Music and Myth in Modern Literature
This book is the first major study that explores the intrinsic connec tion between music and myth, as Nietzsche conceived of it in The Birth of Tragedy (1872), in three great works of modern literature: Romain Rolland’s Nobel Prize winning novel Jean-Christophe (1904–12), James Joyce’s modernist epic Ulysses (1922), and Thomas Mann’s late mas terpiece Doctor Faustus (1947). Juxtaposing Nietzsche’s conception of the Apollonian and Dionysian with narrative depictions of music and myth, Josh Torabi challenges the common view that the latter half of The Birth of Tragedy is of secondary importance to the first. Informed by a deep knowledge of Nietzsche’s early aesthetics, the book goes on to offer a fresh and original perspective on Ulysses and Doctor Faustus, two world-famous novels that are rarely discussed together, and makes the case for the significance of Jean-Christophe, which has been unfairly neglected in the Anglophone world, despite Rolland’s status as a major figure in twentieth-century intellectual and literary history. This unique study reveals new depths to the work of our most enduring writers and thinkers.
Josh Torabi is a literary scholar, and currently a visiting research fellow in the School of Languages, Linguistics and Film at Queen Mary Uni versity of London. He works on European modernism, with a particular focus on the relationship between literature and music. He has published articles on Friedrich Nietzsche, James Joyce and Thomas Mann. Among the Victorians and Modernists Edited by Dennis Denisoff
This series publishes monographs and essay collections on literature, art, and culture in the context of the diverse aesthetic, political, social, tech nological, and scientific innovations that arose among the Victorians and Modernists. Viable topics include, but are not limited to, artistic and cultural debates and movements; influential figures and communities; and agitations and developments regarding subjects such as animals, commodification, decadence, degeneracy, democracy, desire, ecology, gender, nationalism, the paranormal, performance, public art, sex, socialism, spiritualities, transnationalism, and the urban. Studies that address continuities between the Victorians and Modernists are wel come. Work on recent responses to the periods such as Neo-Victorian novels, graphic novels, and film will also be considered.
Desire and Time in Modern English Fiction: 1919–2017 Richard Dellamora
Catherine Crowe: Gender, Genre, and Radical Politics Ruth Heholt
Peril and Protection in British Courtship Novels A Study in Continuity and Change Geri Giebel Chavis
The Intelligent Unconscious in Modernist Literature and Science Thalia Trigoni
Music and Myth in Modern Literature Josh Torabi
For more information about this series, please visit: https://www. routledge.com/Among-the-Victorians-and-Modernists/book-series/ ASHSER4035 Music and Myth in Modern Literature
Josh Torabi First published 2021 by Routledge 52 Vanderbilt Avenue, New York, NY 10017 and by Routledge 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2021 Josh Torabi The right of Josh Torabi to be identified as author of this work has been asserted by them in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe.
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ISBN: 978-0-367-55079-0 (hbk) ISBN: 978-1-003-09188-2 (ebk)
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Contents
Acknowledgements ix Prelude: Chasing the Ineffable 1
PART I First Movement 13
1 Schopenhauer, Wagner and Nietzsche: The Musicalization of Myth and the Mythologization of Music in The Birth of Tragedy 15 Musico-Mythic Beginnings 15 Schopenhauer’s Metaphysics of Music in The World as Will and Representation 16 Wagner: Musicalizing Nation and Myth in Beethoven 22 Nietzsche’s Aesthetic Models of Music and Myth in The Birth of Tragedy 31 Towards a Nietzschean Configuration in the Modern Novel 39
PART II Second Movement 47
2 Jean-Christophe: The Silent Music of the Soul 49 The Genesis of Jean-Christophe 49 A Born Musician: Jean-Christophe’s Early Years 55 The Roots of Artistic Creation: Jean-Christophe the Creator 62 Music Fictionalized: Jean-Christophe’s Compositions 70 Divisions: Apollo, Dionysus and Franco-German Musico-Literary Relations in Jean-Christophe 80 Jean-Christophe’s Final Voyage: Improvisation, Italy and Late Music 89 viii Contents PART III Third Movement 103
3 Joyce’s ‘Gesamtkunstwerk’: Performative Music and Mythic Method in Ulysses 105 Approaching Music and Myth in Ulysses 105 Stephen Dedalus-Dionysus: A Portrait of the Artist’s Aesthetic Theory in “Proteus” 110 From Apollo to Bloom: Resisting Songs in the “Sirens” 120 And Behold: Leopold Could Not Live Without Stephen! The Apollonian and Dionysian, Side by Side in “Eumaeus” 132 Myth Updating in Ulysses 150
PART IV Fourth Movement 161
4 The Pact: Music and Myth in Thomas Mann’s Doctor Faustus 163 Demonic Origins 163 Mann and Myth 165 Part I: Adrian Leverkühn’s Education 168 Kretzschmar’s Lectures 168 Part II: Why Adrian Leverkühn Writes Such Good Music 178 The Early Works 178 Apocalypse Now! 186 The Great Lament: Adrian Leverkühn’s Masterpiece and Faust’s Redemption 193
Reprise 205 Bibliography 207 Index 219 Acknowledgements
To Isabel Wall, who has read, commented on, and contributed to this book at every stage of its development, I cannot adequately express my thanks. During the early stages of my research Robert Vilain and Steffan Davies offered critical assistance and encouraged me to pursue doctoral research. It was during my time studying for an MA at the University of Bristol, under their guidance, that my interest in the music and myth connection, and the scope for future research, was established. My doctoral thesis, upon which this book is based, would not have come to fruition without the encouragement of Sonu Shamdasani, Martin Liebscher and Rüdiger Görner. Their unwavering support, crit ical suggestions and insightful comments were of profound importance to the completion of this work. I’d like to thank Sonu for overseeing every aspect of this project from its inception; Martin for his integral contribution to the Nietzschean elements of this work, including his help in determining the scope of Nietzsche’s presence in it; and Rüdiger, who was instrumental in the development of this project, not least for introducing me to Romain Rolland’s Jean-Christophe, and for being an inexhaustible well of knowledge on musico-literary matters. I am grateful to the readers of my thesis, Ernest Schonfield and John Walker, whose helpful comments have undoubtedly improved the quality of this monograph. From 2015 to 2019 I was a doctoral student in the School of European Languages, Culture and Society at University College London (UCL) and would like to thank UCL’s Doctoral School for nominating my application for an Exchange Scholarship at Yale University and for the generous funding which allowed me to take up this unique opportunity. I’d like to extend my thanks and gratitude to Professor Kirk Wetters for supporting my application, and for welcoming me to the Department of Germanic Languages and Literatures at Yale; his perceptive feedback and generosity during my time at Yale are truly appreciated. I’d like to thank the Zürich James Joyce Foundation for deeming my project worthy of generous scholarship funding. There is nowhere better x Acknowledgements to study Joyce and his works. I owe a particular debt of gratitude to Fritz Senn, Ursula Zeller, Ruth Frehner, Frances Ilmberger and Silke Stebler. I’d also like to extend my thanks and gratitude to Michelle Witen, who kindly agreed to meet with me in Switzerland. Her work on Joyce and music is an inspiration, and her specific suggestions helped me formulate my chapter on Ulysses. I’d like to thank my mother Valerie and my late father Hamid for the years of unwavering support and unconditional love, which got me to this point. I’d also like to thank Catherine and William Wall for their generosity in trying times. Thanks to the Institute of Modern Languages Research, University of London, for offering me a Visiting Scholarship, which provided me with the time and resources needed to complete this book. Conversations with friends and colleagues at UCL helped shaped this work in various ways. In particular I would like to thank Gaia Domenici, Arthur Eaton, Matei Iagher, Oliver Knox, Sarah Marks, Jelena Martinovic, Tommaso Priviero, Dee McQullian, Kazue Niki, Jennifer Rushworth, Jonathan Shann, Francisca Stutzin, Alex Woodcock and Dangwei Zhou. I am grateful to have been a part of the research seminars regularly held at the Centre for Anglo-German Cultural Relations at Queen Mary University of London. Many valuable discussions have taken place dur ing these sessions, which helped sharpen my thinking and develop my research. At Routledge I would like to thank Michelle Salyga, my editor, and Bryony Reece, for their enthusiastic response to this project, and for seeing it through publication. Parts of this work have benefitted from publication in journals, and I am very grateful to a number of editors and readers. The third move ment first saw light as a conference paper presented at the XXI Simposio de la Sociedad Española de Literatura General y Comparada and was subsequently published in Estudios de Literatura 1 (vol. 1): Las Artes de la Vanguardia Literaria (2018), ed. Ana González-Rivas Fernández. Sections of the fourth movement appeared in The Journal of Comparative Literature and Aesthetics (vol.42, 2019), ed. A. C. Sukla. The compara tive foundations of the third and fourth movements were first presented at the Thomas Mann Forschungskolloquium at the Center for Advanced Studies, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München (2016) – I am grate ful to Rüdiger Görner, Oliver Jahraus and Friedhelm Marx for organ ising this workshop, and for their helpful questions. This presentation was significantly developed into an article published in Sprachkunst (2020), 1. Halbband, ed. Christoph Leitgeb. I’d like to offer my thanks the editors for allowing me to reprint portions of these works and to the anonymous peer reviewers associated with these publications for their encouragement and useful suggestions. Prelude Chasing the Ineffable
Heard melodies are sweet, but those unheard are sweeter. —John Keats, “Ode on a Grecian Urn”
Music is indeed the mediator between the spiritual and the sensual life. —Ludwig van Beethoven
Music and myth have perpetually functioned as sources of inspiration for artists, philosophers, and writers over the centuries. Friedrich Nietzsche (1844–1900) was amongst the first to communicate the significance of the relationship between the two. Nietzsche’s preoccupation with music and his conception of the “Dionysian”, remain a central focus through out his œuvre, not only in his philosophical writings (for which he is most famous), but also in his poetry (particularly the Dithyrambs of Dionysus, 1888) and, naturally, evidenced by his musical compositions.1 Nietzsche considered himself,2 and is remembered, as one of the great stylists in the German language, and in his writing, the poetic, musi cal, and philosophical often converge. For the generation of writers who came after Nietzsche, who were interested in breaking down discipli nary and artistic boundaries, his presence was unavoidable. Following on from the rise of the novel in nineteenth century Europe, the early to mid-twentieth century saw an unprecedented shift in the novel’s role as an artistic medium. The novelists of this period of literary moder nity3 sought to renounce, modify, and in some instances abandon alto gether, the rules and conventions of the traditional novel in a bid to inject new life into what they considered to be a stagnant art form and thus make it a suitable vehicle through which to tell the story of their turbulent epoch. As such, the novel became one of the most successful art forms in which to explicate the cultural crisis of the first half of the twentieth century. Artistic introspection, the quest to understand the “creative impulse” and artistic creation per se, along with the hyper- aesthetic representation of life in all its grandeur and minutiae, became entwined in the modern novel. This experimentation led to a number of philosophical questions: What is art? What is the role of the artist? 2 Prelude Where does the “creative impulse” come from? What is artistic crea tion? How do the arts interact? Indeed, it led to a more fundamental questioning of “man’s position and function in the universe.”4 It is there fore unsurprising that so many artists of the period sought to represent alternative artistic media in their own, leading to a deeper exploration of the role and nature of art and culture in a manifestly tumultuous period of world history. This re-evaluation ultimately led to an inter play of artistic media, which is still being cultivated today. The literary works that occupy the three main movements of this book are: Romain Rolland’s Jean-Christophe (1904–12), James Joyce’s Ulysses (1922) and Thomas Mann’s Doctor Faustus (1947).5 These novels span the first half of the twentieth century, a politically tempestuous, though artistically rich period, in which the novel underwent this radical transformation. The long novel offered a unique platform in which authors could attempt to recreate an emotional and performative condition of music in prose (as opposed to rendering music in its more closely related medium, poetry), as well as providing a medium in which to expound on technical and philosophical ideas about music. The prominence of music and indeed of fictional composers as subjects in late nineteenth and early twentieth century literature evidences the development of an interplay of the arts. In much the same way as the romantic composers looked to myth, to classical literature and beyond, for stories to set to music, modern nov elists looked to music, and philosophies of music, to achieve something like the emotional resonance and artistic unity that music was distinctly capable of. However, the relationship between music and literature is by no means one-sided: as Peter Dayan emphatically declares: “without literature’s demonstration of the import of that which escapes and can not be seen, thought, analyzed, or represented, we would have no means to maintain that music, as such and in general, could exist,”6 denoting the close and symbiotic relationship between the two art forms. The relationship between music and literature is, however, often nebulous. Rolland, Joyce and Mann, among numerous other modern authors, were drawn to the ineffability of music. However this preoccupation has led, as Emilie Carpoulet noted, to a muddying of the term “musicality” in literary criticism. Carpoulet asks: “If musicality denotes the inherent musical qualities of music, then what do we make of a musical novel whose musicality cannot be understood apart from its non-musical con text, since a musical novel is not an association of two distinct media but a fusion of the two?”7 Carpoulet’s solution is to see “musicality” as “a travelling concept which belongs neither to music nor to literature” and that we should “consider […] music in terms of a living, fluid and unbounded musicality, that we may legitimately study the implications of a musical conception of art.”8 Following from Carpoulet’s evocation of Mieke Bal’s Travelling Concepts in the Humanities: A Rough Guide (2002), in which Bal (and subsequently Carpoulet) argues that the issue Prelude 3 at stake is not whether the concept of musicality “is used rightly or wrongly but whether it is used relevantly”9 and “whether it may help us to better understand, express and communicate our thoughts rather than merely stirring up the already muddied terminological waters of interdisciplinary scholarship.”10 This work seeks to explore a notion of musicality in the novels discussed in order to elucidate some of the most infamously challenging prose fiction ever written. The three novels exist on a distinct musical spectrum: Rolland attempts to evoke some thing akin to an emotive musical experience in his readers (as one might experience when listening to a Beethoven symphony) by depicting, in a loosely symphonic form, a life to death account of a heroic fictional composer; Joyce presents the reader with radical musical poetics in lan guage, most famously in fugal form in his “Sirens” episode; and Mann offers a meditative, technical, and evocative explication of music in a faux biography of an anti-heroic, modern fictional composer, placing his text on the scale somewhere between Jean-Christophe and Ulysses. The innovative approach of this work, however, is to explore the unique musicality of each novel via the intrinsic connection that exists between music and myth. In an atmosphere of crisis, modern writers felt a profound disillusion ment with a cumulative and therefore positive teleological view of his tory and, like Wagner and Nietzsche before them, they felt the pull of myth.11 As J. B. Foster points out: “myth is […] a direct response to the mood of modernity, since it is capable of providing a long-term continu ity to replace the one that was lost, of giving a better perspective from which to assess the significance of the loss, or of creating a sense for new cultural possibilities.”12 Nietzsche had captured the spirit of the inter play between music and myth in The Birth of Tragedy (1872), a book which, though he would later scathingly critique in his “Attempt at a Self-Criticism” (1886), had great appeal for writers attempting to grap ple with the relationship between intellect and life, instinct and ration ality. Nietzsche’s compelling cultural analysis, which anticipated the mood of modernity and encapsulated its crisis, was expressed in a highly literary prose style, which understandably appealed to the authors that followed him. There are myriad fruitful points of connection between Nietzsche and the modern novelists of the early to mid-twentieth cen tury. However, rather than attempt a further study of influence (of which there are now a plethora), the aim here will be to expound the relation ship between music and myth that Nietzsche gave license to in his first major work. Nietzsche’s aesthetic mythology, in relation to the “spirit of music,” is the basis, he argues, of all art. This book critically evaluates this intrinsic relationship between music and myth13 and demonstrates how such ideas are taken up in three modern novels, which are rarely discussed in relation to one another. Of the few notable literary scholars who have worked on myth and modernism, Michael Bell in Literature, 4 Prelude Modernism and Myth (1997) has come closest to uncovering the signif icance of the relationship between music and myth, and its relevance to modernist writing. This occurs in his discussion of the “Sirens” episode of Ulysses (which will be explored at length in the third movement). Bell rightly observes that “music has been a vital metaphor and struc tural device for modernist writers seeking a transcendence of time.”14 In addition, he states that Bloom’s mathematical musings about music (which, in keeping with the Homeric myth, ultimately free him from its intoxicating effects and allow him to journey on) can “direct us towards the corresponding aspect of the narrative technique: what is perceived as an emotional or spiritual experience in time is in fact a structure of mathematical, spatialised relations.”15 The link to myth becomes pal pable when Bell implicitly moves from Bloom’s response to the music in “Sirens” to his broader role as Odysseus and the Homeric myth in general:
The importance of the spatialised form is that the larger intuition of the timeless figured in the Homeric parallel is not imported as a ready-made significance somehow inherent in the mythic parallel as such, but is actually created anew within the momentary pro cess of the narrative. In other words, the timeless order apparently enshrined in myth is the product of a secular aesthetic structure, as when Nietzsche spoke of putting ‘the stamp of the eternal’ on expe rience. The aesthetic is the condition by which modern sensibility creates an equivalent of the mythic. The story of Odysseus, in so far as it is a cultural myth, suggests a timeless structure of experience given to the writer, but Joyce’s spatialising holds the archaic struc ture in counterpoint to its modern re-enactment. As the modern construction of a world enfolds the older sense of a given form, nei ther has its complete meaning by itself. Mann’s sense of the mythic […] as being at once a primitive condition from which it is neces sary to escape and the most sophisticated condition to which one should strive, is embodied in this self-conscious reconstruction of the already given.16
In linking the timelessness of music and myth (and the attraction of mod ern writers to such timeless qualities), as well as invoking Nietzsche’s aesthetics and Mann’s view of myth, Bell is implicitly denoting the strik ing significance of the relationship between the two, a connection that the present study makes explicit. Bell also continually stresses the impor tance of Nietzsche and Mann to modernist conceptions of myth: Mann, he claims, owing to his “self-consciousness about the mythic makes him an excellent lens through which to consider both modernism and the period of its break-up.”17 Indeed, Bell’s study takes as its broadest line of enquiry the notion that modernist writers, in their self-conscious Prelude 5 “mythopoeia” (to use Bell’s preferred term), recognize a world view as such while “living it as conviction, […] a paradox formulated by Thomas Mann: ‘although in the life of the human race the mythic is indeed an early and primitive stage, in the life of the individual it is a late and mature one’.”18 Bell continually returns to Mann’s phrase in his theo rization of myth and discussion of literary modernism. However, Bell’s study, besides this transitory foray into the musical dimension of the “Sirens” episode of Ulysses, is not overtly concerned with music and therefore his brief discussion of Nietzsche’s The Birth of Tragedy19 does not rely heavily on the Apollo/Dionysus dichotomy, nor does it contain any substantial evaluation of Dionysian music, the central bases for this work. It is evident from the secondary material concerning modern literature that conversations surrounding myth and music as separate subjects often recourse to mention Nietzsche, whose impact on literary modernity can hardly be understated. This fact makes it particularly striking that there has yet to be a critical study that explores the pro found relationship between the two and how this connection is taken up in the novels that occupy this study. Musicologists have long been fascinated with composers who set myth to music,20 as myth often func tions as an emblem of a kind of literature which transcends conventional historical subject matter and compliments the idea of “universality.” For modern writers, too, music performed this function. In the novels to be discussed, music’s ineffability paradoxically provided a similarly holis tic, universal expression to myth. The intersection of music and myth therefore presents a unique challenge for modern novelists attempting to depict them. Nietzsche’s The Birth of Tragedy, which theorizes music and myth and denotes the intrinsic connection between them, is there fore a most compelling starting point. Northrop Frye in his seminal Anatomy of Criticism: Four Essays (1957) argues for the value of analysing metaphor, rather than eradicating them or analysing with the sole aim to debunk material as “nothing but” a metaphor. In the fourth essay “Rhetorical Criticism: A Theory of Genres” Frye identifies an “ancient diagram of the four principles of substance, hot, cold, moist, and dry,”21 and argues that this formula helps explain a list of commonly held oppositions, one of which is that “the intellect is cool and sober and the emotions warm and drunk”.22 Frye conjures the metaphoric imagery of the Apollonian and Dionysian here, and by affirm ing the value of metaphor, is indicating the significance of archetypal, symbolic categories. For C. G. Jung, whose ideas Frye was building on in his development of “archetypal literary criticism”, the Dionysian:
is a flood of mightiest universal feeling, which bursts forth irresist ibly, intoxicating the senses like strong wine. It is a drunkenness in the highest sense. In this state the psychological element sensa tion, whether it be sensation of sense or of affect, participates in the 6 Prelude highest degree. It is a question, therefore, of an extraversion of those feelings which are inextricably bound up with the element of sensa tion; for this reason we define it as feeling-sensation.23
In contradistinction to this, the Apollonian for Jung “is a perception of the inner image of beauty, of measure, of controlled and proportioned feelings. The comparison with the dream clearly indicates the character of the Apollonian attitude: it is a state of introspection, of inner contem plation towards the dream world of eternal ideas: it is therefore a state of introversion.”24 Jung, therefore, expands Nietzsche’s aesthetic cate gories into psychological types (introvert/extrovert) that are arguably better known today than those (Apollonian/Dionysian) on which they are partly based.25 Notably, Jung’s depiction of the Dionysian as a “flood of mightiest universal feeling” is also reminiscent of Rolland’s descrip tion of “oceanic feeling”, which is of central importance to the artis tic development of his fictional composer protagonist Jean-Christophe, as will be explored in detail later. The point here is that Nietzsche’s early aesthetic mythological duality of the Apollonian and Dionysian resonated with thinkers from varied intellectual and artistic traditions. Nietzsche’s early thought is, for example, as significant for psychological discussions (particularly regarding notions of the unconscious) as it is for literary ones discussed here.26 This work will demonstrate how the central novelists of literary modernity similarly responded to, developed, and redefined Nietzsche’s rich Apollo/Dionysus dichotomy. The dis tinct conception of Dionysus, and Dionysian music, as presented in The Birth of Tragedy, particularly influenced modern novelists. As Foster argues, Dionysus is the “mythic figure [that] best captures all aspects of the fascination writers felt for him. In its very broadest implications, it can be identified with Nietzsche himself, who signed several letters with the name Dionysus shortly after his collapse into insanity” as well as epitomizing “the open-ended spirit in which Nietzsche hoped to be read”27 but Nietzsche’s Dionysus is also attractive for writers concerned with portraying music in literature. The Apollo/Dionysus dichotomy in itself evokes the nebulous enterprise of representing music in the novel form. Nietzsche, as Surette rightly notes, “aligns myth and the language arts, along with dream and sculpture, as “material” arts in contrast to the “spiritual” art of music”,28 and so to depict music in literature is in other words to represent a Dionysian art in an Apollonian art form. This makes Nietzsche’s argument in The Birth of Tragedy fundamental for novelists interested in depicting music, and helps elucidate all the artistic and philosophical connotations of doing so. It is therefore unsur prising that artists interested in crossing and fusing artistic boundaries found a guide in early Nietzsche, who was among the first to traverse this nebulous plane and advocate an interplay of the arts, an aspirational project that is still coming to fruition today. I build on and develop the Prelude 7 substantial lines of enquiry hinted at by Bell, Foster, Surette, and oth ers, in illuminating the significance of music and myth as theorized by Nietzsche in The Birth of Tragedy. This book is written in four movements with a reprise, the first deals with the inception of Nietzsche’s The Birth of Tragedy to clarify its sig nificance to, and impact on, the literary works that occupy the remainder of this study. In particular it looks at how and to what extent Nietzsche’s reading of Schopenhauer’s The World as Will and Representation (first edition of 1818/19, second edition of 1844 and third edition of 1859) and Wagner’s Beethoven essay of 1870 nourished his thinking about the roles of music and myth and his development of the Apollo/Dionysus dichotomy and of Dionysian music: the central tenets of Nietzsche’s book (which subsequently form the basis of this work). The movement will focus on the origins of Nietzsche’s dualistic thinking but it will be predominantly concerned with exploring notions of Dionysian music, which consists of a musico-mythological tie in itself. As Foster rightly notes: “Among writers his first book had a special place”,29 and so it is necessary to explore how Nietzsche’s dichotomy emerged, which will shed light on how Rolland, Joyce and, Mann incorporate or respond to it in their prose fiction. The second movement offers an exposition of Nietzsche’s aesthetic mythology in relation to Romain Rolland’s music novel Jean-Christophe (1904–12). It juxtaposes Nietzsche’s aesthetic models of music and myth in The Birth of Tragedy, as elucidated in the first movement, with Rolland’s narrative depiction of music and his central charac ters, particularly the novel’s protagonist, the fictional genius composer Jean-Christophe Krafft. Nietzsche’s Apollo/Dionysus dichotomy can elucidate Rolland’s novel in varied and distinct ways: it demonstrates how Rolland’s philosophical and literary exploration of musical genius is uncannily reminiscent of Nietzsche’s depiction of the Dionysian (as a fundamental artistic impulse). It goes further to evidence the multifarious modes through which the Dionysian is brought into dialogue with the Apollonian, both in terms of Jean-Christophe’s foil characters, Olivier Jeannin, for example, and in broader terms of the relationship between music and literature. As Rolland does not retell a particular myth (as in Ulysses and Doctor Faustus), I consider Rolland’s Jean-Christophe specifically in relation to Nietzsche’s early aesthetic mythology and show how Nietzsche’s mythic dichotomy can illuminate Rolland’s prose, which evidences the value of the methodological approach of this work. Moreover, Rolland’s novel sequence explicitly concerns German music, a preoccupation of Nietzsche’s writing, which is discussed and theorized at length in The Birth of Tragedy (and explored in the first movement), most prominently in relation to Wagner. Jean-Christophe can be seen as a foundational novel of the twentieth century, given its lengthy intro spective narrative style and its exploration of the genesis of artistic and 8 Prelude scholarly genius in the characters Jean-Christophe and Olivier respec tively (reminiscent of Stephen Daedalus in A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man and Ulysses) and the impressive sculpting of a fictional composer (foreshadowing Marcel Proust’s Vinteuil in In Search of Lost Time and Adrian Leverkühn in Mann’s Doctor Faustus). That there has not yet been a significant study that considers Jean-Christophe and Doctor Faustus together, given that both Rolland and Mann’s protago nists are fictional composers, and that both novels can be read in relation to Nietzsche’s aesthetics, is striking. Indeed, as Theodore Ziolkowski writes “Jean-Christophe […] along with Thomas Mann’s Doktor Faustus […] is one of the two greatest musician-novels of the twenti eth century.”30 This work resituates Jean-Christophe within the current secondary literature and affirms Rolland’s rightful place as one of the twentieth century’s great novelists. The third movement introduces a new mythic layer by considering James Joyce’s Ulysses, with particular reference to the literary uses of music in relation to what T. S. Eliot coined Joyce’s “mythic method” in relation to his use of Homer’s Odyssey. It demonstrates how Joyce responds to (and challenges) Wagner’s aesthetic concept of the ‘Gesamtkunstwerk’ (often translated as ‘total artwork’) and how he implements and devel ops the leitmotif with the aim of clarifying the philosophical, as well as the pragmatic and aesthetic, relevance of this technique in Ulysses. It reintroduces Nietzsche and juxtaposes his Apollo/Dionysus dichotomy in The Birth of Tragedy with Joyce’s narrative depiction of music and myth and his central characters in Ulysses. I turn first to the “Proteus” episode in order to expound Stephen’s Dionysian nature in relation to his aesthetic perception. I then move on to the “Sirens” episode to ana lyse Leopold Bloom’s response to music and his Apollonian character in Joyce’s “music chapter”. In this section, I offer the most detailed elabo ration of the musical potential, and performative qualities, of language in Ulysses, marking the significance of the relationship between music and literature. Finally, I turn to the “Eumaeus” and “Ithaca” episodes, in which Stephen and Bloom are finally brought together in what is in many ways the climax of the book, in order to explore what happens when Joyce’s Apollo finally enters into dialogue with Dionysus, and vice versa. This section highlights the striking ways in which Joyce mod ernizes Nietzsche’s aesthetic categories, and in doing so draws atten tion to Joyce’s affinities with, as well as divergences from, Nietzsche’s early thoughts as expressed in The Birth of Tragedy. This movement treats Homer’s Odyssey as counterpoint, as the Homeric correspond ences are introduced independently in the chapter though relating to the overarching theme of music and myth, often striking through the prose, much like songs do in Ulysses. The new mythic layer introduced in this movement explores the intellectual development of the literary uses of myth for modernist ends in Ulysses (with reference to the Odyssey). This Prelude 9 emphasizes the unique perspective that can be gained on the relationship between music and literature through a broader consideration of myth and sets the tempo for: The final movement, which develops the notions of myth-updating introduced in the third movement and recapitulates the distinct impact of Nietzsche’s aesthetic mythology on literary modernity in turning to Thomas Mann’s late music novel Doctor Faustus. This novel offers argu ably the deepest exposition of intersections of music and myth, given Mann’s retelling of the Faust myth, along with the palpable presence of the Apollo/Dionysus dichotomy, in connection with the book’s innova tive musical focus. I explore how and to what effect Mann reacts to, and presents, the formulation of music and myth, with the aim of enhancing our understanding of his famously complex novel, while simultaneously adding to the reception history of Nietzsche’s The Birth of Tragedy. Rather than focus on the biographical parallels between Mann’s pro tagonist Leverkühn and Nietzsche (which are already well documented), I focus on the palpable Apollonian and Dionysian elements that Mann presents in the intimate portrayal of both his chief characters’ psycholo gies and that exist in the act of artistic production itself. As with Joyce, the act of artistic creation leads us directly back to the core issues of Nietzsche’s The Birth of Tragedy, such as where artistic impulses come from (the Apollonian and Dionysian) and how they manifest themselves in the modern world. While the core preoccupation of this book is aes thetic, broader issues are drawn on: for example, the “artistic impulses” as Nietzsche defined them, can be seen to surface in unforeseen ways, which Mann explores in the parallel he draws between the fate of his fic tional composer and Germany following its descent into Nazism, a key theme of Doctor Faustus and one which is explored at length in the final movement. Mann, like Rolland and Joyce, chose the arduous task of representing ineffable subjects such as music and myth in prose, in a bid to test the limits of language and the novel as an art form. Unlike Joyce, and yet in line with Rolland, Mann chooses an imaginary composer as his protagonist, yet this time (unlike in Jean-Christophe) the composer is situated within a rich mythic tradition (the Faust tradition), as Joyce situates Ulysses in a tradition that started with Homer’s Odyssey. This combination ultimately provides the most pertinent example of how productive and fascinating the relationship between music and myth in prose can be. In approaching the often nebulous relationship between music and literature through a consideration of myth, I will add a unique and illuminating dimension to both Mann studies and Nietzsche studies, as well as contributing to comparative literary scholarship more gener ally. Mann’s retelling of the Faust myth, his negation of the prior ver sions of the myth, along with various episodic negations of high cultural achievements, such as Beethoven’s Ninth Symphony, give the novel an air of finality. In essence, Doctor Faustus is a novel of conclusions, both 10 Prelude in music and myth, in which the fate of both are intimately bound to the fate of Germany. It is therefore fitting that the book ends here. This work seeks to open up the interplay of music and myth, and indeed the interplay of the arts (particularly music and literature) for further inves tigation. This prelude may therefore equally be considered a conclusion, as the extent of the musico-mythic connection outlined here can only be understood once the reader has reached the conclusion of the fourth movement and then, it is hoped, the reverberations of the fictional music discussed and its intersection with myth, could inspire a circumnaviga tion back to this point. This study evaluates the interplay of music and myth in a turbu lent period of literary and intellectual history, during which there was a palpable move towards interdisciplinarity in the arts. Notions of self-reflective artistic creation were burgeoning, conventional modes of storytelling were radically readdressed and the relationship between the arts were profoundly scrutinized by modern authors. The novelists of the period sought to recreate an emotional and practical condition of music in their prose in original ways. Rolland, Joyce and Mann were all directly reacting to a formulation set out by Nietzsche in 1872; this study seeks to address the significance of this and ultimately demon strate how Nietzsche can help elucidate a connection that can in turn help us understand some of the most challenging prose fiction in the twentieth century. The first question to be explored, then, is how this musico-mythic relationship comes into being in The Birth of Tragedy.
Notes 1. For examples listen to: Friedrich Nietzsche, Compositions of his Youth (1857–63) released in 1995 and Compositions of His Mature Years (1864–82) released in 1996, Albany Records (Albany, NY). 2. See “Why I Write Such Good Books” in Friedrich Nietzsche, Ecce Homo: How To Become What You Are. Translated by Duncan Large (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001), pp. 36–88. 3. I avoid using the term “modernists” to collectively describe the three nov elists I am to discuss. While “modernist” is a label that is certainly, and frequently, attached to James Joyce, the other two authors, Romain Rol land and to some extent, Thomas Mann, resist such neat categorisation. 4. J. A. Cuddon rev. by C. E. Preston, The Penguin Dictionary of Literary Terms and Literary Theory (London: Penguin, 1979), p. 516. 5. Since Harry Levin’s famous Harvard course “Proust, Joyce, and Mann” there have been a number of studies that treat these three figures together, the most well-known and recent example being Gerald Gillespie’s Proust, Mann, Joyce in the Modernist Context (Washington: The Catholic Uni versity of America Press: 2003). There is yet to be a major study that treats Rolland, Joyce and Mann together. One of the aims of this book is to address this critical gap in the secondary literature. 6. Peter Dayan, Music Writing Literature: From Sand via Debussy to Derrida (Surrey: Ashgate, 2006), p. 95. Prelude 11 7. Emilie Carpoulet, “Voicing the Music in Literature” in European Journal of English Studies, vol. 13, no. 1 (2009), pp. 79–91, p. 86. 8. Ibid., p. 89. 9. Mieke Bal Travelling Concepts in the Humanities: A Rough Guide (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2002), p. 32. Cited in Carpoulet (2009), p. 89. 10. Ibid., p. 82. 11. In each movement I use the term “myth” in the manner that the author who is the subject of the movement employs the term. In the case of the fourth movement, that is concerned with Thomas Mann’s Doctor Faus tus, the term requires re-formulation and I therefore dedicate a subsection (“Mann and Myth”) to this issue. 12. J. B. Foster, Heirs to Dionysus: A Nietzschean Current in Literary Modern ism (New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1981), p. 418. This incredibly useful study denotes the significance of Nietzsche’s early aesthetic thought, including the relevance of the Apollo/Dionysus dichotomy, to literary modernism. Foster’s primary literary examples are D. H. Lawrence, André Gide, André Malraux, and Thomas Mann. While this study does point toward the often overlooked significance of The Birth of Tragedy to literary modernism, it does not address what the present work seeks to analyse: the intrinsic relationship between music and myth in modern literature. Foster does explore the relevance of The Birth of Tragedy to Mann’s Doctor Faustus but he only makes cursory reference to Joyce and does not men tion Rolland. Moreover, his study is not much concerned with music, its relation to myth, or indeed the relationship between music and literature, all of which are of central concern to this study. For more on Gide in rela tion to Joyce and Mann specifically see: Joseph Gerard Brennan, Three Philosophical Novelists: James Joyce, André Gide, Thomas Mann (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1964). 13. As Rüdiger Görner perceptively explains in relation to The Birth of Trag edy: “Nietzsche established a causal relationship between music and (tragic) myth. In doing so, he shifted creation (and creation myths) back into the musical sphere.” [„Nietzsche stellte eine kausale Verhältnisbes timmung zwischen Musik und (tragischem) Mythos her. Damit verlagerte er die Schöpfung (und die Schöpfungsmythen) ins Musikalische zurück“]. Rüdiger Görner, ‘Mythos und Musik. Versuch einer Verhältnisbestim mung’ in Das Geheimnis der Wirklichkeit. Kurt Hübner zum 90. Geburt stag. Edited by Volker Kapp and Werner Theobald (Freiburg im Breisgau: Verlag Karl Alber, 2011), pp. 211–19, p. 217. The English translation is my own. 14. Michael Bell, Literature, Modernism and Myth: Belief and Responsibil ity in the Twentieth Century (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997), p. 76. 15. Ibid., p. 77. 16. Ibid., pp. 77–78. 17. Ibid., p. 161. 18. Ibid., p. 2. 19. Ibid., pp. 24–30. 20. For more on various composers’ attraction to the aesthetics of myth see Eero Tarasti, Myth and Music: a semiotic approach to the aesthetics of myth in music, especially that of Wagner, Sibelius and Stravinsky (The Hague: Mouton Publishers, 1979). 12 Prelude 21. Northrop Frye, Anatomy of Criticism (London: Penguin Books, 1990), p. 336. 22. Ibid. 23. C. G. Jung, Psychological Types. Translated by R. F. C. Hull, in The Collected Works of C. G. Jung. Sir Herbert Read, Michael Fordham, Gerhard Adler (eds.); William McGuire (executive ed.), 21 vols, vol. 6 (London: Routledge, 1971), pp. 179–80. 24. Ibid., p. 180. 25. Walter Kaufmann in his ground-breaking study Nietzsche: Philoso pher, Psychologist, Antichrist (New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1974/2013) was amongst the first to note, in his discussion of a general misunderstanding of the Apollonian and Dionysian, that Jung had incor rectly related Nietzsche’s categories to his own and that the Dionysian is in fact closer to a state of introversion and the Apollonian to extraversion, if we follow Kaufmann’s interpretation of Nietzsche’s Apollo/Dionysus dichotomy. For more on this see Kaufmann (1974/2013), p. 168. 26. See Martin Liebscher “Friedrich Nietzsche’s perspectives on the uncon scious” in Thinking the Unconscious: Nineteenth-Century German Thought. Edited by Angus Nicholls and Martin Liebscher (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2010). Liebscher expresses the significance of the Dionysian in The Birth of Tragedy to conceptions of the unconscious as Nietzsche “characterizes this state [the Dionysian] as corresponding with the disappearance of the subject into complete self-forgetting. […] The redemption from individuality, from the principium individuationis, leads to a common primal oneness “Ur-Eine”. The Apollonian, conscious ego has been abandoned; the boundaries separating individuals have ceased to exist. In this way, it could be said that the return to the primal one is also the descent into the unconscious. In The Birth of Tragedy the unconscious is first and foremost defined by the collective aspect which is opposed to the Apollonian principium individuationis.” Nicholls and Liebscher (2010), pp. 258–59. I return to this notion in the second movement. 27. Foster (1981), p. 15. 28. Leon Surette, The Birth of Modernism: Ezra Pound, T.S. Eliot, W.B. Yeats, and the Occult (Montreal and Kingston: McGill-Queen’s Univer sity Press, 1993), p. 196. 29. Foster (1981), p. 40. 30. Theodore Ziolkowski, Music Into Fiction: Composers Writing, Composi tions Imitated (New York: Camden House, 2017), p. 170. Bibliography
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I will be referring to the following volume throughout: Friedrich Nietzsche, The Birth of Tragedy and The Case of Wagner. Translated by Walter Kauf mann (New York: Random House, 1967). 2. See Georges Liébert, Nietzsche and Music. Translated by David Pellauer and Graham Parkes (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 2004); Adrian Del Caro’s chapter “The Birth of Tragedy” in Paul Bishop (ed.), A Companion to Friedrich Nietzsche: Life and Works (New York: Camden House, 2012); Martine Prange, Nietzsche, Wagner, Europe (Berlin: de Gruyter, 2013) and David Came’s “Nietzsche on the Aesthetics of Character and Virtue”, in D. Came (ed.), Nietzsche on Art and Life (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014). 3. Henceforth The World as Will and Representation or WWR in the text. I will be referring to the following edition: Arthur Schopenhauer, The World as Will and Representation: In Two Volumes, Volume I and Volume II. Translated by E. F. J. Payne (New York: Dover Publications, 1966). 4. Alongside these three novels (and others by Rolland, Joyce and Mann), there are numerous works of literary prose in the first half of the twentieth century which depict music and can be read successfully in terms of Nietzsche’s dichotomy, for instance: Gabriele D’Annunzio’s The Flame (Il fuoco, 1900), E. M. Forster’s Howard’s End (1910), Proust’s In Search of Lost Time (À la recherche du temps perdu, 1913–27) and Hermann Hesse’s Steppenwolf (1927). All these texts allude to the conflict between the sober act of artistic creation and the intoxicating effects music, fic tional or otherwise. Though less explicit in terms of the Apollo/Dionysus dichotomy, one could add to this list works of fiction by D. H. Lawrence, Virginia Woolf, Dorothy Richardson and many others. 5. Georg Simmel, Schopenhauer and Nietzsche. Translated by Helmut Lou iskandl, Michael Weinstein and Deena Weinstein (Massachusetts: Univer sity of Massachusetts Press,1986), p. 93. 6. For further discussion of Schopenhauer’s influence on twentieth century musicians specifically see Lydia Goehr’s essay “Schopenhauer and the musicians: an inquiry into the sounds of silence and the limits of philoso phizing about music” in Dale Jacquette (ed.), Schopenhauer, Philosophy, and the Arts (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996). 7. Walter Pater, The Renaissance: Studies in Art and Poetry. Edited and introduction by Adam Philips, (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1986), p. 86. According to Surette (1993) p. 179: Pater, and the aesthetic school of which he is a representative, warmly received the early work of Nietzsche. 8. Lionel Trilling, E. M. Forster (New York: New Directions, 1965), p. 131. 9. Friedrich Schlegel, Literary Notebooks, 1797–1801. Edited by Hans Eich ner (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1957), p. 147 10. G. W. F Hegel, Aesthetics: Volume II: Lectures on Art. Translated by T. M. Knox (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1975), p. 952. 11. Ibid., p. 937. 12. For more on this see Lawrence Ferrara’s essay “Schopenhauer on music as the embodiment of Will” in Schopenhauer, Philosophy and the Arts (1996) in which Ferrara espouses that, for Schopenhauer, the individual arts in the hierarchy correlate specifically to the hierarchy of the organic world. 13. It should be noted that many critics of Schopenhauer have exposed a fault in relation to his musicological (not philosophical!) treatment of melody and harmony. Robert Ralph, for example, complained that: “He [Schopenhauer] falls upon that cardinal mistake which is so common to non-musical minds, of calling minor keys necessarily plaintive or sad, and major keys lively and jolly. Also in endeavouring to reconcile the basis of harmony with some cosmic scheme he is responsible for stating that bass parts always move most slowly as the representative of the crudest mass, and that bass only rises and falls by large intervals, never by one tone (!) He perpetrates one glorious ‘howler’ as a result of this line of thought when he declares that a quick run or shake in the low notes cannot even be imagined! ! ! On the other hand he avoids the popular error of conceiv ing melody as distinct from harmony.” Robert Ralph, “Schopenhauer and Music” in The Musical Times, vol. 54, no. 850 (1913), p. 793. 14. “Among the most glorious conditions of his [Schopenhauer’s] existence was the fact that he was able, in accordance with his motto vitam impen dere vero, really to live for such a task and that he was oppressed by none of the petty necessities of life”, taken from “Schopenhauer as educator” in Friedrich Nietzsche, Untimely Meditations. Translated by R. J. Holling dale (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983), p. 182. 15. Nicholas Matthew and Benjamin Walton (eds.), The invention of Bee thoven and Rossini (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2013), p. 283. 16. Jeremy Tambling, On Reading the Will: Law and Desire in Literature and Music (Eastbourne: Sussex Academic Press, 2012), p. 172. 17. Richard Wagner, Beethoven. Translated by Roger Allen (Woodbridge, The Boydell Press, 2014), p. 3. 18. Nietzsche will later align Schopenhauer (to his estimation) and Wagner (to his denigration) with the French in Nietzsche contra Wagner: “In this France of the spirit, which is also the France of pessimism, Schopenhauer is even now more at home than he has ever been in Germany; his main work has already been translated twice, the second time excellently, so that I now prefer to read Schopenhauer in French (he was an accident among Germans, as I am such an accident; the Germans have no fingers for us, they have no fingers altogether, they have only paws). […] It remains a certain fact for anyone familiar with European cultural movements that French romanticism and Richard Wagner belong together most closely. All dominated by literature right into their eyes and ears […].” Cited from The Portable Nietzsche. Edited and translated by Walter Kaufmann (New York: Penguin Books, 1976), pp. 671-672. 19. Allen (2014), pp. 13–14. 20. Allen (2014), p. 24. 21. See Wagner, Beethoven, p. 45 for a discussion of Schopenhauer and p. 60 for the evocation of Goethe and Schiller. 22. Nietzsche arrived in Bayreuth on 22 July 1876 and was disappointed while listening to Götterdämmerung. He left the rehearsals on the 24 July [See KSB, vol. 5, no. 544, p. 179]. On 25 July Nietzsche started to regret his visit: “Denn bis jetzt war es jaemmerlich” [ibid, p. 178] and began to suffer severe headaches. On 31 July, Nietzsche wrote to his sister about his ongoing head aches and stated that he could only listen to the Walküre in a dark room. He asked her to sell his tickets and to find someone to rent his accommoda tion [KSB, vol. 5, no. 146, p. 181]. Friedrich Nietzsche, Sämtliche Briefe: Kri tische Studienausgabe. Edited by Giorgio Colli and Mazziano Montrinari, 8 vols. (Munich: Deutscher Taschenbuch, 1986). On 4 August, Nietzsche gave away his tickets and left for Klingenbrunn. A description of the surpris ing departure can be found in Elisabeth Förster-Nietzsche’s biography of her brother, Das Leben Friedrich Nietzsches, vol. 2, part 1 (Leipzig, 1897), pp. 244–45. Finally, on 12 August, one day before the first public perfor mance of Das Rheingold and after some imploring by his sister, Nietzsche returned to Bayreuth. 23. Nietzsche (1876/1983), p. 254. 24. See Nietzsche’s letter to Carl von Gersdorff (Basel, March II, 187): “It is an infinite enrichment of one’s life to know such a genius closely. For me, all that is best and most beautiful is associated with the names Schopen hauer and Wagner […]” in Selected Letters of Friedrich Nietzsche. Edited and translated by Christopher Middleton (Indianapolis: Hackett Publish ing Company, Inc., 1996), p. 65. 25. See the preface to The Case of Wagner in Nietzsche (1888/1967), pp. 155–56. 26. Ibid., §5, p. 164. 27. Ibid., p. 156. For a recent study of Wagner’s impact on modernism more generally see: Juliet Koss, Modernism after Wagner (Minneapolis, Minne sota: University of Minnesota Press, 2010). 28. Ibid., §9, p. 174. 29. See Rose Pfeffer, Nietzsche: Disciple of Dionysus (Lewisburg: Bucknell University Press, 1972), p. 271. 30. For more on Nietzsche’s early divergence from Schopenhauer’s thought see: Robert Bruce Cowan, ‘Nietzsche’s Attempted Escape from Schopen hauer’s South Asian Sources in “The Birth of Tragedy,”’ in German Stud ies Review, vol. 30, no. 3 (2007), pp. 537–56. 31. Nietzsche (1888/1967), §1, p. 157. 32. Jean-Christophe Krafft (the protagonist of Romain Rolland’s novel Jean-Christophe) also complains about the “oppressive” atmosphere in his native Germany and, amongst other reasons, this compels his move to the south, to France. Rolland’s response to Nietzsche’s ideas will be further explored in the following pages upon turning to Jean-Christophe. 33. Though the choral symphony his “Ode to Joy” is an exception and one in which Beethoven became something of a trend-setter. 34. See Paul A. Swift’s book Becoming Nietzsche Early Reflections on Dem ocritus, Schopenhauer and Kant (Maryland: Lexington Books, 2005), particularly chapter two “Nietzsche on Schopenhauer in 1867,” for a broad exploration of Nietzsche’s relationship to Schopenhauer’s theories. Swift asserts “The peculiar secondary literature that suggests Nietzsche was completely taken over by Schopenhauer’s theory of the will in his early years is oversimplified and misleading. The reason why this miscon ception continues to persist is due to the explosive Dionysian content of the Ausser-sich-sein (literally to be outside of oneself) which Nietzsche puts forth in The Birth of Tragedy Out of the Spirit of Music. Nietzsche’s view is in fact much more nuanced than a blanket rejection or accept ance of Schopenhauer’s theory of the will”, p. 62. However, contrary to Swift’s claim, Jörg Salaquarda in numerous articles on Schopenhauer and Nietzsche republished in Broese, Konstantin, Matthias Koßler und Barbara Salaquarda’s Die Deutung der Welt: Jörg Salaquardas Schrif ten zu Arthur Schopenhauer: Beiträge zur Philosophie Schopenhauers, (Würzburg: Königshausen & Neumann, 2007), pp. 173–268, maintains Schopenhauer’s unique impact on Nietzsche is sustained and incontro vertible throughout his writings. For specific examples see: „Zur gegen seitigen Verdrängung von Schopenhauer und Nietzsche“, p. 191 and „Die metaphysische Bedeutung des Daseins. Schopenhauers Religionstheorie und ihre Radikalisierung durch Nietzsche“, p. 225. 35. Allen (2014), p. 25. 36. Prange (2013), p. 185. 37. Ibid. 38. Ernst Bertram in his classic study Versuch einer Mythologie, originally published in 1918, expressed Nietzsche’s belief in Wagner in a beautiful way when he called Nietzsche: “The disciple of Wagner who is intoxicated with hope, for whom the art of his master is the true “music of the future” heralding a completely new culture”, Ernst Bertram, Nietzsche Attempt at a Mythology. Translated by Robert E. Norton (Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 2009), p. 12. 39. Prange (2013), p. 204. 40. According to Wagner: “Perhaps his [Schopenhauer’s] only reason for not probing even more deeply was that as a layman he was insufficiently com petent and familiar with music”, (Beethoven, p. 47). 41. Allen (2014), p. 4. 42. Ibid., p. 24. 43. M. S. Silk and J. P. Stern, Nietzsche on Tragedy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981), p. 222. For a more detailed account of Plutarch’s use of the Apollo-Dionysus duality see Radek Chlup’s “Plutarch’s Dualism and the Delphic Cult” in Phronesis, vol. 45, no. 2 (2000), pp. 138–58: “The agreement of the Apollo-Dionysian imagery in De E and Plutarch’s philosophical concepts in De animae procreatione is obvious. In view of this, it might seem rather puzzling that in De E the Apollo- Dionysus opposition is associated with something that one would be inclined to identify as the Stoic theory of cosmic cycles. Yet […] Clearly what appeals to Plutarch in the first place is the notion of cyclicity as such which he finds easy to connect with the cyclical alternations of Apollo and Dionysus in their presiding over Delphi”, pp. 141–43. 44. Kaufmann’s footnote at the end of §15 reads as follows: “The book might as well end at this point — as the original version did: Friedrich Nietzsche: Sokrates und die griechische Tragödie: Ursprüngliche Fassung der Geburt der Tragödie aus dem Geiste der Musik (Socrates and Greek tragedy: orig inal version of The Birth of Tragedy out of the Spirit of Music). Edited by Hans Joachim Mette (Munich, Beck, 1933). The discussion of the birth and death of tragedy is finished in the main, and the following celebration of the rebirth of tragedy weakens the book and was shortly regretted by Nietzsche himself” (BT, pp. 98–99). 45. Schopenhauer is borrowing the term “veil of māyā” from his reading of Indian texts. See Raymond Schwab’s chapter on Schopenhauer in The Ori ental Renaissance: Europe’s Rediscovery of India and the East, 1680– 1880 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1984). 46. See Schopenhauer, WWR, Vol II, p. 448. 47. Nicholas Matthew and Benjamin Walton (eds.), The Invention of Bee thoven and Rossini, Historiography, Analysis, Criticism (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2013), p. 283. 48. For more on Nietzsche’s critique of Italian music see Prange (2013), pp. 13–16. 49. Nietzsche’s own reference. 50. Georg Friedrich Creuzer deserves a mention here, as Douglas Burnham and Martin Jesinghausen point out in their immensely useful Nietzsche’s The Birth of Tragedy: A Reader’s Guide (London: Continuum Interna tional Publishing Group, 2010): “Unmentioned, but one of the most sig nificant influences (apart from Schopenhauer, Wagner and Schiller, who are cited) is Friedrich Creuzer (1771–1858) who wrote the pioneering Sym bolik und Mythologie der alten Völker, besonders der Griechen (Symbol ism and Mythology of Ancient Peoples, Particularly the Greeks) in 1812. Creuzer clearly had an impact on Nietzsche’s central theory of symboli zation in The Birth of Tragedy”, p. 5. Apollo and Dionysus were used as symbolic categories prior to Nietzsche in the nineteenth century context, particularly by well-known figures such as: Bachofen, Creuzer, Müller, Schlegel, Schelling and Welcker. For more on this context see: Cornelia Isler-Kerényi, “Modern Mythologies: “Dionysos” versus “Apollo”’ in Dionysos in Archaic Greece: An Understanding Through Images. Trans lated by Wilfred G. E. Watson (Leiden: Brill, 2007). However, Nietzsche went further and developed this symbolic dichotomy as the foundation for a rebirth of tragedy in contemporary Germany via Wagner’s music-drama. 51. In Nietzsche’s view, this decay is the result of Socratism which is deter mined to destroy myth: “let us now picture the abstract man untu tored by myth; abstract education; abstract morality; abstract law; the abstract state; let us imagine the lawless roving of the artistic imagination, unchecked by any native myth; let us think of a culture that has no fixed and sacred primordial site but is doomed to exhaust all possibilities and to nourish itself wretchedly on all cultures — there we have the present age, the result of that Socratism which is bent on the destruction of myth” (BT, pp. 135–36). 52. Thomas Mann’s anti-hero in Doctor Faustus, the fictional composer Adrian Leverkühn (a character inspired by Nietzsche), named one of his major compositions after Dürer’s Apocalypsis cum Figuris in a bid to strengthen the connection between his protagonist and Nietzsche, and by implication his novel and The Birth of Tragedy. See the fourth movement for more on this. 53. Interestingly, in a chapter aptly titled “Knight, Death and Devil”, Ernst Bertram drew attention to Nietzsche’s preliminary notes to Richard Wag ner in Bayreuth, in which he writes: “It was a particular form of Wagner’s ambition that he placed himself in relation to the great men of the past: to Schiller and Goethe, Beethoven, Luther, the Greek tragedians, Shake speare, Bismarck. […] But he invented the German spirit in opposition to the Romantic one. Interesting characterization of the German spirit in his image” cited from Bertram (1918/2009), pp. 34–35. The idea that Wag ner has created a German spirit in his own image anticipates Nietzsche’s critique of Wagner as a tyrant and more significant still is the fact that Nietzsche will later associate Wagner, and his music, as “romantic” — in every sense of the term. 54. Stefan George will famously use this line in his poem Nietzsche, see: Wal ter Kaufmann, Twenty German Poets: A Bilingual Edition (New York: Random House, 1963). 55. Liébert (2004), p. 27. The letter Liébert cites is dated 6 September 1863 in KSB, vol 1, p. 253. 1. Stefan, Zweig, Romain Rolland: The Man and His Work. Translated by Eden Paul and Cedar Paul (New York: Thomas Seltzer, 1921), p. 6. 2. The following editions of Romain Rolland’s Jean-Christophe will be referred to throughout the chapter: Dawn and Morning Volume One of John Christopher. Translated by Gilbert Cannan, introduction by Rich ard Church (London: Heinemann, 1966), Storm and Stress, Volume Two of John Christopher (London: Heinemann, 1968), John Christopher in Paris, Volume Three of John Christopher (London: Heinemann, 1961), Journey’s End, Volume Four of John Christopher (London: Heinemann, 1962). Henceforth shortened to JC with the corresponding volume num ber in parentheses in the body of the text. The individual titles that make up Jean-Christophe will be referred to as parts rather than volumes to avoid confusion. The Heinemann edition changed the name of Rolland’s protagonist to “John Christopher” and “Christopher” in order to angli cize the character, an editorial decision which now seems arbitrary. I have therefore chosen to use “Jean-Christophe” and “Christophe” as Gilbert Cannan did in his original English translation in the 1910s. 3. See: Zweig (1921), p. 6, William Thomas Starr, Romain Rolland, One Against All: A Biography (The Netherlands: Mouton Publishers, The Hague, 1971), p. 17 and R. A. Francis. Romain Rolland. (Oxford: Berg, 1999), pp. 7–8. 4. Zweig (1921), p. 7. 5. Starr (1971), p. 39. 6. Ibid., p. 17. 7. Ibid., p. 32. 8. Choix de lettres à Malwida von Meysenbug [Paris, 1948], p. 18 cited from Starr (1971), p. 126. 9. Starr (1971), p. 41. For more on Malwida von Meysenbug and Romain Rolland see: Ein Briefwechsel, 1890–91. Romain Rolland und Malwida von Meysenbug. Translated by A. Lubbe and Berta Schleicher (Stuttgart: Engelhorn, 1932). For more on Rolland and Strauss see: Rollo Myers (ed.). Richard Strauss & Romain Rolland: Correspondence (London: Calder and Boyars, 1968). 10. Francis (1999), p. 30, the translation from French is my own. 11. Rolland was a prolific writer and to list all his published, let alone unpublished, works here would be impractical. However, besides Jean-Christophe and the heroic biographies already mentioned, some of his better known works are: Aërt (1898), Danton (1900), Le Théâtre du Peuple (1903), Liluli (1919), Colas Breugnon (1919), Pierre et Luce (1920), Clérambault (1920), L’Âme enchantée (in seven volumes, 1922– 33), Beethoven, Les Grandes Époques créatrices (1928-45). (in seven vol umes, 1928–45), Goethe et Beethoven (1930), Robespierre (1939). Not to mention his vast correspondences with figures as varied as: Mahatma Gandhi (1924), Louis Gillet (1949), Richard Strauss (1951), Rabindranath Tagore (1961), Leo Tolstoy (1978), Hermann Hesse (1978), Maxim Gorki (1991), André Gide (1994) and of course Sigmund Freud, who refers to his correspondence in his seminal Das Unbehagen in der Kultur (Civili zation and its Discontents) written in 1929 and published in 1930. 12. Hermann Hesse & Romain Rolland: Correspondence, diary entries and reflections 1915 to 1940. Translated by M. G. Hesse, introduction by Pierre Grappin (London: Oswald Wolff, 1978), p. 131. 13. Ibid., p. 132. 14. Beethoven is the predominant inspiration but other musicians such as Hugo Wolf, whom Rolland discovered in 1903, provided elements to Rolland’s characterization of Jean-Christophe. Francis (1999), p. 64. For more on Beethoven and literary modernism see the recently published book by Nathan Waddel, Moonlighting: Beethoven and Literary Mod ernism (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2019). 15. Starr (1971), p. 111. 16. Jean-Christophe is highlighted as the main reason for Rolland’s award, as is made clear in this section of the Nobel Prize in Literature 1915 citation: “Romain Rolland’s masterpiece, for which he has received the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1915, is Jean-Christophe. […] The artistic personality which is revealed in Jean-Christophe is one of rare resoluteness and strong moral structure. In this work Rolland has not simply followed a literary impulse; he does not write to please or to delight. He has been compelled to write by his thirst for truth, his need for morality, and his love of human ity. For him the purpose of the aesthetic life consists not merely in the crea tion of beauty; it is an act of humanism. Jean-Christophe is a profession of faith and an example; it is a combination of thought and poetry, of reality and symbol, of life and dream, which attracts us, excites us, reveals us to ourselves, and possesses a liberating power because it is the expression of a great moral force.” NobelPrize.org. Nobel Media AB 2019. Sat. 2 Nov 2019.