher (London: Heinemann, 1962). Henceforth shortened to JC with the corresponding volume num­ ber in parentheses in the body of the text. The individual titles that make up Jean-Christophe will be referred to as parts rather than volumes to avoid confusion. The Heinemann edition changed the name of Rolland’s protagonist to “John Christopher” and “Christopher” in order to angli­ cize the character, an editorial decision which now seems arbitrary. I have therefore chosen to use “Jean-Christophe” and “Christophe” as Gilbert Cannan did in his original English translation in the 1910s. 3. See: Zweig (1921), p. 6, William Thomas Starr, Romain Rolland, One Against All: A Biography (The Netherlands: Mouton Publishers, The Hague, 1971), p. 17 and R. A. Francis. Romain Rolland. (Oxford: Berg, 1999), pp. 7–8. 4. Zweig (1921), p. 7. 5. Starr (1971), p. 39. 6. Ibid., p. 17. 7. Ibid., p. 32. 8. Choix de lettres à Malwida von Meysenbug [Paris, 1948], p. 18 cited from Starr (1971), p. 126. 9. Starr (1971), p. 41. For more on Malwida von Meysenbug and Romain Rolland see: Ein Briefwechsel, 1890–91. Romain Rolland und Malwida von Meysenbug. Translated by A. Lubbe and Berta Schleicher (Stuttgart: Engelhorn, 1932). For more on Rolland and Strauss see: Rollo Myers (ed.). Richard Strauss & Romain Rolland: Correspondence (London: Calder and Boyars, 1968). 10. Francis (1999), p. 30, the translation from French is my own. 11. Rolland was a prolific writer and to list all his published, let alone unpublished, works here would be impractical. However, besides Jean-Christophe and the heroic biographies already mentioned, some of his better known works are: Aërt (1898), Danton (1900), Le Théâtre du Peuple (1903), Liluli (1919), Colas Breugnon (1919), Pierre et Luce (1920), Clérambault (1920), L’Âme enchantée (in seven volumes, 1922– 33), Beethoven, Les Grandes Époques créatrices (1928-45). (in seven vol­ umes, 1928–45), Goethe et Beethoven (1930), Robespierre (1939). Not to mention his vast correspondences with figures as varied as: Mahatma Gandhi (1924), Louis Gillet (1949), Richard Strauss (1951), Rabindranath Tagore (1961), Leo Tolstoy (1978), Hermann Hesse (1978), Maxim Gorki (1991), André Gide (1994) and of course , who refers to his correspondence in his seminal Das Unbehagen in der Kultur (Civili­ zation and its Discontents) written in 1929 and published in 1930. 12. Hermann Hesse & Romain Rolland: Correspondence, diary entries and reflections 1915 to 1940. Translated by M. G. Hesse, introduction by Pierre Grappin (London: Oswald Wolff, 1978), p. 131. 13. Ibid., p. 132. 14. Beethoven is the predominant inspiration but other musicians such as Hugo Wolf, whom Rolland discovered in 1903, provided elements to Rolland’s characterization of Jean-Christophe. Francis (1999), p. 64. For more on Beethoven and literary modernism see the recently published book by Nathan Waddel, Moonlighting: Beethoven and Literary Mod­ ernism (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2019). 15. Starr (1971), p. 111. 16. Jean-Christophe is highlighted as the main reason for Rolland’s award, as is made clear in this section of the Nobel Prize in Literature 1915 citation: “Romain Rolland’s masterpiece, for which he has received the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1915, is Jean-Christophe. […] The artistic personality which is revealed in Jean-Christophe is one of rare resoluteness and strong moral structure. In this work Rolland has not simply followed a literary impulse; he does not write to please or to delight. He has been compelled to write by his thirst for truth, his need for morality, and his love of human­ ity. For him the purpose of the aesthetic life consists not merely in the crea­ tion of beauty; it is an act of humanism. Jean-Christophe is a profession of faith and an example; it is a combination of thought and poetry, of reality and symbol, of life and dream, which attracts us, excites us, reveals us to ourselves, and possesses a liberating power because it is the expression of a great moral force.” NobelPrize.org. Nobel Media AB 2019. Sat. 2 Nov 2019. 17. See: René Cheval, ‘Romain Rolland et Nietzsche’ in Deutschland — Frankreich, vol. 2 (Stuttgart: Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt, 1957) pp. 292– 308 for a perceptive though brief account of Rolland’s reception of Nietzsche’s ideas. Cheval is the first to give credence to the significance of Nietzsche’s writing to Rolland, even though he stresses that Rolland began to read Nietzsche as late as 1891. Cheval notes that Rolland’s ideas about Nietzsche were coloured by his interest in Wagner and Richard Strauss. Building on this connection, I explore the affinities between Rol­ land’s depiction of music (and indeed Jean-Christophe) and Nietzsche’s early aesthetic thought as expressed in The Birth of Tragedy. For more on Rolland and Germany see Cheval’s noteworthy volume: Romain Rolland, l’Allemagne et la guerre (Paris: PUF, 1963). 18. Cited from William B. Parsons, The Enigma of the Oceanic Feeling: Revi­ sioning the Psychoanalytic Theory of Mysticism (New York: Oxford Uni­ versity Press, 1999), p. 208. 19. Hesse and Rolland (1978), p. 19. 20. See ‘Schopenhauer, Wagner and Nietzsche: the Musicalization of Myth and the Mythologization of Music in The Birth of Tragedy’ above. 21. T.W. Adorno, Philosophy of Modern Music. Translated by Anne G. Mitchell and Wesley V. Blister (New York: Seabury Press, 1973), p. 37. 22. Romain Rolland, Beethoven. Translated by B. Constance Hull and intro. by Edward Carpenter (New York: Henry Holt and Company, 1917), p. 33. 23. The poignant moment being when Jean-Christophe is isolated and even­ tually banished from court as a result of his anti-German writings in the “Dionysos Review” and subsequent writing for a revolutionary socialist paper, which exploited Christophe in manipulating his story and rift with the court to suit their cause. Statements such as the following are telling: “the socialist always came back to Karl Marx, about whom Christophe cared not a rap” (JC Vol. 2, p. 271). 24. Zweig (1921), p. 18. 25. David Sice, ‘Jean-Christophe as a “Musical” Novel’ in The French Review, vol. 39, (1966), pp. 862–74, p. 870. 26. Ibid., p. 871. 27. John Cruickshank, ‘The Nature of Artistic Creation in the Works of Romain Rolland’ in The Modern Language Review, vol. 46, no.3/4 (1951), pp. 379–87, p. 387. 28. Rolland (1917), p. 72. 29. George W. Beiswanger, ‘Artist, Philosopher, and the Ideal Society’ in The Journal of Philosophy, vol. 28 (1931), pp. 574–80, p. 578. 30. For more on the connection between Freud and Rolland (and indeed, Nietzsche), see: Ursula Baatz, «Dieses Gefühl kann ich bei mir nicht entdecken.» Ozeanisches Bewußtsein und Religionskritik bei Freud, Rolland und Nietzsche, in Johann Figl (Hg.), Von Nietzsche zu Freud: Übereinstimmungen und Differenzen von Denkmotiven (Austria: WUV- Universitätsverlag, 1996), pp. 143–65. 31. Sigmund Freud, Civilization and its Discontents. Translated by David McLintock (London: Penguin Classics, 2002), p. 3. 32. Ashok Collins, ‘Trinity and Atheology: The Listening Self in Romain Rol­ land’s Jean-Christophe’ in French Forum, vol. 39, no. 2/3 (2014), pp. 113–27, p. 118. 33. Liebscher and Nicholls (2010), pp. 258–59. 34. The first movement deals with Schopenhauer’s impact on Nietzsche’s thinking in The Birth of Tragedy. 35. Rolland (1917), pp. 69–70. 36. It is notable that Jean-Christophe experiences his struggle with religious orthodoxy viscerally and intuitively rather than rationally. That his revela­ tion occurs in this way explains Christophe’s contrast to German idealists such as Kant, who had said that “God is not a being outside me, but merely a thought within me”, cited from Norman Kemp Smith, A Commentary to Kant’s ‘Critique of Pure Reason’ (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003), p. 639. 37. Rolland (1917), p. 69. 38. Collins (2014), p. 125. 39. Baatz (1996), p. 156. The translation here is my own, the original German reads: „Gott oder das Leben in seiner Fülle, das ist wie ein Sprengsatz in der festgefügten Welt der normalen bürgerlichen Existenz, die dem Kün­ stler Johann Christoph fremd ist. [...] Die Bildersprache, die Rolland hier verwendet, spricht von zerbrechenden Mauern und zerbrechenden Naturg­ esetzen, und vom Orkan des Lebens. Es ist ein Wunsch nach Auflösung, der aus diesen Zeilen spricht; nach Auflösung des festen Panzers, der die Seele von der Welt trennt und sie erstarrt und leer macht. In einer weiteren ekstatischen Erfahrung zerbricht auch diese Abtrennung des Selbst von der Welt, und damit «die Seele, die leere und verschlossene: ich atme wieder, ich finde dich wieder, o Leben.» Das von der Welt abgetrennte Selbst und der für die Welt jenseitige Gott verschwinden beide in der Erfahrung des atmenden Lebens. Auch wenn die Ruhe des Ozeans hier fehlt – ein Gefühl der Weite und Kraft und Uneingeschränktheit spricht deutlich aus den Bildern von Rol­ lands Roman.“ 40. Rolland wrote an early biography of Vivekenanda, see: Romain Rolland, Life of Vivekananda and the Universal Gospel. Translated by E. F. Mal­ colm-Smith (Calcutta: Adavita Ashrama Mayavati, Almora, U.P., 1981). Interestingly, in this work Rolland famously wrote that Vivekananda’s “words are great music, phrases in the style of Beethoven”, p. 170. 41. The quotation of Ramakrishna’s that Baatz uses has vast correspondences with Rolland’s depiction of Jean-Christophe’s emotional experience of the oceanic feeling in the passage quoted above. It reads: “The whole scene, doors, windows, the temple itself vanished [...] It seemed like nothing existed any more. Instead I saw an ocean [...] boundless, dazzling. In any direction I looked great luminous waves were rising. They’re down on me with a loud roar, as if to swallow me up. In an instant they were upon me, they broke over me, they engulfed me. I was suffocated. I lost all natural consciousness and I fell [...]. How I passed that day and the next I know not. Round me rolled at ocean of ineffable joy. And in the depths of my being I am aware of the presence of the Divine Mother.” Cited from Baatz (1996), p. 157. 42. Richard Church in his Introduction to John Christopher Dawn and Morn­ ing, Volume One of John Christopher. Translated by Gilbert Cannan with an Intro. by Richard Church (London: Heinemann, 1960, reprinted 1966), p. viii. 43. John W. Klein, ‘Romain Rolland (1866–1943)’ in Music & Letters, vol. 25 (1944), pp. 13–22, p. 14. 44. Douglas W. Alden in his article: ‘Proustian Configuration in Jean-Christophe,’ The French Review, vol. 41, no. 2 (1967), pp. 262–71, highlights how despite their substantial differences, particularly in terms of style, Rolland and Proust “had far more in common than either would recognize,” p. 263. 45. Francis (1999), p. 71 46. One of Dahlhaus’s most significant observations in this work is that: “Par­ adoxically enough, the discovery that music — specifically instrumental music free of object or of concrete concept — was a language “above” language occurred “in” language itself: in literature.” Carl Dahlhaus, The Idea of Absolute Music. Translated by Roger Lustig (Chicago, 1989), p. 63. 47. As referred to earlier, Nietzsche in his Attempt at a Self-Criticism pub­ lished in 1886 declared: “It should have sung this “new soul” — and not spoken!” (BT, p. 20). Although he later believed he could (or should) have conveyed essence of The Birth of Tragedy in music, I am stressing here that his highly influential ideas reached the world in a written work that, though it relies on musical poetics, is more literary than musical. 48. Sice (1966), p. 867. The original French reads: “Heureux Christophe! Il est musician, il n’a qu’à s’abandonner à son flot intérieur. […] Mais pour contempler l’univers et pour tâcher de la pénétrer par la pensée, pour être écrivain, il faut une autre nature, qui ne s’abandonne jamais, qui n’est jamais inconsciente, qui a toujours les yeux ouverts, même dans la passion.” 49. Sice writes: “Like the symphony, the novel was form him an immense structure, complex and simple at the same time, built on certain themes, on certain rhythm, on certain dominant sentiments, dictated from the author’s intuition of formless substance, having its own internal laws, but conceived in its architectural whole, in its grand lines, from the beginning; having a shape, a direction and a final goal which were imagined before anything was out into its material form; and constantly directed, in the midst of its apparent wanderings, by the overall conception, its internal relationships, and the laws of its development (which were neither those of the traditional novel, nor those of “la logique raisonneuse”).” Ibid., p. 872. 50. Cruickshank (1951), p. 386. 51. Sice (1966), p. 871. 52. “In a letter written to Malwida [von Meysenbug] on 10 August 1890, Rol­ land even outlined his theory of a new novel form — ‘le roman musical’. He points out that the novel which is not simply a popularization of some psychological or philosophical theory has traditionally dealt with either a single situation, whose implication it works out, or with the interplay of many situations […].” Cruickshank (1951), p. 387. 53. Sice (1966), p. 863. 54. Ziolkowski (2017), p. 170. The critics Ziolkowski is referring to here are David Sice and Jacques Robichez, the latter of whom claimed, “if we reread in a sweep the ten volumes of the novel, the impression that domi­ nates is not that of a symphony but, on the contrary, that of a fragmentary composition.” Ibid. 55. See JC Vol. 2, pp. 213–15 for a full reproduction of Christophe’s piece Too Much Music. 56. As explained in more detail in the first movement. 57. Romain Rolland Goethe and Beethoven. Translated by G. A. Pfister and E. S. Kemp (London: Hamish Hamilton, 1931), pp. 100–01. 58. Mannheim, who had recruited Jean-Christophe into the “Dionysos Review”, had been toning down Christophe’s writing for quite some time before altering its content entirely for both his own amusement and ease of publication. Upon finding this out Christophe goes into a characteristic rage and threatens Waldhaus (the review’s owner). 59. Rolland (1931)., p. 139. 60. Ibid., p. 149. 61. Hesse and Rolland (1978), p. 65. Many biographers have noted the sig­ nificance of this letter: see Zweig (1921), p. 69 and Francis (1999), pp. 9–10. Starr succinctly notes: “Tolstoy and music were largely responsible for Jean-Christophe […].” Starr (1971), p. 32. 62. Corrine is depicted as gay and artistic (musical), whereas Antoinette is serious and devout, this binary pair of characteristics in the only two “rep­ resentatives” of France intrigues and attracts Christophe, who is quick to assume he understands national characteristics on little knowledge or experience in his youth. 63. Francis (1999), p. 72 and Starr (1971), p. 37. 64. Rolland (1931), p. 143. The quotation continues: “Word and sound, phrase and melody, must be one. These were indeed Goethe’s own views.” Given Schulz’s intense fondness for Jean-Christophe’s Lieder, indeed that the first words he utters to the composer are sang, as is discussed below, sug­ gests that he shares Goethe’s (and indeed his potential namesake Johann Schulz’s) views. 65. Fictional depictions of music have often been a source of inspiration for contemporary composers. See, for example, Theodore Ziolkowski’s “Leverkühn’s Compositions and their Musical Realizations”, in Modern Language Review, vol. 107, no. 3 (2012), pp. 837–56, reworked into chapter eight “Leverkühn’s Compositions” in his book Music into Fiction (2017). Numerous attempts have been made to realize the fictional music in Proust’s A la recherche du temps perdu, see: https://proustandmusic. wordpress.com. Also see: “Project Orfeo”, a multi-media concert that took place in 2016, which includes original music composed by Scott Lin­ droth and readings from Richard Powers 2014 novel Orfeo, more details here: http://www.richardpowers.net/project-orfeo-duke-performance/. 66. “Hassler is […] based on Richard Strauss, but Rolland strenuously denied that this was a portrait of a musician he knew and esteemed; Hugo Wolf’s meeting with Wagner also contributes to the picture.” Francis (1999), p. 72. See also: Starr (1971), p. 44. 67. There is an entire section of Jean-Christophe entitled Antoinette, dedi­ cated to her and Olivier’s story, which Rolland had completed in Oxford in 1906 as recounted in Starr (1999), p. 129. This introduces a distinctly French perspective to the novel sequence as the protagonist shifts from Christophe to Olivier. In Antoinette we are told: “Olivier brought her [Antionette] Christophe’s collection of songs, which he had just found at a publisher’s. She opened it at random. On the first page on which her eyes fell she read in front of a song this declaration in German: “To my poor dear little victim,” together with a date. She knew the date well. — She was so upset that she could read no farther” (JC, Vol. 3, p. 289). In a notable narrative feat, in this volume we are presented with her perspec­ tive of an event that we had already witnessed through Jean-Christophe’s eyes, Christophe, in poverty and on the verge of illness spots Antoinette through a crowd and ultimately gets whirled away in the throng. Antoi­ nette’s narrative tells the situation thus: “She felt that she was dogged by some fatality which forbade the possibility of her ever meeting Christophe: against Fate there was nothing to be done. […] She was miserable at having been unable to speak to him: and at the same time there glowed a new light in her heart: she was unconscious of the darkness, and unconscious of the illness that was upon her.” (JC Vol. 3, pp. 290–91). 68. Rolland (1931), p. xx. 69. Ibid., p. 70 70. Ibid., pp. 116–17. 71. Zweig (1921), p. 34. 72. See the first movement of this book. 73. The longest diatribe on Wagner in Jean-Christophe occurs in Revolt on pp. 223 –27. 74. John W. Klein, ‘Romain Rolland (1866–1943)’ in Music & Letters, vol. 25 (1944), pp. 13–22, p. 19. 75. Cited from Ibid., p. 15. 76. Ibid., p. 20. The quotation continues: “He [Rolland] told me that when his first play ‘Les Loups’ (a kind of imaginative reconstruction of the Dreyfus affair) was performed, the public was in a state of almost delirious excite­ ment. When ‘Danton’ was produced by Reinhardt in Berlin in 1920 the audience could not refrain from shouting and was only prevented with dif­ ficulty from invading the stage. That, Rolland believed, was a good sign. There was nothing so fatal as well-behaved apathy.” 77. See Johann Wolfgang von Goethe’s Italian Journey. Translated by W. H. Auden and Elizabeth Mayer (London: Penguin Classics, 1982), Rüdiger Safranski, “First Italian Journey” in Schopenhauer and the Wild Years of Philosophy. Translated by Ewald Osers (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Har­ vard University Press, 1991), pp. 238–50 and Paolo D’lorio, Nietzsche’s Journey to Sorrento: Genesis of the Philosophy of the Free Spirit. Trans­ lated by Sylvia Mae Gorelick (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2016). 78. Rolland had considered much Italian music in his doctoral thesis: “Les Origines du théâtre lyrique modern”, which Rolland “himself regarded as by far his most important contribution to musicology. This work contains the most original and illuminating views on the history and evolution of opera in the seventeenth century […].” Klein also points out that Rolland was one of the very first to draw attention to significance of Monteverdi, who in his opinion, created the first genuine musical theatre for the people. Klein (1944), p. 15. 79. Hence Schopenhauer’s charge that Wagner was a finer poet than musician. See footnote 14 on p. 33. 80. Nietzsche had envisioned a solemn chanting of his composition Hymn to Life [Hymnus an das Leben] after his death. As Nietzsche wrote in a letter dated 2 December 1887, to the Danish literary critic and author Georg Brandes (1842–1927), with whom he had corresponded towards the end of his sane life: ‘A work of mine for chorus and orchestra is just being published, a “Hymn to Life.” This is intended to represent my music to posterity and one day to be sung “in my memory”.’ George Brandes, Frie­ drich Nietzsche. Translated by A. G. Chater (London: Heinemann, 1914), p.65. 81. Klein (1944), p. 113. 82. Ibid. 1. Joyce wrote that “‘Ithaca’ is the true end of Ulysses, for ‘Penelope’ has neither beginning, middle nor end.” Letters of James Joyce, Volume 1. Edited by (New York: Viking, 1957; reissued with correc­ tions 1966), p. 172. Henceforth JL 1 in the text. 2. Joyce does confront notions of consciousness more directly in episode 15 of Ulysses, “Circe”. According to the Gilbert schemata Joyce identified “Circe”, which is the longest episode in Ulysses and lies in the centre of the text, as “magic” and its technic as “hallucination”. Joyce presents a difficult, though discernible, plotline intermingled with his protagonists’ subconscious and unconscious desires and repressed thoughts via dream­ like hallucinations and fantasies, complicated by the literal intoxication of a number of characters involved, particularly Stephen. The episode is presented in the form of a comic phantasmagorical play complete with faux stage directions. “Circe” fittingly ends with a semi-conscious Ste­ phen (having been knocked to the ground by a soldier) being cared for and led back into consciousness, so to speak, by Bloom who has been keeping a paternal eye on him. There is much to be said on music and myth in “Circe”, however, given that “Circe” has received sustained crit­ ical attention by scholars, I have chosen instead to focus on “Eumaeus” and “Ithaca”, two integral though often marginalized episodes, in the latter sections of this movement. 3. Timothy Martin in his excellent Joyce and Wagner: A Study of Influence (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991), informs us that “myth and leitmotif are intimately related in Joyce’s last work, as they are in the works of Thomas Mann, for a tenet of mythic art, that history repeats itself with a difference, is reflected in the repetition and variation of these hundreds of leitmotifs throughout the text”, p. 159. Martin believes the myth/leitmotif connection is taken to its extreme in Joyce’s last novel, in that “both his­ tory and leitmotif repeat themselves with a difference in Finnegans Wake”, p. 160. This is certainly the case, and on the surface, this connection seems more pertinent to Finnegans Wake than Ulysses. However, it is in Ulysses that Joyce begins experimenting seriously with the leitmotif as a literary technique and explores its potential, as will be discussed in the following section on Joyce’s music episode, “Sirens”. 4. , ‘Dante… Bruno. Vico… Joyce’ in Samuel Beckett, et al., Our Exagmination Round his Factification for Incamination of Work in Progress (London: Faber and Faber, 1972), p. 14. 5. A. W. Litz argues that “From ‘Wandering Rocks’ and ‘Sirens’ onward, the ‘reality’ to be processed into art is both the imitated human action and the rich artistic world already created in the earlier and plainer episodes. Technique tends more and more to become subject matter, and by the time we reach ‘Ithaca’ the form of the episode is as much the substance as the actual interchanges between Bloom and Stephen.” A. W. Litz, ‘Ithaca’ in Clive Hart and David Hayman (eds.), James Joyce’s ‘Ulysses’: Critical Essays (Berkley: University of California Press, 1974), p. 386. 6. Pater (1877/1986), p. 86. 7. I have updated E. F. J. Payne’s original translation from “An unconscious” to “A hidden”, as this seems more appropriate and up to date. 8. Although indisputably opposed in terms of artistic style, it is striking that Rolland and Joyce make no reference to, or seem to be unfamiliar with, each other’s work. This is particularly noteworthy given their connection to Switzerland (both took refuge in that country, Rolland from 1914–37 and Joyce from 1915–19, with various visits in the 1930s before returning to Zürich, where he died in 1941) and their mutual correspondent Stefan Zweig. The relation between Joyce and Mann is more developed, as will be discussed here and in the fourth movement. 9. Ernest Schonfield, ‘Mann re-Joyces: The Dissemination of Myth in Ulysses and Joseph, Finegans Wake and Doctor Faustus’ in Comparative Critical Studies, vol. 3, issue 3 (2006), pp. 269–90, p. 270. 10. For more on this aspect of Ulysses see: Michael Seidel, Epic Geography: James Joyce’s ‘Ulysses’ (New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1976). 11. Terrence Killeen, Ulysses Unbound: A Reader’s Companion to James Joyce’s Ulysses, third edition (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2018), p. 219. 12. All quotes from Ulysses will be taken from: James Joyce, Ulysses (London: The Bodley Head, 1986) unless otherwise stated. 13. Daniel Albright, Putting Modernism Together: Literature, Music, and Paint­ ing, 1872–1927 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2015), p. 20. 14. Ο υ˜’ τις or “Nobody” / “no one” is the witty name Odysseus gives to the , tricking him to shout out (once Odysseus blinds him) to the other : “it’s Nobody’s treachery, not violence, that is doing me to death” thus allowing Odysseus to escape (Hom. Od. 9.408-409). See: Homer, The Odyssey. Translated by Robert Fagles (London: Penguin Classics, 1997), p. 120. It is of course a comic inversion that Bloom is often considered an “” given that his ancient prototype was once referred to as “no man.” 15. Letter from Joyce to Mrs William Murray 14 October 1921: “If you want to read Ulysses you had better first get or borrow from a library a transla­ tion in prose of the Odyssey of Homer.” JL 1, p. 174. 16. Stuart Gilbert, James Joyce’s Ulysses: A Study (London: Faber and Faber, 1950), p. 41. 17. Though some scholars, such as L. H. Platt for example, prefer to refer to the episodes of Ulysses numerically rather than use the Homeric titles. 18. Matthew Hofgarten and Mabel Worthington’s Song in the Works of James Joyce list “references to over 1000 songs in Joyce’s works.” Cited from Zack Bowen, Musical Allusions in the Works of James Joyce (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1974), p. 3. 19. Ziolkowski (2017), p. 195. 20. “Stephen Dedalus is shown […] as the victim in an abusive relationship with a friend and roommate who teases, mocks, and humiliates him, at times in front of an English visitor. […] The painful topic of his moth­ er’s dying represents another conflict for Stephen, who refused to pray at her deathbed following his difficult break with his Catholic religion and who is consequently troubled by guilt. Mulligan and Haines appear to appreciate Stephen’s intellect and talent but are also poised to exploit him […]. Each of these conflicts have larger political resonances since they reflect differences in class, the oppressive role of the church, and the effects of colonialism that have given an Englishman access to the Gaelic lan­ guage that many Irish people (including both Stephen and Joyce) no longer possess. This last issue relates to Stephen’s most pressing conflict: how to ignite a career as an Irish artist and writer while working within the dominant English literary tradition.” Margot Norris ‘Character, Plot, and Myth’ in The Cambridge Companion to Ulysses. Edited by Sean Latham (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2014), pp. 70–71. 21. James Joyce, A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man (London: Guild Publishing, 1978), p. 218. 22. Ulysses and Us, The Art of Everyday Living (London: Faber and Faber, 2009), p. 65. 23. Ibid., p. 350. 24. Gilbert (1950), p. 118. 25. “Stephen’s first attempts in “Proteus” to identify the nature of change, relying on Plato’s dictum of the “forms,” or truth, underlying the “world of appearances” or the Aristotelian empirical world as we see and perceive it.” Zack Bowen and James F. Carens (eds.), A Companion to Joyce Stud­ ies (Westport: Greenwood, 1984), p. 442. 26. Hans Walter Gabler, ‘Narrative Rereadings: Some Remarks on “Proteus,” “Circe” and “Penelope”’ in James Joyce 1: ‘Scribble’ 1, genese des textes, C. Jacquet (Paris: Minard, 1988), pp. 57–69, p. 59. 27. Joyce explained the nature of protean language to : “‘I am almost in it.’ … ‘That’s all in the Protean character of the thing. Everything changes: land, water, dog, time of day. Parts of speech change too. Adverb becomes verb.’” Juliette Taylor, ‘Foreign Music: Linguistic Estrangement in “Proteus” and “Sirens”’ in James Joyce Quarterly, vol. 41, no. 3 (2004), p. 414. 28. For more on this see Gabler (1988), pp. 58–64. 29. These are but a fraction of the references to music, and songs in particular. Zack Bowen identifies some sixteen songs alluded to in “Proteus”, all with meanings pertinent to Stephen’s , particularly to historical moments. See Bowen (1974), pp. 75–84. – the full reference is above in end note 18, for a full list of the songs in “Proteus” with remarks and explanations. 30. Joyce inherited his tenor voice from his father, as Stephen does from Simon. It is also well known that Joyce had often considered a career in music and toyed with having professional lessons. famously retorted that “Jim should have stuck to music instead of bothering with writing” Richard, Ellmann, James Joyce, new and revised edition (New York: Oxford University Press, 1983), p. 169. Joyce’s gifted tenor voice is bestowed upon Stephen and in “The Wandering Rocks”, after deliv­ ering his lecture in “Scylla and Charybdis”, who is told by Almidano Artifoni that he could make an income from his singing voice (U, 10.342–45). 31. Nietzsche continues to write: “Accordingly, we deserve that in the poetry of folk song, languages stained to its utmost that it may imitate music; and with Archilochus begins a new world of poetry, basically opposed to the Homeric. And in saying this we have indicated the only possible relation between poetry and music, between word and tone: the world, the image, the concept here seeks on expression analogous to music and now feels in itself the power of music” (BT, pp. 53–54). This may add an interesting layer to Stephen as anti-, given that, following Nietzsche, his propensity to poetry and folk song is more Archilochan than Homeric. The parallels between Stephen and Telemachus are, after all, far more difficult to draw than between Bloom and Odysseus. 32. Gabler supports this view with his claim that Joyce “seems hard at work on demythologizing Stephen, of bringing him down from his Daedalean pinnacles and dispositioning him anew as a character to fit the context of Ulysses.” Gabler (1988), p. 63. 33. Bowen and Carens (eds.) (1984), p. 442. 34. Ibid. 35. Sam Slote, Maarc A. Mamigonian and John Turner, in their annotations of Ulysses, point out that “the two lines that Stephen has just recited are not catalectic iambic tetrameter, instead they are catalectic trochiac tetrameter and catalectic trochiac trimeter (a trochee is a foot that con­ sists of a stressed and unstressed syllable – the inverse of an iamb).” James Joyce, Ulysses: Based on the 1939 Odyssey Press Edition, third edition. Edited and with annotations by Sam Slote, Marc A. Mamigonian and John Turner (Surrey: Alma Classics, 2017), p. 567. 36. As Budgen recalls: “Joyce always disclaimed any knowledge of the plastic and pictorial arts, but he said he had more feeling for sculpture than for painting.” Frank Budgen, James Joyce and the Making of ‘Ulysses’ and other writings. Introduction by Clive Hart (London: Oxford University Press, 1972), pp. 186–87. 37. “That is one meaning of the third episode’s title, ‘Proteus’: people, places, even hats shift roles. [...] Language, too, mutating, protean, enacts unpre­ dictably. ‘Irlandais’ is misheard as ‘Hollandais’ (48/43), and though the former is a person the latter turns out to be a cheese. Language makes what we can perceive.” , Ulysses, revised edition (Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press, 1987), p. 39. 38. This is not a strict re-telling of Hamlet; Stephen is being usurped by Haines, an Englishman living at his current residence in , and he is haunted by the ghost of his mother, not his father, who is very much alive and in Dublin, though distant. 39. Zack Bowen explains it as follows: “Stephen now considers his own birth, like Adam’s and Eve’s, made and not begotten. […] Stephen feels uncon­ nected and independent, more a part of some divine changing universe than the product of ascendancy. […] Stephen uses a theological analogy to compare the infinite consubstantiality with his own father, Simon. And, as Christ through his human nature is both creator and creature, so Stephen attempts to make of the artist both a creator and creature. Thus, Shake­ speare, in creating his own father in the character of the ghost in Hamlet, can be said, in his own created nature, to become his own grandfather, who actually did beget his father.” Bowen and Carens (eds.) (1984), p. 443. 40. Kenner (1987), p. 39. 41. Bowen (1974), p. 78. 42. Ibid., p. 80. 43. Ibid., pp. 80–81. 44. Sam Slote, Joyce’s Nietzschean Ethics (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013), pp. 44–45. 45. Stephen, in his preoccupation with the artist as self-created, conceiving of himself as “made and not begotten”, his theory of Hamlet, and his “Agen­ bite of Inwit” (not praying at his mother’s deathbed when she asked him to), powerfully combine in Stephen’s consciousness to create the matricidal condition that Sam Slote refers to. Slote draws an irresistible comparison between Stephen’s thoughts and Nietzsche’s comment in Human, all too Human: “The free spirit will always breathe a sigh of relief when he has finally resolved to shake off that motherly watching and warding with which women govern him” (HATH, §429). Cited from Slote (2013), p. 44. 46. Stephen embarked on his walk along the strand at 11 a.m. and will have to walk to the National Library for his re-appearance in the “Scylla and Charybdis” episode which occurs at 2 p.m. 47. Friedrich Nietzsche, Ecce Homo. Translated by Duncan Large (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007), p. 31. 48. Slote (2013), p. 49. 49. Ibid., p. 52. 50. Interestingly, these two terms are replayed stylistically in “Eumaeus” (Nebeneinander) and “Ithaca” (Nacheinander). 51. Michelle Witen, James Joyce and Absolute Music (London: Bloomsbury, 2018), p. 126. 52. Ibid., p. 163. 53. See: Bowen (1974). 54. One also thinks of and the writers that influenced the movement such as August Stramm (1874 – 1915). 55. A. J. Mitchell and Sam Slote, Derrida and Joyce: Texts and Contexts (New York: State University of New York Press 2013), p. 49. 56. Some scholars refer to the opening of the “Sirens” as an “overture” but as Witen highlights, those who have focused on music in Ulysses, such as Alan Shockley, Heath Lees, Werner Wolf, and Brad Bucknell, refer to it as a prelude, which she concurs is more plausible. See: Witen (2018), p. 120 and p. 166. 57. As early as 1941 Levin in his classic James Joyce: A Critical Introduction claimed that “The introductory pages should be read as a thematic index to the following pages, but without the sequel they are meaningless.” Harry Levin, James Joyce: A Critical Introduction (Norfolk, CT: New Directions, 1941), p. 99. 58. Lawrence L. Levin, ‘The Sirens as Music: Joyce’s Experiment in Prose Polyph­ ony,’ in James Joyce Quarterly, vol. 3, no. 1 (1965), pp. 12–24, p. 14. 59. Ruth Bauerle (ed.), Picking up Airs: Hearing the Music in Joyce’s Text (Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1993), pp. 107–108. 60. Ellmann (1983), p. 436. 61. Slote (2013), pp. 6–7. 62. Martin (1991), pp. 158–59. 63. T. S. Eliot, ‘‘Ulysses,’ Order and Myth’ in The Dial, LXXV (Nov. 1923), pp. 480–83, p. 483. 64. Levin (1941), p. 207. 65. Kiberd (2009), p. 174. 66. Georges Borach and Joseph Prescott, ‘Conversations with James Joyce,’ in College English, vol. 15, no. 6 (1954), pp. 325–27, pp. 326–27. 67. Translation by Robert Fagles (1997), pp. 161–62. 68. Kiberd (2009), p. 174. 69. Ibid., p. 171. 70. L. Levin (1965), p. 17. 71. Bowen (1974), p. 171. 72. See ibid., pp. 170–71 for the full song “Love and War”, where the constit­ uent “Lover” (tenor) and “Soldier” (bass) sing the last stanza in unison. 73. Kiberd (2009), p. 180. 74. Witen (2018), p. 39. 75. This is typical of Joyce’s method of myth updating in that he shifts action from the physical to the psychological. For example, Bloom will “men­ tally” slay Molly’s suitors in “Ithaca.” 76. Levin (1941), p. 87. 77. Witen (2018), p. 1. 78. This is not to say we do not learn anything of the relationship between Stephen and Bloom in “Circe” but until “Eumaeus” the two have merely come into contact, not entered into any meaningful dialogue. 79. Though this complicated by the fact that it is often difficult to discern whose consciousness informs the narrative in “Eumaeus.” See pp. 943– 45 on “Eumaeus” in the explanatory notes to James Joyce, Ulysses: The 1922 Text. Edited by Jeri Johnson (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008). 80. “As a by-product of that sojourn in Bohème there must be noted an atti­ tude towards money that to me, with my middle-class ideas on the subject, was like a hair-shirt during all our life together. So, possibly, his stay in Paris must be written off as a failure. He failed in his plan to live there by giving a few lessons and publishing occasional articles and poems.” , My Brother’s Keeper: James Joyce’s Early Years. Edited by Richard Ellmann, prefaced by T. S. Eliot (Cambridge, MA: Da Capo Press, 2003), p. 231. 81. Karen Lawrence, ‘“Eumaeus”: The Way of All Language’ in Harold Bloom (ed.), Modern Critical Views; James Joyce (New York: Chelsea House, 1986), p. 149. 82. The obvious mythic parallels in “Eumaeus” have been well documented. A good place to start is Terence Killeen, Ulysses Unbound: A Reader’s Companion to James Joyce’s Ulysses (Wicklow: Wordwell Ltd, 2004), pp. 202–05. 83. Bowen and Carens (eds.) (1984), p. 534. 84. Slote, Mamigonian and Turner (2017), p. 767. 85. Ibid. 86. Killeen (2018), p. 26. 87. Gerald L. Burns, ‘Eumaeus’ in Hart and Hayman (eds.) (1974), pp. 369–70. 88. The “superhuman” is a reference to Nietzsche’s “Übermensch”, and is not the first reference linking Nietzsche and Stephen, earlier we had “toothless Kinch, the superman” (U, 3.496) and later in “Eumaeus” Stephen refers to his father as “All too Irish” (U 16.384) evoking the English title of Nietzsche’s Human, All Too Human (1878). 89. Mamigonian, Slote and Turner (2017): “After Christ’s pronouncement to his disciples: “And fear not them which kill the body, but are not able to kill the soul; but rather fear him which is able to destroy both body and soul in hell’ (Matt, 10.28). Aquinas defines the soul as ‘simple’ in the sense of pure and unadulterated (OED), that is, without contrarily: ‘We must assert that the intellectual principle which we call the human soul is incorruptible. For a thing may be corrupted in two days — in itself and accidentally. […] For corruption is found only where there is contrariety’ (Summa Thelogica, I, q. 75, a. 6),” p. 769. 90. As Slote, Mamigonian and Turner point out, this was first proposed in 1857 by William Henry Smith. Ibid., p. 634. 91. Bowen and Carens (eds.) (1984), p. 534. 92. “Still to cultivate the acquaintance of someone of no uncommon calibre who could provide food for reflection would amply repay any small… Intellectual stimulation, as such, was, he felt, from time to time a firstrate tonic for the mind.” (U, 16.1219–22) 93. “On June 16 he [Joyce] wrote to the London Academy of Music for the address of Arnold Dolmetsch; he was of course aware that Dolmetsch had made a psaltery — a lute-like instrument — for Yeats, to aid him illustrat­ ing his theories of the speaking of verse. […] Joyce recklessly supposed that Dolmetsch would do as much for him. The musician offered no encourage­ ment. A lute was out of the question, he said on July 17, but a simple harp­ sichord was available for only thirty to sixty pounds. Either sum would have required a richer tenor. Joyce dropped the plan at once, but in Ulysses Stephen Dedalus mentions it and Bloom has a corresponding scheme of touring Molly to English watering-places.” Ellmann (1983), p. 155. 94. I refer to two of Nietzsche’s late works: The Case of Wagner (Der Fall Wagner, 1888) and Nietzsche contra Wagner (1889). 95. Before moving onto music Bloom tries to entice Stephen back to with a photograph of Molly (U, 16.1425–26). Initially, then, Bloom wants to replace Boylan with Stephen in Molly’s affections. This becomes complicated in “Ithaca” where Bloom’s vision of a united Milly and Ste­ phen. “This idea would accord well with the Hamlet parallel: Stephen, as Bloom’s spiritual son, would avenge the wrong done to his spiritual father, as the ghost of King Hamlet commissions his son to do — even if in this case the revenge would also entail another, but more acceptable, sup­ planting. However, Bloom’s ambitious plan is never realized; it remains a perpetual possibility only in a world of speculation, an alternative ending that Ulysses does not pursue.” Killeen (2018), p. 206. 96. Ibid., pp. 206–207. 97. John Paul Riquelme, ‘“Preparatory to anything else” Joyce’s Styles as Forms of Memory — The Case of “Eumaeus”’ in Michael Patrick Gillespie and A. Nicholas Fargnoli (eds.). Ulysses in Critical Perspective (Florida: University Press of Florida, 2006), pp. 22–23. 98. Ibid. 99. Andrew Gibson (ed.), ‘Joyce’s “Ithaca”’ European Joyce Studies 6 (Amster­ dam: Rodopi, 1996), p. 4. 100. Ibid. 101. Litz in Hart and Hayman (eds.) (1974), pp. 393-394. 102. Cited from Ibid., p. 394. 103. Karen Lawrence, The Odyssey of Style in ‘Ulysses’ (New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1981), p. 180. 104. It is acknowledged that Joyce used the widely circulated Historical and Miscellaneous Questions (1852) by Richmal Mangnall (1769–1820) as a source text for “Ithaca”, as A. W. Litz claims: “There can be no doubt that Magnall’s Questions was a primary source,” Litz in Hart and Hay- man (eds.) (1974), p. 394. For more on the use of Mangnall’s text see: Robert Hampson, ‘Allowing for Possible Error: Education and Catechism’ in Andrew Gibson (ed.), ‘Joyce’s “Ithaca”’ European Joyce Studies 6 (Amsterdam: Rodopi, 1996). 105. Joyce the Olympian aspects of the corresponding episode in Hom­ er’s Odyssey. During their mutual micturition, we are told: “The trajecto­ ries of their, first sequent, then simultaneous, urinations were dissimilar: Bloom’s longer, less irruent, in the incomplete form of the bifurcated penul­ timate alphabetical letter, who in his ultimate year at High School (1880) had been capable of attaining the point of greatest altitude against the whole concurrent strength of the institution, 210 scholars: Stephen’s higher, more sibilant, who in the ultimate hours of the previous day had augmented by diuretic consumption an insistent vesical pressure” (U, 17.1191–98). 106. The list that Bloom reels off (U, 17.2132–42) is typically Ithacan and there­ fore problematic. It is generally accepted that the list is not of Molly’s lovers but a list of men who at some time or other had been interested in wooing her. It is also significant that Joyce included the “suitors” in the narrative, as A. W. Litz informs us: “At first Joyce had thought of the slaughter of the suitors as ‘un-Ulyssean’, a bloody act of violence that could not be trans­ lated into modern Dublin or reconciled with Bloom’s humanism; but finally he came to see that Bloom’s equanimity of mind was in its way a compara­ ble achievement.” Litz in Hart and Hayman (eds) (1974), pp. 391–92. 107. Antonia Fritz, ‘Ovidities in “Ithaca”’ in Gibson (ed.) (1996), p. 91. 108. Joyce famously wrote to his Aunt for detailed clarification of whether this would be a realistic feat for a character such as Bloom before including it in “Ithaca”: “Dear Aunt Josephine: Thanks for the information. . . . Two more questions. Is it possible for an ordinary person to climb over the area railings of no. , either from the path or the steps, lower him­ self from the lowest part of the railings till his feet are within 2 feet or 3 of the ground and drop unhurt. I saw it done myself but by a man of rather athletic build. I require this information in detail in order to determine the wording of a paragraph.” Letter from Joyce to his aunt, Mrs. William Murray, in Dublin, 2 November 1921. JL 1, p. 175. 109. “—“The Hope” — which was the anthem of the Zionist movement and now serves as the Israeli national anthem (U, 17.763–64). According to the Ithacan narrative voice, Stephen hears this as a “profound ancient m ale unfamiliar melody” (U. 17.777). However, as Hugh Kenner notes, this is not a particularly ancient melody, since it dates from 1878. In response to this melody, Stephen sings the ballad of Harry Hughes, which, in light of Bloom’s just having sung a Zionist song, is clearly an unusual, if not impol­ itic choice because of its unconcealed anti-Semitism.” Slote (2013), p. 100. 110. “Tradition held that Jesus was the only man who was ever exactly six feet tall and who ever had pure auburn hair.” James Joyce Ulysses Anno­ tated. Revised and Expanded Edition, Don Gifford and Robert J. Siedman (Berkley: University of California Press, 1974), p. 579. 111. As Killeen has it, in “Ithaca,” “we are given information in plenty, masses of it: we learn more ‘objective’ facts about Bloom (things like his height, his weight, his endowment policy) than we do at any other point of the day.” Killeen (2018), p. 219. 112. Mamigonian, Slote and Turner (2017), p. 785. 113. Ibid. 114. As Antonia Fritz notes “The Odyssey is told in hexameters, a metric line composed of six feet. The Homeric expands into Bloom’s auditive ‘quasisensation’: ‘the traditional accent of the ecstasy of catastrophe’ can be read as a succinct summary of the Homeric epic. Odysseus’s travels and adventures are told in the traditional accent, i.e., hexameters, and involve a series of catastrophes during which Odysseus is forced to take on differ­ ent identities in order to survive.” Fritz in Gibson (ed.) (1996), p. 96. 115. Ibid., p. 97. Fritz is referring to Horace’s Ars Poetica (The Art of Poetry). 116. There are less significant instances such as U, 9.499–500. 117. Recall Stephen’s claim in Portrait: “When the soul of a man is born in this country there are nets flung at it to hold it back from flight. You talk to me of nationality, language, religion. I shall try to fly by those nets.” Joyce (1916/1978), p. 178. 118. As Lawrence writes of “Eumaeus” in which “Joyce chooses the “wrong” word as scrupulously as he chooses the right one in earlier chapters.” Law­ rence in Bloom (ed.) (1986), p. 149. 119. For more on Joyce’s rejection of Revivalism in “Ithaca” see L. H. Platt ‘If Brian Boru Could but Come Back and See Old Dublin Now: Materialism, The National Culture and Ulysses 17’ in Gibson (ed.) (1996). 120. Ibid., p. 127. 121. Fritz Senn, ‘“Ithaca”: Portrait of the Chapter as a Long List’ in Gibson (ed.) (1996), p. 58. 122. Fritz in ibid., p. 90. The epigraph of Joyce’s Portrait reads: Et ignotas ani­ mum dimittit in artes; in Ulysses Stephen’s art remains unknown. 123. Andrew Gibson, “An Aberration of the Light of Reason: Science and Cul­ tural Politics in “Ithaca”’ in Gibson (ed.) (1996), p. 163. 124. Fritz Senn in ibid., p. 39. 125. Litz in Hart and Hayman (eds.) (1974), p. 385. 126. Kiberd (2009), p. 256. 127. Joyce’s early views echo Nietzsche’s. See for example, ‘A Day of the Rea­ blement’ (15 October, 1901) in James Joyce, Occasional, Critical, and Political Writing (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000), pp. 50–52. 128. As Joyce told Frank Budgen: “‘Ulysses is son to , but he is father to Telemachus, husband to Penelope, lover of , companion in arms of the Greek warriors around , and King of Ithaca. He was subjected to many trials, but with wisdom and courage came through them all. Don’t forget that he was a war dodger who tried to evade military service by simu­ lating madness. […] Another thing, the history of Ulysses did not come to an end when the was over. It began just when the other Greek heroes went back to live the rest of their lives in peace. And then—’ Joyce laughed ‘he was the first gentleman in Europe. When he advanced naked, to meet the young princess he hid from her maidenly eyes the parts that mattered of his brine-soaked, barnacle-encrusted body. He was an inventor too. The tank is his creation. Wooden horse or iron box — it doesn’t matter. They are both shells contained armed warriors.’” Ellmann (1983), pp. 435–36. 129. Litz in Hart and Hayman (eds.), (1974) p. 386. 130. Nietzsche (1889/2007), p. 41. 131. See the preface to The Case of Wagner in Friedrich Nietzsche, The Birth of Tragedy and The Case of Wagner. Translated by Walter Kaufmann (New York: Vintage Books Random House, 1967), p. 156. 132. Martin (1991), p. 180. 1. Robert Leroy Johnson (1911–38), the American blues musician, is famously said to have met and sold his soul the devil at a crossroad on a Mississippi highway in exchange for musical success. 2. Thomas Mann, The Story of a Novel: The Genesis of Doctor Faustus. Translated by Richard and Clara Winston (New York: A. Knopf, 1961), p. 40. For more on the development of Doctor Faustus, see: Gunilla Berg­ sten’s incredibly useful Thomas Mann’s Doctor Faustus: The Sources and Structure of the Novel. Translated by Krishna Winston (Chicago and Lon­ don: University of Chicago Press, 1969). 3. The closest to Mann’s endeavour would be either Romain Rolland’s Jean-Christophe or Marcel Proust’s depiction of the fictional composer Vinteuil (and his music) in his masterpiece In Search of Lost Time (À la recherche du temps perdu, 1913–27). However, Mann’s representation of music in this novel is more thorough and sustained, I’d argue, than Rol­ land’s or Proust’s. Moreover, the circumstances of Mann’s exile played a significant role here as he was in a position to seek help from T. W. Adorno, Schoenberg, Stravinsky, Klemperer and others; all émigrés to the United States and all of whom contributed to the ferment of ideas that nourished the inception of Mann’s Doctor Faustus and its protagonist, the fictional composer, Adrian Leverkühn. 4. “I have down for the 27th. “Dug up the three-line outline of the Dr. Faust of 1901. Association with the Tonio Kröger period.” Mann, (1961), pp. 17–18. 5. Erich Kahler, The Orbit of Thomas Mann (Princeton University Press, New Jersey, 1969), p. 111. 6. This recalls Nietzsche’s claim that “Out of the Dionysian root of the Ger­ man spirit a power has arisen which, having nothing in common with the primitive conditions of Socratic culture, can neither be explained nor excused by it, but which is rather felt by this culture as something terribly inexplicable and overwhelmingly hostile — German music as we must understand it, particularly in its vast solar orbit from Bach to Beethoven, from Beethoven to Wagner” (BT, p. 119). 7. As Kahler pointed out, there are two major features Mann lifts from the Spies Faust book, firstly “that Faust was of humble but respectable par­ entage, but so precociously clever that a wealthy relative adopted him and paid for his schooling and university studies. Here, then, is the psycho­ logical genesis of an aspiring, arrogant, and perverted mind turning from theology to black magic. The second important feature is, of course, the pact with the Devil. So swiftly says the Spies book, did Faust advance in the art of magic that he was soon a position to trace the magic circle and summon up an evil spirit”. Kahler (1969), pp. 98–99. 8. Paul Deussen, Erinnerungen an Friedrich Nietzsche (Leipzig: Brockhaus, 1901), p. 29. 9. Indeed, in many ways Doctor Faustus can justifiably be considered Mann’s last major novel, with the consensus being that his novel The Holy Sinner (Der Erwählte, 1951) and novella The Black Swan (Die Betrogene: Erzählung, 1954) are lesser achievements compared to Doctor Faustus, and Confessions of Felix Krull (Bekenntnisse des Hochstaplers Felix Krull, 1954) remained unfinished at the time of his death on 12 August 1955. 10. J. B. Foster in his useful and insightful study Heirs to Dionysus: A Nietzs­ chean Current in Literary Modernism (1981) has given the most sus­ tained critical attention to Doctor Faustus in light of the Apollo/Dionysus “polarity” (to use his own term). However, Foster does not adequately address the significance of Dionysian music to Leverkühn’s compositions or Mann’s project, preferring to concentrate on the relation of the Diony­ sian to sexuality, see Foster (1981), pp. 357–59. Nor does Foster discuss Leverkühn’s compositions in any musicological detail, choosing instead to focus on the socio-political aspects of Mann’s late novel when discussing the Dionysian, see ibid., pp. 382–85. However, his work is amongst the few that indicates the fruitful relationship between The Birth of Tragedy and Doctor Faustus, which I continue to analyse throughout. T. J. Reed, in his now famous Thomas Mann, The Uses of Tradition, second edi­ tion (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1996), offers perhaps the best example of a study that examines the significance of the Apollonian and, more importantly, the Dionysian (and its relation to the Faust myth) in Doctor Faustus. 11. Michael Mann, ‘The Musical Symbolism in Thomas Mann’s Novel “Doctor Faustus”’ in Notes, vol. 14, no. 1 (1956), pp. 33–42, p. 36. 12. Mann writes in Genesis that the aversion to technical musical studies: “does not mean that I lacked the urge and industry to penetrate, by read­ ing and research, into the realm of musical technique, life and creativity, just as I had, in the interest of the Joseph, for example, penetrated into the world of Orientalism, primitive religion, and myth.” Mann (1961), p. 41. 13. For a detailed exploration of the genesis and creation of Joyce’s Finnegan’s Wake see: Luca Crispi and Sam Slote (eds.), How Joyce Wrote Finneg­ an’s Wake. A Chapter-by-Chapter Genetic Guide (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press: 2007). 14. Hans Rudolf Vaget, ‘Mann, Joyce, Wagner: The Question of Modern­ ism in Doctor Faustus,’ in Herbert Lehnert and Peter C. Pfeiffer (eds.), Thomas Mann’s ‘Doctor Faustus’: A Novel at the Margin of Modernism (Columbia: Camden House, 1991), pp. 167–91, p. 168. 15. Mann often compares himself to Joyce however, as he does in a letter to Erich Kahler dated 23 December 1944: “[…] I have sometimes ventured to regard Joyce as a playmate, although also as an antagonist; for I am a decided traditionalist, even though I have often had my fun with the old forms and have — reverently — taken liberties with them.” An Excep­ tional Friendship: The Correspondence of Thomas Mann and Erich Kahler. Translated by Richard and Clara Winston (Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press, 1975), p. 95. For more on Mann’s reception of Joyce see: Eva Schmidt-Schütz, Doktor Faustus zwischen Tradition und Moderne: Eine quellenkritische und rezeptionsgeschichtliche Untersuch­ ung zu Thomas Manns literarischem Selbstblid (Frankfurt am Main: Vit­ torio Klostermann, 2003), especially the chapter “Joyce mit Maßen” pp. 29–109. 16. Conor McCarthy, The Cambridge Introduction to Edward Said (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2010), p. 67. 17. Thomas Mann, Mythology and Humanism: the Correspondence of Thomas Mann and Karl Kerényi. Translated by Alexander Gelley (Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press, 1975), pp. 44–45. 18. Mann continually outlines his admiration for Nietzsche and Wagner, and their presence in his writings, both in his fiction and non-fiction, is pal­ pable. Mann often sought to clarify his own thinking in relation to these two figures, and the extent of their influence on his art. For more on Mann and Wagner see: Thomas Mann, Pro and Contra Wagner. Translated by Allan Blunden, introduction by Erich Heller (London: Faber and Faber, 1985). There are numerous scholarly sources that deal with Mann and Nietzsche, many of which are discussed in this book. However, for more on Mann’s reception of Nietzsche and his ideas beyond those explicitly referred to here, see Thomas Mann, ‘Nietzsche’s Philosophy in the Light of Contemporary Events’ (1947), in Heinrich Tolzmann (ed.), Thomas Mann’s Addresses Delivered in the Library of Congress, second edition (Oxford: Peter Lang, 2003) and Stanley Corngold, ‘Mann as a Reader of Nietzsche’ in boundary 2, vol. 9, no. 1 (1980). 19. Bertram (1918/2009), p. 13. 20. One thinks particularly of the reputations of Mozart and Beethoven, for example. 21. Foster writes: “Zeitblom allows Mann to view Leverkühn from the per­ spective of Nietzschean cultural analysis. But the friendship of the two men also arises a more specific set of cultural issues centering on con­ cepts from The Birth of Tragedy. In the opening chapters where Zeitblom gathers his forces to start writing his biography, he describes his public, humanistic values in Apollinian terms while he sees Dionysian traits in his friend’s tortured and solitary genius. Out of this contrast comes the first and most discursive of the several versions of Dionysus that will appear in Doctor Faustus. And as he introduces some of the salient fea­ tures of Nietzsche’s myth, Mann transforms it by identifying it with “life” as defined by an opposition with “intellect.” This opposition amounts to a sharp distinction between instinct and reason or between energy and order, thus breaking with the philosopher’s growing tendency to view both Apollo and Dionysus as instincts with an inherent capacity to give order to themselves.” Foster (1981), p. 347. Foster also stresses Zeitblom’s Apollonian tendencies as evidenced by his concern for “human dignity” and his love of language and beauty (poetry and visual arts) and places them in contradistinction to Leverkühn’s Faustian contemplation of the primal and cosmic as opposed to the social and human and his dedication to music, the realm of Dionysus (ibid., p. 348). The reading can sometimes appear almost too convenient as it does not account for Zeitblom’s Diony­ sian traits (evidenced in his responses to Adrian’s music) nor the distinct irony Mann conveys via his narrator. 22. Indeed, Mann writes in a letter to Kerényi dated 26 November 1947: “You will not recognize in it [Doctor Faustus] the mythological colleague of the Joseph stories. However, if I ponder it well — perhaps you will.” Mann and Kerényi (1975), p. 165. 23. “I have for a long time held back revealing to you such an experience regarding Doctor Faustus. […] There evolved in my mind a thesis about the work that seemed too esoteric even to me, the thesis of a historian of religion and psychology who ventured all too boldly into the field of liter­ ary criticism […]. The thesis derives from what one may call, in the most general terms, the fundamentally somber and earnest tone of the novel, a quality which, in my view, marks it as a Christian work of extraordinary significance, transcending any denominational bounds. […] But I found confirmation of my thesis in this flowering of a seed that could already be found thematically and organically in Doctor Faustus.” Ibid., pp. 174–75. 24. Letter dated 20 June 1949. Ibid., p. 178. 25. A brief note on Kretzschmar’s name: John E. Wood has faithfully kept the spelling of Kretzschmar as it appeared in the original German yet in Helen Lowe-Porter’s original English translation the ‘z’ was erased, making the connection to Nietzsche less obvious to English readers. The name also clearly evokes Hermann Kretzschmar (1848-1924), a prominent German musicologist and writer, famous for his innovative approach to musical interpretation. 26. Kretzschmar’s lecture is based on a private lecture of Adorno’s that Mann attended: “Early in October […] we spent an evening at the Adorno’s’. […] Then Adorno sat down at the piano, and while I stood by and watched, played for me the entire Sonata Opus III in a highly instructive fashion. I had never been more attentive. I rose early the following morning and for the next three days immersed myself in a thoroughgoing revision and extension of the lecture on the sonata, which became a significant enrich­ ment and embellishment of the chapter and indeed the whole book.” Mann (1961), pp. 47–48. 27. All subsequent references to the English edition are taken from: Thomas Mann Doctor Faustus: The Life of the German Composer Adrian Leverkühn As Told by a Friend. Translated by John E. Woods (Vintage: New York, 1999). This translation addresses many of the well-known flaws of the original Helen Lowe-Porter translation; see note 25 for a clear example. 28. Adorno (1949/1973), p. 65, footnote 29. 29. In the translators’ introduction to the Philosophy of Modern Music they write that the “significance of the book […] can perhaps be indicated by viewing it as somewhat of a companion piece to another German work created in the United States: the novel Doctor Faustus by Thomas Mann, completed in California in 1947. Both Mann and Adorno resided in the Los Angeles vicinity at this time. Mann had already undertaken his com­ position when Adorno brought him the manuscript of the Philosophy, thinking it might well be of interest to the novelist. In his diary Mann recalled: “Here indeed was something important. The manuscript dealt with modern music both on an artistic and on a sociological plane. Its spirit was remarkably forward-looking, subtle, and deep, and the whole thing had the strangest affinity to the idea of my book, to the ‘composi­ tion’ in which I lived and moved and had my being. The decision was made of itself: this was my man.’” Ibid., pp. vii–viii. 30. Patrick Carnegy, Faust as Musician: A Study of Thomas Mann’s Novel Doctor Faustus (London: Chatto and Windus, 1973), p. 166. 31. Friedrich Nietzsche Ecce Homo: How to Become What You Are. Trans­ lated by Duncan Large (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007), (II 10), p. 34. 32. Carnegy (1973), p. 166. 33. David Kiremidjian, A Study of Modern Parody (New York & London, 1985), p. 183. 34. „Danach bot sich ihm in Turin damals ein Anblick, der die orgiastische Vorstellung der heiligen Raserei, wie sie der antiken Tragödie zugrunde lag, auf grauenhafte Weise verkörperte.“Carl Albrecht Bernoulli, Franz Overbeck und Friedrich Nietzsche, eine Freundschaft, vol. 2 (Jena: Died­ erichs, 1908), p. 251. 35. Mann writes to Kerényi on 7 Februrary 1945: “I have been working on my Faust novel [Doctor Faustus] — the fictional biography, written by a friend, of a German, a very German musician (composer) who shares the fate of Nietzsche and Hugo Wolf.” Mann and Kerényi (1975), p. 118. Notably, Wolf was also a prototype for Jean-Christophe Krafft. 36. Dostoevsky’s The Brothers Karamazov (1880) is often mentioned in rela­ tion to Doctor Faustus. For more on this see: J. N. K. Sugden, Thomas Mann and Dostoevsky: A Study of Doctor Faustus in Comparison with the Brothers Karamazov (PhD Thesis, University of Cambridge, 1982) and Del Caro, ‘The Devil as Advocate in the Last Novels of Thomas Mann and Dostoevsky’ in Orbis Litterarum, vol. 43 (1982), pp. 129–52. 37. For more on the Adorno/Mann relationship see: Evelyn Cobley, ‘Avant- Garde Aesthetics and Fascist Politics: Thomas Mann’s Doctor Faustus and Theodor W. Adorno’s Philosophy of Modern Music’ in New German Critique, vol. 86 (2002), pp. 43–70, particularly pp. 43–48. 38. Adorno (1949/1973), p. 112. 39. Ibid., p. 127. 40. Carnegy (1973), p. 62. 41. Thomas Mann in a letter dated 20 February 1934 to Karl Kerényi. Mann and Kerényi (1975), pp. 38–45. 42. For an alternative view of the issue of secularization, in relation to nar­ ration and the Faust myth, see: John Walker “Goethe’s Faust, Thomas Mann’s Doktor Faustus and the Site of Literature” in John Walker (ed.), The Present Word. Culture, Society and the Site of Literature: Essays in Honour of Nicholas Boyle (London: Legenda, 2013), pp. 109–24, espe­ cially pp. 116–18. 43. Kahler (1969), p. 41. 44. Mann wrote to Kahler on 6 March, 1948 after reading Kahler’s Säkularis­ ierung des Teufels: “your essay is the first discussion of the book that goes beyond the ordinary reviews, a study written from a high vantage point of philosophical criticism that takes in my whole life and work, with remark­ able perception of its unity. Honoring the work, it also honors the life, not only on a moral basis, as effort, but as an existence guided and shaped by an inner “daimon.” So naturally I find your essay deeply gratifying and feel thankful for so much intelligent friendship and insight. […] It startles me that you use the word “montage,” for in my own mind I have used it frequently, and the idea of montage is in fact one of the premises of the book.” Mann and Kahler (1975), p. 141. 45. Walker (2013), p. 114. 46. Ibid., p. 116. 47. Meeresleuchten is often translated as Sea/Ocean Lights, John E. Woods renders it Phosphorescence of the Sea. 48. Ziolkowski helpfully lists Leverkühn’s mature compositions: “Meer­ leuchten […]; a cycle of thirteen poems by Clemens Brentano, and other songs (by Verlaine, Blake, and Keats, among others); a comic opera, Love’s Labour Lost; a one movement symphony or orchestral phantasy, Das Wunder des Alls (The Wonder of the Universe); a suite of five dramatic grotesques based on the Gesta Romanorum; a violin concerto; an orato­ rio, Apocalypsis cum figuris, for two four-voices; three chamber works (an ensemble for three strings, three woodwinds, and piano; a string quartet; and a trio for strings; Ariel’s songs from The Tempest; and the cantata Dr. Fausti Weheklag.” Ziolkowski (2017), p. 202. 49. Mann is showing here “how the intellectuals were guided in their thinking by the image of diseased teeth; the most modern dental technique is simply extraction.” Foster (1981), p. 341. 50. Laughter is a very important motif in the novel. The characters that have a penchant for laughter, such as Schildknapp, Kumpf and Schlepfuss, all share demonic characteristics, indeed it is significant that Adrian is with Schildknapp when he has his dialogue with the devil in Palestrina. Mann’s more astute readers, such as Franz Werfel who Mann recalls declared: “The laughter!” he said. “What are you getting at there? Oh, I know, I know. . . . We will see.” With insight and foresight, he thus picked out one of the small motifs of the book, the kind I most enjoy working with — like, say, the erotic motif of the blue and black eyes; the mother motif; the parallelism of the landscapes; or more significant and essential, ranging through the whole book and appearing in many variations, the motif of cold, which is related to the motif of laughter. Mann (1961), p. 71. 51. David Kiremidjian, A Study of Modern Parody: James Joyce’s ‘Ulysses’, Thomas Mann’s ‘Doctor Faustus’ (New York: Garland, 1985), p. 211. 52. Heller (1958), p. 275. 53. Adorno (1973), p. 62. 54. Ibid., p. 62. 55. Mann’s adoption of twelve-tone technique led to the now famous incident with Schoenberg who demanded that Mann acknowledge that the twelve- tone technique was his intellectual property. Mann stated in The Genesis of a Story that it was against his convictions to carry a postscript and writes: “Schönberg’s idea and my ad hoc version of it differs so widely that, aside from the stylistic fault, it would have seemed almost insulting, to my mind, to have mentioned his name in the text.” Mann (1961), p. 36. Though Mann conceded, and Schoenberg initially appeared satisfied and even wrote to Mann to this effect, Schoenberg was ultimately dissatisfied with the wording of the postscript as Mann referred to him as “a con­ temporary composer and theoretician.” In response to this Schoenberg, piqued, wrote in an open letter directed at Mann dated 13 November 1948 in the Saturday Review of Literature: “in two or three decades we shall see who is the contemporary of whom.” Theodor W. Adorno and Thomas Mann, Correspondence, 1943–55 (Cambridge: Polity Press, 2006), p. 30. 56. Ziolkowski notes “Mann mentions some two dozen compositions by Leverkühn, describing several of them in considerable detail. The progress of his musicianship as reflected in those works corresponds precisely to Leverkühn’s own emotional development — not to mention their reflec­ tion of contemporary German history.” Ziolkowski (2017), p. 202. 57. Mann declares his instinctual need to parody his own eagerness to tell the story (via Zeitblom) and that he knew he was setting out to impose upon himself: “to write nothing less than the novel of my era, disguised as the story of an artist’s life, a terribly imperilled and sinful artist.” Mann (1961), p. 38. 58. Heller (1958), p. 274. 59. One thinks particularly of the incident of the devil describing hell and the musicality of the description of Adrian’s Apolaypsis cum figuris, which is to be discussed in the following section. 60. Heller (1958), p. 284. 61. This is in keeping with Nietzsche’s claim that “it is only as an aesthetic phe­ nomenon that existence and the world are eternally justified” (BT, p. 52). 62. Mann and Kerényi (1975), p. 20. 63. Mann recalls in his Genesis the following entry from his diary: “An old book had come my way […]: Die Sage vom Faust. Volksbücher, Volks­ bühne, Puppenspiele, Höllenzwang und Zauberbücher, (The Legend of Faust. Chapbooks, Morality Plays, Puppet Plays, Conjuring Spirits, and Books of Magic) by J. Scheible, Stuttgart, 1847, published by the editor. It is a compendium of all the variant treatments of the popular theme and of various critical studies of the subject, including, for example, the essay by Görres on the legend of magic, the control of spirits and the pact with the devil from his Christliche Mystik, as well as a highly curious piece from a work published in 1836: Über Calderons Tragödie vom wun­ dertätigen Magus. Ein Beitrag zum Verständnis der Faustischen Fabel (On Calderón’s Tragedy of the Miracle-Working Sage. A Contribution Toward Understanding of the Faustian Legend) by Dr. Karl Rosenkranz. In this, Rosenkranz cites the following statements from some lectures by Franz Baader on religious philosophy: “The true devil must be the utmost extreme of cold. He . . . must be supreme complacency, extreme indiffer­ ence, self-satisfied negation. It cannot be denied that such fixation upon empty self-assurance, excluding as it does everything outside this posses­ sion of self, is perfect nullity, from which all life is banished, save for the most piercing egoism. But this very iciness would have stood in the way of the representation of the diabolic in literature. For in fiction, we can­ not have the stripping of all emotionality. There must be some interest on the part of Satan in order that there to be action. The expression of that interest takes the form of irony standing above reality. . . .” Mann (1961), pp. 138–39. 64. As Lucie Pfaff has pointed out in The Devil in Thomas Mann’s “Dok­ tor Faustus” and Paul Valéry’s “Mon Faust” (Frankfurt/M: Herbet Lang Bern Peter Lang, 1976), p. 17: “that Goethe’s example served to furnish the aesthetic structure around which the devil’s theme is built. […] How­ ever, a close study reveals that Adrian Leverkühn has been accompanied by a devil’s incarnation in one form or another since his early youth. From chapter twenty-five on the demonic presence grows increasingly and inces­ santly, driving Leverkühn with hellish tortures into insanity. Insanity, in its turn, recalls the middle ages, when to be insane meant being possessed by the devil.” 65. Ibid., p. 27. 66. Mann and Kerényi (1975), p. 20. 67. Reed (1996), p. 397. Foster too notes the connection between the Dio­ nysian and Faust as he highlights Nietzsche’s reference to Faust in the Birth of Tragedy (“storming unsatisfied through all the faculties”, BT, p. 111) and argues that: “The parallel with Adrian’s years of schooling is more exact, while Nietzsche himself has chosen Faust to typify a crisis facing theoretical man. But the reference is especially interesting because it fuses Nietzschean material with the Faust myth. […] the phase of theory in Adrian’s life is equally Faustian and Nietzschean.” Foster (1981), p. 352. 68. Reed (1996), p. 399. 69. Ibid., p. 406. 70. Proust’s fictional composer Vinteuil and his fictional music are central to his masterpiece In Search of Lost Time (1913–27) and provide a perfect example of the intense effect of music in prose; to understand Vinteuil’s music is to elucidate major themes, characters and aspirations of the novel sequence. Proust’s literary depiction of music also lends itself well to the Nietzschean framework (of the dichotomy between the Apollonian and Dionysian) that I use to approach literary uses of music in Doctor Faus­ tus. For more on Nietzsche and Proust see: Duncan Large, Nietzsche and Proust: A Comparative Study (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 2001). 71. The effect here is much the same in the original German: »Das ist die geheime Lust und Sicherheit der Höllen, daß sie nicht denunzierbar, daß sie vor der Sprache geborgen ist, daß sie eben nur ist, aber nicht in die Zeitung kommen, nicht publik werden, durch kein Wort zur kritisierenden Kennt­ nis gebracht werden kann, wofür eben die Wörter ›unterirdisch‹, ›Keller‹, ›dicke‹ ›Mauern‹, ›Lautlosigkeit‹, ›Vergessenheit‹, ›Rettungslosigkeit‹, die schwachen Symbole sind. Mit symbolis, mein Guter, muß man sich dur­ chaus begnügen, wenn man von der Höllen spricht [...] Richtig ist, daß es in der Schalldichtigkeit recht laut, maßlos und bei weitem das Ohr überfüllend laut sein wird von Gilfen und Girren, Heulen, Stöhnen, Brüllen, Gurgeln, Kreischen, Zetern, Griesgramen, Betteln und Folterjubel, so daß keiner sein eigenes Singen vernehmen wird, weils in dem allgemeinen erstickt, dem dichten, dicken Höllengejauchz und Schandgetriller, entlockt von der ewigen Zufügung des Unglaublichen und Unverantwortlichen.« Thomas Mann, Doktor Faustus: Das Leben des deutschen Tonsetzers Adrian Leverkühn erzählt von einem Freunde (Frankfurt am Main: S. Fischer Verlag, 1980), pp. 330–31. 72. This is not to say composers haven’t tried to realize Adrian’s music, for example, see Geoffrey Gordon’s The Doktor Faustus Concerto for Cello and Orchestra, commissioned by the Copenhagen Philharmonic, which first premiered on 31 January 2014, at the Royal Danish Academy of Music, under guest conductor Rory Macdonald. 73. Osman Durrani, ‘The Tearful Teacher: The Role of Serenus Zeitblom in Thomas Mann’s Doktor Faustus’ in The Modern Language Review, vol. 80, no. 3 (1985), pp. 652–58, especially p. 657. 74. Reed (1996), p. 386. 75. Echo was based, in part, on Thomas Mann’s grandson Fridolin, this fact was a shock to many of Mann’s contemporaries, including his transla­ tor Helen Tracy Lowe-Porter. Indeed, as Durrani points out, his daughter Erika “was apparently unable to control her tears as she read the fateful chapters,” Osman Durrani, ‘Echo’s Reverberations: Notes on a Painful Incident in Thomas Mann’s Doktor Faustus’ in German Life and Letters, vol. 37, no. 2 (1984), pp. 125–34, pp. 125–26. 76. The quotation continues: “This is signalled in Zeitblom’s narrative by sev­ eral implicit comparisons of Nepomuk to the infant Christ […] and espe­ cially the suggestion that it is Nepomuk who prays for the sins of the whole world. […] Echo’s death is the climax and turning point of the novel. For what Leverkühn finally sees is real innocence and the realm suffering to which it is really connected.” Walker (2013), p. 119. 77. Robert Vilain, ‘Mann, Doktor Faustus’ in Peter Hutchinson (ed.), Land­ marks in the German Novel (1) (Oxford: Peter Lang, 2007), p. 206. 78. Perhaps a reference to Heinrich Heine’s Doctor Faust: A Ballet Poem (Der Doktor Faust: Ein Tanzpoem, 1951). 79. Karl S. Guthke, “Genius and Insanity: Nietzsche’s Collapse as Seen from Paraguay”. Exploring the Interior: Essays on Literary and Cultural History (Open Book Publishers, 2018), pp. 319–36, p. 320. 1. See ‘Schopenhauer, Wagner and Nietzsche: the Musicalization of Myth and the Mythologization of Music in The Birth of Tragedy’, note 44. 2. Patrick Carnegy’s Faust as Musician: A Study of Thomas Mann’s Novel Doctor Faustus (1973) remains the best study of this fascinating aspect of the novel.