A View Through the Lens of a Principal

SECONDARY SCHOOL ORGANISATION:

A VIEW THROUGH THE LENS OF A PRINCIPAL

A portfolio submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the award of the degree of

Doctor of Education

from

University of Western Sydney

Alan Thomas Deece, B.A., M.Ed., M.Ed.Admin., T.C.

October, 2004

DEDICATION

To Barbara, without whose encouragement, support and understanding this project would not have been completed.

To Andrew and Michele for all your help, particularly in assisting with computing issues.

To Jackson for the future that is his.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Those who have contributed to this portfolio at both a professional and personal level

are too many to name individually, but their support and guidance will always be

remembered with gratitude.

Particular gratitude is owed to my supervisors. Dr Steve Dinham was my first

supervisor. His patience, insight and inspiration throughout much of this study is

particularly acknowledged and appreciated. Dr Allan White took over when Steve left for the University of New England. Though surprised that he inherited me, Allan

has been particularly helpful in bringing this project to a conclusion. His insightful

ideas and assistance are gratefully acknowledged. Professor Christine Deer’s help in

2003 in reading the overarching statement and providing assistance is also

acknowledged. In particular her help in unifying the portfolio is greatly appreciated.

Finally, I am grateful to Associate Professor Beth Southwell for reading the final portfolio and offering valuable advice.

I wish to acknowledge the contribution of all the teachers and students who have so willingly offered their expertise and energy in each of the research projects included in this portfolio. Completing questionnaires, agreeing to be interviewed and providing insightful comments have contributed greatly to the completion of this project.

iii

The work presented in this portfolio is, to the best of my knowledge and belief, original except as acknowledged in the text. I hereby declare that I have not submitted this material, either in full or in part, for a degree at this or any other institution.

……………………………………

(Signature)

CONTENTS

Table of Contents i Appendices v List of Tables vi List of Figures vii List of Tables in Published Papers viii List of Figures in Published Papers ix

Abstract x

PART 1

Chapter One Introduction

1.1 Background 1

1.2 School Research 4

1.3 Structure of Portfolio 7

1.4 Summary 11

1.5 References 12

Chapter Two Overarching Statement: Evolution and Change in Secondary School Organisation

2.1 Historical Development of the Research Topic 14

i 2.2 Rationale 21

2.3 Responding to Literature 2.3.1 School organisation 23 2.3.2 Learning community 25 2.3.3 Recentralization of control 29 2.3.4 Changing structures 31 2.3.5 Principal leadership 33

2.4 Methodology 37

2.5 Findings of the Research 44

2.5.1 Changing the system 48 2.5.2 Changing the structure Of secondary schools 51 2.5.3 Middle management: a critical issue 54 2.5.4 A first learning culture 59 2.5.5 School choice 61

2.6 Conclusion 65

2.7 References 67

Part 2

Chapter Three Education For All: The Development and Organisation of Government Secondary Schools in NSW

Introduction 77 Article 79

ii Chapter Four Reforming the HSC

Introduction 128 Article 129

Chapter Five Changing Secondary Structures: Research into Four Secondary Schools

Introduction 169 Article 170

Chapter Six The Right Choice: The Decision Making Process of High School Selection

Introduction 214 Published Article 216

Chapter Seven Perceptions and Reality of the Work of the Secondary Head of Department

Introduction 233 Published article 235

Chapter Eight The Leadership Capabilities and Decision Making of the Secondary Head of Department

Introduction 246 Published Article 247

iii

Chapter Nine Problems and Solutions Encountered in Shaping a New High School Culture and Identity

Introduction 262 Published Article 263

Appendices

A: Survey instrument used to gather data for ‘The Right Choice: The Decision Making Process Of High School Selection’ 294

B: Article from ‘The Weekend Australian’, 5-6 August, 2000 297

C: Article from ‘Canberra Times’ Wednesday September 13, 2000 298

D: Article reporting the ‘World of Work of the Secondary Head of Department’ from Inform 299

E: Copy of ‘The Secondary Head of Department Key Link in the Quality Teaching and Learning Series 302

F: Results of a survey of the first group of Year 12 students to complete all their secondary education at New High School 335

G: Survey instrument used to gather data from school staff involved in the development of structural change 337

H: Survey instrument used to gather data from students in Year 9 and Year 11 English classes concerning their ideas on the organisation and curriculum structures of their schools 338

List of Tables

Table 2.1 Research papers of the portfolio 20

Table 2.2 Development of government secondary schools to 1950s 81

Table 2.3 Development of curriculum assessment practices in NSW schools 98

List of Figures

Figure 1.1 Planning cycle for a comprehensive secondary school 8

Figure 2.1 Changing secondary structures 28

Figure 2.2 The change process in schools 33

Figure 2.3 Structure of the portfolio 47

Figure 3.1 The school system of NSW after 1962 90

vii

List of Tables in Published Papers

Table 6.1 Reasons for choosing a secondary school. Factors ranked as most important and important 221

Table 6.2 Factors considered not very important when choosing a secondary school 222

Table 6.3 Source of information about the school (expressed as percentages) 223

Table 6.4 Reasons for selecting a secondary school rated on “most important” by students choosing a government or non-government school expressed as a percentage 225

Table 9.1 Enrolments and school Developments 275

viii

List of Figures in Published Papers

Figure 9.1 Shaping a new high school culture 269

Figure 9.2 Core beliefs developed at a new high school 272

PART ONE

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background

In looking at what schools of the future might be like, we might be

inclined to ask the dumb questions, ‘Why do we need schools

anyway? Would we be better off without them?’ Society is not

ready to scrap its schools without having something reliable and

proven to put in their place; but is it safe to conclude that schooling

provisions will evolve, and probably rapidly into something quite

different from what was known in the previous century (Beare,

2001, p. 186).

Few things are more important to the wellbeing of our youth and our society than

the education system. It is not just a statement of the obvious, but also a

passionate belief of mine. For many years, New South Wales government

secondary schools have provided education for the 12 to 18 year olds. Such

certainty may not be the case in the 21st Century.

Changes in the organization, curriculum and leadership of secondary schools will

occur. Changes in our knowledge of teaching pedagogy, changes in Australian

society, changes in the role of teachers, changes in government policy and priorities and changes in information technology that potentially could lead to changes in how secondary schooling is delivered are just some of many influences that potentially could lead to a new concept of secondary schooling. The changes that will occur will require proactive planning and leadership within schools to ensure that an improvement in learning outcomes for the students results.

The research articles presented in this portfolio originate from questions and

concerns about the organization, leadership and practices of government

secondary schools in NSW. There are presently 395 high schools and 66 central

schools providing secondary education in government schools (DET, 2004

Directory, p.55). Of these high schools, 98 are specialised in some way –

selective, performing arts, sports, technology, senior and multi campus (Vinson,

2002, p. 126). Over one quarter of schools are now specialised in some way,

leaving just under 300 comprehensive high schools. Of these, 30 are single sex.

The Department of Education and Training in NSW now says that it does not offer

a system of comprehensive high schools, but a comprehensive system of high

schools (Vinson, 2002, p.127).

As a principal of a government high school, I was attracted to the professional

doctorate by the claim that it was based on the workplace and concerned with the

practice of schooling, rather than solely the theory of schooling. I have seen the

2 journey through the degree as being very much the ‘how’ of secondary schooling

rather than the ‘what’. The specific focus of the research is to examine how NSW government secondary schools came to be where they are today. Change in secondary schools from both the systemic and school level is examined. The issue of the selection of a school by parents and students is also considered. And finally, development of an initial learning culture in a new high school was also a focus for research.

The title of the portfolio is `Secondary School Organisation: A View from the

Lens of a Principal’. The exclusion of words restricting this title to type, location

and specific organization is deliberate. Although my research for this portfolio

was conducted within specific comprehensive schools, including such restricting

words would preclude the acknowledgment of the many and varied ways in which

the organization and delivery of secondary education in government schools take

place. Although for educational reasons principals and teachers organise schools

in different ways to present different curricula, what students learn is not restricted

by such organisational patterns.

From a study of the current structures of secondary schools, I have conducted

research into how the organization of secondary schools can affect student

outcomes. However, students learn within a wider social context. The line from

systems’ organization to student outcomes must also be seen within the context of

the individual school. Interpretative research needs to be connected to those

contexts in which they are embedded. The school, its teachers, staff and

community, as well as the researcher and his experiences and role and theoretical

3 frameworks in which we all work must be understood within the settings and

contexts of the schools. Within the research, the multitude of factors that motivate,

drive and affect the behaviour of the participants must be acknowledged, and as

far as possible, understood.

Papers reporting my research appear in journals, on-line publications and

conference proceedings whose target audience is school leaders. The publication

record directly correlates with my professional commitment to, and involvement

in, the reality of curriculum delivery in schools and classes.

School leaders are a very important group in improving both the structure and

outcomes of secondary schools. Much of the literature on school leadership emphasises the crucial role of a visionary and supportive leader in driving school improvement. Recent research, while still recognising the importance of school leaders, places increased emphasis on the importance of individual teachers in improving schools. The major source of variance in student achievement is students themselves (50 per cent); the home (5-10 per cent); peer effects (5-10 per cent); school leadership (5-10 per cent), but 30 per cent is in what teachers know, do and care about (Hattie, 2004).

1.2 School research

Like most teachers, I have always carried out what could be termed action research. Action research theorists (Kemmis & McTaggart, 1988; Grundy, 1995) have emphasised how the essential concept of improvement is achieved because

4 of increased understanding through a process of reflection by the researcher.

However, Elliott (2003, p.178) rejects the view that action research can be divided into the technical, the practical and the critical. To Elliott, it is not possible to carve up action research into these domains. Action research originates in action

(Elliott, 2003, p.178). Action research needs to be based in a practical context.

Many teachers will engage in action research, both qualitative and quantitative as they gather data, conduct surveys and gather evidence to change policies, change the curriculum or better improve the learning of students.

As a classroom teacher, in countless daily incidents, I became a natural inquirer.

Questions such as, ‘why did this not work? what do you (the students) think?’ were frequently asked. As a principal, I have been interested in continuing to define, and elaborate on aspects of the school organization to help explain a phenomenon, solve a problem, or question the system’s operation with a view to improving the system or process. The nature of the research is one of planning, acting, reflecting and evaluating and then planning again through the systematic collection and analysis of the data.

Figure 1.1: Planning Cycle for a comprehensive secondary school

6 Figure 1.1 shows the planning cycle used extensively in my school. The planning

cycle model was first developed by Spinks in his school at Rosebery, Tasmania

(Caldwell & Spinks, 1992, pp.32-33). It has its basis in a desire to link planning to

achieve desired outcomes. In my school a policy group consisting of executive

staff, some teachers and parents examine system requirements, student and

community needs. They are assisted with an analysis of external data such as the results over time in the School Certificate, Higher School Certificate and the

English Literacy and Language Assessment (ELLA) results. The group determines overall policy and direction for the school. The resultant policy and directions are developed and implemented by a number of teams. These teams consist of staff and parents. For example, one team may be developing a program to improve teaching pedagogy and thus endeavour to improve student outcomes. They will research, develop and then implement a program to do this. At the end of the cycle, an evaluation of the effectiveness of the program will be conducted. The evaluation is then used to plan further programs or modify existing ones. The different shading of the circles indicates where teams may be up to in the action

cycle at any one time. For example, a resource allocation team is well into the

cycle of planning and implementation while a curriculum delivery team planning

a program for developing learning technology skills, is only at the start of the

planning cycle.

1.3 Structure of the portfolio

The portfolio documents a professional journey through the organisation of

government secondary schools in NSW. It is divided into two parts. Part 1 is the

7 overarching statement and Part 2 consists of the individual research papers in seven chapters, each containing a research article.

The overarching statement explains how the portfolio as a whole contributes to

my personal and professional development. It provides a rationale for the

portfolio; the genesis of the research and professional contributions; the

conceptual and theoretical ideas that underpin the research; the methodology used;

the content of the various research papers and the findings of the research. It

concludes with a consideration of the implications for secondary school

organization that emerged from the study and the future directions to be explored.

Each article has an introduction that explains the background, context and forum

for which it was written. The articles are presented as a theme moving from

macro level change in the larger education system to micro level change in a

single school. This school is the comprehensive high school where I was the

principal since its inception in 1998 to 2003.

The first article is titled `Education for All: The Development and Organisation of

Government Secondary Schools in New South Wales’. This article traces the

development of secondary education over the past 150 years in NSW. The first

article places the school into its wider context of system requirements that shape

policies within the schools. As government secondary schools are part of a

system, to understand any school, it is necessary to understand the system and

government policies which impact on much of what they do. To understand and

be able to change a secondary school community requires an understanding of

8 how that school has developed and what forces have shaped its present position.

A failure to consider and understand the historical context of a school is likely to lead to a failure in the long term for any change that may be proposed. A school’s culture is shaped by its history, traditions and rituals. To change a school requires at least, an understanding of how and why its culture was developed.

The second article titled `Reviewing the HSC’ is a study of a system wide change process instigated by government to radically alter the processes leading to the award of a Higher School Certificate. The HSC is the main qualification sought from school leavers by both tertiary education and employers. The article is linked to theoretical concepts in educational planning. As an active participant in the review process, I was able to observe both the process and the real intent of the review. A school cannot ignore the requirements of the HSC and retain credibility. Indeed its very existence would be in doubt. This paper demonstrates a method for ensuring system wide and rapid adoption of a change. The article examines the wider context but also how the school reacts to that. The article builds on the first article by moving from a whole system influence, to how the system influences the schools.

The third article titled `Changing Secondary Structures: Research into Four

Secondary Schools’ is essentially a qualitative study on the manner in which four schools went about changing their structure to deliver a Unitised Vertical

Curriculum (UVC). The actual structure was not reviewed; instead it was the manner of implementation that was the focus. The research is part of moving from macro issues on a system level to a micro level as it applies in a school and to

9 individuals in the school. How a number of schools experienced a process to

translate a system wide concept – a unitised vertical curriculum - into a school

situation has been researched. The research revealed important aspects of

leadership, student engagement and attainment of student outcomes, conflict

management and decision making that have application to any whole school

process seeking to move from a traditional structure to deliver curriculum.

The fourth article titled: `The Right Choice: the Decision Making Process of High

School Selection’ is a quantitative study on the reasons, methods and timing of the selection of a high school by 450 Year 6 students in government primary schools in the Penrith District in western Sydney. The research examines how a government and system wide policy, namely the selection of a high school is translated into practice in a specific district. The research identifies the reasons for choice and gives direction to what secondary schools must do to ensure that they are able to maintain both the quantity and quality of their enrolments.

The next two articles originate from the same research into the work of secondary heads of department (HoDs). These articles move from a whole school focus into researching a part of the school. HoDs are the important middle managers in schools and their selection, role and development is a crucial issue for both the education system and individual schools. Being the people most concerned with the translation of organisational plans into curriculum structures, teaching methods and student assessments, these HoDs are the vital link in ensuring change in secondary schools. The study was co-authored by four others and myself and is titled: `Perceptions and Reality of the Work of the Secondary Head of

10 Department’. The study reports research of 26 heads of department in four

secondary schools and reports on aspects such as the role of the HoD; their

preparation for the role; their selection; their professional development needs;

their future aspirations and their likes/dislikes and use of time in the position. The

paper, besides publication in an international journal, has been delivered in a

number of national conferences and has been used by the Department of

Education and Training in its development of a strategy for head teacher

development. The next article titled: `The Leadership Capabilities and Decision

Making of the Secondary Head of Department’ builds on the original research and examines how HoDs acquired their leadership styles, the type of development they have had, and need, and their involvement in school decision making.

The final article: `Problems and Solutions Encountered in Cultivating a Quality

First Culture’ researches the manner in which a new high school in the western suburbs of Sydney went about developing its vital first learning culture in the

school, its successes and its failures. This article, though not organised

chronologically takes the research journey from the total system of government

schools to a single school.

1.4 Summary

The introduction sets out a context in which NSW government secondary schools

operate. It presents a journey from a macro perspective looking at schools as

forming a system, to schools reacting to the system, to one school’s reaction, to

the working parts of a school to finally the micro perspective of an individual

coming to school and how the individual’s leadership skills impact on the school’s

11 direction. The introduction highlights the potential influence that research projects can have when they emanate from practitioners’ views and questions. The overarching statement, which follows, explains how the research in this portfolio evolved and the theory that underpins it.

If secondary education for the youth of today is to be regarded as vital to ensure the values, ethos, skills and attributes of society are conveyed and enhanced, a study of aspects of the macro organization of a system to a study of the micro impact of individuals in the schools must be of value.

1.5 References

Beare, H. (2001). Creating the future school. London: Routledge.

Caldwell, B & Spinks, J. (1992). Leading the self managing school. London:

Falmer Press.

Elliott, J. (2003). Interview with John Elliott. Educational Action Research, 11(2),

169-180.

Grundy, S. (1995). Action research as professional development. Occasional

Paper No 1. School of Education, Murdoch University: Innovative Links

Project.

Hattie, J. (2004). Teachers make a difference. ACER Research Conference,

October. In S. Holden, Teachers Matter, Professional Educator, 3(1), 20-22.

12 Kemmis, S. & McTaggart, R. (1988). The action research planner. Victoria,

Australia: Deakin University Press.

N.S.W. Department of Education and Training. (2004). 2004 Directory. Sydney,

Australia: DET.

Vinson, T. (2002). Inquiry into the provision of public education in NSW.

Australia: Pluto Press.

13 CHAPTER TWO

OVERARCHING STATEMENT: EVOLUTION

AND CHANGE IN SECONDARY SCHOOL

ORGANISATION

. . . good ideas with no ideas on how to put them

into practice are wasted ideas (Fullan, 1982, p. 392).

2.1 Historical development of research topic

I have spent my entire career working in various roles within the current

Department of Education and Training or its previous namesakes – Department of

Education and Department of School Education. Initially a primary school teacher, I was interested and involved in experimenting with various methods of grouping and teaching primary children. The non-graded class, the integrated day and the open-plan classroom and various combinations of these structures were all trialled back in the 1960s and 1970s. I believed that the students I taught benefited from working in more child-centred structures, enjoyed their class experiences and performed better on the then various assessment scales of standardised testing such as norm referenced tests.

14 I moved into the secondary field when I became principal of a central school in

1976. Again, I was interested in learning more about the way curriculum could be

delivered to secondary students. I experimented with various methods of using time to improve student achievement. In my first central school with only 60 secondary students in Years 7 to 10, and unencumbered by industrial considerations, I was able to implement two schemes. One was to structure lessons in 20-minute blocks at times, to provide a musical or art experience and to teach a specific skill in Mathematics. The other was to have a period once a week where students could go to whatever teacher they wished to relearn a process, be taught work they had missed through absence or pursue a topic that interested them. These schemes attracted attention in the then Riverina Region with visits

from other teachers and press articles. A panel of Inspectors commented: “The

attempts to reorder the school day have been recognised by staff and students as

improving student attendance and achievement” (Inspection Report, 1977).

The principalship of three other central schools followed over the next decade.

Each school was larger and increasingly complex. The last central school was

then the largest in NSW with 400 primary and 400 secondary students. At this

school, I continued to work with staff to develop and implement semester length

elective courses for Year 9 and 10 students. These courses allowed students to

have a greater choice in structuring their own study program. In 1986, believing

that the challenges in education lay in the secondary field, I changed permanently

to the secondary teaching service.

15 In 1990 I became the principal of a large, western Sydney high school.

Enrolments were declining from 1150 students in 1986 to 668 in 1995. The

curriculum pattern combined both elective and compulsory courses in all years

from Year 7 to Year 10. For example, it was not unusual to find a student in Year

10 with a compulsory language or music course to complete along with some elective courses to gain a School Certificate. Teachers and students disliked these courses. A major curriculum review was initiated. Using visiting facilitators, visits to other schools, parental and student surveys, frequent committee meetings and writing various position papers, the staff took a decision in 1992 to work towards the introduction of a Unitised Vertical Curriculum (UVC). The benefits of such a scheme were seen as:

1. Providing greater student choice in their studies.

2. Allowing students to pursue an interest in depth as well as

providing remedial courses.

3. Allowing what are termed extra curricula activities in music,

dance and drama to be incorporated into mainstream curriculum.

4. Outlining to students what outcomes they would have to achieve,

what content would be studied and how they would be assessed.

5. Increasing student interest and achievement in their studies by

enabling them to choose more of what interested them, having

explicit time periods to complete work and reporting regularly to

their parents.

The scheme commenced in 1993 with the elective courses in Year 9 and Year 10 being arranged in two semesters a year. By 1994 the scheme had developed into

10-week courses for Years 8 to 10.

At that stage, I began to collect data on student outcomes. By 1997, student achievement in course outcomes had increased quite dramatically. Student performance, particularly in English and Science had improved steadily in the

School Certificate examination and attendance rates in the school had risen. The most dramatic of these occurred in Term 4 with attendance rates in 1993 at 78 per cent, 87 per cent in 1995 and 91 per cent in 1997. In 1997 the state wide average attendance for secondary schools was 89 per cent (Minister for Education, 1997, p.178). An unexpected benefit of the UVC was found to be the cutting of the suspension rate of Year 9 and 10 students from 6 per cent to nil from 1993 to

1997. There were concerns with the capacity of students to make informed choices, the workload of the staff in timetabling and reporting four times a year and the feeling of some staff that the 10 week course period was insufficient for them to really know and understand students.

I believed that by changing the organization of a secondary school, a better use of time and on-task behaviour of students with the resultant improvement in their learning outcomes could be achieved.

Later my appointment in 1997 as the foundation principal of a new high school in the western suburbs of Sydney provided me with further opportunities to design, plan and implement organisational structures which would increase student achievement.

17 I was attracted to the degree of Doctor of Education because it was, originally, intended for leaders in education. Rather than intensive research on one topic, the degree allowed me to follow my interests in secondary school organization, relating the practice to a research base and using such knowledge to improve my school. I was and remain committed to applying good research into practical application in schools. For example, the research into four secondary schools that was based on the unitised vertical curriculum (UVC), translated the theory of the

UVC into practical application in schools. The four schools took different paths to achieve curriculum change.

Table 2.1 documents the evolution of the research papers, conference presentations and further research.

Table 2.1: Research papers of the portfolio

PORTFOLIO NAME OF CONFERENCE DETAILS OF CHAPTER RESEARCH PUBLISHER PRESENTATION SUBMISSION PAPER Education for All: UWS Conference Written by: August, 1995 The Development at Medlow Bath – Rewritten November 2003 and Organisation 19th September, of Government 1995 3 Secondary Schools in New South Wales

Reforming the UWS Conference Written by: August, 1997 HSC at Nepean - 26th October, 1997 “Reforming the HSC” Secondary 4 Principals Conference, Met North at Hornsby – 3rd May, 1997. Community Meeting at Bega - 21st May,

18 1996. Conference for South Australian Principals Willunga HS – 21st November, 1997. Changing UWS Conference – Written by: August, 1996. Secondary 26th October, 1996. Structures: Research conducted: Research Into North Coast Branch February to July, 1996. 5 Four Secondary Australian College Schools of Education – Follow up research July, Dinner Speaker 1997, 2000 & 2003 Rewritten: July, 2003.

Perception and Refereed UWS Conference – Research undertaken – Reality of the Journal – September – December, Work of the International Joint Presentation 1999. Secondary Head Studies in of paper of Written: March, 2000. of Department. Educational Australia College of Written for journal: Administration Education National November, 2000. Volume 30, Conference at Accepted for Publication: No. 2, 2002, Leura 4th July, 2001. pp. 17 – 26. 2000. Appeared as an article, “The “The World of Work “The Middle Manager, in Secondary of the Secondary Inform. DET, August, Head of Head of 2000, pp. 22-24. Department: Department. Duties, Feature Article, “Roll Call Delights, for Head Teachers” in Dangers, Education Section The Directions and Australian 5-6 August, Development”. 2000, p. 13. Published by 7 University Western Sydney, Nepean, April, 2000.

“The Secondary Head of Department Key Link in the quality teaching and learning chain” – Published by Australian College of Education, Quality Teaching Series, 2000.

19 The Leadership “The Australian Council Written by: April, 2001. Capabilities and Leadership for Educational Decision Capabilities Administration, Submitted for Publication: Making of the and Decision Penrith – 24th August, 2002. Secondary Making of the November, 2001. Head of Secondary Accepted: October, Department. Head of NSW Secondary 2002. Department” – Principals Annual 8 Published in Conference – paper Published: March Refereed presented on 13th 2004. Journal June, 2001. “Leading and Managing”, Vol.9, No 1, 2003, pp. 35- 51.

The Right Choice “The Right UWS Conference at Research: Choice: the Katoomba – 13th December,2000 – March, Decision September, 2001. 2001. Making Process of Penrith District Written: July, 2001. High School Principals Selection”. Conference paper Submitted for publication - Published by on 15th November, May, 2003. Australian 2001. College of Accepted: November, Educators - 2003 Unicorn Online Refereed Article No 26. ISSN 1447 5111, 6 November 2003 Also published in hard copy by Australian College of Educators – “The Right Choice: The Decision Making Process of High School Selection”, December, 2003., pp.1-16. Problems and Published as Lead paper at Original research, 1998. Solutions The 1998 – 3rd Quality in Education Encountered in Annual Quality National Written: August, 1998. Shaping a New in Education Conference – 2nd High School Conference September, 1998. Additional research: 9 Culture and Papers, 1998. August, 2003. Identity Published by UWS Conference – University of 11th October, 2003. Rewritten: September, Western 2003. Sydney,

20 “Problems and Submitted for publication Solutions as a refereed conference Encountered in paper, October, 2003. Shaping a New High Accepted for publication: School Culture January, 2004. and Identity”, Refereed Published: August 2004. proceedings of UWS Conference, October, 2003.

2.2 Rationale

“What has been done in our organizations in the

past can come to appear so inevitable and so right

that we forget that past behaviour is simply a set

of workable solutions to past problems, and that, if

the problems change, we must actively seek new

solutions to survive and reach our goals (Dunphy,

& Stace, 1994, p. 2).

Current models of secondary school organization owe much to the mechanistic

models that came from the industrial revolution. Nineteenth century secondary

schools quickly adopted this factory model with their organization and management structures designed primarily to create and maintain order. Whilst there has been some change in secondary school organization since the 1980s, it is not uncommon to see schools with rigid curriculum, student movement every 40 minutes and lessons organised and presented with little regard to student interests, learning theories and relevant pedagogy. This notion of how secondary schools are organised, structured and led is now under question. “School communities

21 need to reconceptualize the means by which they go about the task of educating children” (Wallace, 1995, p.14).

Government secondary schools across NSW exhibit much excellence but also mediocrity. Despite the earnest efforts of teachers and principals over many years to improve secondary schools and raise student achievement and satisfaction, progress has been at best patchy. Enrolment in NSW government secondary schools has fallen from over 80 per cent in the early 1980s to 66 per cent in 1999

(Ministerial Council on Education, Training and Youth Affairs, 1999, p.159).

With the continued loss of students to the private system for secondary education, government secondary schools face the real prospect of becoming the system of last choice. A system for students of little ability, poor financial status, unmotivated parents and little ambition is not a system that most teachers would like to see. In the 21st Century, with growing community concern, if government secondary schools do not soon improve, one of two outcomes are almost inevitable:

♦ our democratic system and our economic strength, both of which depend

on an educated population will steadily erode, or,

♦ alternative forms of education both in organization and delivery will

emerge to replace government secondary schools as we know them.

Whilst not the only aspect of secondary reform, secondary school organization needs to change so that new pedagogy, new technology and new curriculum can be implemented to improve and ensure students receive an education that will not

22 only prepare them for employment but for lifelong learning. Information

technology must be used, as well, to improve curriculum delivery. If government schools are achieving this, there will be no need to be concerned about enrolments. It is this belief that provides the rationale for my research into secondary school organisation.

Whilst secondary schools must change their organisational structure, the key

players are teachers, principals and students. Schools are first and foremost places of learning. A premise of this portfolio is that the most important learners in a

school are the teachers including the teachers’ leaders. Research has indicated

that students engage in the active learning process better when taught by teachers who at the very least model themselves as learners – mistakes and all

(Sergiovanni, 1994; Hargreaves, 1994). Therefore the key players in achieving change in secondary school organization are the teachers and principals of the schools.

2.3 Responding to literature

A large volume of research is available under the broad heading of secondary education. For this portfolio the relevant research is organised under the headings of school organization, learning community, recentralization of control, changing structures and principal leadership. Whilst these themes are found in the macro issues of system development, the literature regularly translates these into the micro issues found in individual schools.

23 2.3.1 School organization

Change efforts in secondary school organization throughout the 1990s and into the

new century have advocated the increase in flexibility and accountability of

schools and education systems in delivering quality education to students. Senge,

(1990); Caldwell and Spinks, (1992); Drucker, (1992); Jones, (1994); Mintzberg,

(1994) and Fullan, (2001) have all argued that we are now in the post-industrial

society and that new ways of living and working are emerging. These new ways

are demanding new concepts of work and new concepts of organizations. While

some educators may seek to retain existing structures, it is no longer appropriate to just tinker with existing organisational structures in secondary schools. What is

required is “a radical new form of organization which will have the capacity to take us into the twenty first century” (Limerick & Cunnington, 1993, p. 20).

There are a number of issues that secondary schools today must be aware of and respond to, to ensure that their organization and the teaching and learning that flows from this is relevant. Firstly, change is all around us. There is a need for organizations, and in particular secondary schools, to engage in continuous adaptation, enhancement and innovation. Yet, history tells us that it is the change process itself which is often the most difficult part of change. Secondly, the pressures for change are increasing, not decreasing (Scott, 1999, p. 11). Thirdly, failed change is costly. When teachers undertake a change process which then fails, they then carry the scars of that process with them.

Some research suggests that the concept of school organization is the wrong metaphor in thinking about schools. Sergiovanni and Starratt (1993) argue that

24 viewing schools as organizations serves little purpose because most assumptions

about schools being rational do not appear to be correct.

No matter how hard organizations try to impose

rational systems on schools, the best they can

do is create symbolic rather than real ones.

Schools wind up looking rational . . . but are not

rational in operation (p. 45).

The notion of secondary schools not being rational organizations in practice is

supported by the research paper on `Changing Secondary Structures: Research into Four Secondary Schools’ where despite careful initial planning, the processes produced unexpected consequences such as staff perceptions of involvement and student reluctance to embrace a more diverse curriculum.

2.3.2 Learning community

The concept of a new metaphor for seeing schools as a learning community is thus

valuable. From this idea new processes and structures can be developed. Senge

(1990) takes up the idea of a learning community as being:

… where people continually expand their capacity

to create results they truly desire, where new ways

and patterns of thinking are nurtured, where

collective aspirations are set free, where people

are continually learning how to learn (p.1).

25 From this concept, the structure of the portfolio was developed. Figure 2.1 represents this in diagram form. In changing a secondary school structure, two aspects, the change process and leadership become crucial variables in leading to a learning community and hence better outcomes for students.

SECONDARY SCHOOL ORGANISATION

History and Traditions

Curriculum Grouping Students Time How/What How/When

CHANGE LEADERSHIP

LEARNING COMMUNITY

NEW PARADIGM

FOR

21ST CENTURY NSW SECONDARY SCHOOL

VARIABLES

Trust Involvement

Technology for Curriculum Development

Figure 2.1 Changing secondary structures

27 In addition to pedagogical change, improvements in the preparation of teachers and appropriate curriculum, assessment, certification and vocational learning require new concepts of how schools are organised and operated. However, this should be in a co-operative environment rather than one in which schools are told by outsiders how they should be organised. It is argued that new structures should be built on success, highlighting these rather than abandoning them. Hence, it was important that the first research project undertaken was in finding out how the current structures of secondary schools came about. Beare and Slaughter (1993) cautioned us.

If education and schooling are to adapt

appropriately to the 21st century, they will have to

develop along lines which break with the earlier

paradigms but in doing so an important premise

must be stated at the outset. A new paradigm

widens or redraws frameworks but it rarely

demolishes what existed before; it simply

incorporates those elements into a more

embracing perpetual frame. In other words

schooling for the 21st century will build on what

we already know to be valid about learning,

expanding the canvas rather than obliterating the

part of the picture already there (p.16).

28 2.3.3 Recentralization of control

In the past decade, the NSW Department of Education and Training (DET) has

attempted to recentralize power inhibiting schools’ capacity to innovate.

Curriculum content has been further prescribed with the addition of Australian

History and Australian Geography made mandatory subjects. The effect has been

to further erode schools’ flexibility to seek alternative curriculum structures to

better meet student needs. Goals and priorities have been increasingly set outside

the schools by both the DET and the politicians. For example, the setting and

attainment of school enrolment targets is a current political priority. Whether it is

appropriate, relevant or attainable when schools do not control the inputs into the school is questionable. Managerial relationships presume that schools are rational organizations within a decentralized system. “Goals and priorities are set centrally for local interpretation and implementation. Decision making is viewed as a logical, problem-solving process” (Logan, Sachs & Dempster, 1994, p.10).

Managerialism is thus a poor solution for a secondary school. Fullan (1993) has argued that it diverts principals’ and teachers’ energies to procedural accountability more than to personal and emotional responsiveness, and has shown no demonstrable benefits for student outcomes. Others have argued that hierarchical management is a growing feature of secondary schools (Ginsburg,

1990, p.37) as a result of the trend to greater centralization of control of the

curriculum and growing demands for teacher accountability. It is not the time for

this as teachers are becoming more collegial. Thus the moves towards a

centralized curriculum (the new HSC and School Certificate requirements); new

forms of assessment (ELLA and SNAP); and demands for greater teacher

29 appraisal, all indicate an increase in hierarchical structures of management which

run counter to more collegial forms of secondary school organization.

There is evidence about the processes and outcomes of reforms concerning

secondary school organization (Caldwell & Hayward,1998; Beare, 2001; Dalton,

2001). They have failed to explain what impact, if any, there was to the learning

outcomes of students. The logic of reform suggests that they ought to have an effect in this domain. In the United States, an evaluation of 74 studies reporting changing school structures found only seven included a measure of student outcomes (Summers & Johnson, 1996, p.77). In fact, few initiatives identified student achievement as a major objective. The focus is on organisational processes, with little attention to how structural and process changes may affect student performance (Summers & Johnson, 1996, pp. 92-93). In Britain, a report of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) concluded that

“. . . to the degree that a reorganisation effort is

conducted with a clarity of purpose to improve

classroom teaching and learning, positive

outcomes may accrue. In other words, to improve

student learning, the content and instruction

delivered to students must change as well as the

organisational structure of the school. They

complement each other” (Smith, Scoll & Link,

1996, p. 21)

30 2.3.4 Changing structures

In carrying out research into changing school structures, the roles and duties of

HoDs and in developing an initial school learning culture, I was conscious of the

need to investigate the impact such organisational changes had on improving

student outcomes.

In changing secondary school organization to affect student achievement, it is

important to understand the change process. The change process is complex

because many factors interact simultaneously. Motivation, values, evaluation and

micro politics play important roles in the overall change process (Scott, 1999,

p.7). Key findings from research (Fullan, 1991 & 1993; Scott, 1999) on the nature of the change process in education reveal numerous factors in the dynamics of change.

The change process is:

♦ uncertain

♦ non linear

♦ cyclical

♦ composed of a mix of factors beyond and within one’s control

♦ reciprocal

♦ demanding. It requires educators who can understand that each of the

factors is itself constantly shifting.

The change process is shown in Figure 2.2. The process is cyclical and varies over time. The external influences and or internal factors play a role in triggering

31 a change effort. Leadership of the change is vital so that changes in the learning programs can occur.

External Context

Leadership in Schools

Internal School Learning Factors Programs

Figure 2.2: The change process in schools

However, there is research that indicates that the larger the scale of a change

program, the more likely it is to succeed (Champy, 1997, p. 13). The research

runs counter to the view that change should be gradual, allowing all in the school

to move to adopt the change. A change program aimed at incremental

improvements creates too many fronts on which to fight battles. My research

`Changing Secondary Structure: Research into Four Secondary Schools’ certainly

found difficulties in having all staff adopt the changes even though all schools

were careful to involve all staff. In the research paper ‘`Reforming the HSC’

32 there is evidence of a whole system change which was implemented quickly with

limited consultation with those who had to implement the change, yet implemented with a great deal of conformity.

2.3.5 Principal leadership

The leadership of the principal is an important aspect of moving towards a

learning community that in turn will restructure schools for improved student

outcomes. The literature on effective schools notes the leadership of the school principal to be crucial to the success of the school (Mackenzie, 1983, p. 34). Lists of activities for effective leadership of the principal have mostly consisted of the setting of an atmosphere of order, discipline and purpose (Mackenzie, 1983, p.

41); creating a climate of high expectations of staff and students (Persell, 1982. p.

22); encouraging collaborative and collegial relationships and building commitment among staff and students to the school’s goals (Duignan & Johnson,

1984, p. 3); facilitating spending maximum time on teaching and learning (Purkey

& Smith, 1997, p. 434) and encouraging staff development and evaluation

(Mackenzie, 1983, p. 11). A most forceful statement of the principal’s role in the

effective school is provided by Shoemaker and Fraser (1984) who identified four

key themes relating to the role of the principal. These are:

1. assertive, achievement-orientated leadership;

2. orderly, purposeful and peaceful school climate;

3. high expectations for staff and pupils; and

4. well-designed instructional objectives and evaluation system

(p.498).

A good principal was thus seen as running a ‘tight ship’, one who was ‘an

administrator’ and an ‘instructional leader’. More recently the more fundamental

notion of the principal has been as a change agent (Fullan, 1997, p. 97). However,

the conception of the principal’s role has remained on the general level with little

practical meaning about how to carry out the role at the operational level.

At its heart, the traditional view of leadership is

based on assumptions of people’s powerlessness,

their lack of personal vision and inability to master

forces of change, deficits which can be remedied

only by a few great leaders . . . The new view of

leadership in learning organizations centres on

subtler and more important tasks. In a learning

organization leaders are designers, stewards and

teachers (Senge, 1990, p. 237).

Thus in schools which have developed as learning organizations, people at all

levels embrace and work effectively with change. Research from case studies of

principals has suggested that in schools, principals displayed management and

leadership strategies that are not easily explained through a traditional paradigm

(Crowther, Hann & Andrews, 2002, p.11). A new paradigm is suggested for the

post-industrial principal. Visioning, identity generation, alignment of

organisational elements, distribution of power and leadership and external alliances and networking are functions for the principal under such a paradigm. A

34 major role is thus on pedagogic leadership, where the principal needs to have

credibility with both staff and students. A pedagogic leader, a synonym for

teaching, thus is one who is informed of school and classroom management

practices. When applied in a school, a pedagogic leader encourages others to

pursue improved learning outcomes for students through appropriate pedagogies.

The challenges of secondary school organization have been cited as reasons for advocating transformational leadership as a contrast to transactional leadership

(Leithwood, Tomlinson, & Genge, 1996). Transformational leadership is defined as leaders raising followers’ consciousness levels about the importance of designated outcomes and ways of achieving them. They motivate others to transcend their own interests for the sake of the mission and vision of the school.

Transactional leadership refers to leadership based essentially on some external reward whether that is effort, loyalty or some more tangible reward (Bass &

Avolio, 1997). However, research (Eden, 1998) suggests that although in theory these two leadership styles have distinct contradictory features, in reality transformational and transactional leadership practices are interwoven. Research suggests that transformational leadership is relatively effective when it manages to incorporate transactional leadership practices in a way that is sensitive to teachers and accepted by them.

Recent research on a sample of Eastern Suburbs secondary schools in Sydney found that the more visionary or inspirational the leadership behaviour of a principal, the less students will be motivated to learn and the less teachers will try to ensure that their teaching strategies encourage students to understand, work

35 hard and enjoy learning (Barnett, McCormick & Conners, 1999, p. 9). It is further

suggested that a visionary/inspirational principal might distract teachers from teaching and learning goals in their classrooms. Owing to additional responsibilities a teacher may accept, they may then take them away from their teaching and learning in the classroom. These findings are consistent with findings of Robertson (1993) who, in a Western Australian study in secondary schools found that teachers were increasingly drawn away from their teaching role to participate in the corporate school level by numerous committees and devolved management responsibilities. In this study a significant number of teachers talked about the pedagogical relationship as central to what it means to be a teacher.

We may now be moving away from a concentration on self –management and involvement in school based decision making in secondary schools and back to a concentration on pedagogy. In my research in schools, particularly with the four research papers on ‘Changing Secondary Structures: Research on Four Secondary

Schools’; ‘Perceptions and Reality of the Work of the Secondary Head of

Department’; ‘The Leadership Capabilities and Decision Making of the Secondary

Head of Department’; and ‘Problems and Solution Encountered in Cultivating a

Quality First Culture’, I found that neither the passive facilitator as principal nor the forceful charismatic leader was effective in the context of their schools. The first leader failed to stand for anything and the latter dominated the agenda. The transformational leadership behaviour of a principal of vision/inspiration may just have a negative association with intrinsic motivation for learning. The successful principal of the 21st century may finally be known as a leader of teaching and

36 learning. A leader of teaching and learning has significant implications for

changing secondary school structures.

2.4 Methodology

The seven research papers in this portfolio are essentially qualitative studies. The

qualitative researcher attempts to gather evidence that will reveal qualities of life,

reflecting the multiple realities of specific educational settings from participants’

perspectives (Burns, 1995. p.238). Hence as a qualitative researcher I did not

search for data that would prove or disprove a hypothesis. Rather, I developed

theories and propositions from the data I was collecting as the research developed.

The main mode in these qualitative studies involved ethnography survey and

action research with observation and interviewing as the major techniques.

The choice of qualitative studies was made because of the nature of what I was

trying to research. Concepts of statistical sampling, reliability and validity were

not relevant to researching how secondary school organization and the people in the school could change. The research problems of how the organisational structure of secondary education came about; how the system can be changed; how the leaders in secondary schools can be developed so that student achievement can improve, dictated the method of research.

As the study of a school must be contextualised, I realised that as a researcher, I too work in a context. Good interpretative research must be connected to those contexts in which they are embedded. The school, its teachers, staff and

37 community, the researcher and his experiences and role and the theoretical

frameworks in which we all work must be understood within the setting and

contexts in which we operate. Within the research, the multiple, interconnected

realities and inter-dependence of the various participants must be acknowledged.

The research documented within this portfolio provides rich descriptions of the

people within the organizations. These descriptions go beyond the superficial

reporting to the complex elements of intention, situation, context and

circumstances as relevant to the study. Such an approach has been given the name

of the phenomenological approach (Maykut & Moorehouse, 1994, p.14). The

phenomenological approach allows the researcher to investigate the issue or

problem in its fullness and complexity. The observational case study on

‘Changing Secondary Structures: Research into Four Secondary Schools’ focused

on four schools. Using the parts of the school – staff, students and leadership team

to observe, interview and survey, a large amount of data was obtained which could be then analysed and a critical story told. In line with the phenomenological approach collaborative processes were used within the research as evident in the data collection, analysis, formulation of theory and the reporting stages.

In the first study undertaken, ‘`Education for All: The Development and

Organisation of Government Secondary Schools in New South Wales’ the intent was to find how the government secondary school in NSW came to acquire and develop the systems’ culture, curriculum and methods of organization. If it is not possible to identify a number of trends, then it will not be possible to introduce and sustain changes in school organization. Such trends can act as clear pointers

38 for further research. The methodology employed was essentially a study of what has been written about the history of secondary education and an examination of

some recent primary sources such as school results, policy documents and

government press releases. From these, a number of trends were identified. As a

principal of one of these secondary schools, I was able to bring a personal

understanding and perspective on many of the changes I have both experienced

and had personal knowledge of in my career.

In the second paper written, ‘`Changing Secondary Structures: Research into Four

Secondary Schools’, data were collected from a number of sources. Interviews

with participants at all levels of the organisation were held. As variables involved

when changing a secondary school are complex and inter-woven and hence

difficult to measure, interviews that encouraged the participants to simply talk and

tell their story rather than a structured interview were most appropriate. A number

of surveys, designed as open-ended responses with students were also held. The

data collected were analysed by themes from the informants’ descriptions. When

meanings required clarification, I returned to the school for a further interview.

This approach allowed an accurate story of how the change took place and for

overall issues to be determined.

The third research article written is titled ‘Reforming the HSC’. This paper is

written from the point of view of an active participant in the reform process. The

paper was written from an analysis of a range of documents – position papers,

meeting minutes, report analysis, personal notes written during the process lasting

some two years and an analysis of submissions received from the community.

39 These submissions were analysed using a QSR NUD.IST (Non-numerical

unstructured data indexing searching and theorising) computer package. This program allowed a thorough exploration and recording of all data. Each ‘text unit’ or single line of text in the submissions was coded and related to one or more of the descriptors – base data, curriculum, assessment and reporting, selection for post-secondary activities, emergent issues and the review process. I did not undertake all of this process, but actively used the package and had access to the results. Whilst an extremely valuable tool to use in research, it must be questioned as to whether it was able to provide the structure to any argument and provide the full and intended message. Various documents issued by the

Department of Education and Training and the Board of Studies were analysed to provide an analysis of how the reform is being implemented.

The two research papers, ‘Perceptions and Reality of the Work of the Secondary

Head of Department’ and ‘The Leadership Capabilities and Decision Making of the Secondary Head of Department’ used a structured, open-ended interview design with volunteer head teachers at the four secondary schools. The open- ended interview was because of the intended exploratory nature of the study. An interview schedule was developed that comprised both closed demographic items and 12 open-ended questions closely reflecting the original study questions. A

sample of these were: How do Heads of Department (HoDs) aspire to the

position? How well are HoDs prepared for the role? What are the elements of

HoDs workloads? How do HoDs acquire/develop their individual

management/leadership style? What are the future aspirations of HoDs?

40 Telephone interviews rather than face to face interviews were conducted because

of convenience, given the geographic spread of leaders and schools and because

of the demonstrated advantages of this approach in facilitating thought and

reflection (see Dinham, 1994). The data were then analysed by content analysis

and utilised elements of grounded theory. Concepts to be identified, categories

and themes derived from these and then spreadsheets were utilised to record the

frequency of concepts within categories and for the individual HoDs.

The qualitative research methods undertaken enabled data to be reported in the

language of the participants and the unstructured interviews were both inductive

and natural. It was felt that participants’ feelings were as significant as a mere

statement of fact. As one of the researchers, I found that I had a personal involvement and had empathy with the participants.

In framing the interview questions, there was an attempt to contrast the present experience and workload of the HoDs with how they would prefer to spend their time. Questions were arranged chronologically and took the participants through their career from initial attraction of the role to the present, finishing with questions about current professional development needs and the future. It was important in the process that the interviewer possessed the ‘theoretical sensitivity’

(Strauss & Corbin, 1990, pp.41-47) needed to converse with the interviewee and to fully understand the context that those who were being interviewed operate within, in this case, contemporary secondary education (Dinham, Brennan,

Collier, Deece & Mulford, 2000, p.9).

41 This was an exploratory study, and no claims are made concerning the

representative nature or otherwise of those taking part. The intention was to provide a foundation for further research and understanding of the work of the

HoD and, more generally, ‘middle management’ in education. There are though, insights and findings within the study that can be taken up by those interested in

the area.

The next research undertaken in chronological order used a quantitative approach.

The research titled ‘The Right Choice: The Decision Making Process of High

School Selection’ sampled 450 students in Year 6 at government primary schools

in the Penrith District before they moved to high school. While the research did

not begin with a hypothesis and theory, the size of the sample meant that a written

response to a structured questionnaire was the appropriate method to use. A

questionnaire was developed from the issues identified in the literature as to how,

when and why students and parents chose the high school they will attend. The

questionnaire was trialled at one primary school and following analysis, I returned

to the school to clarify what students were thinking when they answered each

question. As a result, the questionnaire was altered to try to ensure all participants

had a common understanding of the terms “discipline” and “academic standards”.

After completion of the questionnaire, student responses were entered onto a

spreadsheet to determine the response to each question. Factor analysis was

carried out to examine differences in the method of selection of high school, the

factors involved and the way information was gained to help make a decision.

These were cross referenced to gender and parental responses. The quantitative

42 methods used in this research were appropriate, and lent themselves to statistical analysis and statistical reporting.

The final research paper ‘`Problems and Solutions Encountered in Shaping a New

High School Culture and Identity’ was originally written to tell the story of a

journey of a new high school in developing its first learning culture. It was very

much a personal journey and was based on extensive reading of school culture and

a detailed visit to four other new secondary schools where interviews and

discussions with students and staff took place. This paper, originally written in

1998, has since been modified to include a more long term and evaluative

direction using written surveys of nearly 200 students and personal interviews

with twelve staff.

In the portfolio essentially qualitative research methods have been used to provide

insights into complex variables, peoples’ feelings and to tell about events from an

informant’s perspective. The dynamic quality of life in the school becomes

evident.

The use of multiple data sources and the inclusion of teachers, students and

parents have helped to ensure the plausibility of the trends and patterns identified

within the data and to assess the validity of the results that emerged from the

analysis. Given the complex, multi-faceted and constantly shifting nature of the area of secondary school organization under study, such processes are considered

essential to ensuring the authenticity of the findings that emerged from the

research.

43 2.5 Findings of the research

The research papers are organised as moving from a large system change to smaller micro change in a particular school. Hence from a study of how the present system of secondary education emerged to a study of whole system change, to individual whole school change to change within individuals in individual schools. Whilst the papers are not organised in chronological order of

writing, the organization from large to small has a certain appeal. Before a

principal can start to change a secondary school, he or she needs to understand not

just the history and traditions of his school but of the whole government system.

The whole is made up of many parts. The research indicates that change in

organization and structure to be more easily achieved in a system as a whole, than

in a single school. Perhaps in a centralized system, the school has little control

over many of the inputs that will combine to determine any change. For example,

an individual government secondary school has little control over the quality of the staff. On a larger system basis, making a change to the way schools must restructure, and linking that to an external constraint in the form of an external examination has ensured that a planned change is not ignored. As an example, in one of the schools undergoing curriculum change for the paper `Changing

Secondary Structures: Research into Four Secondary Schools’, one of the schools wanted to appoint a technology co-ordinator. The principal and staff sought a person, regardless of what they taught, who could develop the school’s use of technology for curriculum delivery. Before the person could be appointed the

44 DET demanded that they supply a code that specified a specific teaching subject, thus eliminating about 90 per cent of possible applicants.

Figure 2.3 represents the structure of the portfolio.

Education for All: The Development and Organisation of Government Secondary Schools in NSW

SYSTEM Reforming the HSC

Changing Secondary Structures: Research into Four Secondary Schools

The Right Choice: The Decision Making Process of High SCHOOL School Selection

Perceptions and Reality of The Work of Secondary Head of Department

The Leadership Capabilities and Decision Making of the Secondary Head of Department

INDIVIDUAL SCHOOL Problems and Solutions Encountered in Shaping a new High School Culture and Identity

Figure 2.3: Structure of the portfolio 46 The research paper, ‘Education For All: The Development and Organisation of

Government Secondary Schools in New South Wales’ traces the development of

the secondary school in NSW from its origins in the 19th century as essentially elitist schools that prepared students for Public Examinations and entry into

University. Few students in the 19th century progressed to secondary education as the emphasis was on universal primary education. The early part of the 20th century saw secondary schools divided into streams for the academically able, for those heading for a trade and those that concentrated on home duties and skills. It was not till after World War II, that government secondary schools in NSW became accessible and desirable for all students.

The Wyndham Scheme in 1962 introduced the idea of a comprehensive secondary school, attended by all and meeting the needs of all. It was not till the

1980s that this notion began to be challenged. The 1990s saw the increasing diversification of secondary schools into specific types, specialised curriculum and a recentralisation of control. No longer did NSW have a comprehensive system of secondary schools but a system that in its diversity was considered comprehensive.

The research suggested a number of recurring themes in government secondary schools. Firstly, change has been gradual and incremental. Even with the introduction of the Wyndham Scheme in 1962, many schools had become comprehensive so that the change was not ahead of teacher and parent opinion.

Secondly, there has been little agreement as to the purpose of secondary education. One dilemma that remains unresolved is the issue of whether the

47 secondary schools prepare students for specific careers or prepare them for life.

Thirdly, the control of secondary schools has dominated much of the debate about secondary education. Initially, schools had little control over their staffing, resourcing and curriculum. By the 1970s some power had shifted to schools with the trend towards self-management. Yet in the 1990s there has been a movement to recentralize secondary schools, to further control the curriculum and have them act as agents of government policy. The secondary schools still operate on the restrictions that external examinations place on them. Finally, government secondary schools have continually sought to improve themselves. There have been many experiments to make better use of time, to restructure themselves to present curricula differently and to make themselves more relevant to the times.

At present, the use of technology for curriculum delivery is being explored both on a system level and in individual schools. The understanding of these influences and themes enhances the changes that are so necessary in secondary education.

2.5.1 Changing the system

The research paper ‘Reforming the HSC’ is included next because it looks at the development and implementation of a whole system wide change. Whilst applicable to all schools, the paper concentrates on the implementation in government secondary schools of the new HSC. The paper is based on my actual involvement in the system wide change. I was a member of the Advisory Group assisting the Reviewer, Professor Barry McGaw of the Australian Council for

Educational Research in reviewing the HSC. I represented on the Advisory Group

48 the NSW Secondary Principals’ Council, a key stakeholder representing

government secondary principals in NSW.

The Higher School Certificate in NSW is the final school credential for students.

The HSC provides access into tertiary education, TAFE and many occupations require the HSC.

Most system wide policy development adopt one of two approaches. Firstly, one is a rational model of issue search, issue definition, issue forecasting, setting

objectives and priorities, analysing options, evaluation and review. The other is an

incremental ‘muddling through’ approach (Hogwood & Gunn, 1986, p.5). The

process of the HSC review was different as it firstly was a political decision to

review the HSC. The reviewer, a political appointment, would actually write his

reports, but then the final policy would be determined in the Minister for

Education and Training’s office. The actual implementation of the policy would

be left to the schools.

The Wyndham Scheme was introduced in 1962. Secondary education would be

of six years duration with a School Certificate after 4 years and a Higher School

Certificate after a further 2 years. The first students were awarded the HSC in

1967. Over the next 30 years the HSC changed quite dramatically, though the

changes were gradual and incremental. By the 1990s instead of catering for less

than 20 per cent of an age cohort, more than 70 per cent of the age cohort

progressed to the HSC. A larger number of subjects had been introduced, at

various levels. Assessment procedures had changed to incorporate school based

49 assessment, practical projects, a comparison with one another and the introduction

of a Tertiary Entrance Rank, a controversial and comparative ranking. The

incoming Labor Government in 1995 was elected on a promise to change the

HSC.

The Reviewer was supported by a 25 member Advisory Group that represented various educational interests. The first report of the reviewer, Their Future:

Options for Reform of the Higher School Certificate (McGaw, 1996) was released

in May, 1996 after nine months deliberation. Various options in the broad areas

of curriculum, assessment and reporting and post-secondary selection were given.

Public meetings across NSW followed and submissions on the document sought.

Following an analysis of the submissions, the reviewer delivered his final report.

Shaping Their Future: Recommendations for Reform of the Higher School

Certificate was released in March, 1997 (McGaw, 1997). The government then

released its White Paper, Securing Their Future in August 1997. The first HSC

was awarded under the new policy at the end of 2001.

Concerns with the process are presented. The terms of reference of the HSC were

vague, difficult to achieve and not clearly understood. The role of the Advisory

Group is criticised. It was too large, its role was uncertain, the process did not

give enough time for more considered recommendations and the composition of

the group did not allow for full and frank debate. The confidentiality of the

process is criticised. In the area of the School Certificate, the HSC review

exceeded its charter with the result that the junior secondary years were not

considered in depth. The speed with which teachers in government secondary

50 schools were able to successfully implement the new HSC, become familiar and proficient with new curriculum, undertake a considerable change in mindset away from a normative assessment towards a standards based assessment was impressive.

Achieving such rapid change and implementation of policy is not normally seen in schools. However the attachment of a public, external examination for the award of the HSC has led to significant change in secondary schools. Perhaps this policy method of ‘crash through or crash’ has implications for when change in individual schools is implemented.

2.5.2 Changing the structure of secondary schools

`Changing Secondary Structures: Research into Four Secondary Schools’ is a research paper that examines change in the way four secondary schools restructured for curriculum delivery. It moves from a whole system structure to an individual school change. Changing a secondary school so that quantifiable outcomes for students show real improvement is a difficult task. Whilst the particular organisational structure of the schools involved a change to a unitised vertical curriculum (UVC), it is the reasons for change and the implications for leadership, conflict resolution, decision making and student outcomes that are examined. The restructure of the schools involved changing the way in which time was used. Whilst the literature on structural change is limited, there are studies (King, 1975; Raphael, Wahlstrom & McLean, 1986; Canady & Rettig,

1993 and Edwards, 1993) that have shown an increase in student performance

51 following a restructure that semesterised courses. The four secondary schools

involved had all decided to restructure following dissatisfaction with their existing structure. Three high schools were located in the western suburbs of Sydney and one was located in a large regional centre.

It was found that it was important to understand the human, contingent and

contextual factors in the four high schools. In all the schools, the words of Fullan,

(1993) that change is a process not an event were clearly demonstrated. All schools believed that the change plans would change as the reform process continued. All schools welcomed concerns that were expressed. Schools

developed localised solutions that took into account the dilemmas of individual change rates and specific professional development. It was found that restructuring by itself will not lead to improvement. Success lies with the intersection of three factors – restructuring, reculturing and changing the pedagogy. Thus school organisational capacity was shown to have two components: structures and cultures. The structures and cultures which are prevalent across the schools impacted in various ways upon teachers’ classroom practices and thus, upon student outcomes.

The research showed the crucial role of the principal in the restructure. While not necessarily directly involved in the processes of restructuring the principal had to actively support the process. The importance of leadership across the school was seen as important.

52 Changing a secondary school can generate considerable conflict among staff and

students. The research showed that it was not conflict itself that is the crucial

variable, but the manner in which the conflict was managed. The schools all

welcomed conflict and had procedures for addressing any issue. A high

percentage of teachers in the four schools who were interviewed all strongly

believed they had been fully involved and were committed to the restructure. For

the restructure to be successful it was not considered essential that all were

committed to the restructure. It was important though, that their views were

respected and their concerns addressed.

In all schools, staff perception of their involvement in the decision making

processes had important symbolic meaning. Decision making was not always

rational, but in all schools it was effective and accepted by staff. No school at the

start of the restructure process thought of developing teachers’ skills in change management, inter-personnel skills and skills of critical reflection and collective inquiry. These skills could be considered important to the success of any change.

However, during the process of restructure, all schools, in their own ways, addressed these skills.

The restructures provided the impetus for teachers to experiment with changes in their pedagogy. Student involvement in learning and the decision making processes for learning was shown to increase. It is important in a restructure for students to clearly relate to a basic set of values and beliefs that underpin any change.

53 Evidence in the improvement in student outcomes was shown in all the schools.

Schools had shown considerable improvement in student performance in the

English Language and Literacy Assessment (ELLA) given in Year 8. Teachers

had identified that student attainment of the course outcomes had improved as had

student attendance rates.

While in contrast to the research on changing the HSC, this research found that

each school had unique issues that needed to be addressed. These included

teacher contact time with students, programming and assessment and reporting.

Structural change in secondary schools requires time, a willingness to look beyond

the known and the capacity to address specific local issues for it to be successful.

Whilst the four schools were restructuring to the same UVC structure, their issues were different.

2.5.3 Middle management: a critical issue

Two research papers are based on the premise that it is vital if secondary school

change is to succeed to have a highly skilled middle management structure. In

government secondary schools the middle management role is filled by head

teachers, referred to in the research as heads of department (HoDs). It is these

people who must drive any change or improvement in secondary schools’

structures or curriculum change. They have specific responsibilities not only for

teaching students but in organising and developing their staffs. However, for

many years, the knowledge about and development of these HoDs had been

neglected.

`Perceptions and Reality of the Work of the Secondary Head of Department’ is a joint research project with myself, then Associate Professor Steve Dinham, and three other secondary principals, John Collier, Kathryn Brennan and David

Mulford. Kathryn and I are government high school principals and John and

David head independent secondary schools. We all met to discuss the problem and our approach and then undertook a literature search. Further joint discussion determined the methodology of telephone interviews. We each interviewed HoDs but not from our own school. These were telephone interviews. Once the interviews were completed we worked together to identify the concepts mentioned by the participants. These were then consolidated, categorised and the themes derived entered onto a spreadsheet. We were all involved in this process and the analysis and writing of the findings.

Middle managers in secondary schools play a crucial role in operationalising educational change (Ayres, Dinham & Sawyer, 1999). The middle managers have not only to teach but to undertake various roles of staff supervision, curriculum leadership, pupil discipline and welfare, school administration and their own professional development. HoDs have been found to experience the least satisfaction and the most stress (Dinham & Scott, 1999) of all teachers.

The research revealed that the best aspect of being a HoD was working with staff and the capacity to exert greater influence within the school and to initiate change.

The worst aspect of being a HoD was the lack of time and dealing with parental complaints and demands. The most prominent element of the work of the HoD

55 was seen to be paperwork and other administrative requirements followed by teaching, student discipline and conflict resolution. Notions of redesigning the role of the HoD centred on reducing the teaching load of the HoD making more time available to spend with staff. Time was considered to be the enemy of the

HoD. Many saw their core business of teaching and learning undermined by their extra responsibilities. Before many had become HoDs, they spoke of wanting to be the ‘subject leader’, yet this was rarely mentioned when they assumed the role.

It was found that the traditional departmental structure in government secondary schools may not be the most effective and efficient way of addressing the changing pressures and demands of the HoDs.

This study featured in a number of press articles and magazines. Appendix B,

Appendix C and Appendix D contains the press articles. The Department of

Education and Training has used the research to underpin the development and implementation of a strategy for the development of head teachers. The strategy, introduced in 2001 provided financial assistance for the 40 districts to build networks of head teachers and programs addressing leadership and particular subject knowledge and expertise. Districts used speakers, network meetings, school visits, induction programs for new head teachers and on-line learning to provide head teacher development.

The second study on the middle school managers `The Leadership Capabilities and Decision Making of the Secondary Head of Department’ had its genesis in the joint research previously mentioned. Whilst using the data obtained in the previous research, I sought to concentrate on the leadership and decision making

56 skills revealed. I undertook further literature review, and further analysis of the

results. I was the lead author of the research paper.

The leadership style of the HoD has been investigated by Harris (1998) who found

that a central focus on teaching and learning, high expectations, clear leadership by the HoDs and a pupil-centred approach to the delivery of curriculum were

factors that impacted on the effectiveness of the HoDs. Turner and Bolam (1998)

found that the HoDs should take into account the circumstances that pertain to the

leader and staff in any given situation. Earley and Fletcher-Campbell (1989)

stated that given the complexity of the role of the HoDs, one leadership style,

whether transformational or transactional was not enough. A HoD needed to find

an appropriate style and know when an issue should be discussed in depth by the

whole department or whether it was a matter solely for the HoD.

My research found that the HoDs clearly saw themselves as key members of a

team. A collaborative, democratic and consensual manner was considered

important. Women were over-represented in comments about the importance of

being a team player, while men were over-represented in comments about being

available, approachable and knowing when to be decisive.

HoDs considered the informal experiences of working with others, rather than

attending formal in-service courses to be the major influences on the leadership

style they had developed. Many saw the negative role models they had

experienced as being important influences on the development of their leadership

style.

57 Those interviewed perceived their school leadership and decision making involvement in terms of their formal responsibilities rather than in the more informal terms of intangible influences on school change.

The research found that much learning about management by the HoDs to be unplanned, sub-conscious and rather haphazard. More informal processes as opposed to formal study, inservice courses and professional associations were responsible for leadership style. The amount of training for a HoD before assuming a leadership role may be a determiner of their success or failure. If

HoDs have little knowledge to reflect upon, then critical questions of why and how they act will remain unanswered. It seems that if leadership capabilities and skills are acquired by a very random process that depends on where a person works, the process is left too much to chance. An internship before a formal appointment is suggested.

The research identified the ambiguity of the role of HoD. Whilst most have a preference for a consensual approach, they all have a supervisory role with staff.

More practical, operational programs such as supervision of each other in a subject department may be necessary to develop not only skills but to promote collegiality for the improvement of the learning process. The ability to be able to change their leadership style to changed conditions was recognized as being important to HoDs. With the impending retirement of many executive in schools, there is a need to rethink the current conceptualisation of leadership of the HoDs.

58 2.5.4 A first learning culture

Research was conducted in a new secondary school. The research paper is titled,

`Problems and Solutions Encountered in Cultivating a Quality First Culture’. The research tells the story of a new secondary school’s journey to introduce a quality first learning culture. It is very much a personal journey. It is based on the premise that a school organisational capacity has two components: structures and cultures. In previous papers the emphasis has been on structures. In this research, it is on culture. The original paper written in 1998 for a National Quality in

Education Conference has been updated with further research on the first cohort of students, then in Year 7 but in Year 12 in 2003.

The most important task in establishing a new school is in establishing the learning culture of the school. Structures, resources, facilities and staffing are unimportant if the school does not quickly address its core function – teaching and learning. The school culture has been described as the shared beliefs, customs, attitudes and expectations (Atkin, 1991) of the school. The new school, located in western Sydney was the first high school to be built to a new secondary building code. These features included classrooms designed for flexible organization and activities, a reduced number of specialist areas that incorporate a practical

workshop and classrooms; rooms and staff areas to be function not faculty based

and extensive communication and data cabling throughout the school to enable

technology to be used for curriculum delivery.

59 A new school requires the bringing together of a large number of parents, staff and students who bring with them different values, philosophies, expectations and needs. A conceptual framework was used to develop the first culture. The framework consisted of determining common beliefs and values and then developing conceptual and verbal manifestations and behavioural manifestations of this culture. The core beliefs and values were developed following intensive consultation with all stakeholders using surveys, small focus meetings and large consultation gatherings.

The conceptual and verbal manifestations of school culture are shown through the outcomes for students, the curriculum, the language used in the transmission of culture and the organisational structures established for the school. Teaching teams of staff and students were established to help students adapt into their new school.

The behavioural manifestations of the first learning culture is shown in the creation of a leadership structure across the school; establishing rituals and ceremonies; the development of teaching and learning strategies; rewards and sanctions and parental and community patterns.

The research discusses some emergent issues in cultivating the first learning culture. The problems associated with the acceptance and maintenance of a new building and the development of teacher skills in making use of the facilities presented particular challenges. Staffing issues in obtaining staff who are skilled and committed to the organisational structure and values over time prevents the

60 attainment of some of the initial high ideals. Training and development for staff is a crucial aspect of a new school. Without knowledge and traditions a new school starts with a low level of expertise. Issues in the workload for beginning staff and in the continuous intake of new staff in the early years of a new school are discussed. Time is also a crucial variable as a culture cannot be quickly developed and implemented like a policy.

The further research conducted in the school’s sixth year of operation found that the original ideals and values of the school had been shared by pupils and staff appointed later in the school’s development. Students from the original cohort raised problems with some teachers not listening to them and in comparisons with other schools as a new school must build its resources from scratch.

2.5.5 School choice

Government secondary schools in NSW are losing their once strong dominant position in learning. In 1981 in NSW, government secondary schools educated 74 per cent of secondary students. By 1991 this had fallen to 69 per cent and in 2001 to 66 per cent (AEC, 2001, p.15). The trend towards non-government schools is often because of dissatisfaction with government schools. In some areas of NSW, such as the inner and eastern suburbs of Sydney this trend is more marked. New technologies are also starting to redefine schooling. They challenge the special segregation of schooling into separate subjects and classes. Students’ capacity to access knowledge independently and to communicate with other students and adults internationally may soon dissolve the boundaries between school and

61 community. Whilst secondary schools should not capitulate unthinkingly to advances in technology they clearly cannot ignore it.

The research on `The Right Choice: the Decision Making Process of High

School Selection’ examines why students and their parents select a particular high

school, when they make that choice and what are the factors affecting their

decision. If these are known then secondary schools can become more market

oriented to maintain and enhance their enrolments. Refusing to consider market

forces leaves government secondary schools in danger of becoming the residual

system of secondary education, with a loss of curriculum, student welfare

programs, staff, ethos and morale.

The research was conducted with over 450 students in Year 6 at government

primary schools in the Penrith District. Extensive literature is available on the choice of secondary school but the research is often from the perception of parents after students have commenced secondary school. Coldron and Boulton (1991) have identified closeness and proximity to the school as being the main reason why parents may select a school. The issue of discipline rates highly in studies examining choice of schools (Mitchell, 1997). Other research (Pope, 1994 and

Horowitz, 2000) has revealed a strong social element to choice. Few parents like to choose a school that is considered by others to be undesirable.

Woods, Bagley and Glatter (1998) in England, found over a number of years that parents involved the child in the selection of high school with a considerable number leaving it entirely with the student. Groundwater-Smith (2001) in

62 research in southern Sydney found that the perception of a safe school, where

student welfare had primacy and where subject choice was available to be the

most important factors used in secondary school choice.

In my research study, on a ranking scheme of factors as being ‘most important’

through to ‘no importance’, the school having a caring administration was

considered to be the most important reason. The survey instrument used to gather

data is shown in Appendix A. The curriculum and choice available, extra

curriculum activities, the quality of staff and the atmosphere were all rated highly.

Of interest was that many students and parents who were electing a non- government school based their choice on intangible factors such as reputation and

the ‘things I hear’. Both of these are extremely difficult to change because they hold different meanings for different people.

The majority of students reported that the decision as to which secondary school they would attend was a joint one with their parents. Again the majority reported that the decision was made in Year 6 – the year before they were to commence secondary school. However, a significant number made the decision well before the child was in Year 6.

Most students ranked a visit to the school as being very important in their choice of a secondary school. Written material was considered of lesser importance.

The research also revealed that there is a strong socio-economic factor involved in school choice. Students with parents from a professional or managerial

63 background were more prevalent among those who were selecting a non- government school. They rated matters such as the schools’ reputation, academic achievements and curriculum as being most important in their choice. In contrast, families with unskilled occupation backgrounds placed much more importance on the choice of a local school.

Key issues are raised from this research. Firstly, there is a need to better identify, promote and publicize the options and variety of the curriculum in each government secondary school. Secondly, schools need to develop strategies to promote and develop their reputation. Thirdly, schools need to develop a marketing plan that addresses a wide range of criteria and that uses multiple personal, visual and written means to present its message. Fourthly, schools need to more actively promote their uniqueness rather than their similarities. Fifthly, there is a need to adopt more flexible strategies and materials to promote the school to younger students so that the secondary school becomes the ‘natural progression’ for the student. Lastly, schools need to review the way they are perceived so they can develop and implement strategies to be seen as a caring school.

This research provided an understanding of the choice of a secondary school and gave direction to schools to improve their student intake. Such action is important to maintain a healthy system of government secondary schools.

64 2.6 Conclusion

The relationship between theory and practice is

crucial to any teachers’ ability to change. Unless we

understand why we do what we do, and so reflect

and improve upon the emerging practice, good

teaching can only be a matter of good luck, and

teaching practice just pulling out another `bag of

tricks’ (Simons, 1995, p.4).

This statement underpins the purpose of the research in this portfolio. Secondary

school organization is complex and to change it to improve student outcomes is even more complex.

The overarching statement articulates the theoretical concepts underpinning this

portfolio and demonstrating how current research can help the restructuring of

secondary schools. It is argued that secondary organisational capacity has two

components: structures and cultures. Before trying to change secondary

structures, an understanding of their traditions and how secondary schools have

emerged is necessary.

Secondary schools are not places to undertake rational planning. Understanding the change process, leadership and time leading to the implementation of a new learning community will help change secondary structures. Government secondary schools while part of a system have their own mores and beliefs. The

65 schools are also staffed by individuals. Their beliefs, motivations and capacity must be understood to effect real change.

The research whilst varying from qualitative to quantitative and from observations, discussions, interviews and surveys identifies the importance of

proactive planning and leadership within schools to enhance student outcomes.

Change in secondary schools will be gradual and incremental. However, by linking change in curriculum and structure to an external and accountable process such as the HSC is a means of both accelerating the change process and improving outcomes for students. Change and restructuring in a school though requires a thorough understanding of context, choosing a leadership style that both welcomes and uses conflict and being willing to accept unintended consequences.

Restructuring by itself does not necessarily lead to improvements in student outcomes. Improvement in the teaching pedagogy, when combined with restructuring is more important.

There are important issues for the development of school culture and capacity to respond to change resulting from the ambiguity evident in the role of the Heads of

Department, their lack of adequate preparation for faculty leadership and

workload issues. An educational system needs to ensure that Heads of Department

have access to a range of development activities from formal courses to workplace

mentoring and learning to ensure that these middle managers both understand

their roles and have the skills and capacity to drive change in secondary schools.

66 The theme of responsiveness to change is continued in the study on the choice of high school. The research was undertaken before students entered high school and

hence avoided the initial reasons being influenced by the reality of attending the

school. Schools must project positive messages concerning the administration of

the school and its curriculum to prospective students and parents.

The issue of the external control of NSW government secondary schools will

continue to dominate the agenda of secondary schools. If secondary schools were

given increased authority to develop different structures in consultation with their

community, then possibly a smaller government school sector serving families

that have actively chosen it by offering a valued alternative to the non-government

schools has merit. However, policies promoting differentiation must find a means

of ensuring that the ‘hard to educate’ students that are not well served in the

secondary schools, do not slip through the net. Allowing students to just ‘fall

through the cracks’ would be in direct contradiction of the ideals on which the

government secondary schools in NSW were founded.

There is a continued need to develop new structures and process, make better use

of time, space and human resources, and establish multiple pathways to ensure

that with the assistance of technology secondary education can be seen as

relevant, effective and life fulfilling in the 21st century.

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77 PART 2

CHAPTER THREE

EDUCATION FOR ALL: THE DEVELOPMENT

AND ORGANISATION OF GOVERNMENT

SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN NEW SOUTH

WALES

This chapter contains the first of the seven research articles in the portfolio. To understand the developments in secondary education today, it is necessary to examine their historical origins. Whilst secondary education today is universal for all young people in NSW, it wasn’t always so.

The paper was the first written for this portfolio and was presented to the first

Doctoral Conference held in September, 1995. It has since been rewritten to incorporate changes and trends in secondary education at the end of the 20th century in NSW. The research paper argues that a number of recurrent themes can be identified in NSW. Incremental change, a lack of a clear and understood purpose of secondary education, the continuing demands of external examinations and the control of education exemplified by the constant tensions between the schools and the system, and on the other by individual schools are identified and discussed. The difficulty of introducing change and having it become part of the culture of secondary schools in NSW continues to be an issue at the start of the twenty-first century.

Education for All: The Development and

Organisation of Government Secondary Schools in

New South Wales

______

Introduction

The origin of secondary education in New South Wales can be traced to the elementary schools of the 1800s and early 1900s. The achievement of universal literacy in NSW by the early twentieth century was a remarkable achievement of the elementary schools. Vast distances, a scattered population, and a mistrust of the intrinsic benefits of education make the achievement even more significant.

Secondary education however, cannot claim such as accolade.

The aim of this paper is to trace the development of the government secondary schools in New South Wales. It is necessary to do this to understand why we have the schools we have today, how they are organised the way they are, what they teach and why they are difficult and complex to change and so enhance student outcomes.

79 Early developments

The development of comprehensive secondary education in NSW was a complex

process. Occasionally, there was a major change, but more often it involved incremental development in response to specific concerns with current practice and wider social and economic concerns. The original secondary schools in New

South Wales provided training for boys of upper and middle class backgrounds in

Mathematics and the Classics (Barcan,1965, pp.79-80). From 1851, Sydney

University had seen itself as responsible for the curriculum and standards of the secondary schools through means of a matriculation examination (Turney,1975,

p.295). The major developments in secondary education up to the 1950's are set out in Table 3.1.

Table 3.1: Development of government secondary schools to 1950s

NSW REPORTS ORGANISATION ASSESSMENT BOARDS 1831 1st secondary school established 1837 1st catholic secondary school 1854 William Wilkins introduces Geometry, Algebra and Latin into the advanced classes of the 2 National Schools in Sydney

80 1867 Sydney University introduces Junior & Senior Public Examinations. Examination provides an external assessment of the quality of a school's teaching 1880 NSW Public Superior Public Schools Instruction Act designated to provide for higher branches of learning. No fees charged. Fees in government high schools charged. 1904 Knibbs Turner State system of secondary External Commission education to be developed assessment in General, Commercial, controlled by Technical and Agriculture university though Schools. Peter Board wanted a system more suited to individual needs. 1911 Qualifying Certificate examination introduced. 1912 Leaving Certificate accepted by university. 1923 Qualifying Certificate abolished High School Entrance examination & Permit to Enrol examinations introduced 1939 General activities

introduced

81 1949 Intermediate 1936 Board of

Certificate Secondary

becomes an School Studies

internal established.

examination Dominated by

university

1953 1953 Wyndham Reports in 1957. New School Secondary

Report scheme for School Certificate after 4 School Board

commissioned Certificate and Higher years; HSC after and Board of

School Certificate further 2 years Senior School

commences in 1962 Studies

established

After World War II, the demand for government secondary schooling increased.

A population growth fuelled by the rising birth rate, a dramatic increase in

immigration, and a stable, consumer economy all contributed to this increase.

Firstly, more facilities for the provision of secondary education were required.

Secondly, an increase in retention rates of the schools had also demanded increased provision of secondary education. As well, the character of the pupils entering secondary school changed. Pupils came from a much wider cross section

of society. The increasing specialisation required for modern technology, the

complications in administering an extensive system of public examinations, and

the diminished urgency for many pupils of gaining credentials in a time of full

employment (Barcan 1965, p.254), placed strains on the system. For most

82 students, particularly after the Intermediate Certificate became a wholly internal

examination after 1949, promotion was automatic and students remained in the

same community and social group throughout high school.

By the 1950s, students in the Sydney Metropolitan Area had available three types

of secondary schools. The status order was very clear to teachers and parents.

Firstly, there were High Schools, both selective and comprehensive; then

Intermediate High Schools, still basically academic schools with movement to full

highs possible after the Intermediate; and finally Junior Technical and Home

Science Secondary Schools designed to provide an education for those adolescents

whose interests and abilities were less academic. Besides population growth,

pressures outside the Department of Education's control were building. The old

segmented secondary school system could not be transferred to the developing areas, particularly in outer Sydney. Comprehensive highs catering for all students in a geographic area were becoming increasingly common. Country regions also

saw the establishment of a significant number of local comprehensive schools.

Where the population was too small to justify a high school, secondary education

was available in District Rural Schools, or in post primary classes in what were

called Central Schools. In 1957, for example, of the 108,000 secondary students

in NSW, 55,000 were in schools classed as full high schools (Department of

Education, 1957, p.8).

83 The Wyndham Scheme

In 1953, the Minister for Education in NSW established a Committee to "survey and to report upon the provision of full-time day education for adolescents in New

South Wales" (Report of the Committee Appointed to Survey Secondary

Education in N.S.W. 1957, p.9).

After extensive submissions the Committee, under the Chairmanship of Dr Harold

Wyndham, Director General of Education in NSW, reported to the Minister in

1957. The Committee made 8 major recommendations.

. Transition from primary to secondary school should occur at about age 12

without any special examination.

. The high school should provide a satisfactory education, covering 4 years,

for all adolescents usually through a comprehensive high school.

. A core curriculum should apply to all students.

. The first year should be a common core with electives added in later years.

. The election of subjects should occur with teacher guidance.

. At the end of Fourth Year, an external examination based School Certificate

should be awarded. This examination would mark the end of secondary

education for most.

. No external examinations should be held before Fourth Year.

. An additional course of study lasting two years, should be provided, leading

to a Higher School Certificate (Report of the Committee Appointed to

Survey Secondary Education in N.S.W., 1957, p.72).

84 The scheme was not radical. It was built upon existing structures and well known

ideas. In 1934, a similar committee had recommended that secondary education

should consist of 4 years of general education, followed by advanced study of one

or two years (Connell, 1993, p.87). No action was taken to implement the

recommendations. Again, in 1946 the Board of Secondary School Studies

recommended a similar pattern. The Director of Secondary Education in 1961

stated that the reclassification of the traditional high school was a policy

"conceived and put into operation long before the publication of the Wyndham

Report" (Stephens, 1961, p.32). The recommendations were also principally administrative. No analysis of the concept of a comprehensive school, other than that it was non selective, was attempted. The Report did not attempt to analyse the curriculum of such a system, only that it be based on a core and electives.

In late 1961, legislation was passed to enable the Report's recommendations to be implemented. This followed the Minister for Education, Ern Wetherell, by-passing his then reluctant Labor Caucus, and obtaining support at the 1961 Australian

Labor Party Conference (Smith, 1982, pp.186-188). The old Intermediate

Certificate was still retained and it was not finally abolished until 1966. The recommendations, now known as the Wyndham Scheme were put into practice almost immediately, allowing little time for detailed work plans at the school level.

Not all teachers, academics and parents supported the Wyndham Scheme. The comprehensive school concept owed much to the egalitarian principles of society,

85 and to the growth of the white-collar middle class with aspirations for a full secondary education for their children.

The Labor Party in NSW strongly supported the concept (Cleverley & Lawry,

1972, p.189). Protests from parents and others in the community against the plans to abolish selective schools occurred. The main concern was that the proposal would lower academic standards, and concentrate on making children happy in schools, with socially well-adjusted personalities (Cleverley & Lawry, 1972, p.191). Supporters of comprehensive schools argued that children would gain greater social adequacy by participating in the life of a diverse society. The debate on standards was pushed hard, mainly through the press. University

academics, particularly scientists, were vocal in their opposition.

In the 1960s, the debate was linked to the perceived lower standards of the

comprehensive schools. Wyndham himself claimed that standards would be lifted with an extension of the secondary course to six years (Wyndham, Letter to

Sydney Morning Herald, 11th March, 1961).

The introduction of the Wyndham Scheme in 1962 meant that new syllabuses had to be quickly drawn up and modifications devised as the introduction continued.

One of the first results was the freer choice of subjects after First Form. The

Wyndham Scheme presented complex problems for those in the school in devising a workable timetable. Instead of staying in the same group for all subjects, classes formed and disbanded each lesson. There was less flexibility in

allocating experienced teachers to the new Fifth and Sixth Forms. The role and

86 nature of the peer group in secondary schools was also changing. The outlook and

attitude of the peer group was now a reflection of the social pattern of the suburb

in which the school was located, and not the type of course provided by the

school. Peer group influence increased, as the school was no longer shielded from the local, social class influences.

The comprehensive high school model was based on mass education, with secondary enrolments rising. Schools were usually large. In 1941, most schools

were in the 300 - 500 pupil range. In 1967, the first full year of the Wyndham

Scheme implementation, 42 of the 247 state secondary schools had over 1000

pupils (Cleverley &Lawry, 1972, p.197).

The curriculum and many teaching approaches were still dominated and controlled by the demands of the examination system. Universities exerted considerable influence in deciding secondary curricula. Following the Education

Act in November 1961, two Boards were set up to control the curriculum and the examination process. The Secondary Schools Board was concerned with First to

Fourth Form, and had 20 members, a significant number of these from the universities. The Board of Senior School Studies determined the curriculum for

Fifth and Sixth Form and had a majority of university members. In 1962, the

Minister for Education, Mr Ern Wetherell, approved three standards for each subject in the junior school - ordinary, credit and advanced (Barcan, 1965, p.302).

In 1965, the School Certificate was a wholly external examination. In 1968, the assessment process was changed to a practice of giving equal weight to the school assessment and the examination mark. By 1975, the School Certificate became

87 wholly internal with a moderating procedure, through external reference tests in

English and Mathematics.

In 1990, a moderating test in Science was added. For the Higher School

Certificate, three levels for each course generally applied. Two kinds of subjects

developed - those prescribed by the Board of Senior School Studies, and those

developed by the school, called Other Approved Studies (OAS).

LEAVING

INTERMEDIATE CERTIFICATE

CERTIFICATE 4th 5th UNIVERSITY 1st 2nd 3rd YEAR YEAR YEAR YEAR YEAR TEACHERS' COLLEGE

AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE K12345 6 TECHNICAL COLLEGE

INFANTS PRIMARY SECONDARY

UNIVERSITY FORM FORM New System FORM VVI TEACHERS' COLLEGE FORM FORM FORM IV I 11 111 AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE

INTERMEDUATE CERTIFICATE TECHNICAL COLLEGE SCHOOL CERTIFICATE HIGHER SCHOOL CERTIFICATE

Age: 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18

Figure 3.1: The School System of New South Wales after 1962

Figure 3.1 shows the school system that developed from 1962. The Wyndham

Scheme from 1962 had a single flow of students through the one secondary school

- a comprehensive school model.

88 Changes in the 1970's

By the 1970s, there were considerable forces for change in government secondary schools in NSW. The impact on schools and teachers became more apparent as the decade progressed. Significant changes to knowledge, the school population, home, school and community relationships and society in general were moving schools away from some of the broad principles of the Wyndham Scheme. There was a perception that the secondary school of the Wyndham era was increasingly failing to meet the needs of students (Connell, 1993, p.191-195). Increased retention of students in both the junior and senior years was presenting teachers with challenges to meet the needs of an increasing cohort of students who would not move directly to tertiary education. In 1962, 42 per cent of Form 1 enrolments remained till Form 4. This had risen to 74 per cent by 1973 (Minister for

Education Annual Report 1973, p. 41). In 1967, the first full year of the implementation of the Wyndham Scheme, 19 per cent reached Form 6, whilst by

1972 the retention to Form 6 had reached 32 per cent (Minister for Education

Annual Report 1973, p. 42). There was also a stress on streaming students to enable a timetable to function effectively.

A decreasing proportion of students were proceeding to tertiary study in either a

University or College of Advanced Education. In 1974, 49.3 per cent of school

leavers progressed directly to tertiary study. By 1976, the proportion was 47.4 per

cent, and by 1979 the proportion was 40.4 per cent (Australian Bureau of

Statistics, 1980, p. 12). The senior secondary school, with an academic

examination was meeting the needs of a decreasing percentage of students.

Despite the changes in the interests and abilities of students, the secondary schools

89 were neither wholly comprehensive, nor wholly co-educational. Seven selective schools remained in Sydney and the range of subjects offered in the comprehensive schools differed little from the selective schools.

The number of teachers had grown considerably. In 1962, there were fewer than

8,000 secondary teachers in NSW (Department of Education, 1962, p.8). By 1973 the number of teachers had grown to 14,500 (Minister for Education, 1973, p.94), and 22,900 by 1978 (Minister for Education, 1978, p.29). The majority of secondary teachers were now university graduates. Teachers were generally younger and impatient with bureaucratic delay. They were more flexible in outlook, more tolerant of change and more willing to look at changes to teaching styles and methods. Teachers had become more militant, with the first strike of teachers in NSW over working conditions occurring in 1968.

Secondary education was becoming much more politicised. In 1969, the Minister for Education, Charles Cutler, established an independent unit, to provide him with advice. The Department of Education was no longer the sole source of advice to the Minister. However, planning was still piecemeal and short term.

The changes that did take place were changes to school organisation, not changes affecting the quality of student learning or the teaching learning process.

In the 1970s there was an increase in the power of principals to manage their schools, and a diminution of the centralised control of schools. A Committee was set up to examine the role of the Inspectorate in NSW. The Graham Committee reported in 1971, and recommended that greater emphasis be placed on

90 continuous evaluation of teachers by the principal. The consultative role of

Inspectors was basically to be taken over by more specialist consultants.

Principals were to be given the task of assessing teachers in their beginning years of teaching (Graham, 1971, p.24). With an enhancement in the principal's role, there were also increased delegations on maintenance matters and some flexibility with the appointment of ancillary staff for principals and their schools.

In 1973, the Department of Education issued a booklet, "The Aims of Secondary

Education". This was an attempt to make schools consider their aims, and how they should be attempting to achieve them. The document claimed that there was a need to consider the different and changing needs of students (Buggie, 1973, p.7). The difficulty of moving from a general statement of aims into specific practices and programs was acknowledged. Within the broad parameters of the

Statutory Boards for the award of both the School Certificate and Higher School

Certificate, the school should decide on its aims within the context of the local environment.

The central aim of education was:

to guide individual development,

in the context of society

through recognisable stages of development

towards perceptive understanding, mature judgement, responsible

self-direction and moral autonomy (Buggie, 1973, p.11).

91 Schools had to be concerned with the development of higher thought processes and thinking skills, and in developing students' abilities in formulating values.

Whilst flexibility in time allocations was seen as important, the document warned of denying students equality of opportunity in subject choice. Equality of opportunity might require diversity in curriculum patterns (Buggie 1973, p. 25).

The Aims Document was generally given scant attention in secondary schools.

Attempts by schools to develop an overall School Policy usually acknowledged the general aims, but there was little attempt to relate the aims to an educational program. The statement was broad, meaning that it could be made to fit virtually any scheme. Teachers were not committed to the document, being more wary of factors affecting the external examinations. Teaching to the syllabus as prescribed by the Statutory Boards really determined what was taught in classrooms. Few suggestions on how to translate aims into programs and practices were given.

Experiments with organization

Whilst a rigid model of secondary schools continued to operate in most government schools of the 1970s, there was an increasing number of experiments and schemes which provided diversity, and pointed to future directions for schools. Throughout their history, government secondary schools have been slow to change, and reluctant to adopt wholesale change in a dramatic way. It was the successes and failures of a range of schemes that led to modifications in many other schools from the 1970s to the present. There had been instances of innovations in schools from the Wyndham Scheme, and whilst not encouraged at

92 a system level, were still permitted. Grenfell and Port Hacking High Schools both developed a core curriculum, which provided both unity for the whole school, as well as a strong link with the local community. Schmidt at the J.J. Cahill High

School, at Botany, devised a scheme for grouping students for most of their subjects, so that few of them remained in the same group throughout the whole program (Connell,1993, p. 66).

The 1970s saw an increasing number of organisational schemes set up in schools to meet the emergent and increasing range and diversity of students. Richmond

High School, for example, devised and implemented an alternative Activities

Afternoon to replace the traditional sport program (Pope, 1976, pp. 3-6).

Boorowa Central School in 1974 adopted a policy to widen the outlook of students, by introducing the Wednesday Plan. Each Wednesday was devoted to sport, guest speakers, cultural activities and interest electives (Williams, 1976, p.

25).

In 1973, a particularly innovative scheme was introduced at Junee High School, known as The Junee Plan. The scheme would result in many schools examining their organisation. A 9-day cyclic timetable was introduced. The period length was changed from 40 minutes to one hour, and each Wednesday was excluded from the cycle to be devoted to Sport, Scripture and Interest Electives

(Pasley,1973, p. 2). The innovation was designed to meet some of the shortcomings of the Wyndham Scheme, and changes in society. The Principal,

Jim Dean felt that there was a distinct need for students to be able to follow their own interests within the school framework and for teachers to be able to

93 experiment in teaching methods (Pasley,1973, p. 2). The Junee Plan was successful because it "had an invigorating effect on the life of the school, without any detrimental effect on the goals of secondary education" (Pasley,1973, p.7).

The Junee Plan was a controlled change and carried out without any loss of time for the traditional subjects. The Junee Plan also encouraged innovations in the actual teaching of subjects. Stan Gilchrist, the Science Master at Junee implemented a team teaching approach in each 9-day cycle, which included a mass lecture, library research, laboratory sessions and small tutorial groups. One- hour lessons were sometimes split into 30 minutes of research, followed by 30 minutes of tutorials in groups of about 10 students. Other secondary schools tried variations of the Junee Plan. Richmond High School implemented a cyclic timetable. Quirindi High adopted a scheme of Interest Electives. Murray High

School implemented a scheme of allowing students to select what teacher they wished to visit at certain times of the week to enable remediation and extension to take place. Urana Central School did the same in 1977.

Curriculum issues

Government secondary schools in NSW had from their inception an academic tradition, strongly supported by educationalists. The bright students were expected to take the academic courses with the remainder encouraged to undertake the same type of program, even if it meant, as with the Wyndham

Scheme, diluting it in appropriate ways. The tradition has been that general education is distinct from, and superior to vocational education. Table 3.2

94 summarises the main changes to both curriculum and assessment since the

Wyndham Scheme was introduced.

The relationships with the universities have been dominant. Whilst at times, the

community may not have accepted such a tradition, the 1970s saw the tradition

challenged. Rural conservatism and an emphasis on practical skills often saw rural

people place little value in much of the secondary curriculum. Other factors such

as the changing nature of employment, particularly youth unemployment from the

mid 1970s, and government intervention in education for a range of reasons, also

contributed to a shift in the purpose and programs in many schools. Governments and the community increasingly saw the secondary school, as being a useful

institution for helping solve wider social problems. Alcoholism, drug addiction, sex education, smoking, driver education and legal education were areas that schools were being asked to undertake. Whilst they involved students, they were basically adult problems. Governments and others turned to schools for a solution, by trying to teach students to avoid the errors of adults, so that when they were adults the abuses would be corrected. It was a fallacy that the secondary schools could act alone to solve such social problems successfully. At no time, did anyone suggest what schools should take out of their curriculum to incorporate

these new programs. Secondary schools began to be plagued by a crowded

curriculum.

Secondary schools in the 1970s were also being asked to better prepare students

for the workforce by undertaking more vocational education programs. At first,

these programs were seen in isolation from the rest of the school programs. Work

95 Experience programs began to be introduced into schools from the mid 1970s.

Cumberland High School was one of the first. In 1974, students in Forms 3, 4 and

5 were offered the opportunity to spend time in a variety of occupations to enable

them to learn about specific occupations, and enable career choice to be made on

the basis of an informed judgement (Parker, 1975, p.2).

The report of the Williams Committee of Inquiry into Education and Training

(1976), prompted the Federal Government to table in 1979, a comprehensive policy relating to transition education. The policy provided for the funding of a 5-

year program to develop schemes to help young people in the transition from

school to work. The development of a work oriented curriculum, the fostering of

closer home-school relations, and the mastery of basic skills for all students were

areas the program targeted. NSW secondary schools with low retention rates, and

particular disadvantages were offered funding over a five-year period. Schools

were at last given some responsibility to devise programs to address their

particular needs (Beddoe, 1981, p.6). One of the most interesting was the

development and implementation of an alternative senior program at Macarthur

Girls' High School at Parramatta. As well as the traditional academic course, it

offered an alternative course, directed at Year 11, which also led to the award of a

Higher School Certificate.

Table 3.2: Development of Curriculum and Assessment Practices in NSW Schools

DATE SCHOOL CERTIFICATE HIGHER SCHOOL CERTIFICATE

1961 Secondary Schools Board Board of Senior Secondary Schools established Studies established

DATE SCHOOL CERTIFICATE HIGHER SCHOOL CERTIFICATE

1965 1st School Certificate -Advanced, Credit and Ordinary levels. Curriculum consisted of a core and electives. External examination 1967 *1st HSC Highly differentiated Courses within subjects. Levels 1, 2 (short and full) and 3 in 28 subjects. * Some courses (eg Textiles) not offered at level 1 * Needed minimum of 5 subjects to gain HSC * Universities required pass in 5 subjects, including English and 4 to be at level 1 or 2 * Conceded pass at lower level possible * Marks reflected differentiation of courses within subjects eg: Level 1 Maths 0-270; Level 2 short 0-130; Level 3, 0-100.

1975 External examination abolished. Differentiation of courses by levels Reference tests in English and removed. Courses offered in 1,2,3 or 4 Mathematics units (Maths). Each unit required 2 hours of study a week. School based courses - Other Approved Studies (OAS) introduced. 1976 Assessment of courses without comparison. Each unit worth 0-50 marks; 10% Grade 1, 20% Grade 2, 40% Grade 3, 20% Grade 4 and 10% Grade 5. Comparison only of students studying the same units. 1976 Students significantly below school predictions could apply for a remark. 1977 School estimates moderated by the examination performance to count as a 50% component of student's results.

DATE SCHOOL CERTIFICATE HIGHER SCHOOL CERTIFICATE

1978 * OAS marks shown on H.S.C. Only Board developed courses have an external examination. Comparison between performance in different courses in a subject * Scaled marks introduced. Percentile bands awarded for each subject studied. 1983 All 3-unit courses to incorporate the whole of the corresponding 2 unit courses. A common examination paper for all 2 and 3 unit students. 1984 Single Board of Secondary Education proposed - University representation to be cut to 4 out of 22. 1985 * Automatic review of progress for students markedly below the school's estimate. * OAS course approval had grown significantly. 3000 courses had approval. * Joint Secondary Schools TAFE courses introduced. 1986 * Board set an average mark in all 2 unit courses as 60 * Scaling abandoned by Board and left to Universities. Most universities in 1986 used unscaled marks to produce their aggregate. * Schools submit assessments of student achievement derived by assessment tasks, rather than a prediction of an examination mark. Mean adjusted to same mean and S.D. as the students receive in the HSC examination.

DATE SCHOOL CERTIFICATE HIGHER SCHOOL CERTIFICATE

1987 Universities adopted a joint strategy for scaling and aggregating results provided by Board. 1988 *Universities and Colleges Admission Centre (UCAC) introduces an aggregate known as Tertiary Entrance Score (TES) based on examination results and school's assessments. * Board introduces percentile bands for each subject. 1990 * Education Reform Act * Tertiary Entrance Rank (TER) legislated minimum curriculum replaces TES. Shown separately from requirements. HSC. Bands of one twentieth of a * Reference Test in Science percentile from 100 down with the introduced. bottom 15% shown as "15.00 or less". 1991 * New Board of Studies replaces * New Board of Studies (K-12) S.S.B. replaces B.S.S.S. * School grades A to E awarded in all subjects except English, Maths and Science to be based on Performance Descriptors 1992 * HSC to be based on a minimum of 11 units to include 2 units English, at least 6 Board Developed courses and at least 1 unit from Group 1 (Maths, Science, Technology) and 1 unit from Group 2 (Humanities). * Content Endorsed Courses (CEC) introduced. Not examined externally. * Vocational Studies for HSC developed and delivered partly by industry introduced - Training in Retail and Commerce (TRAC) 1993 * New vocational Course Industry Studies trialled and introduced in 1994. 1994 * Pathways involving more flexible progression, accumulation and acceleration of courses introduced. Preliminary year and a HSC year. * Distinction courses in Cosmology, Philosophy and Comparative Literature for advanced students introduced.

DATE SCHOOL CERTIFICATE HIGHER SCHOOL CERTIFICATE 1995 145 Board Developed Courses in 78 subjects; 298 OAS (now BEC) courses, 340 Joint school TAFE courses and 21 C.E.C. courses being studied. 1996 * Board scaling procedures changed 25% of students to receive 70 or more; 75% of students to receive 50 or more. * New scaling procedures for English. Common scale for all students except those studying Contemporary English. * Vocational CECs not counted towards T.E.R.

Some courses had to be undertaken from the Board of Senior School Studies subjects. The remaining courses came from school developed Other Approved

Studies (Choice and Diversity,1981, p. 2). Despite considerable student counselling, the school had difficulty in attracting viable numbers to undertake the course. The problem that vocational education had in secondary schools, was that it was seen as being for students considered "at risk", and not for the mainstream.

They were for lower ability students and cut off many options for these students.

A more inclusive school

Economic and social developments in the 1970s and through into the 1980s, brought about a fundamental change in the youth labour market, and this added to the pressure for a comprehensive review of the secondary curriculum. The

O.E.C.D. Report (1984) and the Karmel Report (1985) identified a number of

major problems facing youth. A low rate of retention in senior schooling, a large number of students leaving school without marketable skills, a high rate of unemployment and an over representation of certain disadvantaged groups

100 (Commonwealth Schools Commission, 1985, p. 20), were seen as causing major

concern. The Federal Government was driving this agenda, and because the

Federal Government was providing targeted funds, NSW government schools had

to participate. By 1981, only 28 per cent of students attending a government

secondary school in NSW remained to the end of Year 12 (Australian Education

Council, 1991, p. 20). The Federal Government provided money from 1985 under

the Participation and Equity Scheme (PEP) to provide appropriate facilities and courses, so that all students would complete a full secondary education, improve the education for disadvantaged groups and to re-examine the school curriculum.

Vocational skills were needed by society more than before, and they should not be seen as being in competition with academic skills (Commonwealth Schools

Commission, 1985, p. 43). Schools in NSW with low retention rates received funding. Coming as it did at the time of re-examining the school curriculum as proposed in the McGowan Report (1981) and Swan/McKinnon Report (1984),

PEP did allow some schools to purchase time to review their curriculum and

structure. Some schools, such as Quirindi High School were assisted to develop

and implement a semester system of organisation. Greater links were established

with the Technical and Further Education (TAFE) sector, with Link Courses, then

Joint Secondary School Courses (JSST) being established. With the latter,

students could earn both credits from TAFE, and credit towards their Higher

School Certificate by studying vocationally oriented courses conducted by TAFE

Colleges.

By the 1980s, with pressures from an economic downturn and high youth

unemployment, secondary schools increasingly had to respond to calls to change.

101 Most changes continued to be evolutionary, with schools selecting what they

considered to be best practice and fresh ideas and incorporating them into their

structure, purpose and curriculum. Continued devolution of functions to schools,

an increase in the demand for accountability both from the system, government

and community, a slowing down in school based curriculum development, as well as the increased influence of the media, increased mobility of students, an

increasing number of dysfunctional families, value conflicts and the knowledge

explosion all affected and influenced government schools in the 1980s.

The Entrance Scheme

A new approach to secondary school organisation, that had an effect for many

years on how schools were organised and structured, was introduced at The

Entrance High School, near Gosford, in July 1980. It was called the "vertical semester organisation" because all the units of instruction were six-month semester courses and the scheme allowed for the vertical grouping of students across conventional year groupings. The scheme was based on the school's response to concerns that a large number of 15 and 16 year olds were disenchanted with the current system; that gifted students were not being extended; that students were progressing through school in a "lock-step" manner and that employers placed little reliance on the School Certificate examination

(Cohen & Maxwell,1985, p. 143). All courses were to be of equal value, seven

44-minute periods were held each day and students could select 7 courses a semester based on completing certain pre-requisites (O'Neill, 1983, p. 38). The scheme was abandoned in 1982 because of a conflict between the requirements of

102 the Department of Education and the industrial concerns of the NSW Teachers'

Federation. However, the logic of what was attempted endured, and aspects of the

scheme were increasingly incorporated into government secondary schools in the

1990s.

At the same time as The Entrance Scheme was being attempted, a Parliamentary

Report on the School Certificate was being prepared. The Chairman, Brian

McGowan, was the Local Member for the area where The Entrance High School was located. Many of the principles underlying The Entrance Scheme were a part of the recommendations of the McGowan Report when it was tabled in 1981. The

Report called for the abolition of the School Certificate and its replacement with a

new credential, the Certificate of Secondary Education. The Certificate would be

a record of the student's achievements in the years leading up to the award, and be available at any time when the student left in Years 9, 10, 11 or 12

(McGowan,1981, p. 3). The transcript would contain a record of all courses completed and other relevant information. Influenced in part by The Entrance

Scheme, the Report recommended that all courses should be offered in half-yearly semester units (McGowan,1981, p. 3).

The McGowan Report made some valuable comments on secondary school structures and subject areas. The Report believed that if a subject was given "non

examinable" status, it is much more difficult to find sufficient students to be able

to form a class. The issues raised in the McGowan Report about the acceptance

by teachers of outmoded and irrelevant approaches to school and curriculum

103 organisation, as being still somehow educationally desirable, found support as well in the Schools Commission Report, Schooling for 15 and 16 Year-Olds.

“A rigid model of how secondary schools should operate continues to

govern the activities of many schools. In two inner-city schools the

Commissioners visited in Sydney, for example, the first four years were

organised as if there was to be an external examination” (The School

Certificate by this time was awarded internally.)

(Schools Commission, 1980, p.22).

Following a further Discussion Paper, Future Directions of Secondary Education in N.S.W. released in April, 1983, prepared as a response to the McGowan Report, another Report, again titled, Future Directions in Secondary Education was finally released in 1984. Its authors were Doug Swan, then Director General of

Education, and Ken McKinnon, the Vice Chancellor of University of

Wollongong. The Report drew attention to the challenges facing schools - social, economic and technological change; increased youth unemployment; the knowledge explosion and the disparities that existed in the wider society. These presented certain educational challenges - what does it mean for students to stay at school till they are virtually adults? How can secondary schools benefit students and how can the schools prepare students for constant change (Swan &

McKinnon,1984, pp. 5-7)? Twenty-one recommendations were presented. Some of the more important ones were that students should complete a full 6 year secondary education; a Statutory Board for Years 7 - 12 should replace the two

Boards; the Board should have 22 members of which only four would be from the

104 Universities and Colleges; a balance of common and specialised studies be

provided and that a Certificate of Secondary Education be awarded at any time a

student left school prior to the completion of Year 12 (Swan & McKinnon, 1984,

pp. 35-38). The Report was criticised by some because it did not lay down a prescriptive blue print (Winder, 1984, p. 10). Yet this was unfair, as the Report could hardly lay down a prescriptive pattern and then advocate the importance of a single Board to achieve this. While Swan and McKinnon advocated that the

Board of Secondary Education should "assist and guide schools in the

development of courses" (Swan & McKinnon, 1984, p.16), it did not seem to

recognise that such total school based curriculum development required additional

skills for developing programs from program guidelines.

In May 1987, the Education and Public Instruction Bill, created a new Board of

Secondary Education; replaced the School Certificate with a Certificate of

Secondary Education; and, gave responsibility for Years 7-12 to the new Board.

This kind of broadening perspective on secondary education, seeking stronger links between lower and upper secondary education, and a stronger connection between theoretical and applied studies was evident in NSW during the 1980s.

The change of government in NSW in May 1988 prevented the Swan/McKinnon

recommendations from being fully implemented. However, by the mid 1980s,

many schools were already setting the pace in reforming their structure and

organisation. For them, the Swan/McKinnon Report was not a grand dream, but

rather a practical and feasible necessity that was already underway. These

innovations tended to have an organisational emphasis that aimed to create more

105 choice and diversity. Greater freedom being given to schools meant that if they wished, they could modify the more traditional timetable arrangements. Quirindi

High School had implemented a semester system of organisation from 1982. A

Semester Co-ordinator was appointed to work on the implementation of the scheme. Students studied semester length courses both in the core subjects and in the School Certificate and optional elective subjects (Murdoch,1985, pp. 8-9).

The time for optional courses came by reducing the number of periods a week for the core subjects to five.

Riverside Girls' High School in the 1980s operated two senior courses. Girls were introduced to male dominated courses such as Woodwork and three modules operated in the school - non-specialist, specialist and senior. Sylvania High

School experimented with flexible timetable arrangements and an extended school day. Woolgoolga High School, a new high school, used a semester system and vertical student grouping. Manly High School developed a semester system, longer periods and an extensive pastoral care network to complement changes in the curriculum. Newcastle High experimented with computer management of courses and 6 or 7 lines of study per year from Years 8 to 10. Crestwood High, a new school reflected the progressive nature of the Principal, Keith Ison. As well as being a non-uniform school, Crestwood implemented a semester system, a Year 9-10 module, and a teacher-parent-student curriculum committee for approving and developing courses.

These were only some of the attempts to make secondary schooling more relevant, more responsive and more flexible in the 1980s. Many of the

106 innovations can be traced back to The Entrance Scheme. Whilst not duplicated, many schools studied the scheme, the problems and the possibilities and developed more appropriate structures for their own schools.

Reforms to government secondary education

Significant reforms to government secondary schools occurred at the end of the

1980s and into the 1990s. Many of the factors driving such reform were outside the school. The most dominant theme was an economic concern for efficiency.

School management had to be responsive to the perceived needs of government and the community. The Principal was now being asked to assume a different role in industrial relations, budgeting, and corporate policy making assumed great importance. There was a necessity to restrain expenditure to ensure the public received more value for its tax dollar (Harold, 1989,p.2). Public expenditure needed to be cut, waste eliminated and productivity of the public sector increased.

For schools, and in particular principals, this meant a cutback on hierarchical rules, a removal of security of tenure for many positions, and being given more discretion and initiative to manage the money provided.

In the United Kingdom, under Education Minister Baker, there had been by the late 1980s, a great decentralisation of control of resources, but a very considerable centralisation of control over curriculum (Harold 1989, p. 24). This is what happened to NSW schools. The new Minister for Education in 1988, Terry

Metherell, had been to the United Kingdom and studied the changes. He set up two committees almost immediately on taking office. The Scott Review on the

107 management of the NSW education system was delivered in June 1989. The

strategy called, "Schools Renewal" was highly critical of the centralised control of

education in NSW (Scott,1989, p.5). The basic change needed was that the system

should be totally supporting the school (Scott, 1989, p. 6). The organisation was

to be turned "downside up". The Head Office of the Department of Education

was to be drastically reduced with functions being devolved to regions and

schools. A small Central Executive would develop policy, co-ordinate operations

and oversee management systems. Regions would provide planning, professional

support and administration and all schools would be placed in a cluster of about

15, led by a Cluster Director who would provide management accountability,

leadership support and educational monitoring (Scott, 1990, p. 9). The school would "develop its own Renewal Plan as the basis for its on-going program of school improvement and professional development" (Scott, 1990, p. 10). Whilst

School Renewal dramatically changed the role of principals, and to a lesser extent

other executive, it had little impact on what occurred in a classroom. It was a

management exercise, not an educational program. Scott had much to say about

the devolution of resources, but nothing to say about the devolution of curriculum

control.

The second Committee to report was the Carrick Committee and its

recommendations had more of an effect on what actually happened in secondary

schools. Chaired by John Carrick, a former Federal Minister for Education, the

Report titled: Committee of Review of New South Wales Schools (1989) made

recommendations that dezoned schools, supported the establishment of specialist

high schools, supported additional counsellor positions in high schools, desired

108 better provision of schooling in rural areas, and established voluntary school

councils. A new Board of Studies was to be established and the Board's task was

to develop and issue to schools comprehensive and detailed syllabuses. The

Report also recommended increased retention at government schools, and a

number of strategies to increase equity in schools (Carrick, 1989, pp. 3-21).

The Government also released discussion papers titled Curriculum in New South

Wales Schools (1988), and Excellence and Equity (1989). Eight "Key Learning

Areas" were proposed for secondary schools. Of these, Technological and Applied

Studies represented something new for schools. Finally, with the passing of the

Education Reform Bill 1990 that legislated minimum curriculum requirements for the award of the School Certificate and Higher School Certificate

(Metherell,1990, pp. 5-6), the Board of Studies released the new Curriculum

Requirements for NSW Schools. Minimum indicative hours were prescribed for each Key Learning Area (KLA). For example, secondary schools now had to provide 100 hours study of each of Australian History and Australian Geography.

Two hundred hours study of a priority language would be required. (Board of

Studies,1991, pp. 4-5). A much more controlled procedure for curriculum development was introduced, that provided a shorter time line for curriculum development and required the ultimate approval of the Minister for Education.

The result for secondary schools was less flexibility and freedom to develop curriculum and organisation patterns they felt appropriate for their students.

One of the changes that affected secondary schools was the movement from the comprehensive school towards specialist schools. From 1989, the Coalition

109 Government implemented a policy of increasing the number of specialist secondary schools. New selective schools were established from existing schools.

Technology High Schools were introduced; one at Cherrybrook being purpose built with significant private sponsorship. Specialist high schools for sport and the performing arts, and the emergence of senior colleges all occurred in the early

1990s. These changes were necessary, it was argued, under three words - choice, diversity and excellence, concepts hard to criticise. In 1995, of the 380 high schools in NSW, 82 or 22 per cent were listed as being a "Specialist Secondary

School" (NSW Department of School Education,1995, p. 21).

The selective school created an escape route for the middle class student out of their local comprehensive school. For many of the comprehensive schools, with their most academic students creamed off, and many other students electing to attend nearby specialist schools, it was a time of crisis and re-examination of their purpose. Comprehensive high schools felt, particularly if a range of specialist schools surrounded them, that they were like "the salmon that John West rejected". For those who gained admission to the new elite schools, choice was enriching, but for those left behind, there was no choice, only an impoverishment of their learning environment. Competition between schools was seen as favourable by the government. Whilst some schools were of high quality, others were not of the same quality. The inequalities of quality and outcomes, characteristic of a centralised, bureaucratic system of government schools in

NSW, became even more exaggerated. In many ways, it was a return to the pre

Wyndham days where high schools, junior technical schools and domestic science

110 schools prevailed. These were phased out as they were seen as limiting, divisive

structures. Perhaps we have not learnt from our history.

During the 1990s, there was an accelerating movement to both increase and

improve the delivery of vocational education by secondary schools. The Finn

Review (1991) called for six key areas of competence seen as essential for all post

compulsory students. The Mayer Committee (1992) continued the work of Finn

and listed seven major competencies that should be developed in post-compulsory schooling. The Carmichael Committee (1992) proposed a new Vocational

Certificate and training to achieve competency based training through work experience and study. Whilst such initiatives were Federal initiatives, NSW secondary schools were forced to begin to adapt their curriculum to offer more vocationally oriented programs. The major criticism of the reports was that their recommendations were about structural changes. There was not an attempt to improve what actually happened in classrooms. We give much lip service to the quality of teachers needed to improve the quality of educational outcomes, yet do little to target the improvement of this crucial area.

In 1992, the Board of Studies, responding to political, school and community pressure to develop more flexible approaches to post-compulsory schooling, released a "Pathways" document to schools. The document proposed that students could work towards a Higher School Certificate by the traditional academic courses, through TAFE, and through a mix of TAFE and school courses. As well, students could be accelerated through their courses and take up to five years to accumulate their HSC. By 1995, there were literally thousands of combinations

111 for students to gain the HSC. New vocational courses were added. In 1993, a new subject "Industry Studies" was introduced. Students could specialise in one of three aspects - Hospitality, Retail or Metal and Engineering. Teachers needed special, intensive training that required them to reach certain industry standards.

They were then accredited to teach the course. Other new vocational courses, known as Content Endorsed Courses (CEC's) have also been introduced in aspects

such as Office Skills and Hospitality. These subjects could all count towards the

award of a HSC, and in the case of Industry Studies, towards university matriculation.

Government secondary schools by the mid 1990s saw vocational education as being part of the mainstream and a valuable course for students from a range of abilities and interests. Flexible course delivery was introduced in many schools.

Some used extended hours and some introduced special non matriculation programs that enabled students to spend part of the week at school, part at TAFE completing one or more Joint Secondary School/TAFE courses, and part of the week undertaking a structured work placement. Windsor High School and

Blayney High Schools were two of the first schools to introduce such a program.

Recent structural changes

In the late 1990s government secondary schools in NSW underwent significant structural changes. Firstly, in an attempt to increase choice and competition, partial de-zoning of schools occurred. Partial de-zoning where vacancies existed opened the option for parents to send their children to schools other than the local

112 one. Secondly, the number of selective high schools continued to increase. From

11 schools in 1987, 10 more were established in 1988, 2 in 1993 and 5 more in

2001. This brought the number of selective and partially selective schools to 28

(Vinson, 2002, p.122). Many of these schools took the academically talented students away from their local high schools. The decision to form further academically selective schools was frequently strongly opposed by nearby comprehensive schools. Many of these schools argued that a loss of talented students would lower the academic reputations of the schools they left, which in turn, would lead to a perception that talented students were not well catered for and hence a further loss of enrolments (Noble interview, 2001).

Thirdly, a large number of specialist high schools have been established. Between

1988 and 2002, well over 50 were established (Vinson, 2002, p.124). Technology

high schools, performing arts high schools, sports high schools, creative arts high

schools and a rural technology high school have been established. An increase in

senior high school choice has also occurred. Senior high schools at Bankstown,

Bradfield, Illawarra, St Marys and Coffs Harbour now compete for enrolments

with surrounding high schools. An interesting development has been the creation

of a number of multi-campus colleges. Resulting from the decline in senior

enrolments in comprehensive schools with the resultant loss of subject choices, by

2003, ten multi-campus colleges were operating. These comprised 35 high

schools operating as junior and/or senior campuses (Vinson, 2002, p.123). For

example, Chifley College at Mt Druitt comprised a senior 11-12 campus at

Whalan and junior 7-10 campuses at Mt Druitt, Dunheved, Bidwill and Shalvey.

The comprehensive school concept was changing to one of a comprehensive

113 system of secondary schools. The multi-campus model by 2002 made up 9 per

cent of all government secondary schools (Vinson, 2002, p.125).

It is clear that both the NSW Government and the Department of Education and

Training believe that multi-campus colleges can attract students to public education. However, by dividing the schools into two parts at Year 9 or 10 for most students, these new colleges represent a total structural variation on the Year

7-12 comprehensive high school.

Recurrent themes

NSW government secondary schools have certainly progressed and developed

over the past 150 years. Like primary schools in the nineteenth century, secondary

education for all is now a reality and a right accepted by all in the community. To

understand how the government secondary school of today has evolved, it is

necessary to be aware of five major, recurrent themes, present throughout their

history and which keep re-emerging from time to time.

a. Incremental change

Firstly, change in NSW government secondary schools has been gradual and

incremental. In recent years, there has been much discussion of the drastic

changes, brought in suddenly and without consultation by the then Minister for

Education, Terry Metherell. While there were many changes, these were

structural, and did not impact on the classroom teacher when he entered his

classroom, closed the door, and began his lesson. In every important reform in

NSW secondary education, the broad features of the new scheme began to emerge

114 before official policies were formulated. Comprehensive schools were well

established long before the Wyndham Scheme was implemented in 1961. Many

schools had implemented vocational courses long before they became part of the

official curriculum of schools. Many schools had already introduced various organisational patterns, particularly semesterisation before it became accepted by the Department of Education in the late 1980s.

The movement away from secondary schools being comprehensive in the late

1990s was also gradual with more selective schools and an increase in specialist, senior and multi-campus schools being gradual rather than as a deliberate policy implemented across the government secondary schools. As most of the educational changes have been structural, the fact that this is not the core business of teachers in the classroom, has meant unless teachers have seen the worth of an idea, it has not been implemented in the spirit in which it was intended.

The 1990s were a destabilising time for government secondary schools. There was a rapid rate of turnover of senior leaders in the educational bureaucracy, and in the structure of jobs and lines of authority. Governments now intervene to an unprecedented degree in schooling (Beare, September 1989, p.9; Caldwell,1993, p.9). Whilst strategic planning is needed as never before, it is so closely linked to the government and its re-election, that the maximum available time horizon is less than four years. The pressure from government meant that secondary schools were often forced to endlessly proclaim changes, which they had neither the will, nor resources to properly implement.

115 b. Purpose of secondary education

Secondly, there has been little agreement on the purpose of secondary education.

Over many years, key groups such as teachers and parents have held different

views on the purpose of secondary education. In the 19th century and into the

20th century, secondary schools were organised and run for the academic elite.

Whilst the lesser students were not excluded, they were forced to cope with the

same type of courses, or a diluted version of the course. Many parents, on the

other hand had seen secondary education as being irrelevant to their needs.

Farmers had rarely seen the secondary school as the place to learn farming and

agriculture. The demands of academic study were seen as superior to the demands

of practical skills. Schools have also been seen as a means of correcting the ills of society. If sexual diseases are a problem, then the schools should teach about it, and all will be well, goes the argument. The government secondary school has been seen as serving all masters, all the time. In the 1990s we saw a convergence between general and vocational education, though much remains to be done. The changing clientele of secondary schools may have forced schools to begin to accept changes in emphasis, but it is a comparatively recent trend. Perhaps schools themselves are to blame. The results of education take years to realise, the outputs are difficult to define and measure and the cost of changing direction in schools can be both expensive and divisive. Yet secondary schools, in particular, must be able to clearly articulate what values they uphold and what purpose they seek to fulfil. This must be as close to the aspirations of students and the general community as possible.

116 c. Demands of external examinations

Thirdly, government secondary schools have been dominated by the demands of external examinations for many years. It was necessary early in the 20th century to sit for an examination, just to gain entry into a high school. After 2 years, students sat for an external Intermediate Certificate. Students were then prepared for a matriculation examination at the end of their schooling. Whilst the universities’ control over curriculum has weakened in recent years, the current

Higher School Certificate has continued to be seen as the ultimate purpose of secondary education. A student's whole schooling is reduced to four numbers,

"What was your Tertiary Entrance Rank (TER)?" or lately, “What was your

University Admission Index (UAI)?” Subjects still tend to be ranked by whether they are counted for a UAI, and then by how much they contribute to a UAI in relation to other subjects.

d. Control of secondary schools

Fourthly, the issue of control and authority has dominated much of the debate about secondary education since the 1850s. At first, the Department of Education gave schools little, if any, control over their staffing, curriculum, governance or budget. A strong cadre of Inspectors of Schools continued to operate in this manner until the late 1960s. Schools then gained some control over their curriculum, as well as having various matters delegated to them. The 1980s saw some quite exciting schemes to better cater for students. The 1990s saw greater devolution and freedom given to schools to deal with their budgets and functions, but a greater centralization of curriculum requirements by the Board of Studies, restricted the ability of schools to develop their own curriculum and allocate times

117 for various subjects. The 1990s Scott model for schools, believed that the appropriate technological skills and management expertise led to improved

student outcomes. Further changes from 1995 and into the 21st Century have seen an attempt to regain bureaucratic control of schools. Linking schools to the

achievement of political objectives, mandating more of the curriculum,

centralising how schools are staffed and requiring principals to be involved in an

ever-increasing range of non-educational duties from child protection to

occupational health and safety has almost quashed the ability of a principal to

undertake major educational and organisational change for the benefit of the

students.

e. Continuous change

Secondary schools as institutions have never been entirely satisfied with their

performance. There has always been a desire by schools to be better. This

century there are likely to be factors in the form of technology which will change

school structure, organisation and curriculum more quickly than the past 150

years. Technology already exists to make redundant many of the teachers of

today. Why should students come to a school to learn? Would there be less time

wasted, improved student outcomes, and for the community, a cheaper cost, than

the existing model of schools, simply by making use of the available and future

technology? Would the secondary teacher of the 1890s really notice much

difference if he came into a school in 2004? Would he teach in the same manner,

and would students themselves, notice much difference?

118 Conclusion

The secondary school of today is a vastly different institution from the beginnings

of secondary education over 150 years ago. From an exclusive community, secondary schools are today truly seen as being for all. Despite all the changes the themes of incremental change, the purpose of the secondary agenda, the external examinations and the issue of control and authority still resonate today in government secondary schools in NSW.

The research whilst varying from qualitative to quantitative and from observations, discussions, interviews and surveys identifies the importance of

proactive planning and leadership within schools to enhance student outcomes.

Restructuring by itself does not necessarily lead to improvements in student outcomes. Improvement in the teaching pedagogy, when combined with restructuring is more important.

There are important issues for the development of school culture and capacity to respond to change resulting from the ambiguity evident in the role of the Heads of

119 Department, their lack of adequate preparation for faculty leadership and

workload issues. An educational system needs to ensure that Heads of Department

have access to a range of development activities from formal courses to workplace mentoring and learning to ensure that these middle managers both understand their roles and have the skills and capacity to drive change in secondary schools.

The theme of responsiveness to change is continued in the study on the choice of high school. The research was undertaken before students entered high school and

hence avoided the initial reasons being influenced by the reality of attending the

school. Schools must project positive messages concerning the administration of

the school and its curriculum to prospective students and parents.

The secondary schools and their staffs described throughout this portfolio are all

working laboratories where educators seek to offer high quality, comprehensive

education to students drawn from diverse social and economic circumstances. In

each of the research papers the demands on teachers’ commitment to their work is

increasing. Without concomitant changes in their reward, professional

development and satisfaction, not only is commitment likely to decrease, but it

will be increasingly difficult to attract good quality leaders to the profession.

Reforms that focus only on changing structures in secondary schools will never,

by themselves succeed in building positive forms that serve all students. Cultural

patterns and ways to support learning need to be shaped and developed.

Leadership from throughout the school will be necessary to build and maintain

positive, purposeful secondary schools as places to learn and grow.

120

There is a continued need to develop new structures and process, make better use of time, space and human resources, and establish multiple pathways to ensure that with the assistance of technology secondary education can be seen as relevant, effective and life fulfilling in the 21st century.

The secondary school of today should be a community, offering a protected environment for students, and providing opportunities for experimentation, and tempering failure with compassion. The school should be a place where students achieve excellence. It should also be a flexible organisation for the development of staff and the grouping of students, with wide ranging experimentation. Fine words indeed. William Wilkins wrote them for his NSW schools over 100 years ago. Have our secondary schools changed all that much?

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127 CHAPTER FOUR

REFORMING THE HSC

Chapter 4 researches a process which resulted in significant change across all government secondary schools in NSW. There are implications for further systemic change. The paper was written from my perspective as an active participant at the systemic level of change.

The paper was first presented at the Doctoral Conference at University of Western

Sydney in October, 1997. The paper has also been presented to a meeting of secondary principals from the Metropolitan North Region of NSW in 1997 and to a conference of South Australian Principals at Willunga in November, 1997.

The process for changing the HSC was different to what had previously happened in NSW. The result was that all schools, in a relatively short period of time, implemented most of the recommendations resulting from the change process.

128

REFORMING THE HSC

______

Introduction

On Monday, 7th August 1995 the New South Wales Minister for Education, Mr

Aquilina, announced a review of the Higher School Certificate (HSC). Major concerns had been expressed about the role and function of the HSC from teacher groups, principals’ bodies and regular press articles. Most educators agreed that the HSC was beset with problems. Concerns included the proliferation of courses, the manner of reporting the results and the relevance of the HSC for many students. The review of the HSC had been a major policy undertaking of the newly elected government that had promised a “stronger, simpler HSC that parents, students and teachers understood and support” (McGaw ,1996, p.192).

This paper examines the review process leading to policy change in the HSC in the context of relevant, contemporary theories.

The development of the HSC

The HSC was introduced with the introduction of the Wyndham Scheme in 1962, with the first students awarded their HSC in 1967. Designed for the small

129 percentage of students aspiring to tertiary education, the HSC had not been reviewed since. The process for the review of the HSC was unusual. Usually, an educational review in New South Wales had involved the appointment of a small committee or single reviewer. This group then researched the issues and prepared a collaborative report. Input from key groups and the community were usually sought. The Government or Education Department then either accepted or adapted the report and announced a new policy direction. The Wyndham Committee

(1957) was established in 1953, reported in 1957 and was first implemented from

1962. The more recent Eltis Report (1995) on outcomes and profiles in New South

Wales took only a few months to complete. The review of the HSC was to be undertaken by a single reviewer, Professor Barry McGaw. An Advisory Group of

25 would assist him. The group did not write any of the report and did not see the report until it was released publicly.

The Wyndham Report (1957) devoted only one page of the 170-page report to the proposed Higher School Certificate. The main focus of Wyndham was to increase secondary schooling by one year and make it accessible to all. This was achieved by means of the School Certificate awarded after four years of secondary education. A minority of pupils would remain a further two years at school to undertake “courses of study which will afford matriculants a better prospect of successfully undertaking the early stages of university study” (Wyndham 1957, p.98). In the first year that the HSC was attempted, less than 20 per cent of the age cohort sat for the HSC (McGaw 1996, p.8).

130 Over the next thirty years the HSC underwent many changes. Hardly a year

passed without some change to the curriculum or method of assessing and

reporting results. The 1967 HSC had highly differentiated courses within

subjects. Levels 1, 2 (short and full) and 3 were taught in 28 subjects. Students

needed a minimum of five subjects to gain the HSC. The marks reflected a

differentiation of courses within subjects. For example, Level 1 Mathematics

scored between 0 and 270, Level 2 courses scored between 0 and 130 and Level 3

between 0 and 100. In 1975 the differentiation of courses by levels was removed,

a unit structure adopted and school based Other Approved Studies (OAS) courses

introduced. Up to 1976 courses were assessed without comparison with each

other. School estimates were moderated by an examination performance from

1977. By 1986, scaling by the statutory board had been abandoned and left to the

universities. School assessment tasks making up 50 per cent of the final result were introduced. A Tertiary Entrance Rank (TER) replaced a Tertiary Entrance

Score in 1990. 1992 saw new requirements concerning the breadth of subjects introduced and in 1993 new pathways involving study over a five-year period commenced. Many of the changes had been to address perceived difficulties in assessing and reporting. Conceded passes at a lower level were abolished in 1975 in response to concerns that students were entering courses for which they were not suited. In the early 1990s, scaling procedures were changed to remove the perceived bias for students studying the highest level of Mathematics. In 1996, in response to concerns that students were taking the lowest level of English to maximise their result, changes to the scaling of English were introduced.

131 The changes to the HSC over its first 30-year history had been mostly

incremental, reacting to pressures from teachers, the community and politicians.

At times, with changes to courses and ways of reporting, the changes had been

quite reactionary. The high stakes placed on the HSC had seen students use the

system for their best advantage. Once this was seen, the Board of Studies (and

before 1990 the Board of Senior School Studies) changed the rules. The then

Minister for Education, Virginia Chadwick, was able to say in 1994 that the HSC

“is the most prestigious secondary school credential in Australia” (Chadwick,

1994, p.1). The HSC was also recognised internationally for its rigour and

academic standards (Chadwick, 1994, p.1).

A need for change

Although changes had occurred with the HSC, nearly 30 years after the first HSC

was awarded, in place was a concept and structure designed for a minority of

students. Fewer than 20 per cent of students continued to the new HSC in 1967

(McGaw, 1996, p.8). The HSC was a university entrance test for these students.

The School Certificate became the general leaving certificate for the majority of

students. The retention rate of students to Year 12 grew in the 1970s and 1980s

reaching 70 per cent in the early 1990s (McGaw, 1996, p.8). In an attempt to

meet the diverse needs of the increasing number of students, pathways of study,

vocational courses and an increased range of subjects and courses within subjects

had been offered. A proliferation of languages occurred in the 1980s. At this

time some subjects began to be offered in a range of courses – 3 and 2 unit

English, General English and Contemporary English is an example. New subjects

132 such as Business Studies, Legal Studies, Drama, Design and Technology and

Computing Studies were added. These reflected the changing nature of knowledge and their perceived usefulness in the community, as well as the desire to cater for the wide range of interests and ability levels now found in the senior school. Subjects such as Aboriginal Studies were added because of pressure from particular lobby groups.

In 1995 it was possible to select, in theory at least, from nearly 150 courses within 76 subjects. No school would have been able to offer all 150 courses, so students were effectively limited by the specific curriculum at their school. A perception was that too many courses related more closely to hobbies than careers.

In the 1990s, vocational courses requiring additional teacher training and offering dual accreditation for both the HSC and TAFE/industry, became common in many schools. The most popular of these courses was Industry Studies (Hospitality). A fundamental problem became whether the HSC should be essentially academic in nature or multi-functional with a strong vocational orientation. A serious charge levelled by many school and university educators was that the HSC had changed from its original intention and now lacked rigour and academic integrity (Print,

1995, p.18). The major political parties took up such a theme. The Australian

Labor Party (ALP) saw this issue as being crucial in its campaign for office at the

1995 New South Wales State Elections. The ALP complained about a lack of rigour in the curriculum and a watering down of educational standards (Scott,

1995a, p.16).

133 The inclusion of vocational subjects in the HSC created problems. Some schools

tried special vocational courses, combining academic study, vocational courses

sometimes in TAFE and some form of work placement. Students were reluctant

to undertake them, as they often believed they would then become ineligible for

selection to university. In the long term, these courses were generally not

successful. The quality, relevance and outcomes were not the issue. The issue was that fewer and fewer students opted to undertake these courses because of a perception that they were not as useful as a more academic pathway.

Queensland had abandoned their external senior examination in the 1960s and selected students for university on the basis of a moderated school assessment.

Why NSW did not adopt a similar procedure is difficult to say. The perceived cost at the time, and the tradition over many generations of an external end-of-school credential was very strong.

In 1984, McGaw had warned that low enrolments in specially devised courses may reflect the student’s wisdom of keeping further study options open by enrolling only in subjects that clearly could lead to higher study (McGaw &

Hannan, 1985, p.11). There was unease from some schools and teachers as to the balance between general and vocational education.

A crucial problem had become the link between the HSC and Tertiary Entrance

Rank (TER). In 1986 scaling of results was abandoned by the then Board of

Senior School Studies (BSSS) and left to the universities. Most universities used unscaled marks to produce their aggregate. In 1987 the universities adopted a

134 joint strategy for scaling and aggregating results provided by the BSSS. A

Tertiary Entrance Score (TES) based on examination results and school assessments was introduced in 1988 and this was further modified in 1990 to a

Tertiary Entrance Rank (TER). This placed the scaled results of students into bands of one twentieth of a percentile from 100 down with the bottom 15 per cent showing as “15 or less”. The TER was never clearly understood by students, parents, employers and even large numbers of teachers. To many, a TER of 50 was equated with a “pass”. Society overvalued the TER as a measure of school performance. The TER was intended to be used purely as a means of university

selection – who can attend university and which faculties can they enter? For the

1994 HSC candidates, only 34 per cent actually enrolled at university in 1995

(McGaw, 1996, p.97). A larger percentage, 37 per cent enrolled at a TAFE in

New South Wales. The TER had become a defacto guide for employers as well as parents. The media at the time of the HSC release was becoming increasingly active in compiling and publishing lists of a rank order of schools based on the number of students scoring a TER greater than 90.

At the release of the results in January 1997, one newspaper even published across its front page a class photo from a disadvantaged school with the caption

“The class we failed”. The teacher unions, parent bodies and principals’ associations of both government and non-government schools, condemned the publication of such data without recognition of the intake abilities of the students.

Whilst claiming that the TER did what it was supposed to do, university staff also agreed that the TER had been misused by the community (Raethel, 1995, p.5). A survey of government high school teachers in 1995 showed that only 14 per cent

135 believed the TER was a good indication of student performance (Fitzgerald, 1995, p.5).

A range of groups, including employers, also expressed criticism of the HSC.

While 72 per cent found the HSC a useful document, they wanted schools to place greater emphasis on communication, problem solving and decision making skills

(Lambert, 1992, p.2). Many complained about the difficulty in interpreting the

HSC results, with difficulty in understanding the difference between different courses in the same subject and understanding scaling (Lambert, 1992, p.12).

Politicians expressed concern about the complex nature of the HSC. The then

Opposition Leader in New South Wales, Bob Carr in his policy statement for the

1995 State Election, promised a new HSC “capable of serving the school system for the next 25 years” (Carr, 1995, p.12). Editorial comment and Letters to the

Editor of major newspapers regularly featured articles critical of some aspect of the HSC.

Review of the HSC

Four months after winning government the new Minister for Education and

Training, John Aquilina announced the appointment of Professor Barry McGaw, head of the Australian Council for Educational Research (ACER) to lead a review of the HSC. The decision to review the HSC was a political one. The first stage would involve the preparation of a Green Paper. The second stage would involve public consultation on the issues and options presented in the Green Paper. The

136 reviewer would then provide a report on these consultations and recommendations

to the minister. The report would then assist the preparation of the Government’s

White Paper (Scott, 1995a, p.4). It was originally intended that the end of 1996 would complete this process.

Hogwood and Gunn (1986, p.5) have argued that there are two approaches to

policy development. One is based on a rational model of issue search, issue

definition, issue forecasting, setting objectives and priorities, analysing options,

evaluation and review. The other is an incremental “muddling through” approach

advocated by Lindblom (Hogwood & Gunn, 1986, p.7).

The terms of reference for the review indicated that the government wanted a

“stronger, simpler HSC that parents, students and teachers understand and

support” (McGaw, 1996, p.192). A comprehensive curriculum policy, fair and

valid assessment practices, clear reporting and an acceptable basis for gaining

entry to post school pathways was required. The decision of what the review

would encompass, and what it would not was political. The Minister for Education

and Training, John Aquilina, released the terms of reference. They had been part

of the government’s election policy. The terms of reference did not take into

account the possibility of future policy replacement at this time. Hogwood and

Gunn (1986, p.5) have argued that thorough analysis of what the real problem is

should be undertaken at this early stage. It can be argued that political debate

represents an appropriate form of policy analysis. Analysis of what questions the

review should undertake was highly political rather than merely a technical

activity. The explicit setting of objectives for the review was avoided. Using

137 words such as “a scaling system that is fair, transparent and capable of being

clearly explained” (McGaw, 1996, p.192) was vague and open to a multitude of

interpretations. Indeed at the first meeting of the Review Advisory Group a representative of the Catholic system asked the Minister, John Aquilina what he meant by a system that was fair, transparent and clearly understood by all. The

Minister searched in his notes for an answer, tried to make eye contact with an adviser and eventually conceded that this may not be possible!

The statement that the HSC be retained as a “rigorous, competitive, externally based end-of-school credential” (McGaw, 1996, p.192) could have been a desire to ensure that options to be presented would have majority backing either in the political party or community. However, the reason policy makers avoid thinking through and spelling out their objectives reflects a shrewd awareness that to do so would precipitate conflict rather than agreement (Hogwood & Gunn, 1986, p.52).

By excluding questions as to whether a HSC examination was actually required limited the subsequent review from considering a full range of options. The inclusion of multiple objectives within the terms of reference, such as a scaling system which is free of bias, capable of being clearly understood yet in accord with “contemporary understanding of what marks mean” (McGaw, 1996, p.192) led to confusion. The objectives were incompatible and in many respects contradictory. A HSC with a “coherent and comprehensive curriculum policy”, a

“scaling system that is fair, transparent and capable of being clearly explained” and a “qualification that is sufficiently broadly-based to provide a quality grounding in knowledge and skills for further tertiary study” (McGaw, 1996,

138 p.192) while, at the same time, providing an appropriate platform for students

wishing to pursue vocational or on-the-job training would not be easy to achieve.

The announcement of the HSC review met with some criticism. The NSW

Teachers’ Federation representing teachers in government schools argued that a

review of Year 7 to Year 12 was needed. The School Certificate should be included in the review (Raethel, 1995, p.5). The Parent and Citizens’ Association

representing parents of students in government schools was critical, saying that the review did not ask questions about whether the HSC can meet all the roles demanded of it, from a university entrance mechanism to a reporting device on the performance of students (Scott, 1995b, p.3).

Process of review

The Minister for Education and Training also established an Advisory Group to facilitate the work of the reviewer. Key organizations were asked to nominate a member to the Group and, once those nominees were known the Minister added four nominees. The Advisory Group then consisted of twenty-five people. Unlike other reviews, the Advisory Group did not write any of the documents.

The Green Paper was released on 1st May 1996. Titled Their Future: Options for

reform of the Higher School Certificate (McGaw,1996) it came after seven

months of consultation with the Advisory Group. The Green Paper presented 40

options for the HSC arranged into sections concerning curriculum, assessment and

reporting and post-secondary selection. While most interest in the media

139 concerned post secondary selection and the TER in particular, McGaw took the view, often stated to the Advisory Group that curriculum matters were paramount and if the curriculum was right the other matters would follow easily. In the media, in schools and at public meetings the Green Paper was well received. It was praised for its readability, presentation and perceptive analysis. However, it did not raise great passion at this stage. This could be considered unusual as the

HSC and its processes were highly controversial issues meriting considerable space in the media. The Green Paper encouraged everyone not to close off options at an early stage. Since everyone could find an option they liked at this stage, there was no need to argue for or against a final position.

A period of public consultation then occurred lasting nearly four months. Public meetings were held around New South Wales to present the options and to hear initial reactions. Thirty-eight meetings were held. All meetings were attended by members of the Secretariat and Advisory Group and in many cases by the

Reviewer. Issues and comments raised in each meeting were documented and made available to the Reviewer and Advisory Group. Whilst not part of the review, many of the comments at public meetings raised issues concerning the

School Certificate. At one country meeting, the principal of a small private school was anxious to determine how many members of the Advisory Group were homosexuals!

The public meetings raised a number of issues.

. At meetings of predominantly teachers, the focus was on the purpose and

mechanics of the HSC. At meetings of mostly parents, the focus was on

140 vocational education, post-compulsory selection and specific school issues.

. A standards assessment where students would be reported against a standard

and not in comparison with other students was generally supported, but there

were many questions as to how this would occur.

. A standard curriculum available in every school would be fairer particularly for

students from country and disadvantaged schools. The breadth of curriculum

offered by the Board of Studies is not always reflected in the course offerings

by schools.

. While employers use the English mark, they do not understand it. This was

often linked to the expressed idea of having a pass/fail standard.

. The TER was seen by many as being a way to escape living in a country town.

. The rules for the HSC should not be changed once the HSC year commences

and a greater concern for the “mobile population” should be shown.

. There were variations in themes between country and city meetings.

Public submissions were also invited. Wherever possible, submission writers were encouraged to give reasons why they favoured a particular option. In total,

1018 individuals and organizations made submissions on the HSC.

141 Analysis of submissions

To assist the analysis of the 1018 submissions received, a QSR NUD.IST (Non-

numerical unstructured data indexing searching and theorising) computer package

was used. This program allowed a more thorough exploration and recording of all

data. Each “text unit” or single line of text in the submissions was coded and related to one or more of the descriptors – base data, curriculum, assessment and reporting, selection for post secondary activities, emergent issues and the review process. Reports on the comments made by all the writers about the issue in question could then be provided. Whilst an extremely valuable tool, it must be questioned as to whether it can provide the structure to any argument and provide the full and intended message. For example, when shown a summary of the position of the key interest groups on each of the options, one of the members of the Advisory Group strongly rejected what her organization was shown as saying

concerning the reduction in the HSC courses. While agreeing that a reduction of

courses in a subject was possible, her organization did not support this.

An analysis of the pattern of submissions raised questions of how widespread was

the consultation. The writer read approximately 35 per cent of the submissions

chosen at random. Whilst the government school sector had responded

extensively, the same could not be said of the Catholic and non-government

sector. There was almost a complete lack of response from those groups and

individuals most isolated and disadvantaged by the HSC process. Asking people

already disadvantaged to make a written submission was not appropriate. More

extensive consultation involving oral responses was necessary.

142 After reading the submissions the following observations can be made. Many submissions supported mutually exclusive options. For example, some submissions supported a pass/fail option, yet also supported a standards referenced reporting of results. Many others failed to apply arguments consistently throughout the submission. Submissions varied between those that sought to address the needs of all students compared with those that addressed the needs of only a select group, particularly a subject area. Some suggested that a minimum standard should be attained prior to the HSC. There was support for

expressing whether a minimum standard has been achieved without employing a

“fail” concept. Most writers condemned the publicity accorded the release of the

HSC results. There was overwhelming support for reform of the TER and the

separation of the HSC results from the TER. Standards referencing was supported

but there were concerns expressed as to its technical feasibility. If it were to be

implemented, teachers and parents would need more information about how it was

to be done. There was broad support for retaining curriculum diversity, both in the range of subjects and with courses within subjects. There was widespread support for vocational education, particularly in submissions from parents. Many submissions advocated the abolition of the School Certificate and the moderator

examination. Despite support from the peak bodies, government schools tended

to support standards referencing, but there was little support for this from the

independent schools.

Many of the submissions turned the process into a form of plebiscite with mention

of the number favouring each option rather than saying why an option was

preferred. Very few addressed teaching issues and pedagogy, though the

143 submission from the Association of Heads of Independent School (AHISA)

argued very strongly that how we teach is more important than what we teach

(AHISA, 1996, p.12). Little reference was made in the submissions to technology and its use in curriculum delivery. The Green Paper and the subsequent recommendations report by the Reviewer also made little reference to technological change. The HSC review in its haste to address issues arising from

immediate political needs did not address imminent changes in the use of

technology for curriculum delivery. It will be a challenge for the shape of the

HSC in the future to take account of the vastly different way in which the transmission, retrieval and discovery of information and knowledge will operate.

There were very few different or challenging submissions. The Parent and

Citizens’ Association was a notable exception.

“Schools should be given more freedom following consultation

with their communities to decide if they wish to emphasise

vocational education that relate to their specific communities” (P&C

submission, 1996, p.13).

The presentation of specific options in the Green Paper focused respondents’ ideas only on the presented options. The process of the HSC review gave only one chance for comment and consultation. Issues emerged during the consultation phase that deserved further analysis. One was the strong comment related to vocational education. The options presented few opportunities to comment further on this area. In the standards assessment area there was much concern as

144 to how the concept could be implemented. If research had been undertaken to pose matters that could have been predicted, then it may have enhanced the consultation process by having specific proposals on which to consult. It was not till the Minister actually announced details of what became known as the New

HSC were details of how the standards referenced approach was to be implemented known. There was a need for further consultation after the second report and specific recommendations had been made.

The second report: “Shaping Their Future”

Following further consultation with the Advisory Group, an analysis of all submissions and further research, particularly in the area of vocational education, the Reviewer presented to the Minister for Education and Training his final report,

Shaping Their Future Recommendations for reform of the Higher School

Certificate (McGaw, 1997) on 12th March 1997. Replying to comments in the submissions, the Reviewer presented 26 recommendations for the reform of the

HSC. Each recommendation was presented in the total context of the HSC and clear reasons for the conclusions were given. The main recommendations included,

. A basic curriculum structure with two 2 unit courses, an advanced and

standard course in most subjects. English would have a third 2 unit

course, titled Literature. Mathematics would also have an additional

advanced 2 unit course. About one third of each course would overlap.

. Contemporary English to be abolished and replaced with a course

145 only for non-English speaking students.

. Increasing the range of vocational education courses and counting

some towards tertiary entrance selection.

. Students to study a minimum of 12 units, English being the only

compulsory subject.

. The School Certificate be abolished and replaced by a Statement

of Attainment incorporating state wide testing in literacy and

numeracy.

. A standards referenced approach to assessment based on

achievement scales for all subjects to be introduced.

. Student results be reported on a scale of 20 to 70.

. A University Entrance Score reported only to the candidate, and

only if he/she applies for university entrance to replace the TER.

. The Board of Studies to be restructured to create a smaller Board

selected for their expertise rather than as a representative of a larger

group (McGaw, 1997 pp. 120-130).

The report was initially well received by the press. “Blueprint for simpler HSC” headlined the press (Sydney Morning Herald, 1997, March 13, p.1). Key interest groups such as the teacher unions, NSW Federation of Parent and Citizens’

Association, principals’ groups and the universities all responded favourably

(Sydney Morning Herald, 1997, March 13, pp.1, 4-5, and Telegraph Mirror,

146 1997, March 13, pp. 14-15). However, within weeks, media articles indicated that there were considerable problems, particularly with the implementation of the recommendations. A university mathematician claimed the “HSC revision plan scores 20 out of 70” (Gaudry, 1997, p.15). The reduction in the number of mathematics courses was seen as a lowering of expectations. McGuinness (1997, p.15) claimed the new HSC would lead to lower entry standards into university.

The HSC was trying to serve too many purposes. The head of one of the elite private schools claimed that the abolition of 3 unit courses would penalise

“meritorious and essential courses” (Townsend, 1997, p.1). Even the Minister for

Education and Training conceded that while he fully supported proposals to change the TER, he was concerned about some of the practical concerns of teaching both advanced and standard courses in all schools (Raethel, 1997, p.11).

Theoretical context

The review of the HSC was designed to lead to significant change in all secondary schools. Goals and priorities were to be set centrally for local interpretation and implementation. Logan, Sachs and Dempster (1994, p.10) would see such an approach as a logical, problem-solving process. Managerial relationships presume that schools are rational organisations within a decentralized system. Managerialism diverts teachers’ energies to procedural accountability more than to personal and emotional responsiveness, and has shown little demonstrable benefits for student outcomes (Fullan, 1993).

147 In the literature on change and planning a number of categories have been identified. The first is implementation theory which is concerned with what needs to be done and how to ensure that the intended change is successful (Porras &

Robertson, 1987). The second is called change process theory and this focuses on explaining the dynamics of the change process (Marks, 1997, p.55). The nature and process of change, and change as it relates to the individual are the two dimensions of this theory. Finally, the third category can be called change management theory. This covers the management of the entire change process from initiation to institutionalisation of the change. The literature (Fullan, 1991;

Trice & Beyer, 1993) suggests that for change to be successful, it should be managed from the outset, beginning with initiation. Deal (1990) argues strongly that the context in which the change process takes place is crucial.

Of the three approaches, the process for the reform of the HSC best fits the

“implementation theory” as it is concerned with pre-implementation and implementation. It was the decision of the Minister for Education and Training to initiate the change. The reviewer and advisory group then became the initiators, the promoters and advocates for the change which would lead to not only a new policy but to changes in the organisational structure of the schools. Most importantly, change has a profound effect not only on the schools but on the individuals in the school. Change affects people in different ways and it is not unusual to find people at different points of the change cycle.

However, this was not to be expected in the reform of the HSC. As the HSC is both a high profile, life-determining process and the results are reported in a

148 public manner, it was not possible for any school or teacher to ignore, try to subvert or delay the implementation of the HSC reforms. To do so would have invited public shame and humiliation and probably resulted in some legal process. Schools no longer can be indifferent to their wider environment.

Increased parental choice, market competition and no longer having a monopoly on learning contributed to teachers’ acceptance of HSC reform. Change in NSW secondary schools might require the change to be linked directly to open and public reporting.

There are some other key models that try to explain not only what happens in policy development, but also to understand how policy came about, whose interests are being served and what are the outcomes.

Systems theories view policy as the output of a production system (Crump, 1993, p.13). A rational model of policy development is based on the assumption that there is little difference between economic and social policy (Weale, 1983).

Hence if a policy cannot demonstrate a cost-benefit gain, it should not be pursued. The incremental model views policy as an increment, or addition, to an earlier policy (Lane, 1990, p.6). The changes in the HSC from its introduction in

1967 to 1995 could be seen as incremental. The problem-solving model is based on a premise that public policies are responses to and sources of problems

(Dubnick & Bardes, 1983, p.5). Public policy and planning should try to deal with issues and attempt solutions.

149 The reform of the HSC certainly tried to deal with the expressed public concerns, articulated by the politicians regarding a broad curriculum and complicated assessment procedures and reporting. However, the HSC reform process created problems for groups and institutions that it did not address. Proposing a standards-referenced assessment system instead of a cohort-referenced system that teachers were familiar with created considerable concern and apprehension.

There was a need for intensive development activities so that teachers could implement a standards-referenced approach in their classes. As teachers could not afford to ignore the change in policy, implementation became a priority. The policy generated problems through the very process of being put into practice.

NSW has a history of systemic intransigence and individual responses to policy reform. In the government system, the introduction of an Education Commission, changes to the curriculum with the Base Paper (1975), the failed Swan/McKinnon reforms to the junior secondary curriculum (1987) and the proposals to change staffing arrangements (1972 and 1989) all demonstrate the difficulty of bringing about system level change. To engage in whole-scale reform of the HSC could have met a similar fate. That it did not, can be attributed to a widespread dissatisfaction with the HSC and the public accountability for results in the HSC.

A more pragmatic form of policy theory accounted for the problem-solving that predated the policy intentions and the interactions between various education cultures during the formulation of the actual policy. Regular community consultation and the gradual narrowing of the options assisted this process.

150 Role of the Advisory Group

The appointment of an Advisory Group to consult with the Reviewer was unusual in that it had no role in actually writing either report. The 25 member Advisory

Group met on thirteen occasions, nine before the first report was released. At 25 the Advisory Group was large with most members representing an organization.

Seven of the group came directly from schools and of these, two taught students on a daily basis. There were four who directly represented parents, three representing unions, three from the tertiary sector and a further three representing the system users of the HSC – the Department of School Education, Catholic

Education Commission and TAFE.

The Advisory Group lacked both time and direction to be able to make a significant contribution to the review. The first five meetings mostly involved a discussion of the purpose and the research in other states and countries as to the final years of schooling. Only four meetings were spent on discussing curriculum, assessment and reporting and selection for tertiary study. Discussion of options for university selection involved only the concluding part of the last meeting before the release of the first report. The group mostly reacted to prepared papers that they had been given, usually just before a meeting.

Adequate time to discuss the issues and options and provide considered advice to the Reviewer was not available. In the haste to formulate a new policy, the opportunity to offer more insightful advice was lost.

151 The role of the Advisory Group was never made clear to its members. Whilst the group knew they were not going to actually write the reports, they were unclear as to whether they were to propose other options, come to any degree of consensus to advise the Reviewer or to advise on what the likely reaction of the various school and community sectors might be. In an early meeting of the group, considerable attention was devoted to discussing what the purpose of the

HSC should be. To this writer, this was a crucial issue because if this were clear to the group and the Reviewer, the discussion on curriculum, assessment and reporting and post school selection would have been more focused. The

Advisory Group never reached any definitive understanding of the purpose of the

HSC.

The size and composition of the Advisory Group limited its effectiveness. There were four members who attended few meetings. The writer cannot recall seven of the group making any comment during the entire process other than a general comment at the first meeting and a brief comment on the submissions. Only thirteen of the group could be considered to have made regular, detailed and considered contributions to the process. The representation of too many interest groups led at times, to some posturing and defending of entrenched positions.

Despite their different backgrounds, a degree of consensus among the school based and parent group representatives emerged. As most of the Advisory Group represented and were chosen by a large organization, there was a degree of tension between the need for confidentiality and the need for reference to each member’s organization to seek advice. It may have been more effective for a smaller Advisory Group chosen for their specific expertise to have been formed

152 so that more detailed research, discussion and consideration of ideas over a longer period of time could have taken place.

The process of transforming the intended policy intentions into actual policy would have been more effective if McGaw had used a different advisory structure. A team of specialists able to test assumptions, set aside irrelevant knowledge and work through possible models in action would have resulted in models more easily understood, accepted and easily implemented in classrooms.

Concerns regarding process

In his opening address to the Advisory Group, the Minister for Education ventured the opinion that this review was the most significant educational initiative undertaken by the Government since the Wyndham Report. The HSC review was to contribute to the quality of education provision in a significant manner. The Wyndham Committee began its deliberations in 1953, reported in

1957 and it was not until 1962 that the new scheme was commenced. In many ways the HSC review struggled with much the same issues as Wyndham (Payne,

1996, p.9). Wyndham was concerned with equity in access to education. The

HSC review also tried to address the question of equity with a focus on equity of access to the process applied to reporting and assessment. Considerable data were provided in both reports that related HSC success and subject availability to where students lived. In an area which has an enormous effect on the future of young people and which can generate strong passions and views, the HSC review had a very short time period. The review commenced in 1995, and was to affect

153 the first group of students from 1998. This eventually became 2000, but it was

still an impossible time frame for effective policy change.

If politicians needed a decision on the HSC, then a comprehensive review such as

was undertaken may not have been the appropriate method. If the need were for a

decision rather than a fully documented conclusion, there would likely have been little enthusiasm for formal analysis (Hogwood & Gunn, 1986, p.93). The HSC process was a political issue and an objective, frank and total analysis, which examined the HSC as a whole, may have left the politicians open to criticism.

During the preparation of both reports, the Advisory Group was repeatedly

reminded by the Minister for Education, the Reviewer and Secretariat to maintain

confidentiality of the various draft papers and discussion documents.

Unfortunately, this was not maintained. During the preparation of the first report,

there were numerous instances of material being given to the media. On 16th

February 1996 the Advisory Group met and discussed aspects of the HSC

curriculum. Before them was a draft paper of a range of curriculum options,

which included the option of abolishing a number of subjects. The Sydney

Morning Herald on February 17, 1996 carried on its front page a report of a

speech by the Premier, Mr Carr to leaders of government and private schools

advocating that some subjects be abolished. Mr Carr’s address quoted directly

from material before the Advisory Group. The writer can only conclude that the

material was “leaked” as a means of “kite flying” to test public reaction. The

Minister for Education on at least two occasions to the Advisory Group, and once

at a public meeting, stated that he had no preferred option for the HSC. Yet with

a Premier taking a close interest in education and publicly stating his view about

154 removing “soft options” (Carr, quoted in Sydney Morning Herald, 1997, February

17, p.1) the intended objective nature of the review was compromised.

After the public consultation phase had ended, and the Reviewer was preparing his final report, the Advisory Group was not given access to the draft of the report. Each member of the group read a range of submissions of the key interest groups. However, the Reviewer did not reveal his thinking about issues for fear the information would be released to the media. While this was understandable, it was unfortunate, as much of the discussion that did take place was unfocused.

There was much clear thinking, sound reasoning and ideas in McGaw’s second report that deserved careful consideration by policy makers. It would have been more effective if the Reviewer had been able to take the Advisory Group into his confidence and seek advice, particularly with the more practical implementation of the final recommendations. There was little reference in the second report on the implications for how the recommendations would be implemented in schools and no reference to the considerable need for training and development of teachers to be able to implement the “New HSC”. Tighter organization of options would have led to better formative consultation.

The final recommendations

Concerns were expressed regarding the practicality of the recommendations in the Reviewer’s last report Shaping their Future: Recommendations for the reform of the Higher School Certificate (1997). Most of the concerns and criticism centred on Recommendation 12. This advocated a basic curriculum structure of

155 two 2-unit courses in each subject. One would have a level of intellectual demand equivalent to the then 3 unit courses and the other less demanding, and with a component of the curriculum common to both courses so that a result could be located on a single scale for the subject (McGaw, 1997, p.124). The abolition of 3 unit courses was attacked arguing that the best students would be penalised (Townsend, 1997, p.1). More importantly, others claimed that the adoption of “advanced” and “standard” courses would lead to the situation where many schools were able to offer only one course in each subject. The school would be forced to choose which course would be offered. If an advanced course was offered, this could lead to the drop out of many students, and if a standard course was offered more capable students would be disadvantaged. Schools would be further marginalised, often by location into “advanced” or “standard” schools. Without any increase in resources, schools would be expected to now teach 12 units to all students, whereas only 11 were required in the existing HSC.

Questions such as whether the junior school would suffer if more resources had to be located in the senior school, and the problem of vocational education where most courses offered through TAFE were only 1 unit and were not able to be guaranteed from year to year were frequently expressed. Flexibility would be reduced, as students would have to commit themselves to subject choices when they were in Year 10 as there would be little chance to change in Year 11 and still retain their eligibility for the HSC. One solution suggested by the NSW

Secondary Principals’ Council was to require students to sit for only 10 units in their HSC year and a common preliminary year to be undertaken in all subjects in

Year 11. This was claimed to enable schools to be able to staff and timetable the

156 new structure within existing resources (NSW Secondary Principals’ Council,

1997).

McGaw defended his recommendations in numerous newspaper articles and

addresses to professional associations (see for example, 1997, March 17, Sydney

Morning Herald; and 1997, April 4, Sydney Morning Herald). McGaw argued

that there was no basis for subjects being less demanding than others.

“What is unique in NSW is the extent of levels within subjects which

set different expectations. Unfortunately the differences can be

explained more by geography than ability. Students of equal

ability in English, in Year 10, are not all studying the more

demanding English course for the HSC. A 13 per cent difference

between students in the more affluent northern areas of Sydney

and the south west is apparent in the HSC (McGaw, 1997a).

McGaw argued that the way to raise the level of student performance is to raise the top level. He also argued that the students undertaking the 3 unit courses, with the exception of Mathematics were not the best students undertaking the subject.

Students would select a 3 unit subject because they can fit it into their pattern of studies. He saw the new pattern as actually enhancing the better student (McGaw,

1997a). He claimed:

“trials conducted in a cross section of high schools are

encouraging suggesting the new structure can be timetabled

157 and students have tended to choose the harder courses” (McGaw,

1997a).

If the process of review of the HSC had allowed more active and formative consultation with the Advisory Group before the report Shaping Their Future had

been published, the Reviewer would have been provided with advice regarding the

practicalities involved in implementing the recommendations and with the opportunity to undertake school research. Whilst the report accurately reflected the submissions received in the consultation stage, the question of a curriculum structure set out in Recommendation 12 had never been raised with the Advisory

Group, nor can the writer identify it in any submission received, or in the written reports of any public meeting. The policy changes resulting from the review had to be implemented in a wide range of schools across the state. It is to the detriment of the acceptance of the policy changes, that discussion of the recommendations did not take place before they were publicly released.

There was also concern that the Report Shaping Their Future met or even went

outside its original charter for the review of the HSC. The curriculum policy

recommended was certainly coherent. There were clear recommendations to

ensure reporting of what students know, understand and can do. The

recommendation that the TER be awarded only to those who request it, and to

remain confidential between the student and university was almost universally

accepted. However whether the reporting system advocated “accords with

contemporary community understanding of what marks mean” (McGaw 1996, p.

192) was argued. Recommendation 22 called for the reporting of students’ results

158 on a numerical scale from 20 to 70 (McGaw, 1997, p. 129). If the assumption was

that the community did not understand marks reported on a 100-point scale, there

would be even less likelihood of understanding a scale from 20 to 70. If the

intention was to move away from the notion that “50 represents a pass”, and this

was never the case with the HSC, moving to a scale of 20 to 70 was likely to lead

to more community misunderstanding.

The report “Shaping Their Future” and the recommendations it contained

exceeded its charter in two areas. Firstly, in Recommendation 18, it was proposed

that the School Certificate be abolished and replaced with a Statement of

Achievement for students leaving school (McGaw, 1997, p. 127). The students’

results on statewide testing in literacy and numeracy were to be included on such a

statement. Many groups and individuals, including the NSW Teachers’

Federation were critical of this recommendation. Certainly the Advisory Group

was never asked its views on the subject though in various conversations many of

the Advisory Group expressed their own misgivings about the School Certificate.

What was clear though, was the large number of submissions that advocated the

abolition of the School Certificate. Its effect on Year 10 schooling, the majority

of students who now proceeded to the HSC and its considered irrelevance were

reasons frequently given. To ignore such a large number of concerns in the report would have distorted the final recommendations. The fault lay in the original charter. The HSC was the end process in thirteen years of schooling. Before a review of the HSC had been conducted, or perhaps as part of it, should have come a review of the total secondary system. Primary schools had moved very much to an outcomes based approach. Junior secondary courses were starting to move in

159 this direction. To advocate a move to a standards referenced system for the HSC would lead to an even more confused system for the School Certificate. To review and develop policy for Years 7 to 10 before moving to the senior years

would have made far more educational sense.

Secondly, Recommendation 26 proposed that the membership of the Board of

Studies be reorganised to create a smaller Board with membership reflecting personal expertise (McGaw, 1997, p. 131). This recommendation was clearly

outside the HSC charter. It was never mentioned in any discussion with the

Advisory Group. It was not part of the community consultation process or in

submissions received. The Federation of Parent and Citizens’ Association was

particularly critical stating that the recommendation was “an act of revenge by a

Minister who was tired of the Board that was not always prepared to rubber stamp

his wishes” (Forster, 1997, p.8). It is argued that decisions that may emerge from

the Board of Studies will be better for being shaped by a variety of viewpoints and

considered arguments.

White paper decisions

When the second report was released the HSC Reviewer and Advisory Group

played no further part in the total HSC review. A Government White Paper was

prepared in the Minister’s office and on 20th August 1997 the Minister for

Education released a document Securing Their Future which set out the structure

of the new HSC. The main features were:

160 . Students in Year 11 would undertake a Preliminary Year

consisting of 12 units and then a HSC year of a minimum of

10 units. English would be the only compulsory subject.

. Each subject would be a 2 unit subject with advanced courses

in English, Mathematics, History and Music. Most of the

subject 2 unit and 3 unit courses would become the single

2 unit courses.

. Vocational Education and Training courses that are relevant to

industry needs were to be introduced. There were to be seven

Industry Framework courses. The standard of all courses was

to be raised.

. Student results were to be reported against standards, not

against the results of other students.

Changes were to be made to the School Certificate. Whilst McGaw’s recommendation to abolish the School Certificate was not accepted, a new external test to be held in November each year in English literacy, Mathematics,

Science was introduced. By 2002 these had been extended to include Australian

History, Geography, Civics and Citizenship to every Year 10 student. Students would receive the actual mark and band they had achieved in these tests.

When the White Paper was released it was only another three years before the first cohort of the New HSC commenced their studies. During this time the Board of

161 Studies, which was not changed in the White Paper, had the task of developing

completely new curricula for each subject including the determination of

standards. Of greater importance was the significant teacher development that had

to take place so that teachers in all schools could implement the changes. The

NSW Department of Education and Training developed and implemented an

extensive program for teachers in government schools. Cross-sectoral Local

Interest Group Events (LIGs) were held in 1999 followed by many workshops where teachers could start to develop programs and resources to enable the

various subjects to be taught. Printed materials were distributed to all schools and

further LIG Events were held in 2000 to develop teachers’ skills in assessment

using a standards framework. The first New HSC examination was held in 2001.

Since the New HSC began, enrolments in Advanced English, Mathematics and

History Extension have risen sharply though this has sometimes come at the

expense of students being able to undertake courses they are interested in and feel

are useful for them. The speed at which the New HSC was able to be

implemented across NSW in all types of schools has been remarkable. It runs

contrary to most theories of educational planning and change. However, the fact

that at the end of the two years there was a public examination and teachers are

directly accountable for their results acted as a strong motivation to implement the

New HSC both in substance and spirit.

The results of the New HSC lie outside the scope of this paper.

162 Conclusion

The decision to conduct a review of the HSC was a timely and welcome one. The process used was different from one normally used to review educational policy.

A single Reviewer who would write the report was appointed. The Reviewer was an expert in this field but had not previously been involved in NSW education.

This was a masterstroke by the then Minister for Education. A 25 member

Advisory Group assisted the Reviewer in his review. Following the release of the

Green Paper, which set out many options for the HSC relating to curriculum, assessment and reporting and post school selection, a period of community consultation took place. Community submissions were analysed and after further discussion, the Reviewer released his final report, Shaping the Future. Twenty- six recommendations were presented. The government then prepared a White

Paper to outline what it actually intended to do to change the HSC.

The process used in the review was effective in gaining the expertise and practical advice of the Advisory Group. The time given for the process was impossibly short, and in attempting to balance the demands of politicians against the need for fundamental change, tension arose. The fundamental question of whether society wants a change in policy which looks good, or whether society wants a change in policy which will be widely supported and implemented in spirit as well as in detail in schools remains unanswered.

163 References

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168 CHAPTER FIVE

CHANGING SECONDARY STRUCTURES:

RESEARCH INTO FOUR SECONDARY

SCHOOLS

Chapter 5 moves from systemic change to change in four different schools. While

all schools were changing to the same curriculum structure they were all different

both in their context and in the manner they went about change.

The paper was first presented at the UWS Doctoral Conference in October, 1996.

Since then further research into the schools has happened and data on the results of the change processes have been collected and the paper substantially rewritten.

The paper was presented at a dinner meeting of the North Coast Branch of the

Australian College of Education (ACE) in September 1999.

169 CHANGING SECONDARY STRUCTURES:

RESEARCH INTO FOUR SECONDARY SCHOOLS

Changing context

Changing a secondary school so that quantifiable outcomes of students show real

improvement is a daunting task. The size of secondary schools both in student

and teacher numbers; the various interests, qualifications, skills and aptitudes of

teachers; changes in and diversity of views on the nature of the learner and the

curriculum, and the prior learning, motivation and attitudes growing teenagers

bring to the school all make changing a secondary school significantly very difficult. Yet change secondary schools must if they are to prepare students effectively for the twenty first century.

After World War II, the expansion of secondary education in New South Wales contributed to the popular belief that the widening of educational opportunities promoted economic productivity and the advancement of social egalitarianism

(D'Urso & Smith, 1981, p.299). The Wyndham Report (1957) accelerated the

development of comprehensive high schools throughout New South Wales. The comprehensive secondary school was seen as the best way to provide for a satisfactory education for all (Wyndham, 1957, p.9). For over 30 years, secondary

schools in NSW were organised on the premise that all students would follow a

set curriculum in an aged based group. While the set curriculum included both a

170 core and electives, it was meant to offer something to everyone - but not the same something. The 1980s and 1990s saw a change in the character of the clientele of these schools. Yet this has not been matched at the same speed by changes to the school curriculum and organisational structure. Most teachers accept that the role of the secondary school is not simply to serve the interests of the decreasing percentage of university bound students. In 1994, only 34 per cent of Higher

School Certificate leavers enrolled at university (McGaw, 1996, p.173). By 2002 the figure was 30.5per cent (NSW DET, 2004, p.34).

Reports (McGowan, 1981; Carrick, 1989) saw the inflexible secondary school timetable as the major deterrent to real secondary school change. There were inflexible school days, rigid step-wise progression, little curriculum choice, teacher centred delivery of information and the use of public examinations

(McGowan, 1981, pp. 97-100). Carrick, (1989, p.251) recommended that time should be regarded as a flexible factor in learning, rather than the determining factor.

Some schools have tried to change their structure, but with mixed success. Junee

High School in the early 1970s was successful in introducing a flexible timetable allowing students to choose from a greater range of interest electives. The

Entrance High School, in the early 1980s, tried to restructure the curriculum into units and provide greater curriculum choice but was defeated by the demands of the Education Department and Teachers' Federation bureaucracies (Cohen &

Maxwell, 1985, p.166).

171 In the 1990s, the role of comprehensive secondary schools changed. External

pressures such as the increase in the types and number of specialist schools, dezoning of school enrolments, increased retention rates and increased community expectations put pressure on comprehensive secondary schools to demonstrate that they were still relevant, and capable of delivering quality student outcomes.

Rationale

Most secondary schools in NSW had been organised on a system where teachers were expected to create a quantifiable product in a given amount of time. The timetable divided the curriculum into 40 minute blocks to be taught by subject specialists. The timetable controlled three other critical attributes of the school day: the use of space, grouping of students and the role of staff members in the learning process (Kruse & Kruse,1995, p.3). This use of space created a kind of isolation in a high school where staff rarely interacted with one another. Once

students were grouped into classes in a certain academic track (low, average, high)

their position usually became a "life sentence" for the duration of attendance at

high school. Students, after grouping, became part of the timetabling process,

with little flexibility existing for any future regrouping for learning. Teachers,

seen as content specialists were arranged into departments to meet these timetable

needs. As demonstrated in the following analysis, in recent years there have been

attempts to break out of this organisational structure.

This study examined how four comprehensive high schools in NSW attempted to

introduce structural reform to improve the learning outcomes for students. The

172 high schools had all chosen a form of organisation which could be loosely called a

unitised vertical curriculum structure (UVC). The UVC is a system where

students from across a number of years may study a variety of smaller curriculum

units. The UVC stressed the concept of increased choice and responsibility for secondary students. The normal one year courses were shortened to semester or

term (four terms in a year) long courses. Student units then built a pattern which

satisfied set criteria. The study examined the rationale for change, the process

taken, parental and community involvement, issues in the restructuring and

problems encountered in the schools concerned.

It is the overarching assumption of this study that the UVC is a device for organising time by providing opportunities for affecting significant improvements in the learning environment. The basic theoretical model is that the UVC is one device for effecting change. It is the way in which change is managed, rather than the change itself which is the critical variable for assessing its effects.

Organisational practices

In 1996 to understand the organisational practices being implemented, a survey of

the 54 high schools in the former Metropolitan West Region of the NSW

Department of School Education was undertaken. Information was collected from

returns supplied by the schools to the Department of School Education. Care

needs to be exercised in interpreting data, as no verification of the accuracy of the

data obtained or their meaning to schools was attempted. Thirty one of the 54

schools reported using one or more of the listed practices. Included in these

173 practices are those that may be utilised with students in both the post-compulsory years of 11 and 12, as well as students in years 7-10. The numbers after each practice indicates the number of high schools using the practice.

. semesterisation of courses (7)

. vertical timetable structures (15)

. extended school day (9)

. small class teams (2)

. coordinated/shared vocational education days (28)

. timetabled day for vocational education study or work placement(5)

. longer period lengths (9)

. part time enrolment of students (7)

Semesterisation and vertical timetable structures only occurred in the organisation of years 7-10.

These data suggest that a majority of schools in the former Metropolitan West

Region were employing a variety of organisational structures. Secondary schools appeared to be modifying their organisational structures.

174 Literature search

While the research in the area of changing secondary school structures is limited, three sub-sections are noted. These are semester based systems, various forms of vertical grouping across grades and a unitized vertical curriculum which is a combination of the first two.

There is little systematic research available on changing secondary school structures, and the UVC. In Australia, a study in 1989 investigated semester systems and vertical groupings in non government schools in NSW (Maxwell,

Marshall, Walton & Baker, 1989). They looked at any type of semesterisation, even if it was only in some subjects and any degree of verticalisation, even if it

was only across some years. Whilst 48 per cent of the sample schools had some

degree of both semesterisation and courses covering multiple-age groups

operating, many of these were smaller schools of less than 100 students operating

for both ease of staffing and structural convenience (Maxwell, et al., 1989, p.17).

Only 24 per cent of the sample was schools with more than 600 students, and only

9 per cent had students completing courses that were a term (about 10 weeks)

long. Such partial and convenience driven implementation is not the same as the

UVC structuring this study investigated. Another limitation of Maxwell, et al.

study (1989) was that there was only one written survey to complete. It was

reasonable that the principal or other senior executive completed the survey in the

knowledge that their perceptions of what the questions meant corresponded to

what Maxwell, et al., (1989) had intended, and that their perception may well have

been different to an average classroom teacher in the school.

175

The Eyers Report (1992) into the junior secondary years in South Australia recommended a flexibility of structure, flexibility with curriculum and an encouragement of student centred learning with students responsible for their own learning. Thus flexibility to better meet student needs would become the driving force behind a vertically organized model of curriculum delivery (Eyers, Cormack

& Barratt, 1992, p.219).

A study by Hadlington (1997) reported on the UVC in operation in a Sydney co- educational government high school. The South Australian Report had been a determining factor in the school choosing to operate a UVC (Hadlington, 1997, p.34). An evaluation four years after implementing a UVC in the school found that most students, parents and staff believed that the change in structure had led to students being empowered to choose their learning patterns benefiting their self esteem. Staff believed that the change in structure had helped to enhance their teaching and their students’ learning (Hadlington, 1997, p.206). Students liked the achievable short-term goals and the knowledge that if you failed one course it did not mean you failed the year (Hadlington, 1997, p.207). The research did not attempt to quantify gains in student learning and relied mostly on the completion of questionnaires after the structure had been in place for a number of years.

The major reason for restructuring a secondary school must relate to improving the outcomes for students. Schools are in the business of cognitive development.

Limited improvement in student performance has been achieved after decades of effort using traditional structures (Edwards, 1993). By changing the structure of

176 schools, it is argued, student performance will increase. Large numbers of schools

in Ontario changed to a semester system in 1975. It was hypothesised that semestering would facilitate the growth of positive interpersonal relationships among students and staff, increase learning objectives and reduce dysfunctional by-products of the teaching learning situation (King, Clements, Enns, Lockerbie

& Warren,1975, pp.17-18). Four types of schools were examined. Firstly, there were schools with a traditional scheduling. Secondly, there were schools which had increased the length of the class periods. Thirdly, there were schools which

had semesterised their courses and finally there were schools which had trimestered their courses. Student achievement, defined as changes using a set of

standardised scores, was not different in the first three types of schools, but was significantly higher in trimestered schools (King, et al., 1975, p.23). In a follow up study, Raphael, Wahlstrom and McLean (1986) claimed that gains in student achievement was only small in semestered classes in a sample of 250 mathematics classes in 80 Ontario schools (Raphael, et al., 1986, p.50). It was years of teacher experience that accounted for difference in student achievement (Raphael, et al.,

1986, p.50). Canady & Rettig, (1993) in reviewing U.S. schools which had increased period length, found benefits to students in providing increased instructional time, and providing possibilities for acceleration, repeating a failed course and in facilitating an outcome based approach (Canady & Rettig, 1993, pp.312-313). Edwards (1993) found in schools using a four period day, with 90 day courses, the improvement in student performance was significant. Of 21 students who had failed from three to seven classes in the previous year, seven out

of 21 now passed all their subjects, only three failed one subject and six failed two

177 subjects (Edwards, 1993, p.81). The movement to a less complex school schedule

with more individual attention was seen as a benefit.

Most attempts to improve student achievement in recent years, have concentrated

on targeting changes in the curriculum, changing teaching methods and changing the way in which school days are structured. Many schools in the U.S. have

moved to a variety of flexible structures. In 1992, a number of schools in Florida,

designed a schedule with three 112 minute blocks per day (Buckman, King &

Ryan, 1995). After one semester of this block scheduling, research showed

greater continuity among courses, improved grades, committed teachers and

students and a school environment conducive to learning (Buckman, et al., 1995,

p.12). After one year, besides increases in attendance, achievement as measured

by grade point averages was higher for 54 per cent of students (Buckman, et al.,

1995, p.13). Schools in Memphis (Huff, 1995, p.22) and in Virginia (Edwards,

1995, p.26) that had also trialled increasing the length of periods and basing courses on semester length offerings, showed a majority of students improved their grades. Lee and Smith (1994), in a study of more than 11000 students in 820 high schools across the U.S., using standardised test scores, found that in restructured high schools, learners made significantly greater achievement gains during their first two years, than did their counterparts in more traditional high schools. Moreover, these gains were distributed more equitably, with narrowing

achievement gaps between students from different socio-economic backgrounds in

restructured schools. In a follow up study, Lee, Smith and Croninger (1995),

reported that these achievement gains and more equitable effects were also true

for students in their last two years of high school.

178

These studies noted a side effect of less time lost between lessons by having students move less frequently. However, no study attempted to examine whether longer period lengths led to changes in teaching methods. A change in teaching method may have led to an improvement in outcomes rather than simply changing period lengths.

Other benefits are claimed for restructured schools. Edwards (1995) found an improvement in school climate, the engagement of students and a greater team spirit among staff. The Ontario study (King, et al., 1975, p.41) also found strong support for semestered schools making a positive contribution to school life through greater student involvement in learning and participation in class. A

unitised vertical curriculum was found by Maxwell, et al., (1989) to increase student interest and to provide students with short term goals. Yet Tuettemann

(1987) did not find any significant change in student attitudes to school.

Edwards (1995), Huff (1995), Maxwell, et al., (1989) and Tuettemann (1987)

agreed that restructuring whether in the form of semesterisation, flexible

scheduling or a unitised vertical curriculum place additional burdens on teachers

and can be disruptive of schools. Teachers have to revise courses, and make

considerable adjustments to their teaching strategies.

Most of the available research has been carried out by reference to improvement

in grades and opinion surveys, and while these are instructive, real changes in

179 learning and teaching effectiveness can be substantiated only by objective data

over a much longer period of time.

Methodology

Four comprehensive high schools in both rural and urban areas of New South

Wales were selected for this study. The schools were selected because teams from each school had participated in a conference on alternative structures held in

Darwin three years earlier. Each school was attempting to implement a unitised vertical curriculum (UVC). The schools were at different stages of development of a UVC. West High and Acres High had been developing the UVC for two years; Samuel High had been implementing a UVC for three years and Coastal

High was in its first year of implementation.

The names of the schools are pseudonyms as the staff in each school agreed to participate only on the understanding that their school was not named.

Data were collected for this study by the researcher spending at least five days in each school, collecting information from interviews with school personnel, teachers, students and a small number of parents. The principal of each school was interviewed. A detailed structured interview was held with the person or persons most concerned with the development and implementation of the UVC

(Refer to Appendix G). These interviews gained data on the reason for the change, the rationale, processes used in development of the UVC, specific issues

180 addressed and any unresolved problems. A content analysis of the interviews in

each school was conducted to identify common themes, issues and problems.

A survey of 205 students in total, in both a year 9 and year 11 English class in all

schools gained information on the involvement of students and their perceptions of the change (Refer to Appendix H for survey form). Interviews with 15 parents selected from the parents who assisted in the school canteens were held. These tended to be an executive member of the Parent and Citizens Association and parents who happened to be in the school at the same time as the researcher.

Structured interviews with other teachers were held. These ranged from 13 in one school to 30 in another. These focused on their involvement in the changes, their feelings for the change and problems they had or were experiencing. These teachers had indicated their willingness to be interviewed. The interviews were recorded and transcribed after the interview took place.

The Restructured Schools

This study examined the human, contingent and contextual factors in four schools that had undertaken major structural change. The schools had each chosen to change their structure to one based on a form of unitized vertical curriculum. Each school decided to change for different reasons, took different processes and were at different stages of the reform process.

The four comprehensive, government high schools studied are located in both rural and urban areas of New South Wales. They were staffed and funded in

181 basically the same manner. They were different, though, with their own particular history and culture. The schools all saw themselves as confronting a changing set of circumstances, a changing clientele, new educational technologies, the desire to remain relevant and provide an effective education to their students and the pressure to do more with a declining resource base. They all saw themselves as under threat from other, mostly selective schools and newer private schools. At the request of the schools their real names have not been used.

Sc ho o l 1- We st High Sc ho o l

West High was built in the early 1980s. It is located in a newer housing estate in

Western Sydney. Its enrolment peaked at 1600 and is now in decline with about

1000 students. It faced competition from both a nearby selective high school and a number of senior high schools. The classrooms were bright and attractive, however externally, whilst the school is comparatively new, it looked harsh and vandalism outside school hours was a problem. Students had a pride in their school and a desire to succeed. The school had developed a strong sporting record. Academically, there were few students who excelled at the highest level and the school was having increasing trouble in providing a full academic course in the senior years for those few talented students who wished to proceed to tertiary education.

The greatest strength of the school was its staff. The principal and senior executive had been at the school for more than six years. Most of the staff were young, and while lacking experience, were enthusiastic, spoke positively of the

182 students and appeared willing to experiment. Parent involvement was minimal beyond a School Council and Parent & Citizens Association.

The desire for change came originally from a feeling among the senior executive that the curriculum was too academic and not meeting the needs of the students.

In 1994, a facilitator worked with the staff over a number of School Development

(Pupil Free) Days. Extensive debate and discussion among staff was generated. A year was devoted to researching a range of options. Teams of teachers visited a range of schools and examined semesterisation, changing period lengths, a learning centre, and teaching teams. At the end of 1994 a decision was made to introduce a unitised vertical curriculum for Years 7 to 10. Eighty six per cent of the staff was in favour of this. The following year was used as a planning year and the UVC commenced in Term 4, 1995.

An Implementation Committee of volunteer staff was formed to monitor the restructure. Its task was to identify problems and develop solutions. Problems related to the question of what constituted satisfactory work, difficulties with the assessment scheme, the increased workload and time involved and the general administration of the scheme including student tracking. One success identified was the feeling that the school pastoral care system had improved. Some evaluation has been carried out. In a survey of students, strong support for student choice and course variety was identified, but students did not like the shortened 35 minute period. Some concern was expressed over the mix of younger and older students in each class. An unexpected outcome for staff was that the school

183 structure now allowed extra curricula activities such as drama, to be incorporated in students’ courses.

Sc ho o l 2 – Samue l High Sc ho o l

Samuel High is situated on the edge of Sydney and serves a diverse community of both urban and rural dwellers. Students came from a range of socio-economic backgrounds. The school was commenced in 1968 and all students were housed in permanent buildings. The school had extensive grounds but the quality of building construction and design made the buildings look prison like - a common statement from the students. Attempts had been made to soften the environment and a recent upgrading of a quadrangle provided a quieter, much softer environment. The school had 700 students. The school enrolment fell from over

1200 students, seven years before to a low of 650, but enrolments were now rising. The establishment of nearby specialist high schools and non government schools has contributed to this decline in student numbers. The staff believed that the school was seen as the least desirable of the nearby high schools. They had

worked hard to gain a higher public profile through an extensive media liaison

unit and initiatives in dance, drama and taking the school on tour to the feeder

primary schools.

The staff had an average teaching experience of 15 years. Most executive staff had

been at the school for more than three years. The principal believed that recent

appointments had strengthened leadership in the school.

184 Curriculum structures have undergone considerable change. In 1992 the staff

made the decision to move towards a semesterised and vertical structure. Year 9

and 10 elective subjects were semesterised in 1994. In 1995 this was extended to

all courses in Years 9 and 10. In June, 1995, the staff by a 3 to 1 vote decided to

introduce a unitised vertical curriculum in Years 9 and 10 in 1996. In 1996, Years

7 and 8 were placed on a term structure to complement years 9 and 10. Full

implementation from Year 7 to Year 10 occurred in 1998. The school deliberately

made the decision to proceed slowly on its restructure as it was felt that staff could better handle gradual change. Despite an overwhelming majority of staff voting to adopt the change, there were some that felt the consultation processes needed to

be more comprehensive so that all staff were able to acknowledge that they have been involved in the change process. The senior executive of the school felt that this was unfair as they believed the decision to recommend the change to the staff was not made by them. It came as a result of a long period of evaluation, review and investigation by a committee of 16 staff made up of representatives of all faculties and this committee had unanimously recommended it. Of 30 staff questioned, 19 believed that some staff was quick to find fault with change, but less inclined to contribute productively to achieving agreed outcomes.

At this stage, the school's restructuring had been evaluated each year, through teacher questionnaires. The results have then been incorporated into planning for the following year. A survey of all students in years 9 and 10 in 1996 and repeated in 1997 showed great support for the UVC. Students felt they got more work done, liked the variety of courses and the opportunities to change direction. They

expressed a concern that sometimes they could not do a course because the class

185 had either too many or too few students. A survey conducted by the principal showed that fewer students were being awarded unsatisfactory grades each term, though the reasons for this change had not been researched.

An analysis of student reports showed that in 1995 teachers recorded 79 per cent of students attaining all the stated course outcomes. In 1996 this had risen to 89 per cent and in 1997 to 91 per cent. The course outcomes had remained the same but the degree of student achievement had increased.

Sc ho o l 3 – Co astal High Sc ho o l

Coastal High is located in a rural city of New South Wales. There are two other government high schools and four non government high schools in the city.

Serving the older area of the city, a wide range of students with diverse backgrounds attended the school. About 20 per cent of students travelled to the school each day from rural areas. The school had a long tradition, being one of the first high schools opened in rural N.S.W. early last century.

The teachers were experienced and over 90 per cent had been at the school for more than 10 years. For a number of years the school had operated a vertical roll system and this had been moved progressively into pastoral care. There were now

1000 students in the school and numbers had remained reasonably stable for a decade.

186 The impetus to change came from a feeling among the executive staff in 1994 that

the traditional year long courses were not meeting the needs of the students. The

issue was taken up by a Head Teacher. The school had a change of Principal in

1995, and the new Principal, whilst supporting the development of a restructured

school, left its leadership to the Head Teacher. The school had proceeded slowly

towards implementation. Firstly, a number of staff visited other schools which

were also experimenting with changing their structure. These people then

reported in detail to the staff, which made the decision to develop a UVC. There

were originally "pockets of opposition" to the change, though all executive staff

was supportive. The executive gradually worked with these people to overcome

any opposition. It took almost two years to actually implement the scheme. Staff

was involved in progressively rewriting all courses. As issues arose, they were

addressed by the Head Teacher leading the scheme. The idea was to discuss the

sorts of issues that had arisen at other schools, before the scheme commenced.

Language, for instance, presented a problem, with students at different levels of

development. It was decided that a new Language stream would start each term.

Of the schools studied, School 3 had attempted to involve their community more

than the others. Staff felt their community supported them and the level of

parental involvement in decision making in the school had been high for some

time. Parents were members of various committees developing the scheme.

Data were also obtained from a survey of student choice patterns in 1996 and

1997. As they became familiar with the scheme, students changed course patterns

more frequently. They also attempted courses that were more relevant to their

187 planned higher school studies. In 1995, eight per cent of the students in year 7 to year 10 were ranked on a standardized test of reading and writing as being well below their age cohort. In 1998, three per cent of students scored in this range.

Sc ho o l 4 – Ac res High Sc ho o l

Acres High, also a government comprehensive secondary school opened in 1984,

is situated in the west of Sydney. Its buildings are modern and of the four schools

studied looked the neatest with extensive landscaped grounds. It had over 900

students. The school is part of a new housing estate. A third of its enrolment

comes from a non English speaking background. Both parents of students usually

were employed and it was not uncommon for both parents to travel for two hours

to get to work. Staff believed the students were generally motivated to succeed,

but believed that they saw restricted employment opportunities in the local area.

The school was concerned that only 54 per cent of its Year 7 intake will remain to

complete the Higher School Certificate.

The staff was mostly young and many were in their first teaching appointment.

The senior executive had all been at the school for six years, with the principal for

eight years. Most Head Teachers were in their first appointment as an executive.

While staff turnover was high, the commitment to the students and their

enthusiasm was obvious.

Unlike the other schools, the time interval from deciding to implement a vertical

curriculum to implementation was less than one year. In 1994, the school using

188 an outside consultant, was developing a policy to introduce alternative teaching strategies. Staff began to ask whether their curriculum and school structure would

support changes to the way teachers taught. The decision was made by the

principal, the driving force in the restructuring, to further investigate this matter.

A Curriculum Day involving all the staff and using visiting speakers was held.

Staff was then invited to make submissions and a staff consensus emerged.

Whilst no vote was taken to introduce a UVC, the staff seemed at ease with the situation. In less than six months, the staff had prepared courses, produced a curriculum handbook, decided to increase the length of the teaching periods to 51 minutes (6 periods a day) and a 20 minute pastoral care period, and introduced a

new computer system for timetabling and tracking of students. They employed an

interstate principal experienced in computer technology to assist them in the

process. The school had since moved to what they described as "double periods",

or 80 minute periods for at least two of the five periods that students study each

course each week.

Meetings of parents, in both the day and evening, were held to discuss the scheme.

Articles had been placed in the local press and in the school newsletter. However,

it seemed this was done mostly out of courtesy, rather than a genuine attempt to

involve parents in decision making.

In 1996, the second year of operation of the UVC, the school introduced a scheme

where all new students were assessed as to their prior knowledge. There were, for

example, a number of year 7 students who because of their prior skill in music or

189 language were not required to complete the compulsory basic courses year 7

students must complete.

No quantitative evaluation had yet been carried out. It was the feeling of the

principal that students adapted quickly to the scheme and were increasingly moving away from a traditional course structure. The principal felt that one of the unexpected benefits of the scheme was that staff was more familiar with, and better able to advise students on the requirements for the School Certificate. All staff acknowledged that issues of tracking of students, record keeping and assessment required further development.

Discussion: Implications of the study for changing secondary schools

What then, can be drawn from the case studies of the schools with relevance to the task of restructuring schools? An understanding of contextual and contingent factors, the role of leadership, conflict resolution, decision making, student engagement, student outcomes and emerging issues are discussed.

. Understanding contextual and contingent factors

There was once a belief that there were a set of attributes which if implemented would lead to change in schools (see, for example, Walker,1965; Mintzberg,

190 1973). Later this was followed by a belief in the importance of the human factor in

change (Hoy & Miskel, 1987, pp. 21-22). There is a realisation now that change

is a complex process and that there is no one theory to guide its implementation

(Fullan, 1993, p. 21). The context of where a school is in its development, the

beliefs and aspirations of its staff and its historical context are some of the factors

impacting on change.

In Coastal High, for example, the school's traditional and proud academic record

was a major consideration before change could be implemented. Any attempt to

denigrate or remove such a tradition would have been strongly resisted. The

change was driven by internal factors in the school. In Samuel High, change was

driven out of external necessity - a decline in student enrolment.

Change is seen by some as a process not an event (Fullan, 1993, pp. 24-25). The

concept of reform is one of continuous problem solving. It should thus not be

necessary to refer to old models to see if the change will work. Each of the

schools, despite varying rates of development and implementation had been

acutely aware that their plans would change as issues emerged. They all saw

problems and challenges being important in their schools. The schools did not see

emergent issues and concerns as a threat. West High encountered problems with

satisfying both system and union demands on teaching time. Acres High

encountered problems with the length of their courses and being able to fully

incorporate their extra curricula activity into the school structure. In each case,

local solutions were developed, which took into account the dilemmas of individual change rates and specific professional development. The unitised

191 vertical curriculum in each school was not seen as something that once put in place ceases to grow, change or adapt to the needs of students and staff.

Restructuring will not, by itself, lead to improvement. The success of school reform efforts lies in the intersection between three factors - restructuring, reculturing and changing the pedagogy (Newmann & Wehloge, 1995, pp. 26-27).

While the four schools each had a focus on restructuring, the working together in each school, the groupings of staff and their involvement in fashioning their structure were all contributing to changing the values, beliefs, patterns of behaviour and relationships in the schools. Efforts to change the pedagogy were minimal, though each school acknowledged that this was a need. Acres High

School had probably come closest to real change, as the basis for its restructure originated from the development of a teaching learning policy, whilst the other schools had proceeded from restructure to pedagogy.

A survey at Acres High of 28 of the 67 teaching staff after one year of operation of the change showed that 65 per cent indicated that they had changed their methods of teaching. Common comments included:

“I’m more focused on achieving the course outcomes and I involve

students in assessing their own work” (Mathematics teacher, Acres

High).

“I set out to involve the students in choosing their learning activities

and deciding how they would respond visually, in video, model

192 making or in writing. I’m really thrilled with what they doing now”

History teacher, Acres High).

. Role of Leadership

Research has pointed to the crucial role a principal plays in school change. An

emphasis on transformational rather than transactional leadership (Beare,

Caldwell & Millikan, 1989), a need for a vision (Bennis & Nanus, 1985), a need

to adopt a range of leadership forces - technical, human, educational, cultural and

symbolic (Sergiovanni, 1990) are some of the qualities and skills expected of a principal.

Theories of leadership hold that there is no one most effective style and that good leaders vary their behaviour depending on the situation facing them (Ward, 1987, p. 23). Dinham, Cairney, Craigie and Wilson (1995, p. 51) saw leadership behaviour as being a product of both the school environment and interactions with others. To be able to transform their vision into practice in the school, the principal needs to be able to establish collaborative relationships across the school and to act as a catalyst for interactions among staff, students and parents. At West

High School, while being the initiator of the change, the principal had allowed his leading teacher to do much of the leadership of the scheme's implementation.

Some staff saw the principal as really pulling the strings, while others saw him as a ditherer, unable to make decisions. All agreed that he was best in the public relations role with parents. In Samuel High School, while not being universally liked by staff, the principal was greatly respected for his strong leadership, drive and determination. The new principal at Coastal High School had deliberately

193 chosen not to directly participate in the planning of the school restructure. The change was led effectively by a Head Teacher. The principal was supportive of the scheme and was the person to whom a matter that could not be resolved, following extensive discussion and consultation among staff was referred. For example, the principal had decided that the school would have a combination of a double and single period lengths after consensus among staff could not be reached. Staff seemed to accept this decision without rancour. At Acres High

School, the Principal was clearly the leader of the restructure. He involved himself in all aspects of the planning and implementation. He maintained an open door policy and staff and students frequently interrupted him to discuss some matter, raise a problem or seek advice. The principal was a "hands on" manager of his school. Leadership of a change could, but does not have to be led by the principal, though his support for the "leader" must be apparent to all. A principal cannot afford to ignore leadership that comes from others in the school.

. Conflict Resolution

Changing a secondary school generates considerable conflict among staff and students. Fullan (1995) sees conflict as part of collaborating with others. This study suggested that it was not conflict itself which was the crucial variable, but the way conflict was managed. Conflict was apparent in all schools studied.

Much of the conflict came after the decision to restructure. In Samuel High, there was evidence that some staff were in conflict with the senior executive, feeling that they had not been fully involved in the decision making. The senior executive disagreed with this assessment claiming that these staff had simply failed to take the opportunity to be involved in the way other staff had been

194 involved. The issue was one of an understanding of the difference between

consultation and collaboration. The principal dealt with this conflict by setting up

a consultation mechanism whereby each of these staff was invited to meet with

him to raise issues they believed should be addressed. They could bring another

friend along to these meetings. The principal then undertook to investigate their

concerns and provide a prompt report to them. Samuel High also displayed some

tension between the principal and leading teacher seen as forward thinking and the

deputy principal’s more traditional approach. The deputy was often seen as

inflexible insisting that correct procedures be followed. He had little to do with

the implementation of the unitised vertical curriculum. At West High, there was evidence of rivalry and dissonance between some faculties. The principal believed that some faculties realised that they were now in competition for students. Positive comments from the staff supported the lengthy process of consultation that had occurred before implementing the change. The principal's

“open door” policy made staff feel that he wanted to hear of their concerns.

Conflict among students was revealed at Coastal High School. A survey of year

10 students showed some had quite strong objections to the possibility of sharing a class with younger students. This conflict was handled by discussions in the vertical roll classes, with teachers pointing out the advantages of working at their own levels. The leaders of the Student Representative Council while acknowledging what had been done, still believed that this issue had not been addressed.

195 A change will not likely be implemented very effectively if a majority of teachers and students are not committed to it. All schools studied readily accepted this premise. In their own ways, they each welcomed conflict as an opportunity to have all issues brought into the open and addressed. By doing this, most staff felt a greater ownership of the change. In all four schools, a majority of teachers (from

68 to 94 per cent) believed that they had been fully involved in and were committed to the change. In three of the schools concerns were raised by teachers appointed to the schools after the change processes had commenced, that they didn’t fully understand what processes had occurred. Two principals believed that it was their job to turn around the attitude of a small number of their staff. The other two principals believed that it would be impossible to have everyone on a large staff agree with a decision to completely restructure a school. These teachers’ views should be respected and concerns raised addressed. In these four schools, leadership as exercised by the principal can be described as educative, rather than a management process.

. Decision Making

It has long been recognised that staff involvement in the decision making processes increases the chances of success in implementing any innovation (see, for example, Everard 1986; Morgan 1989; Fullan & Hargreaves 1991). The entire process of identifying needs, examining alternatives, and choosing procedures for evaluation should involve staff and students at every stage.

In all schools, staff perception of their involvement in the decision making processes had important symbolic meaning. While they wanted strong, decisive

196 leadership, they also wanted their views considered in reaching decisions. The

principal and other school leaders have a fine line to tread between individual or

collective decision-making (Owen, 1991, p.263). The principals in the schools

studied showed behaviour that varied with the situation or task, and was heavily

influenced by the local environment. The decision making processes were not always rational. Owen (1991, p.267) claims that in the real world decision

making is usually an iterative, ongoing process whereby the results of one

decision provide new information on which to base yet other decisions. Dinham,

et al., (1995, pp. 52-53) reported similar results with some problems best solved

by individuals and others best solved by groups.

In Acres High, the principal was nearly always the person who made the

decisions, though often after a process of consensus had been reached. In Coastal

High, the principal was only used to make decisions that could not be made by the

staff. These were two different styles, yet they both seemed to work in their

specific context. Decision making in Coastal High was taken after the completion

of a consultative process. Committees investigated and researched issues and

prepared proposals for the school executive and staff to discuss before voting took

place. The observed structures ensured that strategic decisions were generally

reached as a result of a majority vote. While the senior executive was seen to

drive the school change agenda, and while democratic processes existed and were

encouraged, there were still perceptions that decision making was a top down

process.

197 Each school had undergone a considerable amount of change. There were a

number of factors that showed the rate of change, both school and system driven

was affecting staff morale. In the four schools staff demonstrated varying degrees

of adjustment to change and the changes in work practice, deriving from the

school structural and curriculum reorganization.

Staff commitment varied. A content analysis of interviews with staff showed that

“staff commitment” expressed either positively or negatively was the most

frequently mentioned. Opinions on the restructure also tended to change over

time. Some who had originally been enthusiastic had lost that initial enthusiasm.

With other staff the reverse was true. Follow up interviews suggested that support

was related to the perception of subject shifts with students. If your faculty gained students and thus courses you were enthusiastic!

In general, interviews with staff suggested that the commitment to change had

lessened somewhat once the change had commenced, and other problems had emerged. The long term success of change in the schools, was dependent on maintaining a whole school commitment and a refocussing of school change and planning into more manageable pieces and time lines.

The area that is essential for school reform to change is the culture of the school.

Peters, Dobbins and Johnson, (1996) identified the need to develop teachers' knowledge, skills and attributes needed to implement the change in ways that

improve learning outcomes for all. Strategies for coping with the change process,

strategies for democratic decision making, the interpersonal skills needed to work

198 collaboratively and the skills of critical reflection and collective inquiry are all seen as important skills needed to slowly change the culture of a school. No school studied had made a deliberate plan before they commenced their restructure to train and develop these skills in their staff. It was not that they did not believe they were important. All schools saw the importance of developing these skills within a context of what they were doing. Acres High already had an extensive network of consultation before the introduction of the unitised vertical curriculum. Working through the planning and implementation process was seen as a means of further developing staff involvement. Staff in these four schools demonstrated that they learn best in collegial contexts when they perceive a need related specifically to their daily teaching activities.

Middleton, Brennan, O'Neill and Wootten, (1986, pp. 125-128) saw a change in structure as most likely to be a cause for debate and involvement of parents and the community. The change will generate responses, not always positive, that will create a greater need to explain the school's program and a greater need to seek advice and support from parents, employers and the community at large

(Middleton, et al., 1986, p. 83). While all schools had consulted with their formal parent structure - the School Council and P&C Association, and two schools had held formal parent meetings to introduce, explain and seek comment about the changes, no school had included parent representatives on any committee to design courses or prepare plans. All schools reported that their formal structures could not be considered representative of parents. West High had only minimal parent involvement. Samuel High believed its parents were happy to let the professionals run the school. In Coastal High, parents were asked to participate

199 but chose not to do so. An examination of Curriculum Handbooks of the four schools found them to be full of detailed explanation about the school structures and requirements for the award of the state wide School Certificate. They were full of jargon, meaningful only to those with a detailed knowledge of the system.

The role of parents as equal partners as exposed in policy documents remained unfulfilled.

There was evidence, particularly in West High and Acres High, that the UVC was being used for a vertical streaming process. If left unchecked this process had the potential to be even more alienating for students than the traditional grading of classes. Samuel High and Coastal High had begun to address this issue by

building into their structure extra time for students who needed more time to

master important skills and concepts. “Loop courses” had been developed in

Mathematics, so that additional time for concept mastery was possible.

. Student Engagement

In all schools studied, teachers spoke in support of students and displayed a

genuine affection and concern for them. Students were valued and seemed at ease

with teachers. In particular, at Acres High, students were welcomed into staff

rooms and offices. The principal encouraged students to speak to him about their

achievements and concerns. In Samuel High the principal made a point of

spending time with students and could often be found at lunchtime walking the playground interacting with students. The messages given to students by teachers in their interactions with them were positive. Occasionally, when students

200 encountered a teacher they considered unfair or acting in an arbitrary manner,

open hostility was displayed.

Previous research in Ontario (Hill,1973, pp.67-70) has agreed that one of the

positive benefits of schools experimenting with a semestered or vertical

curriculum was that interpersonal relationships with teachers and students

improved and there was greater student involvement in their learning. The

Ontario study (Hill,1973, p. 167) also found student participation in class

increased. Whilst little empirical evidence has yet been collected in the schools

studied, it was their belief that student participation in their own learning was

occurring. In a survey of all Year 9 students at Samuel High, 59 per cent strongly

agreed they were taking responsibility for their own learning, 30 per cent agreed,

while 10 per cent and 1per cent respectively disagreed or strongly disagreed that

they were taking responsibility for their own learning. Seventy per cent strongly

agreed they were capable of making the right choices when choosing their subjects. Although in essence the UVC only changed the structure of the school, in West High and to a lesser extent in Samuel High, staff felt the UVC had acted

as an impetus to experiment with teaching styles to address the outcomes of a

course. Students saw learning as something to accomplish in a ten week unit and

contained within a subject domain. There was little integration across subject

areas. The UVC structure provided the options, the means and the flexibility, but

it did not necessarily mean that students were better decision makers and that

learning was improving.

201 A significant increase in student choice was seen as an advantage of a vertical

structure (Maxwell, et al., 1987, p. 21). Others have suggested that giving students

plenty of options may be counterproductive to student outcomes (Lee & Smith,

1994, pp. 4-5). At Samuel High, an analysis of student choice showed ambivalent

results. While there were plenty of courses on offer, the students had tended to be

very conservative and opt for a traditional pattern. However, after completing

three term courses, a greater variety of courses was being chosen. The reason for

this was considered to be partly because the students had completed three courses,

enough to see the subject recorded on their School Certificate.

Another concern impacting on student choice and engagement was the growing realization in the schools, that simply widening the choices and encouraging students to move away from basic and fundamental learning which is not easily integrated into understanding of the world, may really be marginalizing some students and creating greater inequities. West High, Samuel High and Acres High which had all been well into implementing a unitised vertical curriculum, had begun to rewrite their courses paying close attention to continuity of subject

matter and a greater concentration on developing basic thinking and understanding

skills. A review of the curriculum offerings was seen as an essential and

continuous part of the change. A common comment in the schools was that it was

important to establish a basic set of values and beliefs on why the change was

necessary, to form the signposts to refining the curriculum and organisational

structures.

202 . Student Outcomes

Research of the effect that school restructuring has on the improvement of student

outcomes is limited. Lee and Smith, (1994, pp. 2-5), in a study of more than

11,000 students in 820 high schools across the United States, using standardised scores, found that in restructured high schools, learners made significantly greater achievement gains during their first two years than their counterparts in traditional high schools.

Restructuring in the four high schools studied covered a variety of structures that

included a vertical curriculum, flexible scheduling, a co-operative learning focus

and a variety of time allocations. An analysis of the 1997 and 1998 English

Language and Literacy Assessment (ELLA) tests carried out in year 7 and year 8

in the restructured schools showed some gains in student achievement. Gains in

Reading, Writing and Language between year 7 and year 8 were studied in three

of the schools. The remaining school was not included as the UVC was not used

in year 7 and year 8. Analysis of the data should be treated cautiously as there

may be other factors leading to an improvement in students’ results. Between

Years 7 and 8, the mean improvement across nearly 50,000 students in NSW was

1.4. In West High the mean increased 2.1. In Coastal High it was 2.6 and in Acres

High the mean increased 3.8. All schools had made literacy a target and had

implemented a variety of strategies, including subject specific activities and

additional personnel. Acres High, the school with the greatest improvement in

overall Reading, Writing and Language had designed and implemented an

additional number of English courses which provided extra literacy work for the

lower achieving students. In two schools, data had been collected before the

203 restructure commenced to provide base data for later research. Samuel High

believed that students were more focused and worked better towards short term

goals. They cited the decreasing number of students receiving an unsatisfactory

grade in their courses as a positive gain. However, only cognitive development

was being discussed. There are other goals of schooling in personal, cultural and

sporting dimensions that are not measured.

The important issue that may be missed in examining student outcomes is that the

important feature is not that the school has adopted a unitised vertical curriculum,

but that it has gone through the process of change. Schools are organisations, and

like any organisation, effectiveness does not demand a rational articulation of

what has been achieved among the core components of the organisation. Perhaps

what matters most about trying to restructure a high school is the opportunity it

provides for creating a personalised school environment, where students and staff

can come to know one another, and where students feel acknowledged and

respected as individuals. New structures for teacher participation, planning and

governance might themselves facilitate higher outcomes for students.

. Emerging Issues

The schools studied found that whilst their focus was changing the basic structure

for curriculum delivery, the implementation of the UVC has had a range of

unintended outcomes. While all schools agreed that they realised that a significant, structural change would generate discussion and re-thinking of the purposes of the school and teaching methodology, there was agreement that other issues had required their attention. Being in constant contact with one another had

204 helped, and with each school at a different development stage, they had been able to anticipate some issues such as assessment and record keeping. Yet other issues were unique to each school. For example, West High found difficulties working through the issue of teaching time, staff at Samuel High raised considerable concerns about the length of time teachers had to get to know pupils and Acres

High found programming issues that had to be resolved on a whole school basis.

While all these issues were discussed at some time in the planning and implementation stages, they became major issues in one school and not the others.

It seems that the vertical structures are inherently dynamic and responsive. The new structure is itself far more capable of further change.

Assessment and the tracking of students emerged in the four schools, to varying extents as issues that required further development. All schools reported that the timetabling and tracking of students required large investments of time. This burden seemed to fall heaviest on the chief operator, in most cases the leading teacher. Maxwell, et al evaluation (1989) of the semester system introduced into a number of non-government schools in NSW found the most common problems were with the administration of the system and the tracking of students’ progress.

These problems were in the four schools studied. All schools had addressed these problems, yet all schools felt they still required further attention. A computer system based on a commercial package was used in schools to timetable, but it was not as effective in keeping track of what courses had been completed.

All schools were trying to determine what constituted satisfactory performance in a course. Three of the schools were still using a competitive or norm referenced

205 assessment for their courses. Coastal High had begun to examine a standards referenced assessment. Samuel High, while still using basically norm referenced assessment, reported to parents on the achievement of the specific course outcomes.

Structural change implies a more sophisticated approach to resource allocation and use (Ashenden & Milligan, 1993, p.3). Of the four schools studied, one saw resource allocation as the major problem, while this was ranked third in the other three schools. The overriding concern of the principals in the schools was to increase the effectiveness of the available resources.

Conclusion

Some researchers are convinced that the time and energy spent on making most changes in schools do not result in any commensurate improvement in learning.

There is some evidence for this, but it does not take into account the role change plays in forcing the staff of the school to look at itself more objectively, and in making a school a stimulating place to be in during and shortly after a major structural change.

This study confirmed the importance of leadership in the school to communicate vision, define purpose and assure outcomes. The importance of broad, participative decision making was also confirmed. The decision to restructure a secondary school is only the first step towards the achievement of this goal. A

206 willingness to accept conflict and address problems as they arise is crucial to

success. Change can also bring some unintended consequences.

Changing a secondary school’s structure does not by itself change the outcomes

for students. This study showed small, but significant improvement in student

outcomes in all the schools. However, changing the pedagogy of teaching is far

more difficult.

The importance of understanding the context of each school is important in initiating change. There are issues with system wide as distinct from school wide change in the system and schools continual need for renewal.

References

Ashenden, D & Milligan, S. (1993). Signposts to Restructuring Schools:

Opportunities and Directions for School Leaders, National Council of

Independent Schools’ Associations, Canberra.

Beare, H, Caldwell, B & Millikan, R. (1989). Creating an Excellent School.

London: Routledge Press.

Bennis, W & Nanus, B. (1985). Leaders, New York: Harper and Row.

Buckman, D., King, B & Ryan, S (1995). Block scheduling: a means to improve

School climate, NASSP Bulletin, 79:571, pp. 9-18

207 Canady, R & Rettig, M (1993). Unlocking the lockstep high school schedule. Phi

Delta Kappan, 75:4, pp. 310-314.

Carrick, J. (1989). Report of the Committee of Review of New South Wales

Schools, A Summary of Conclusions and Recommendations, Sydney: Bloxham

and Chambers.

Cohen, D and Maxwell, T. (1985). Blocked at The Entrance, Context, cases and

commentary on curriculum change, Armidale: Entrance Publications.

Dinham, S., Cairney, T., Craigie, D & Wilson, S. (1995). School climate and

leadership: research into three secondary schools, Journal of Educational

Administration, 33:4, pp. 36-58.

D'Urso, S & Smith, R. (Eds.). (1981). Changes, Issues and Prospects in

Australian Education, Brisbane: University of Queensland Press.

Edwards, C. (1993). Restructuring to improve student performance, NASSP

Bulletin, 77:553, pp. 77-88.

Edwards, C. (1995). Virginia's 4 x 4 high schools: high school, college and more,

NASSP Bulletin, 79:571, pp. 23-41.

Everard, K. (1986). Developing Management in Schools, Oxford: Basil Blackwell.

208 Eyers, V., Cormack, P. & Barratt, R. (1992). Report of the junior secondary

review:The education of young adolescents in South Australian government

schools. Adelaide: Education Department of South Australia.

Fullan, M. (1993). Change Forces Probing the Depths of Educational Reform.

London: Falmer Press.

Fullan, M. (1995). Leadership for learning, Unpublished Keynote Address for

International Confederation of Principals, Second World Convention, August,

Sydney.

Fullan, M & Hargreaves, A. (1991). Working Together for Your School,

Hawthorn: A.C.E.R.

Hadlington, F. (1997). A study of the unitized vertical curriculum in operation in

the middle years of schooling at Greystanes High School. Unpublished Master

of Arts (Hons) Thesis. Macquarie University.

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the Semestered System in Ontario, Hamilton, Ontario: McMaster University.

Hoy, W & Miskel, C. (1987). Educational Administration Theory Research and

Practice. New York: 3rd edition, Random House.

209 Huff, A. (1995). Flexible block scheduling: it works for us, NASSP Bulletin,

79:571, pp.19-22.

King, A., Clements, J., Enns, J., Lockerbie, J & Warren, W. (1975). Semestering

the Secondary School, Ontario: Ontorio Institute for Studies in Education.

Kruse, C & Kruse, G. (1995). The master schedule and learning: improving the

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Lee, V., Smith, J & Croninger, R. (1995). Another look at high school

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210 McGaw, B. (1996). Their Future: Options for Reform of the Higher School

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211 Owen, R. (1991). Organisational Behaviour in Education, Boston: Allyn and

Bacon.

Peters, J., Dobbins, R & Johnson, B. (1996). Restructuring and organisational

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Tuettemann, E. (1987). The Unit Curriculum and Student Perspectives: Report

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212 Wyndham, H., (1957). Report of the Committee Appointed to Survey Secondary

Education in New South Wales, Sydney: Government Printer.

213

CHAPTER SIX

THE RIGHT CHOICE: THE DECISION

MAKING PROCESS OF HIGH SCHOOL

SELECTION

The following four articles have been published as refereed articles in either journals or as refereed on-line articles. The articles have been reproduced for this portfolio in the manner in which they have been published. The format and references are thus different from the rest of this portfolio.

The following article moves from a systems level to the application of policy in a number of schools in the Penrith District of NSW. The loss of students to a school can have dramatic consequences of a reduced staff, reduced curriculum offerings and a loss of esteem both by students and staff. A continuing loss of students can begin to marginalise both the school and its students. Whilst most studies of the choice of schools concentrate on parental responses, this study asked students in their final year of primary school about the choice of high school and the reasons for such choice.

The original research and analysis of data was carried out between December,

2000 and July 2001. The resulting paper was first presented at the Doctoral

214 Conference at Katoomba on 13th September, 2001. The paper was also presented

to the Penrith District Principals’ Conference on 15th November, 2001. The paper was further refined and some follow up research occurred in 2002. The paper was submitted for publication in May, 2003.

The paper was published as an Australian College of Educators Unicorn Online

Refereed Article No 26, ISSN 14475111 in November, 2003. The article was also published by the Australian College of Educators – “The Right Choice: The

Decision Making Process of High School Selection”, December, 2003, pp.1-16.

215 216 217 218 219 220 221 222 223 224 225 226 227 228 229 230

231

232 CHAPTER SEVEN

PERCEPTIONS AND REALITY OF THE WORK

OF THE SECONDARY HEAD OF

DEPARTMENT

The following two articles are based on joint research conducted by then

Associate Professor Steve Dinham, myself and three other high school principals,

Kathryn Brennan, John Collier and David Mulford.

The first co-authored article reports the results of the research. We were all involved in determining the problem, the literature search, the conducting of the research and analysis and the writing of the final paper. The three principals and I conducted a number of telephone interviews with head teachers or heads of department in two government schools and two non-government schools. The telephone interviews provided a great deal of material which was then analysed.

The research was conducted in late 1999, analysed and written by March, 2000.

The paper was first presented at the Australian College of Educators Annual

Conference at Leura on 4th July, 2000. The research was published by the

University of Western Sydney in April, 2000 as “The Secondary Head of

Department: Duties, Delights, Dangers, Directions and Development”. The

233 research also appeared as a Quality Teaching Series of the Australian College of

Education as “The Secondary Head of Department Key Link in the Quality

Teaching and Learning Chain” in 2000. A copy of this article is included as

Appendix E. The research formed the basis for an article in “The Australian” (5-

6th August, 2000, p.13) titled: “Roll Call for Head Teachers”. This is included as

Appendix B. It also appeared as an article, “The Middle Manager” in Inform

(Department of Education and Training, August 2000, pp.22-24). The article is included as Appendix D.

This article examines the reasons for seeking the position of HoD and their preparation for the role. A key finding of the research was that the realities of the position did not match initial expectations, and that those interviewed desired to redesign the role.

The research was published as a refereed article “Perceptions and Reality of the

Work of the Secondary Head of Department” in International Studies in

Educational Administration, 30(2), 2000, pp.17-26.

234 235 236 237 238 239 240 241 242 243

244

245 CHAPTER EIGHT

THE LEADERSHIP CAPABILITIES AND

DECISION MAKING OF THE SECONDARY

HEAD OF DEPARTMENT

The following article is the second article from the joint research into the secondary head of department.

For this article I was the lead author. I further researched the literature with a focus on leadership of the HoDs. I used the material collected from the initial research and wrote most of the discussion of the results. The article explores the origin and nature of leadership style and the extent of involvement in whole school decision making. A key issue in this study is the issue of time and the ambiguity of the role.

The article was written in 2001 and submitted for publication to the refereed journal Leading and Managing in August 2002. It was accepted for publication in

October 2002 and published in 2003. The article, “The Leadership Capabilities and Decision Making of the Secondary Head of Department” was published in Leading and Managing, 9(1), Autumn/Winter 2003, pp.38-51.

246 247 248 249 250 251 252 253 254 255 256 257 258 259

260 261 CHAPTER NINE

PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS

ENCOUNTERED IN SHAPING A NEW HIGH

SCHOOL CULTURE AND IDENTITY

The final refereed article focuses on a single new school in the government secondary schools of NSW. The paper tells the story of the birth of a new high school and the problems, successes and issues of establishing a quality school culture. The paper examines a conceptual framework for the development of a school culture and the verbal and behavioural manifestations in the school of its culture. The paper takes the view that it is the culture of a school which drives its success or failure.

The paper was first written and presented for the third annual Quality in Education

Conference in Sydney in September, 1998. The paper was published as part of the conference proceedings. Further research was conducted in 2003 to evaluate the progress of the new school and the paper was rewritten and presented at the

Research Conference on 11th October, 2003.

The paper has been accepted by University of Western Sydney for its refereed proceedings of the University of Western Sydney Conference, October, 2003.

262 PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS ENCOUNTERED IN

SHAPING A NEW HIGH SCHOOL CULTURE AND

IDENTITY

______

Abstract

The paper tells a story of the birth of a new high school and

the problems, successes and issues of establishing a quality

school culture. There are many definitions of culture and many

factors that impinge on a school’s culture. Not all of these are

within the school. The paper examines research about school

culture and relates some findings to the establishment of the

school. A definition of “the way we do things around here” is

accepted as being the most representative in describing school

culture. In establishing New High School, the paper examines

a conceptual framework for the development of a school

culture and the verbal and behavioural manifestations of its

culture. Numerous surveys support some of the paper’s

contentions. Issues in the establishment of the school culture

are raised.

263 Introduction

Establishing a new school means the beginning of a history for a community of people. Only those who have opened new schools as foundation principals will fully understand the ambit of emotions and pressures inherent. It is exciting, rewarding and possibly the most challenging task in a professional career.

Inherent is the excitement and freshness of new buildings, new relationships and, for all stakeholders a new beginning.

The most important task a foundation principal must undertake is developing a quality school culture and identity. Without a quality school culture the school programs will be ineffective, the staff dispirited and the community disappointed. A quality school culture is one where the shared beliefs, customs, attitudes and expectations through the school community are directed to, support and constantly recognize that learning by all in the school is of paramount importance.

Defining culture

Research (Sergiovanni, 1984; Greenfield, 1985; Beare, Caldwell & Millikan,

1989; Fullan, 2001) on organizational theory and administrative behaviour has

emphasised the importance of seeing each organisation as unique. A school as

Greenfield (1985) stated is a conceptual entity that people collectively create

and maintain largely in their minds. Schools are essentially collectives of

264 people who define policies, generate structures, manipulate resources and

engage in activities to achieve their desired ends (Beare, et al, 1989, p.172).

Atkin (1991, p.3) has defined the culture of a school as being,

“the social organisation of the school staff that represents shared

beliefs, customs, attitudes and expectations”.

Hargreaves (1992, p.219) takes this definition further when he argues that school culture has both content and form. Content is the values, beliefs, habits and assumptions, and ways of doing things that are shared, while form is the characteristic patterns of relationships between members of those cultures.

These definitions do not go far enough as they exclude the student culture and the wider community. A more useful definition of what school culture is may be stated as ‘the way we do things around here’.

There is little doubt that principals and teachers can lead the way to successful cultures where all students learn. Just as culture is critical to understanding the dynamics behind any thriving community, organization or business, the daily realities and deep structure of school life hold the key to educational success.

Reforms that strive for educational excellence are likely to fail unless they are linked to the school’s unique culture (Hargreaves, 1992, p.219). Leadership of the school is important in harnessing the power of school culture to build a lively, co-operative spirit and a sense of school identity (Deal and Peterson,

1999).

265 Newmann & Wehlage (1995), Common (1994), Hargreaves (1992) and Atkin

(1991), agree that the culture of a school is the single most important factor determining the extent to which educational change takes place. In a new school, it is hoped that the culture will be both positive and sustained. A toxic culture (Deal and Peterson, 1999, p.56), where the rituals, traditions and values have gone sour and threaten the very soul of a school will be met with resistance and little progress will be made.

A key issue for the principal of a new school to determine is how much can be achieved in a short space of time. Policies and procedures that are taken for granted in other schools, do not exist. Fullan (1991, 2001) stressed the need to focus on what is really important. He saw an impossible overload for staff in setting priorities. The approach the researcher adopted was to try to implement a smaller number of policies and procedures considered crucial to the initial culture of the school. Fullan (1991, p.27) has described such an approach as preventing the development of programs getting out of hand.

The term culture provides a more accurate and intuitive way to understand a school’s own unwritten rules, traditions, norms and expectations that seem to permeate everything in a school. Deal and Peterson (1999, p.3) discuss culture as being the way people act, how they dress, what they talk about, whether they seek out colleagues for help and how teachers feel about their work and their students.

266 There are many other factors that help determine culture. The social, political and economic influences of society, family backgrounds and beliefs are just some of the factors influencing climate. These issues are outside the scope of this paper, yet it must be remembered that teachers’ and students’ behaviour in a school are influenced by many factors outside the school. School culture will also change, sometimes incrementally, sometimes imperceptibly, as teachers and students arrive at and leave the school over a period of time.

Methodology

The researcher was an active participant in establishing the New High School.

A number of surveys of parents, staff and students were conducted over the first six years. An initial survey of parents to determine their expectations of, and ideas for, the school was undertaken before the school opened. A survey of students who commenced during the first year of the school’s operation to determine their expectations of the school, their goals, their fears and what they wanted for their school was also undertaken. This survey was repeated six years later in 2003 for the students who remained, who were then completing their Higher School Certificate. Surveys of parents, staff and Year 7 and Year 9 students were undertaken at the end of 1999 and 2001 to gain the feelings of these groups about school culture and the progress made in establishing a quality school culture.

Use was made of other data in the school, such as results in state-wide tests, attendance and suspension data and a focused interview on 20 randomly

267 selected staff. These interviews, held in 2003, asked staff to reflect upon the

development of the school, their involvement, the positive and negative factors

of the process, the role of leadership and their feelings towards the school.

School context

New High School was designed to provide secondary education facilities for

the developing private housing estate just south of Penrith in western Sydney.

New High School was the first high school in New South Wales to be built to a

newly-devised NSW High School Facilities’ Standards. The features of this

code included classroom designed for flexible use; a reduction of specialized

spaces and extensive data communication throughout the school.

Cultivating a quality culture

A new school has to quickly bring together large numbers of people who bring with them different values, philosophies, expectations and needs. School culture affects every part of the school from what staff talk about, the type of learning in a classroom, the professional development of staff and the importance of learning for all students. Levine and Lezotte (1990) and Newmann (1996) found that school culture fosters school effectiveness and the productivity of teachers.

Peterson and Brietzke (1994) found that culture improves collegial and collaborative activities that foster communication and widespread professional problem solving. Louis and Miles (1990) and Deal and Peterson (1999) found that a school’s culture encourages learning and progress by fostering a climate of

268 risk taking and experimentation. In a similar manner, Schein (1995) reported that

teachers feel motivated and committed to a school that has meaning, values and an

enobling purpose – all elements of a good school culture. Finally, an effective

school culture increases with unwritten rules, informal expectations and rites and rituals of daily life being more meaningful indicators of action and sustained progress (Deal and Kennedy, 1982 and Schein, 1995). The development of a quality school culture was seen as being the means of developing a school focused on learning and achievement.

To enable an understanding of the problems and solutions in developing a quality culture, Figure 1 has been developed. Adapted from a conceptual framework for assessing school culture (Beare et al p.176), it has been modified to relate to a new and developing school.

269

CONCEPTUAL FOUNDATIONS

Core Beliefs and Value Philosophy

Behavioural Manifestations of Conceptual/Verbal Culture Manifestations of Culture Leadership Outcomes for students Ritual and Ceremonies Curriculum Teaching and Learning Languages Operational Procedures Organisational Structures Rules and Regulations, Rewards and Sanctions Parental and Community Patterns Student Governance

ISSUES

Facilities & Equipment Staffing Training & Development Time & Ex pectations

Interaction with Community

Figure 1: Shaping a new high school culture

270 In a developing school these characteristics were considered important.

♦ The underlying philosophy as espoused by both the leaders and the staff;

♦ the ways in which this philosophy is translated into an operational mission or

purpose;

♦ the quality of personal and interpersonal actions and interactions;

♦ the sagas, stories and celebrations which serve to generate motivation;

♦ the many other tangible and intangible manifestations in the school which

have potential to improve the school.

In developing the first school culture, a number of issues and problems, some foreseen and others not anticipated became areas of concern.

Conceptual foundations of school culture

1. Philosophy

It was important in New High School for the principal to articulate a vision for the school. This was an amalgam of personal educational philosophy, deeply held beliefs and priorities and community aspirations. The educational philosophy was particularly important when the executive staff was appointed. The principal found it useful to go through an informal ‘envisioning’ exercise with each executive member, discussing their views on how the school should develop. This appeared to have the effect of creating a singleness of purpose in what proved to be a cohesive executive team.

271 2. Core beliefs and values

The concept of a school having a distinctive culture is not new. School culture

refers to the deep pattern of values, beliefs and traditions with regard to learning

that have been formed over the course of a school’s history and which are

understood by members of the school community (Deal and Peterson, 1990).

As the leader of a new school, the principal’s philosophy and vision provided

direction in the negotiation and establishment of the school purpose. For a strong

and quality culture to be developed, there needed to be a close correspondence between the intangible, foundational elements and the tangible, outward expressions and symbols (Beare et al 1989, pp.174-175). The staff did not commence their appointment till the school opened. Thus it was not possible to articulate the core values and beliefs held by the staff until after the school had opened. Aspects of the organisation, such as the decision to have longer 76 minute periods, were driven by core beliefs about learning held by the principal and deputy principal. These had also been enhanced through a number of community consultative groups established before the school opened. The examination of staff beliefs and values generated considerable discussion and

debate. The ideas were refined by a Strategic Planning Committee, before being

formally ratified by the staff. These became our core beliefs on which were based

all decisions about teaching and learning.

272

CORE BELIEFS AT A NEW HIGH SCHOOL

• An extensive, rigorous and relevant curriculum where all students can learn

• Promoting high achievement

• Quality programs targeting students needs which are constantly evaluated

• Programs that recognise different learning styles and which make a difference to students

• A school culture which sets standards, is tolerant of different abilities and cultures and where bullying, violence and harassment are not permitted

• A safe, happy and supportive environment which creates a positive self esteem among students and staff

• Staff are part of a learning community

• Students are empowered through their learning

• A school which is acclaimed by the community for its openness, community involvement, responsiveness to its stakeholders and success of its students

• Collaborative decision making is directed to student improvement

Figure 2: Core Beliefs Developed at a New High School

It can be debated whether we should have concentrated on developing our core

beliefs and values so early in the life of the school. In a new and developing

school, the demands on staff to be involved in major policy development are

greater than it would be in a developed school. There are fewer staff and more to

273 do in the first year. Most staff was involved in an average of four policy teams or

committees. There is a danger in such heavy involvement. Research in NSW was

reported in 1999, on the leadership behaviour of school principals and school

learning culture in 20 government secondary schools. The research found that a

visionary/inspirational principal may actually distract teachers from concentrating

on teaching and learning and this may be perceived by teachers to be negatively

related to student learning outcomes (Barnett, McCormick & Conners, 1999,

p.14). The research concluded that teachers see such a principal interfering with the work they do in classrooms by placing greater work demands on them outside the classroom (Ibid, p.9).

The staff of New High School constantly refers to the core beliefs as we have aimed to have a connectedness in our curriculum reflecting a holistic approach to curriculum and delivery. These unifying values provide continuity.

Conceptual verbal manifestations of school culture

1. Outcomes for students

Research has clearly established a strong correlation between structural and cultural change and student learning outcomes. Lee and Smith (1994) found that in restructured high schools, students made significantly greater achievement gains. These gains were also distributed more equitably, with narrowing achievement gaps between students from different socio-economic backgrounds.

274 One of the basic beliefs at New High School is that all students will learn. A

staff/community group developed a range of exit outcomes for the students.

These were expressed in fairly general terms and were used in the construction of

learning programs. For example, one exit outcome was that all students would be able to use technology to gain information. An information skills program was established to ensure that all students had an understanding of basic computer technology.

2. Curriculum

The curriculum is the means by which the school’s educational purpose and

culture is transmitted. The curriculum is much wider than the formal, timetabled

offerings. The curriculum includes all the activities, some formal, others informal

experienced by students during the school day. Also included is the “hidden

curriculum” – those other non-timetabled features, both intentional and

unintentional - that is powerful in conveying school culture.

The school opened with nearly three hundred students in Years 7 and 8 only.

Table 1 shows the enrolments in the first five years of the school’s development.

275 Table 1: Enrolments and school developments

Year Years Enrolment Teacher Numbers

1998 7,8 271 23

1999 7,8,9 552 39

2000 7,8,9,10 740 53

2001 7,8,9,10,11 873 64

2002 7,8,9,10,11,12 916 68

The curriculum was structured around 20 week semester courses. All subjects

would have a concentrated time allocation rather than breaking the curriculum into further subjects. Commencing with both Years 7 and Year 8 provided the school with little time to thoroughly plan a curriculum for Years 9 and 10. With a

multitude of demands on all the staff in initially establishing curriculum and

teaching programs, an interim arrangement for Year 9 in 1999 was developed. In

1998 and 1999, the staff and community fully investigated a range of curriculum options for delivery to Years 9 and 10 from 2000. The model developed was a vertically based semester pattern. In English, students could select from a range of

courses. In another compulsory subject, Science, students had to complete the four

semester courses each based on a particular discipline – chemistry, physics,

biology and geology. Students could decide the order in which these courses were

completed. Elective subjects were also organized as separate 50 hour courses

with students having to aggregate courses to make 100 and 200 hour courses. The

scheme gave students considerable freedom to design an educational program that

met their needs, allowing them to specialize or gain knowledge in a range of

subjects.

276

A survey of students in Years 9 and 10 at the end of 2001 showed students liked the flexibility the structure provided, supported the concept of knowing each courses’ outcomes, content and assessment requirements before commencing the course and liked the manner of reporting at the end of each course. A majority of students, 57 per cent disliked having to complete some compulsory subjects, while

51 per cent were critical of teaching methods employed by some teachers.

Twenty six per cent of students did not like teacher changes during the year when they chose a different course.

For the 2002 school year the concept of a semester based, vertical curriculum for

Years 9 and 10 was modified. Many staff felt that to improve the results in the

School Certificate, greater time was needed for the compulsory subjects of

English and Mathematics. External changes to the School Certificate required that courses in Australian History, Geography and Civics be externally examined.

This meant that for students to be properly prepared for external, public examinations, it was necessary to restrict the number of elective courses. Courses were changed to a yearly structure.

3. Language

Language is the medium for transmission of much of the school culture.

Language can admit some and exclude others from the culture. Staff was asked to continually use language carefully. When students were spoken to, the language used had to be a reflection of the desired culture – negative comments about students as people were to be avoided.

277

4. Organisational structures

Organisational structures for curriculum delivery are usually a tangible

expression of the core beliefs and values and hence culture of the school. In

establishing an organisational structure for New High School, the structures

needed to be consistent with the school’s core beliefs. By the first day of

operation, a timetable had to be ready, class lists available, resources processed,

an interim Student Welfare policy and a staff handbook written and published. It was important that the school and its senior management appeared to be professional and in control of the situation from the commencement of life of the school.

Buildings can determine much of the organisational structure of a school. The

senior executive had little involvement with the design of the school. Similarly,

staff was appointed without any necessary commitment to the building

philosophy. At New High School such a commitment was considered vital as the

school was built to a new code and design. The concept of classroom flexibility and function, which was not faculty-based was foreign and not well understood by most teachers. Initially staff was introduced to the building code and shown the

facilities available. A meeting of the staff, architect and educationalists who had

developed the new code took place early in the year to provide an opportunity for

discussion of how the facilities could be used to enhance learning.

Research has identified norms of collegiality, collaboration and experimentation as key characteristics of effective and successful schools in challenging a

278 traditional, isolationist teaching culture (Peters, Dobbins & Johnson, 1996).

Successful school reform was marked by paying equal attention to structures and school culture (Peters, et al 1996, p.6). To help develop a collaborative learning culture at New High School, Years 7 and 8 were organized on the principles of middle schooling. This involved working in teams of teachers and students to facilitate the transition to a subject based, secondary environment. Staff development took place to explain the underlying principles of middle schooling.

Progress was steady with greater communication and idea sharing taking place among staff. Since the initial year, there have been additions to the school structure to help embed the culture of middle schooling. Teaching teams and more generalist teaching programs has been developed. An all boys’ class that gave the students a greater say in what they learnt, and used computer technology as the medium of instruction has been found to be successful. Results in a Year 8

English Literacy and Language (ELLA) test in 2002 showed that these boys improved their literacy skills by 15.5 months.

Behavioural manifestations of the first culture

1. Leadership

Fundamental to establishing and developing an excellent school culture is the importance of leadership. Effective leadership is a force that not only changes, but protects and intensifies a school’s structure and hence culture in a way that enhances meaning and significance for students, teachers and the school’s community (Sergiovanni, 2000). Indeed as West, Jackson, Harris and Hopkins

(2000, p.143) have stated,

279 “Leadership in continuously improving schools not only expands,

but changes over time”.

Leadership is not just that of the principal and executive, but of all in the school.

Leadership, as exercised by the principal, must be seen as an educative rather than

as a management process (Groundwater-Smith, 1996). The principal of the school

is the one person most responsible for the climate and culture of the school and for

the outcomes of productivity and satisfaction attained by students and staff

(Kelley, 1980, p.41). In New High School, the principal wanted to develop a

collaborative culture from which to exercise leadership and build learning teams.

A collaborative school culture and its power to improve schools are well

supported by the literature (Deal & Kennedy, 1982; Fullan, 1991). At the same

time, a collaborative school culture does not deny the leadership role of the

principal. Without exercising leadership, the principal can kill any notion of a school collaborative culture. Rarely in an isolated culture will teacher assumptions, norms, values and beliefs be challenged by significantly more ambitious visions of what is possible, without the direct leadership of the

principal.

A number of strategies were adopted to lead the development of staff and teams.

Staff was encouraged to ‘think about and try things outside the circle’. As long as

what was tried related back to the core beliefs of the school, staff was free to

experiment. They had been encouraged not to fear failure. Since the school

commenced, initiatives of staff have included pastoral care programs, a staff

280 forum, a yearly cycle of teams developing programs addressing priorities, curriculum programs such as dance and a special gifted and talented program.

2. Rituals and ceremonies

Every school can cultivate a view by deliberately building images about who they are and how they relate to the world, so that a positive school climate and culture will become part of the ethos of the school (Beare & Slaughter, 1993). In a new school, these rituals and ceremonies became more important as there was no history of the school to retreat to, and it was within the power of those in the school to be symbol makers for the next generation.

It was important to take time throughout the first year to celebrate significant

achievement as a school community. Areas celebrated included the first school

day, first assembly, first sports’ carnival, completion of term one and the first

school assembly.

While some achievements may seem minor, it was important to remember that the

school was new and did not exist during the previous year.

3. Teaching and learning

As the means of transmission of the culture and ethos of the school, a

concentration on teaching and learning received major attention. Its importance

was stressed at all meetings of staff and parents. At assemblies, the message that

we are here to learn was continually reinforced. Various meetings with staff,

including the whole of a school development day was devoted to presenting and

281 discussing ideas to use the longer teaching periods, team teaching in the classroom

and student involvement in lessons.

Leithwood, Tomlinson and Genge (1996) found that transactional leadership

behaviour of passive management by exception was an unhelpful form of

leadership in relation to teacher outcomes and student learning culture. At New

High School, models of demonstration, modeling and using others to demonstrate

learning behaviour and teaching strategies to all the school community were used.

A survey of all Year 8 students at the end of our first year found that over 85 per cent of students confirmed that they regarded the school as a positive environment for learning.

4. Rules and regulations, rewards and sanctions

A clear message was given to staff and students by the deliberate policy of establishing a reward system before rules and sanctions were developed. The initial community survey showed that parents had a preference for rewards rather than punishments and the need for parental contact for both positive and negative student behaviour. The reward policy has since been reviewed and amended in the light of experience, but remains one of the success stories of the school. A survey completed at the end of 2000 by all students in Years 7 and 9 on school culture, revealed very strong support for the school reward scheme.

A policy to encourage staff to contact parents both for positive and negative matters has drawn considerable praise in terms of letters and telephone calls of thanks.

282

5. Parental and community patterns

An important element in building a quality culture was the quality of the interactions between the school and its parents and community. The parent body of the school constitutes a rich fund of skills, expertise, knowledge and

experiences that go well beyond the capacities of the teaching staff. If this resource is not used, the school may be sending signals to its public that it sees student learning as closeted, esoteric and bound by teacher possessiveness. A survey aimed at determining the level of expertise and experience in the community is mailed home to every parent each year. Whilst the response has averaged only 22 per cent of parents, the surveys have discovered a range of skills from professional sport coaching, computer networking and local history. A data base of parental and community skills accessed by staff have been developed.

A public meeting, held shortly after the principal’s appointment, attracted an attendance of over 350 people. From this meeting a community survey was completed and six community consultative groups formed. These committees met on various occasions during the next three months.

Considerable time was spent making contact with a range of community groups such as,

♦ local media;

♦ local schools both government and non government;

♦ local council and politicians;

♦ business people;

283 ♦ people who can provide information on the local culture;

♦ sporting venues and,

♦ council personnel for safety issues.

Opportunities in the form of Open Days for all the community were held firstly, just before the school opened and again when all the buildings were completed.

One outcome was the donation of a considerable sum of money for library books.

Links with feeder primary schools have been established and these are developing, particularly in the area of middle school links. Lessons for primary students are held in dance, design and technology and visual arts. A number of teachers have visited primary classrooms to better understand grouping methods and primary curriculum. A highly successful “School on Tour” is held each year where high school students perform in dance, music, drama and debating for each feeder primary school.

6. Student governance and the first cohort

A significant challenge in New High School was the development of the leading cohort of students. Time spent developing these students assisted the formation of a desired school culture. The establishment of a Student Representative Council, running a camp for school leaders, developing with these students a code of conduct and constantly reinforcing the role of the school leaders were all strategies used with the first group of students.

284 Issues in cultivating a first culture

A new and developing school has none of the baggage of a long established school, yet also has none of the positive and effective culture of an established school. In trying to establish the first culture for New High School, a number of issues, as shown in Figure 1, needed to be addressed.

1. Facilities and equipment

The excitement of assuming the leadership of a brand new school is quickly accompanied by a bevy of problems, many of which can become protracted. The most persistent have tended to be about the buildings themselves. A lack of consultation in the building design and construction with the senior staff often resulted in a dysfunction between the design and educational needs.

Once the building was completed, it is surprising how little guidance and training in its use was provided. To spend over $14 million building a school, yet not explain or resolve vital issues such as how does the networking of the school operate made little sense. With so much post-occupation finishing and rectification of building faults it was very hard to enforce the integrity of the buildings and maintain security.

In 2003 a survey of the school facilities was conducted among all staff. While accepting the difficulties of supervision of students, the staff was positive in favouring the combined staff study over separate faculty facilities (83 per cent).

The provision of general classrooms was also seen as being very helpful with

285 attention to soundproofing, ventilation and storage facilities and the provision of

large breakout areas in each block. Staff believed that these facilities helped their

teaching (77 per cent). The new design concept of specialist workshops being

accessed from a general classroom was less well accepted, though 55 per cent

supported the concept. The staff was very critical about the number of specialist

workshops provided, stating that there were not enough for areas such as Design

and Technology and Visual Arts. Another major cause of concern was in the

quality of the finishings. Furniture built from particle-board that warps, poor

security provisions, and even worse door jams and locking mechanisms were the

main areas of concern.

The survey emphasized the importance in a new school of providing staff development in building philosophy and use, core beliefs and teaching practices

each year of a school’s development for new staff. With a rapid increase in the

number of staff, a significant proportion of staff may not feel the same degree of

ownership as the initial cohort of the school staff. For example, in New High

School in 1998 there were 23 teachers, in 1999 this had increased to 39, in 2000 to

53, in 2001 to 64 and in 2002 to 68. In 2003 only 13 of the original staff of 23

remained at the school. It is important to understand that after only a few years, a

majority of staff was not involved in the intensive development of the school

culture.

2. Staffing issues

Of all issues, problems with staffing were the most difficult and persistent for the new school. Firstly, the principal was appointed without any prior knowledge of

286 the particular building philosophy of the school. Both the principal and deputy

principal agreed with the building code for the school and were committed to

working to see it was implemented. However, having a senior executive

committed to what was a new building code for high schools was more luck than

good management.

Secondly, at the time of initial staff appointments, it was vital for the principal to

seek to use whatever influence he could bring to how the staff was to be appointed. Failure to do so would have run the risk of the Department of

Education’s system off-loading a high proportion of marginally satisfactory teachers, who were being transferred from their current schools because of falling enrolments to New High School. Such a prescription would have crippled the new school. A small staff would find it very difficult to carry marginally efficient

staff. If such a teacher was the only teacher appointed to that area and was charged with setting up the subject, the situation would have been untenable.

A new staffing agreement with the teachers’ union inhibited a free choice of executive staff. A considerable amount of argument eventually led to the allocation of one head teacher position for performing arts. A school set up with facilities for performing arts, needed a leader who was capable of driving the initial implementation in this area. Agreement was eventually reached to allow key positions such as teacher-librarian and technology co-ordinator to be filled through merit selection.

A new school must be provided with flexibility to ensure that the initial appointment of staff is balanced and is able to develop and implement the

287 teaching programs and ideas of the school. Considerable problems with some staff

accepting that the school was new and that the culture of the school may be different from their previous school were encountered.

3. Training and development

The additional need for training and development for all staff to ensure that the initial school culture is put into practice, was not initially recognised. In pursuit of

the intended culture, the importance of lifelong learning for staff was emphasized.

It soon became apparent that there was a much greater need for training and

development than had been anticipated. With staff coming to the school with

various backgrounds both from university, industry and other schools, it was

necessary to explore our ideas about school and to target training in aspects of the

school considered vital. Teaching with longer periods, a pastoral care philosophy,

programs for the gifted and talented, teaching with the facilities provided and

literacy concerns were all the focus of training and development in the school

early years.

4. Time and expectations

Establishing and maintaining a quality school culture takes time. A culture cannot

just be formulated and implemented like a policy, but must become a shared

commitment over time by both individuals and groups in the school community.

A deliberate decision was made in the development of the school not to try to

have established too many policies and procedures in the beginning years. To

work on a few, and do them well, was the aim. It is unwise in a new school to

establish too many programs initially as they need to be timetabled, resourced and

288 processes put in place to ensure all the stakeholders are involved. Initially many

of the staff imported identified best practice from other schools and amended

these to fit into the new environment. These interim policies served us well, but

had to reflect the core beliefs, values and shared mission of the school.

The first culture

In the first year a survey was given to the Year 7 students that asked questions as

to what they hoped the school would achieve for them, their hopes, their fears and

the type of high school they wanted. At the end of their Year 12 year, a similar

questionnaire was given to the 95 students remaining in the school from the

original cohort of 181. Appendix F shows the full results of the survey.

By the end of Year 12, 48 per cent of these students had enjoyed spending time

with their friends, 20 per cent enjoyed practical subjects like dance, music and

sport, 17 per cent enjoyed interaction with teachers while 22 per cent enjoyed the

whole school environment. The students least enjoyed the lack of air conditioning

in the school (29 per cent), what they termed the English Department’s way of

marking (25 per cent), biased teachers (15 per cent) and bullying (15 per cent). In the original survey, 87 per cent hoped to achieve what they termed a good education. Of these by Year 12, 67 per cent felt they had achieved this, with 77 per cent saying this was “more or less” what they had hoped to achieve when they first started. There was a clear distinction with the students’ view of teachers.

Seventy nine per cent stated that teachers were supportive and encouraging.

Twenty nine per cent felt teachers had a positive attitude to teaching. They

289 disliked the marking methods of English teachers (42 per cent), teachers being late to class (25 per cent) and perceived favouritism (17 per cent). A large majority

(86 per cent) commended the school’s reward system though they felt it was not used enough in Year 12.

While the initial cohort of students felt the school had succeeded in developing a quality culture, there is a need to search for greater consistency in the application of this culture.

Conclusion

Developing a quality culture in a new school is no easy task Opening a new high school and developing its culture is a very demanding. Systems do not seem well equipped with starter kits or an accessible repository of advice for new players.

The principal needs to foresee what is just over the horizon, and the next horizon and marshal resources and strategies to develop not only the first quality culture, but to sustain and improve it in subsequent years. A challenge such as this is both exciting and immensely satisfying.

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Appendices

Appendix A: Survey instrument used to gather data for “The Right Choice:

The Decision Making Process of High School Selection”.

295

296

297 Appendix B: Article from The Weekend Australian, August 5-6, 2000, p.13

reporting The Work of the Secondary Head of Department

298 Appendix C: Article from The Canberra Times, Wednesday September 13,

2000, p.14 reporting the World of Work of the Secondary Head of

Department.

299

Appendix D: Copy of the article reporting the World of Work of the

Secondary Head of Department from Inform, NSW Department of

Education and Training, 16 August 2000, 3(6), 22-24.

300

301

302 Appendix E: Copy of The Secondary Head of Department Key link in the

quality teaching and learning chain. Published as Quality Teaching

Series, Paper No. 2 by The Australian College of Educators, 2000.

pp. 1-33.

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335 Appendix F: Results of a survey of the first group of Year 12 students to

complete all their secondary education at New High School

336

337 Appendix G: Survey instrument used to gather data from school staff

involved in the development of structural change. This was used as a

prompter in discussions.

338 Appendix H: Survey instrument used to gather data from students in Year 9

Year 11 English classes concerning their ideas on the organisation and

curriculum structures of their schools.

339