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Environmental Versus Social Parameters, Landscape, and the Origins of Irrigation in Southwest Arabia (Yemen)

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Environmental Versus Social Parameters, Landscape, and the Origins of Irrigation in Southwest Arabia (Yemen) ENVIRONMENTAL VERSUS SOCIAL PARAMETERS, LANDSCAPE, AND THE ORIGINS OF IRRIGATION IN SOUTHWEST ARABIA (YEMEN) DISSERTATION Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate School of The Ohio State University By Michael J. Harrower, M.A. ***** The Ohio State University 2006 Dissertation Committee: Approved by Professor Joy McCorriston, Adviser _________________________ Professor William Sumner Advisor Professor William Dancey Department of Anthropology Professor Eric A. Oches Professor Mei-Po Kwan Copyright by Michael J. Harrower 2006 ABSTRACT Using the Wadi Sana watershed of Hadramawt Governate, Yemen as a case study, this dissertation examines how environmental and social factors structured the origins of irrigation in prehistoric Southwest Arabia. It applies three methods, archaeological survey, geomatics, and ethnoarchaeology set within a framework of scientific and humanistic landscape archaeology. Results of archaeological survey and radiocarbon dating confirm that irrigation originated in Southwest Arabia during the mid 6th millennium calibrated BP and identify shrūj surface runoff irrigation as one of the earliest irrigation techniques in the region. Conflicts between explanations emphasizing environmental versus those stressing social factors have long structured investigations of prehistory and models of transitions to agriculture. To evaluate the relative, interconnected influence of environmental versus social factors this study applies: 1) geomatics to evaluate the hypothesis that locations of ancient irrigation structures in Wadi Sana are closely associated with hydrological variables reflecting close behavioral ties to environmental conditions, and 2) ethnoarchaeology to interpret sociocultural, political, and ideological parameters of ancient irrigation. A sample of 174 irrigation structures is statistically compared with satellite imagery-derived data including landform and hydrological Geographic Information System (GIS) map data layers. A cross-cultural overview of irrigation, synopses of typological and social aspects contemporary irrigation in Yemen, and a preliminary ethnoarchaeological study of water-use and irrigation in present-day Wadi Sana help illustrate how organizational/logistical challenges and perceptions of landscapes and water-rights shaped irrigation’s origins. Collective results illustrate why a combination of processual and postprocessual perspectives including both quantitative hypothesis testing and qualitative interpretation best illustrate the relative importance of environmental and social factors. Research findings demonstrate that ancient forager-herders in Wadi Sana chose irrigation structure ii locations based on intimate knowledge of low-energy monsoon runoff along rocky hillslopes, and that new understandings of landscapes as hydraulically malleable domains of anthropogenic control, exclusive rights to water, and new forms of territoriality were crucial to irrigation’s origins. iii For my parents, and my brother Bill. iv ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Yemen is a tremendously fascinating country in so many ways; the greatest thanks must go to the people of Yemen and the Hadramawt who have been such wonderful, gracious hosts. At lunch under the Khuzmum during my first fieldwork in Yemen Joy McCorriston suggested a study of water management in Wadi Sana might provide an excellent dissertation topic. At first the idea seeming daunting—how could one date any of these structures, surely they would not seriate into neat groups? But as I began to appreciate the importance of irrigation in Yemen (through the work of Abdu Ghaleb, R.B. Serjeant, Daniel Varisco and others) the idea seemed increasingly appealing. Without Dr. McCorriston, the Roots of Agriculture in Southern Arabia (RASA) Research Project, and project co-directors Eric Oches, and Abdalaziz Bin ‘Aqil this dissertation would have never made its way from lunchtime to thesis. Joy has offered incalculable assistance, pushed me along, served as a tireless advocate, councilor and has been patient enough to withstand my sometimes taxing enthusiasm, stubborn rhetoric, and when all else failed let me flounder and discover on my own. My sincere thanks to RASA for allowing integration of project findings, purchase of QuickBird imagery, the photograph in Figure 7.1, and use of published and unpublished radiocarbon dates in Table 8.1. Members of the RASA Project team, many of whom volunteered their time and expertise, deserve many thanks. A diligent and dedicated colleague, Catherine Heyne has seen RASA through many hours of hiking cliffs and cashara-meter transects. Dawn Walter, Margaret Wilson, Nisha Patel, Ghufran Ahmad, and Ramzy Ladah are due important debts of gratitude. Thanks to Franc Braemer and the Mission archéologique dans le Jawf-Hadramawt for collaborative support, particularly Rémy Crassard, Julien Espagne, and Tara Steimer-Herbert whose complementary interests have clarified a great many issues of prehistory in the region. RASA project geologists including Joshua Anderson, Stephen DeVogel, Kirk Sander, and Scott Anderson have helped build geological understanding and correct geoarchaeological speculation. v My sincere gratitude to the Republic of Yemen, General Organization of Antiquities, Museums, and Manuscripts (GOAMM) particularly Dr. Yousef Abdullah, Ahmed Shemsan, and Muhammad al-Asbahi for their support, and the privilege of working in Yemen. GOAMM representatives Abdalbaset Noman, Eda Al-Amary, Khalid BaDhofary, Abdal Karim al-Barakany, and Muhammed Sinnah have been invaluable colleagues, offering crucial assistance over many long days of fieldwork. Thanks also to Mohammed Aidrus (Project Director, Southern Governates Rural Development Project, Seiyun) for his advice and assistance and to his son Mahzen Aidrus for his time working with us in Wadi Sana. Without the assistance of Nexen Petroleum Inc. (formerly Canadian Occidental Petroleum Inc.) who made their production facility available as a base of operations, provided fuel, food, and water RASA’s fieldcamp and fieldwork would be next to impossible. Particular thanks to Bob Simpson, Kevin Tracy, Rick Jensen, Neil Bennett, Muhammad Lardy, Jamal Karama, Ahmed al-Aghbary, Mohammed Bin Nabhan, Hakim as-Samawy, Roy Swystun, and Alan Brinkley. The American Institute for Yemeni Studies (AIYS) deserves great appreciation for facilitating this research, particularly Resident Director Chris Edens for ironing-out innumerable logistical challenges and offering many clarifying insights about Southwest Arabian prehistory. In addition to the indispensably crucial support of Joy McCorriston and Eric Oches, thanks also to dissertation committee members William Sumner, Mei-Po Kwan, and William Dancey for wading through drafts and straightening out ramblings of my thesis. I am glad to acknowledge the University of Michigan, Museum of Anthropology for hosting me as a Committee on Institutional Cooperation (CIS) Traveling Scholar. Particular thanks to Joyce Marcus and Kent Flannery for offering unwavering encouragement and to Henry Wright, and Alexander Knysh for clarifying aspects of Middle Eastern archaeology and Hadrami culture respectively. Since my first course in archaeology Dr. Catherine D’Andrea of Simon Fraser University has proved of tremendous help, cogent advice, and encouragement. Gulo Makeda Research Project co-directors Diane Lyons and Lawrence Pavlish deserve mention for tutelage and guidance. The Ohio State University, Department of Anthropology, particularly Clark Larsen, Richard Yerkes, Bram Tucker, Jean Whipple, Anita Ridenour, and Wayne Miller have offered crucial assistance. The Ohio State University Center for Mapping for vi provided remote sensing and GIS software licenses and support. Thanks to Carolyn Merry and other faculty in the Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering and Geodetic Science including Dorota Brzezinska and William Hazelton for technical assistance and loans of equipment. A grant to Joy McCorriston from the Foundation for Exploration and Research on Cultural Origins (FERCO) and advice from Ron Blom (Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, CA) and Juris Zarins (Southwest Missouri State University) facilitated the beginnings of my geomatics research with RASA and set the foundations for this dissertation. My sincerest gratitude to the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), particularly the Jet Propulsion Laboratory and the Earth Observing System (EOS) for providing free-of-charge access to MODIS and ASTER satellite imagery, and to Digital Globe Inc. for the opportunity to purchase QuickBird imagery. Radiocarbon assays were run by the University of Arizona Accelerator Mass Spectrometry (AMS) Laboratory. A two-year Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada (SSHRC) Doctoral Fellowship allowed time for fieldwork, analyses, and writing. This material is based in part upon work supported by the National Science Foundation Dissertation Improvement Grant # BCS-0332278. Any opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the views of the National Science Foundation. Finally, my heartfelt thanks to my fiancée Amy Nicodemus who has offered love, support, and astute advice on all manner of archaeological and practical details. vii VITA August 15, 1974……………..Born, Calgary, Alberta, Canada 1998………………………….B.A. Archaeology, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby 2001………………………….M.A. Anthropology,
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