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Högskolan på Gotland University Viking Heritage Magazine 3/05 Editorial IN THIS ISSUE Choosing Heaven The Religion of the 3–8 THE CHANGE OF RELIGION in the – illustrated on the front page – is the subject of the two opening articles in this autumn issue. When the The Cross and the Sword – Viking Age began around 750 AD, most of Europe had already been Strategies of conversion converted to Christianity. In this process of transformation went in medieval Europe 9–13 on for several hundred years and the first churches were not built until The tidy metalworkers around 1100. of Fröjel 14–17 In the article Choosing heaven Gun Westholm tells about the Viking-age Norse Aesir cult – that, in turn, replaced an older fertility religion – and The Worlds of the Vikings about its origin and myths that might very well be depicted on Gotlandic – an exhibition at picture stones. Gotlands Fornsal, 18–21 But how was the change from the old pagan faith into Christianity brought about? You will find some answers in the article The cross and the NEW BOOKS 21, 30–31, 35 sword where Alexandra Sanmark discusses the strategies of conversion in DESTINATION VIKING different places in medieval Europe. From Orkney we have received an interesting contribution to the debate The Fearless Vikings… 22–24 about whether the Vikings integrated with the indigenous Pictish people on Genocide in Orkney? the island or slaughtered them, when they took over the islands. Perhaps The fate of recent excavations can lead to new approaches to this debate. the Orcadian Picts 25–27 But who actually were the Vikings? To find the answer to this question Theatre and re-enactments you must read the article, The Worlds of the Vikings, by Malin Lindquist! at Gene Iron-age farm in And as usual, you will find plenty of good reading for the dark autumn northern 28–30 nights in this issue, so curl up and enjoy it!

Marita E Ekman Editor Heritage News

Email: [email protected] HERITAGE NEWS 32–34

The ignorant booby had best be silent when he moves among other men, No one will know what a nit-wit he is until he begins to talk; No one knows less what a nit-wit he is, than the man who talks too much.

From Hávámal (Words from “The High One”) Drawing by Lou Harrison, [email protected]

About the front page The religion of the Vikings. Human sacrifices and weapon offerings from Lillmyr in Barlingbo parish and Möllegårds in Hörsne parish, Gotland, Sweden. In front: The Madonna from Viklau church (copy) is dated to the end of the 12th century. These objects are exhibited in the County Museum of Gotland, Sweden. Photo Raymond Hejdström. GODRINGS TRYCKERI,Visby GODRINGS TRYCKERI,Visby 2005 www.hgo.se/viking 2 Viking Heritage Magazine 3/05

By Gun Westholm

When the Viking Age began in Choosing about 750 AD, Scandinavia was among the last of the heathen outposts in Europe along with Heaven the Baltic, Russian and Slavic areas east of the Elbe. The Religion of the Vikings

Fig 1. The spread of Christianity and Islam at the beginning of the Viking Age, around 750 AD. White: Pagan region Grey: Christian region Black: Islamic region Map by Maria Westholm.

Christianity had slowly spread from the during 11th century. Many believe that change seems to have begun. The fertile Middle East, Egypt, the the religion of the Vikings arose as a areas of the plains people were taken over and the Byzantium area (4th century), to unique phenomenon in . by warlike nomads and cattle herders the realm of the and, during the But the Aesir cult was a warrior from the mountain regions. These tribes 6th century, further to England and religion that had several equivalents in had male chief gods who honoured Ireland. Parts of the Germanic area were both Europe and Asia, religions that had warring activities and warriors who had Christianised during 7th century, and in replaced other much earlier, peaceful fallen in battle. Later on some of the war the middle of 8th century the large beliefs with clear ties to agriculture and gods came to be called Zeus, Jahve and Carolingian kingdom was created forming fertility. In these very old forms of . a cohesive Christian area from Italy in the religion, the chief was often of the Outside Scandinavia, Odin was called South to the Slavonian region in North female sex – Mother Earth – and a good Wodan/Wotan among the Germanic (fig. 1). yearly crop and high yields from the tribes, Godan among the Langobardi and livestock were the main purpose for Woden in England. Both Woden and Before the Aesir Gods worship. Donar – Thor – are mentioned as early as In Scandinavia belief in the Aesir gods Female goddesses dominated Europe’s the 6th century on the continent. Odin was the prevailing religion before the and Asia’s religious beliefs until and Zeus have many common qualities, as Christian message slowly won territory approximately 5000 BC, then a slow do their respective wives Frigg and Hera.

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There are also resemblances between other as symbol. She has been assumed to be worship . It has been possible to Aesir gods and the Greek gods of the model for the goddesses Frigg and locate only one of the names with any Antiquity. Freyja in the North. According to certainty – the . They lived in the The story of creation in our Nordic mythology, Freyja was the daughter of northern part of Germany, on the border mythology has many parallels in the Njord of the Vanir race, and a sister to to on a peninsula that was ancient myths of India and Iran. Frey, who owned the remarkable ship called Angeln. Two of the other names According to the poetic Edda, a human- Skidbladne. bear similarities to those in Schleswig – like giant is created – Ymer – from the Holstein. vapour from the huge cold abyss “Nerthus, who is the same as Mother Earth, Ginnungagap and the heat of its opposite believes that she intervenes in people’s lives Tacitus tells about how Nerthus’ annual Muspelhem. At the same time the first cow and travels in procession among the people. journey ends: Audhumbla is created. The equivalent to Ymer in the old “Then the wagon and cloth are cleaned, and Indian Veda manuscripts is if you can be believe it, the goddess’ called Yama, and Yima in picture in a distant sea. The slaves the ancient Persian legends that do this are then swallowed but it is still the same story! up by that sea. From this grows a In India the cow is referred to secret dread and a pious uncertainty as the source and mother of life. about what that is, that only the to In the Indian epic Mahabharata the dead are allowed to see.” portrays two heirs – the blind Dhritarashtra and the honest This cult of the northern Vihura bearing close similarities Germanic tribes can be linked to the to Odin’s sons, the blind Höder peat corpses that have been found and the honest Balder. In the within Danish and North German Nordic story, the blind Höder is territory in silted-up lakes. persuaded to shoot an arrow of Nerthus – Njärd (the Aesir Njord) mistletoe at his brother, while the seems to be a Nordic fertility goddess Indian equivalen tells about a and the first ancestress of the Vanir. dice game that ended with catastrophic consequences. In Picture stones as sources of both cases the situation leads to knowledge the disintegration of the whole The oldest Gotlandic picture stones world order. from the period approximately After the end of the world – 400–600 AD have symbols that can Ragnarök – a new world is born. be linked to an old agricultural cult The same cyclic view of time rather than a warrior religion. exists in Iran and Greece as well These feature sun discs with as in India. One can also see swirling wheels that seem to stand linguistic resemblances between for movement, pairs of animals Greek, ancient Indian languages and the Fig 2. The partly reconstructed picture that symbolise rites unknown to us, . stone from Austers in Hangvar parish, at possibly illustrated to promote a plentiful It is obvious that the Aesir cult derived the bottom a ship’s stem, a sun wheel crop or show ritual animal baiting. its main features from many religions in and on the top a man in front of the Another motif on the picture stones Southern Europe and Asia. It is uncertain gaping mouth of a beast. from this period is fine-looking boats with Photo Raymond Hejdström. where the cumulative faith originated, but high stem-or sternposts and rudders. we can be very sure that it is a religion Above the ships’ middle section there is a that immigrated to Scandinavia! superstructure with circles on it. The sun But there was a religion in Scandinavia that fills nature with new life every spring even before the Aesir cult. We know about There is a holy grove on an island in the probably became a symbol of resurrection this religion only through sacrificial finds, ocean and on this a blessed wagon, covered even for the dead people, perhaps the graves and from illustrations on the with cloth,” struggles of the animal pairs is meant to Gotlandic picture stones. Written sources be a struggle between life and death or are lacking, with one exception. The Tacitus writes and further on in the text between summer and winter and the ships Roman historian Tacitus described the he says: with their crew can depict a journey for northern Germanic tribes’ relationships the souls of the dead to the country of the and religion in his work, in 98 “that the wagon is pulled by cows. Wherever sun or the realm of death. The circles AC. He mentions two goddesses among she goes there are festivities and no more perhaps indicate a tribute to the dead – the Germans: Isis and Nerthus. Isis seems wars, and weapons are set aside… peace and wreaths of honour. to be strongly influenced by her Egyptian quiet then prevail.” It is not surprising that the inhabitants namesake – a maritime goddess, with of Gotland, located in the middle of the temples in the mouths of rivers and a ship Tacitus counts seven different tribes who sea, long cherished an ancient agriculture http://viking.hgo.se 4 Viking Heritage Magazine 3/05 and fertility religion that also included ships. Even on picture stones dated to as early as 400–500 AD, there are pictures that lead thoughts towards the mythology of the Vikings. The stone from Austers in Hangvar has a sun wheel and probably the stem of a ship, fig. 2. Above the sun drawing there is a man facing the open mouth of a great beast that closely resembles a centipede. Several have wanted to interpret the picture as an early depiction of Sigurd facing the dragon Fafne. Another interpretation is Thor Fig 3. Picture stone struggling with the snake from Midgård. with snake motif from An almost identical stone was found Martebo church. while restoring Martebo church in 1971. Photo Raymond On the Martebo stone the whole ship is Hejdström. preserved while the dragon’s/snake’s upper body has been chopped away, but otherwise it is the same motif. The saga about Sigurd Fafnesbane is recorded on Iceland and was spread widely in Scandinavia and Germany during the Viking era and later. Snake cult? holds a snake in each hand under a so- Is the Auster stone’s motif a sign of the On several of the old type of stones three called triskele with three snakes. onset of the Aesir cult’s war and warrior filled circles occur: Martebo church, Bro On the stone from Sandegårda in worship? There are other examples on church and on the big Sanda stone. That Sanda a snake-like character with two stones from same era that show armed all three circles should be symbols for the distinct snakes on either side can be seen, men: on a stone from Vallstenarum in sun and resurrection seems unlikely. fig. 5. Snakes are clearly important in the Vallstena they carry spears and shields, On the stone from Martebo a snake prehistoric religious world on Gotland. and on a picture stone with early winds around the left lower circle, fig. 3, Besides Midgårdsormen (the Midgård from Martebo church there are riders with and on the Sanda stone snakes entwine snake), Eddan also mentions the snakes spears and shields next to the sun wheel. themselves around the both lower circles Goin, Moin, Gråbak and Grafvöllund, that lack rays. Is it earth that is meant except Nidhögg, down in Nifelheim under under the sun wheel – one to two worlds Yggdrasil: – Midgård – entwined by the “More snakes lie under the ash tree called Midgård snake, one of Loke’s Yggdrasil than what each silly monkey evil sons? believes”, according to Eddan. Moreover, later the Sanda Both the snake-stones above are dated stone has been “scribbled to the period 500–700 AD and we are on”; a tree with clear roots now approaching the beginning of the stands on a line with a dragon – Viking era. On at least two of the Viking- possibly the world tree Yggdrasil age stones both the woman with snakes and with a dragon-like character and the cluster of snakes exist: that can possibly be interpreted as On the Hunninge stone from Klinte a the snake Nidhögg, gnawing on the snake woman stands watching a battle tree’s roots. scene. In the next picture a man lies During the 6th–8th c. the circles among a number of snakes in a hole or on disappear from the picture stones a yard. A woman stands at the entrance to and are replaced by illustrations of the yard, fig. 6. sailing ships, birds and snakes. Pure On the stone from Smiss in Stenkyrka “snake stones” now appear. The a woman with a snake in her hand is most well known is the stone from walking in front of a row of soldiers. In Smiss in När, fig. 4, where a sitting the badly damaged frieze above this a woman with an artistic hairstyle snake pit with a man in it can be discerned, fig. 7. Snakes have been found in the Gotlandic mythology for many hundred Fig 4. Picture stone with years! Snake pits occur in the Icelandic snake motif from Smiss in sagas - Ragnar Lodbrok and Gunnar När parish. Photo Raymond Hejdström. Gjukeson both met their destiny in a snake pit in the saga of Ragnar Lodbrok –

5 http://viking.hgo.se Viking Heritage Magazine 3/05 a Nordic sequel to the saga of Sigurd Fafnesbane. If dragon- and the snake-stones are early signs of Aesir religion, this means that the transition from the old fertility – and agricultural cult to the Aesir cult was a process that took several hundred years! When the Aesir religion is described in Eddan at the beginning of the 13th c, the author – Snorre Sturlasson had access to stories that depicted the final phase of Aesir religion before it was officially crowded out by Christianity. Then it had probably undergone a long, slow transition.

The Nordic Aesir gods The Viking-age gods stemmed from two races – Aesir and Vanir. The word Aesir comes from an old word for “god”. Fig 6. Picture stone with snake motif from Hunninge in Klinte parish. According to Eddan the Aesir include Photo Raymond Hejdström. most of the gods: Odin, Thor, Tyr and others, twelve gods in total. They are mostly war gods to be appeased by Sacrificial finds weapon sacrifices were also found – some weapon sacrifices among other things. The Gotlandic Viking-age picture stones ten bent-up swords lay in a heap and According to Snorre’s Edda, fourteen of are difficult to interpret but probably give beside them were ten-odd shield bosses the goddesses are called Asynjor, (Aesir us pictures of sacrifices, gods and stacked on top of each other, see photo on goddesses) for instance Frigg and Freyja. goddesses, valkyries and Valhalla. Among the front page. In another marsh land, at The names of the Vanir are considered the sacrificial scenes the Hammar stone Möllegårds in Hörsne, there were thirty- to be related to the Roman goddess of from Lärbro is the one most often love Venus (the Greeks’ Afrodite) and the portrayed – with a human sacrifice on an ancient Indian word vanah = desire and altar-like arrangement with man carrying they constitute their own race of gods. a spear in front of Odin, fig. 8. They were the gods of reproduction and In Gutasagan is written: they ruled over weather, fishing, shipping, “They sacrificed their sons seeding and harvest. They seem to be the and daughters and livestock as remains of an ancient agricultural mother- well as food and drink. They earth cult. This also includes Njord (see did this because of their false above) Frigg, Frey and Freyja. Among the belief. The whole country (Gotland) Vanir are also those versed in magic, who had the greatest human sacrifice. can grant success in battle and who devote Normally each of the three regions held themselves to love magic. their own sacrifice.” The Aesir and Vanir fought against Archaeological finds also imply each other but gradually tired of battle, that people were sacrificed during held a peace meeting and sealed the peace the Viking Age on Gotland. In by both sides going up to a vat and Lillmyr in Barlingbo, just next to the spitting in it, according to Eddan. The Gotlandic Allting’s meeting place in Aesir god Odin married the Vanir goddess Roma, parts of humans have been Frigg and they had two sons, Balder and found, along with remains of horses Höder, amongst other children. and lambs. In the same marsh, Odin is the highest and eldest of the Aesir. He rules over everything and the other gods may be powerful, but they all obey him as children obey their father… Odin is Fig 5. Picture stone with snake called universal father because he is father to motif from Sandegårda in Sanda all the gods, according to the Edda. parish. Photo Raymond Hejdström. http://viking.hgo.se 6 Viking Heritage Magazine 3/03 odd spearheads and at Gane in Bäl, a Vendel-age and ten Viking-age spears were found. These weapon sacrifices are connected with the Odin cult (see front page). But the largest site of Viking-age weapon-finds on Gotland is Gudingsåkrarna, northwest from Vallstena church. Since the 19th c. over 500 weapons have been dug up from the drained marshland here – mostly spearheads, but even swords and forging equipment such as raw iron and forging tongs. On other occasions silver has been found here along with spearheads and scythes. At an excavation during the 1930s, 8 spearheads appeared stuck into a circle approximately 1,5-meter radius and with a horsehead-shaped stone in the middle. While it can be suspected that the Fig 7. Picture stone with snake motif from Smiss in Stenkyrka parish. weapon sacrifices were offered to Odin Photo Raymond Hejdström. and possibly also to Thor, probably the sacrificed scythes are meant to appease the god Frey. Frey was the god of love who continent, they are very rare in Gotlandic places died and took their secret with gave peace, pleasure and good crops. graves. On the other hand there are four them to the grave; they were payment for Adam of Bremen writes at the end of the silver Thor’s hammers in Gotlandic silver a future bride purchase that was never 11th c.: treasures from the late Viking Age used or that the silver was intended as “If an epidemic or famine threatens, you (Alveskogs in Eke, Mickels in När, Gerete blood money to get someone out of a should make sacrifices to Thor’s statue, if a in Fardhem and Kvie in Othem). difficult situation. war is imminent, to Odin, if a wedding is In the Gotlandic graves, amber amulets But the burying of silver can also be to be celebrate, to Frey.” were sometimes placed at the feet of the connected with the Aesir cult! If there was Besides Gudingsåkrarna, scythes have dead or on their breasts. In male graves, silver lying under the floors in at least been found in ways that can be they were shaped like a little axe and in every other farm on Gotland, this could interpreted as sacrifice: four scythes bound female graves they have a conical shape not have been unknown to the other together with two chisels and a cutting with a groove. Small block stools of silver inhabitants of Gotland. Every abandoned instrument have been found at Findarve and amber have also found. The axes as house would have been searched by in Rone and eight scythes, two raw irons, well as the block stool can be linked to relatives or others! three forks and a key at Bringes in Thor’s cult. Thor is portrayed sitting on Another explanation can also exist, that Norrlanda. Small miniature scythes have such a stool on a find from Lund. The has to do with the life after this. In Snorre been dug up at Stenbys in Lokrume. small amber amulets have their Sturlasson’s Ynglingasaga there is a chapter One more group of finds of a sacrificial equivalents in Latvia. about the laws Odin made for the people: character must be mentioned – iron rings A few amulet rings of iron and bronze Odin made in his country the same laws that were found in stone mounds and with small miniature objects on each have that had applied among the Aesir. He bogs. The largest find comes from Dune been found on the island – from Riddare ordained that all dead men should be in Dalhem, where approximately 1400 in Hemse comes a ring with horse, spear burnt and their properties to be carried rings of different sizes lay neatly in and sword and from Sandegårda in Sanda onto the funeral pyre with them. He different layers with earth in between. We another with some rings, a block stool (?) decreed that each and everyone should cannot link the ring finds to any specific and an animal. come to Valhalla with the wealth that he god, they are assumed to be a very ancient had on the pyre; he should also enjoy that relic with roots in a Bronze-age cult. Silver which he had dug down in the ground. The god Thor with power over Burying sacrificial finds meant to appease (author’s italics). thunder is portrayed on a picture stone the gods seems, therefore, to have been a Here we get another explanation for from Alskog church and possibly even on common phenomenon on Gotland. It was the hoards – they were intended for life in a stone chest from Sanda cemetery with even more common to place silver hoards Valhalla! his weapon, the hammer Mjölner. under the floors of the buildings. Up until We can imagine that the farmer, when Fragments of a similar picture stone from the present no less than about 750 he knew the end was near, took away as Hemse seem to have same motif. On the Viking-age silver hoards have come to much of the family’s fortune that he both the later stones, the hammer is more light on Gotland! believed he would need in his next life like a club. Mjölner can also be portrayed Many explanations as to why these and placed this under the floor. Perhaps as an axe. treasures have been left buried until our this took place in ceremonies with families While miniature Thor’s hammers are a time have been searched for: they were present – the contents in the urn or the repeated find from graves on the hidden away; those who knew about the box showing of course the position which

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Fig 8. A sacrificial scene. Detail from the picture stone from Hammars in Lärbro parish. Photo Erik Nylén.

he had achieved during his life. Perhaps, his son, in turn, placed silver in the same urn when he approached old age. The important is that nobody could take up the silver, even if they knew that the silver lay there! Then, the dead ancestors would get into trouble and incur the terrible revenge of the dead and Aesir gods!

Aesir and Christianity “This is the first in our law, that we historical time he has been invoked in Snorre’s Edda was written down during should say no to paganism and say yes to the order to protect houses and people during Christian time and there are many Christian faith and all believe in a God thunderstorms. parallels with biblical texts in the stories. Almighty…” With the introduction of Christianity But there are also many similarities with But all expressions of the old religion even the goddesses disappeared. God was ancient Persian and ancient Indian did not disappear immediately. The faith now naturally male. Maria is admittedly mythology and we can assume that the in – and the dread of – the old Aesir gods Jesus’ mother, but no goddess! But in Aesir religion was a mixture of old beliefs lived on in folklore and customs for a everyday religion, the Blessed Mary got to with Euro-Asian origins and new long time. Thor is the Aesir, whose name bear Freyja’s role as a symbol of fertility, Christian elements. and characteristics seem to have survived see the front page. She was also Information from archaeological the longest in folk religion and well into worshipped as a kind of mother goddess sources on Gotland shows that Christian and alleviated at childbirth pains, thereby objects existed on the island as early as the also replacing Frigg. In many places she 9th century onwards. Gutasagan describes Literature and References also got to take over the power over the that Christian areas existed within Collinder, Björn (ed.) 1970. Snorres Edda. weather, crops, fishing and livestock from Gotland’s trading areas throughout the Uddevalla. the ancient gods and goddesses. whole Viking era: Holmbäck Åke/Wessén, Elias 1979. “Even though the Gutes were heathens, Gutalagen/Gutasagan. Svenska they still sailed with merchant products to Landskapslagar. Uppsala. This article was first published in Swedish all countries, Christian and heathen. Then Olson, Emil (ed.) 1919. Snorre Sturlassons by the County Museum of Gotland in their the merchants witnessed Christian customs konungasagor I. Lund. annual book, Gotländskt Arkiv 2004, this in Christian countries. Then some of them Onsell, Birgitta 1985. Gamla gudar och glömda gudinnor. year called Gotland Vikingaön (Gotland allowed themselves to be baptized and Nylén, Erik 1978. Bildstenar. Visby Viking Island). brought Christian priests to Gotland.” Näsström, Britt-Marie 2001. Nothing would indicate dramatic Fornskandinavisk religion. Lund. events in connection with the conversion Svenberg, Emanuel 1984. Adam av to Christianity. Many things imply, on the Bremen. Historien om Hamburgstiftet About the author other hand, that heathens and Christian och dess biskopar. Stockholm. Gun Westholm is the Senior Curator Thunmark-Nylén, Lena 1983. Gotland och and responsible for the exhibitions at lived peaceful side by side for a long time. the County Museum of Gotland. She During the 11th c. Christian crosses Ostbaltikum. Gutar och Vikingar. Stockholm is an archaeologist and the author of and rune texts with Christian messages Thålin-Bergman, Lena 1983. Järn och numerous articles dealing with the became more and more common. The järnsmide för hemmabruk och avsalu. Viking and Medieval history of oldest churches on Gotland are dated to Gutar och Vikingar. Stockholm Gotland. Her thesis dissertation on about 1100 AD. Gutalagen formulates the Trotzig, Gustaf 1983. Den gamla och den Viking-age Visby was published in formal Christianising of Gotland – the nya religionen. Gutar och Vikingar. 1989. law begins with: Stockholm. http://viking.hgo.se 8 Viking Heritage Magazine 3/05 The Cross and the Sword – Strategies By Alexandra Sanmark Christianity in Europe was of conversion in spread on a wider scale by kings and aristocracy. medieval Europe Missionaries who were active in areas where there was no Christian king could convince This is the first of two articles where smaller parts of the Alexandra Sanmark discusses the population to become conversion processes in medieval Europe (that took place when Christianity was Christian. They could not introduced in Europe). The second will be however transform the old published in VHM 4/2005. pagan society into a Christian one. This was instead achieved by Christian rulers “Baptismal” rune stone (no. U 896) moved assisted by missionaries. from Håga village in Bondkyrko parish. Photography Annika Larsson

This pattern can be clearly seen through comparative studies of Christianization in Europe, and will here be demonstrated here by examples from the conversions of Sweden, Saxony, Frisia and Anglo-Saxon England. There were however also some important differences between the conversions of these areas. Sweden and England became Christian countries through the actions of native kings, above all. These men seem to have spread the religion with the help of loyal magnates, without the use of military force. Frisia and Saxony, on other hand, were converted by the Frankish military conquest.

Sweden In Sweden the first Christian king was Olof Skötkonung, who was baptised around the year 1000. After this event, Christianity was gradually spread across the country. This was the result of the actions of Olof Skötkonung and his successors, who introduced the religion through the local things, with the support of loyal magnates. In this way, Christianity trickled down to the lower sections of society. Before the time of Olof Skötkonung we know that missionaries, such as Ansgar, had been active in Sweden, particularly in the town of Birka. These missionaries had Rune stone from Focksta, Uppland, with a clearly visible cross. This kind of rune stone is however been only marginally successful. undoubtedly linked to Christianization. They did not manage to convince any of the Photography Annika Larsson kings at Birka to accept baptism, and as a

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This rune stone, which was placed as a foundation stone underneath one of the pillars in Uppsala cathedral, shows how the old traditions were incorporated into the medieval, Christian, society. Photography Annika Larsson

in today’s Netherlands and northern Germany respectively) in the 7th and 8th centuries was very much different. These areas were conquered by the Frankish empire and the population was forced to accept Christianity as part of Frankish lordship. The Frankish armies were accompanied by bishops, who consequence only parts of the population powerful kings, who spread Christianity on a settled in the newly won areas. were persuaded to do so. larger scale to the different Anglo-Saxon Before this time, missionaries had kingdoms. Political pressure was placed on preached in Frisia without secular support. The Anglo-Saxon kingdoms the weaker kings until they agreed to be They did not however manage to convince The conversions of the Anglo-Saxon baptised. Once a king had been convinced to the Frisian kings, nor any larger parts of the kingdoms seem to have been similar to the receive baptism, missionaries were sent to his population, to be baptised. conversion of Sweden. kingdom to preach among the greater The first Christian king, Ethelberht of population. “Mission by word – Mission by sword“ Kent, was baptised in 597 by the Roman Political pressure was not however the In the 1930s and 40s, scholars attempted to missionary Augustine. Ethelberht was only reason why the lesser kings accepted divide conversion into a number of different married to Bertha, a Frankish Christian Christianity. There were also significant categories. The conversions of Sweden and princess, and was therefore most likely political, economic, and social advantages to England were classified as “mission by word”, positive towards Christianity even before be had, such as stronger trade links, Latin i.e. conversion through missionary Augustine’s arrival. It may even have been learning and new technology. preaching. The conversions of Saxony and him who invited the Roman missionaries to Frisia were categorised as “mission by Kent. Frisia and Saxony sword”, i.e. conversion through military It was moreover Ethelberht and other The conversion of Frisia and Saxony (located force. This approach is however far too simplistic. The main problem is that it does not take into account the political force exercised by secular rulers in more peaceful conversions. A more useful way to study Christianization is to see the different types of conversion as part of a spectrum, where some kind of force is always present. This can range from mild political pressure to full war. We must also remember that the many advantages that could be gained constituted another significant factor for the spread of Christianity. Christian rulers furthermore

“Arkel’s thing site”, Bällsta parish, Vallentuna. Photography Alexandra Sanmark http://viking.hgo.se 10 Viking Heritage Magazine 3/03

A modern wooden church in Estonia, notice the cross on the roof. Early wooden churches in Sweden might have looked like this, but how does one find them archaeologically? Photography Annika Larsson.

The church of St Olof in Sigtuna, which dates from early 12th century. This is the earliest church in the county of Uppland, with the exception of the one that was recently found underneath the floor of the same church. Photography Annika Larsson

used material rewards in order to make of ancient Christianity, missionary work had Christianity more appealing. The Frankish been seen to contain two goals. These were rulers, for example, offered positions of the positive goal of the acceptance of power and wealth to the Saxon leaders who Christianity and the negative goal of accepted them as overlords and thus also extinguishing non-Christian beliefs and Christianity. cults. These goals have also been named Since these rewards were not directly “Christianization” and “depaganisation”. connected with the Christian teachings, In the 5th and 6th centuries, force could rulers could give Christianity added not be used in Christianization. The reason attractions, which missionaries were unable for this was that acceptance of Christianity to offer. should be a fully voluntary act, which should The chapel on take place before baptism. For the goal of Björkö was The use of force depaganisation, the use of force was allowed, built to The medieval Church accepted the use and even invited. commemorate of violence in conversion. Gradually, the Church began to accept Ansgar’s visit From the time the use of force even in the pursuit of to Birka 1100 Christianization. At the end of the 6th years ago. century, Pope Gregory I recommended Photography: levying fines on those who were not Bengt A baptised, so that they would be compelled to Lundberg. be baptised. In the 7th century, the Church condemned forced baptism, although recognising it as valid. It was moreover stated that a person who had been forcibly baptised must also be forced to remain a Christian. Over the course of the Middle Ages, therefore, baptism became the primary goal for missionaries. Once the people in an area had been baptised, the missionaries would have more opportunities to give them Christian instruction. Medieval sources called a person a “believer” from the very moment of her or his baptism. This means that the medieval meaning of “conversion” is different from the one we are used to today, i.e. an inner

11 http://viking.hgo.se Viking Heritage Magazine 3/05 change of faith. It is clear that Christian faith was of little importance for the spread of Christianity in the Middle Ages. In order to further demonstrate this, we must take a closer look at baptism as a tool for conversion.

Baptism The sources contain many descriptions of baptisms. Most of these accounts tell us about mass baptisms that were carried out soon after the missionaries’ arrival in an area. The evidence suggests that in order to receive baptism, converts were only required to recite the baptismal formula. This included the rejection of the devil and the declaration of faith in God and the Holy Trinity. There seem to have been occasions when missionaries required even less than the baptismal formula. The Anglo-Saxon missionary Boniface complained that there were priests who performed baptism, without first asking their subjects about their belief in the Christian god. One reason for the lack of pre-baptismal instruction was presumably insufficient manpower. We are told that the missionary Augustine baptised more than 10,000 people on Christmas Day 597. Boniface is also Early medieval baptismal font from Grenoble intended for the baptism of adults. It is reported to have baptised thousands. likely that most early baptismal font were constructed in this manner. In Sweden, adult Although the numbers of people in such baptism by immersion was most probably practised in early Christian times. The custom accounts have most likely been exaggerated, of sprinkling water on the baby’s head is a later tradition. it is clear that there were few missionaries in Photography Annika Larsson. relation to the population in these areas. In Saxony during the reign of Charlemagne, forced mass baptisms were population appear to have received little pre- organised in combination with the extension baptismal instruction, as the number of of Frankish territory. Moreover, around 785, clergymen was rather low. Rimbert, who Charlemagne issued a law, which made the wrote the Life of Ansgar, reported that on refusal of baptism punishable by death. The several occasions Birka was without a priest enforcement of such measures clearly did not for many years. Adam of Bremen, a German leave any time for pre-baptismal instruction. canon who wrote in the 1070s, tells us about The Anglo-Saxon monk, Alcuin of York, German priests who were appointed to who was Charlemagne’s leading advisor on episcopal sees in Scandinavia, but who never ecclesiastical matters, was worried about the took up their positions. performance of the mission in Saxony and in It is therefore likely that missionaries had particular about the “hasty baptism of to preach to large audiences and they were pagans who knew nothing of the faith”. Of probably not able to dedicate much time to the few recorded cases of more personal pre-baptismal instruction. Their primary instruction, almost all involve rulers or aim, or wish, may thus have been to baptise members of the aristocracy. Anglo-Saxon the population quickly, as missionaries in kings, such as Ethelberht, receiving England, Saxony, and Frisia had done. instruction from missionaries who spent time at the royal courts. Prime-signing Frisian nobles also kept missionaries in There was however one important difference their households. In these areas therefore, it between baptism in Scandinavia and in the seems to have been possible for highly other areas discussed in this article. In appointed men and women to gain a deeper Scandinavia in the 10th and early 11th knowledge of Christianity before their centuries, prime-signing was practised in baptism. addition to full baptism. In Saxony, on the other hand, the local We are told that Ansgar baptised many at rulers were forcibly baptised, in much the Hedeby in Denmark, but also that “countless same way as the rest of the population. It is numbers” were prime-signed. The prime- unlikely that Christian instruction played signing ritual was constituted by the any significant role in these cases. introductory part of the baptismal rite, and A reconstruction of the baptismal font in There is no evidence of forced baptism in those who had received it were allowed to go Grenoble. Photography Annika Larsson Sweden. However, even here, most of the to church and take part in Christian life. http://viking.hgo.se 12 Viking Heritage Magazine 3/03

This practice had its roots in ancient Christianity when it was believed that everyone should learn about Christianity before they were baptised. This learning period should last a maximum of three years after the initiation ritual. In Sweden, this period seems at times to have been much longer. The texts on several rune stones in Uppland tell us about people who died “in white clothes”. This probably refers to the baptismal robes, which the baptised should wear after the ceremony. It is therefore likely that these people had been prime-signed and were baptised just before their deaths. Church bell from There seem to be at least three Hedeby. According to explanations as to why some people preferred Ansgar, the pagans prime-signing to full baptism. One reason did not like the was that people wished to be baptised and sound of the church cleansed from their sins just before their bell in Hedeby and deaths, as suggested by the Upplandic rune therefore threw it into stones. These people were hoping to go the sea. Interestingly, straight to paradise. this bell was found in A second explanation could be that it the sea just outside provided a good option for those who were Hedeby. not entirely convinced that they wished to be Photography Annika baptised. Larsson. The third explanation, which occurs in Egil Skallagrímsson’s saga, is of a more practical nature. Here it was stated that Torulf and Egil were prime-signed in Anglo-Saxon kingdom of Northumbria. In significant part in the early stages of England so that they would be able to work this letter, the pope promised to select a Christianization. for the king. This was the custom among suitable man as archbishop, who could “root We will see this more clearly in the next both traders and men who were employed by out” the pagan religion “by his preaching issue of Viking Heritage when early Christians. The saga explicitly stated that as and with the help of the word of God”. Christian legislation in Scandinavia will be prime-signed Torulf and Egil could be However, if we think about the discussed. These laws were not concerned together with both Christians and pagans importance of kings for successful conversion with people’s Christian faith, but instead and “believe in that which was best suited to and the formulaic baptism by missionaries, it aimed at making sure that their lives their mood”. is clear that the overall significance of conformed to a Christian lifestyle. The practice of prime-signing may have preaching and instruction in medieval meant that parts of the population in conversion is doubtful. Another factor that Sweden at times had greater opportunities to supports this is that sermons do not seem to receive pre-baptismal instruction than the have become a fixed part of the Christian people of England, Frisia, and Saxony. It service in Sweden until the end of the About the author must however also be remembered that we twelfth century. Alexandra Sanmark studied medieval do not know how many of the prime-signed history and archaeology at the University of London. In 2003 she were eventually baptised. Conclusion finished her PhD thesis, Power and Moreover even in Sweden, the leading The most striking variances between the Conversion – A Comparative Study of conversions of Sweden, England, Frisia and layers of society are likely to have received a Christianization, which has now been more thorough Christian instruction than Saxony appear to have been the degree of published by Uppsala University. the wider population. The low number of force, and the use of either forced or Since then she has been a visiting clerics in relation to the population means voluntary baptism. scholar at the Centre for Viking and that in many cases the majority of people However, through the comparison Medieval Studies in Oslo and she is may not have come into close contact with a between these areas, it becomes clear that currently the Course Coordinator for missionary priest until after Christianity had irrespective of the degree of violence the interdisciplinary Masters been declared the “official” religion in their employed, the wider population could not programme Viking and Early Medieval district. When these people finally did meet exercise much choice in whether to accept or Studies at the Department of missionaries, they are likely to have accepted reject Christianity. Archaeology and Ancient History in baptism as a matter of course. Moreover, since the missionaries’ principal Uppsala. Her present research project aim was to baptise the population as quickly concerns administrative organisation Preaching as possible, there does not seem to have been and itinerant kingship in the Viking Medieval writers stressed the importance of much time for instruction before any type of Age and early Middle Ages, and preaching for successful conversion, and this baptism. involves excavation and mapping of is mentioned in almost every account of Altogether, this shows that the distinction thing sites and ancient roads. missionary history. between forced and voluntary conversion was E-mail: One such example is found in a letter rather blurred. It is clear that personal [email protected] from Pope Vitalian to Oswiu, King of the religious conviction did not play any

13 http://viking.hgo.se Viking Heritage Magazine 3/05 The tidy metalworkers of Fröjel

Ny Björn Gustafsson & Anders Söderberg

In the summer of 2000 an intriguing find was made during excavations by the Fröjel Discovery Programme, Gotland, Sweden. In a pasture known as “Irma’s hage”, which had never been ploughed, traces of a metal workshop were uncovered.

The settlement and cemeteries of Fröjel are well known thanks to several previous articles in Viking Heritage Magazine. Over the years, more and more information about the site has been collected through excavations. The surveyed and excavated area is mainly situated within tilled farmland and thus the context is disturbed above a certain depth. However there are more or less undisturbed areas at Fröjel. One such area, “Irma’s hage” or officially Bottarve 1:19, was excavated in the late summer of 2000. Several possible traces of houses were visible even with the turf still intact. One of the better defined of these would- be houses was selected and a trench was laid out.

The workshop site The trench was, in turn, divided in two equally large sub-trenches separated by a 10 cm wide baulk. Early on in the excavation a three-sided stone foundation was noted – its larger stones clearly visible above the turf. Fig. 1. The workshop site. The stone foundation shows a rectangular building, about 4 x Three layers could be identified in the 5.5 meters in size, possibly representing a long-term continuity at the site – after working in simpler buildings the craftsmen may have been occupied a permanent house in the later phase. The cupellation hearth belongs to the earlier phase (roughly the 11th century) and the large pit furnace possibly to the later, according to radiocarbon dating. After Dahlström & Eriksson 2002.

trench and debris from several crafts, such the one from the furnace in trench 5:2 to as glass beads and antler and metal AD 1110–1230. shavings, was found. In addition to this, two well-defined furnaces were found, one Examination of metallurgical ceramics in each sub-trench (fig. 1). The furnaces The moulds, crucibles, hearth lining and had been filled in and in the fill material slag from the Fröjel workshop were several pieces of moulds and hearth lining examined during the spring of 2005 as a as well as 11 crucible fragments and two part of the project “Metallurgical ceramics intact crucibles were found along with 800–1200”. The study also included slag, undefined burnt clay and charcoal. material from Sigtuna (Kv. Trädgårds- Fig. 2. A piece of bone-ash hearth lining, Two samples of charcoal were later mästaren, excavated 1988–1990) and scale bar 20 mm. It doesn’t look very radiocarbon-dated and yielded a rough Skänninge (Skänninge Kriminalvårdsan- significant, but it makes a huge difference dating for the workshop. The sample from stalt, excavated in 2003). to the workshop. Photo Anders the furnace in trench 5:1 could be dated The basic aim was to try to establish Söderberg. to AD 970–1160 (68.2 % accuracy) and whether specific crafts could be connected http://viking.hgo.se 14 Viking Heritage Magazine 3/03

Fig. 4. Mould fragments found in the cupellation pit. Generally, the patterns in the mould fragments from Fröjel are poorly preserved. Left: one of two fragments from the same mould, below a sketch of the pattern. The nature of the object is still uncertain. Right: an imprint of a small fragment, the sketch below showing its zigzag pattern; a common pattern in the centre part of Gotlandic arm rings. Photo Anders Söderberg.

to specific levels in the hierarchies of the (mainly deriving from padlock brazing) seldom attracts any greater interest from contemporary society. This can be dealt and melting bowls deriving from researchers. It is generally just weighed and with in several ways. We chose to study manufacture of weights. dealt with quantitatively, whereas metallurgical ceramics – a find category These types of ceramics represent metallurgical ceramics, when dealt with that we today know is more diverse than it separate techniques but they also have qualitatively, can yield much information. was earlier thought to be. several features in common. One such Instead of generally stating that Crucibles and clay moulds are well similarity is the high degree of heat “forging occurred” on a site, several known and accounted for, but there are exposure – the surfaces of the fragments metallurgical techniques such as brazing, several other types that have been found in archaeological contexts are plating, parting and case hardening or box identified during the last decade. Within generally quite glazed or vitrified. This, in carburisation can be identified, hence the project we have surveyed two of these turn, means that the often small and broadening the understanding of what lesser known find types: heating trays and fragmented shards of metallurgical ceramic really took place on the site in question. brazing packages, the later divided into the could be – and are – mistaken for slag. sub groups box-shaped brazing packages This is rather unfortunate since slag Cupellation hearth lining The Fröjel workshop showed none of the find types mentioned above, except for a vague fragment of a brazing package. But another, and from a specifically Gotlandic 1. 2. 3. perspective, interesting type of metallurgical ceramics was present: a multitude of very heavy greyish fragments of hearth lining (fig. 2). When examined more closely it could be established that Fig. 3. Refining silver by cupellation: 1) The re-cycled silver is alloyed with an excess of they probably contained copper oxide, and lead, in a hearth lined with bone-ash material. According to the size of the Fröjel pit and their weight alone indicated that they to similar finds from 12th century Sigtuna, the hearth would have been 15 – 25 cm wide. 2) Oxygen is blown over the melted alloy. Lead and copper are oxidized and absorbed contained quite substantial amounts of by the hearth lining. Probably a heat preserving dome or muffle was used over the lead. hearth, but we don’t know how this could have been constructed. 3) The silver is now The fragments’ origin was beyond a pure, all the lead oxide and copper oxide remain in the hearth lining. doubt – they had formed the lining of a Picture by Anders Söderberg cupellation furnace. The colour of the

15 http://viking.hgo.se Viking Heritage Magazine 3/05 fragments was a result of a high content of hearth. The impurities will stay absorbed Bottarve 1:19 – old silver was refined in a bone ash, i.e. burned and crushed bones in the lining, which is why this type of cupellation hearth, the refined silver was mixed with a minimum of clay as binding hearth material is surprisingly heavy. melted and cast in the shape of native material. jewellery which was, in turn, prepared for Such hearths are known from several Casting moulds circulation just a couple of feet away from other sites abroad, for instance in England, The fragmentary clay moulds from the site the furnaces. but they are just beginning to be were not part of the study. Nevertheless a This is of course a quite obvious line of recognised in the Swedish archaeological basic examination of some of the better- production, but finding evidence for all find material. They are used to refine silver preserved shards yielded interesting the stages preserved in one workshop is from the contamination of various other information about the actual production highly unusual. metals such as copper. Such hearths would in the workshop. Especially since lots of In order to confirm that the moulds in have been a must on Gotland with its them were found in the fillmaterial from question were really used for casting silver enormous inflow of Islamic and later the cupellation hearth pit, we considered objects, the mould- and crucible fragments English and continental silver. will be analysed at the A sample of the heavy Archaeological Research hearth lining was taken to the Laboratory later this winter. Archaeological Research Laboratory of the Stockholm A tidy workshop University for a closer analysis. The title of this paper is “The It showed high quantities of tidy metalworkers of Fröjel”, as phosphorus, calcium and lead the finds from the very and the presence of copper and building were very sparse. This silver in rather typical is not uncommon. The proportions. The fragments of 1990–95 excavation of the hearth lining certainly do 8th–9th century metal derive from a cupellation workshops in the Black Earth hearth. of Birka revealed very clean interiors and the workshop The cupellation process waste, like fragments of Cupellation (fig. 3), which is a moulds and crucibles were several thousand year-old found in rubbish heaps process originating in silver outside, in the passages mining, takes advantage of the between the town yards. The fact that lead and copper metalworkers were careful oxidise under circumstances about keeping their working when silver remains stable in a areas clean. metallic state. By mixing As the Fröjel excavation copper-alloyed silver with lead, Fig. 5. A few other mould fragments from the Fröjel workshop, mainly examined the actual which fit well together. The pieces represent the inside of an you can oxidise the lead and object. We are still not quite sure what this object may have been house site, it didn’t reveal the copper in the molten alloy by – any ideas? Photo Anders Söderberg. waste depositions that are means of an intense addition probably still buried a few of oxygen from the bellows, meters away. Despite this the and thereby separate it from the silver them highly informative (fig. 4 and 5). collected traces of activity reveal lots of which will stay unaffected. By this rather By means of wet clay we were able to information about the workshop. simple yet sophisticated chemical method get positive copies of the negative The possible handling of large you can refine silver to a purity of 99 %. impressions of the moulds. Some of these quantities of silver at a very advanced Silver used in coins and jewellery is clay positives showed a rather striking technical level, combined with the fact always alloyed with certain percentages of resemblance to Gotlandic bronze and that the workshop was situated in the copper in order to make it harder, like silver arm rings. To some extent this was periphery or even outside of the Fröjel sterling silver that contains 7.5 % copper. to be expected since the arm rings in market area is interesting. So are the traces When re-cycling silver of different origins question were very common during the of a permanent workshop building at a and with unknown additions of copper late Gotlandic Viking Age. Additionally a later phase. and other metallic impurities, you need a concentrated find of small silver shavings Who managed such a workshop? The reliable method for refining it before you were found in what was once the south- combination of large quantities of precious re-alloy it into a determined standard west corner of the building, indicating metals and high technological know-how percentage. that silver items really were worked there. indicates a connection to the highest and The use of bone ash for hearth lining is It is tempting to assume that the administrative levels of society. The explained by its excellent absorbing shavings came from the process of possible production of arm rings with a properties. The oxidised lead and copper retouching various pieces of jewellery – the likewise possibly standardised high silver will form a molten oxide, which will then last and crucial stage during which the content at Fröjel, leads our thoughts be absorbed into the porous lining jewellery was finished for circulation. towards a managed production of highly material. When the process is finished, Hence we might see the full chain of valued objects which could even be only pure metallic silver will be left in the production in one small location at considered as primitive currency. http://viking.hgo.se 16 Viking Heritage Magazine 3/03

According to the finds, the workshop also produced glass beads and antler combs, as was the case with a contemporary royal workshop on the Fig. 6. A piece of a tube- mainland: the mint of King Olof Eriksson shaped clay package from the market area, possibly deriving Skötkonung in Sigtuna. Viking workshops from box carburisation. In the weren’t strictly specialised yet, not even the centre of the tube is a workshops of kings and obviously not rectangular cavity where even a workshop with the dignity of a the iron blank may have mint. been, covered by skin and other organic Tube-shaped clay packages material. Photo We also made a brief examination of the Anders Söderberg. finds from Bottarve 1:17, representing the activities in the centre of the Fröjel harbour and market area. Obviously many handicraft activities had also been taking place there; making these finds good references to the materials from the workshop in Irma’s Hage. A very special sort of ceramic packaging material for metallurgical processes found here is a large fragment of a tube-shaped clay package (fig. 6). This is a common but not yet satisfactorily interpreted type of package found at several sites throughout Western and Northern Europe dating from the and into the later Middle Ages. two pits and a few rather obscure pieces of Painting, Glassmaking and Metalwork. They often seem to be connected with ceramics and slag. This is in fact the most New York. forging, and according to imprints of thrilling part of archaeological work – and Hårdh, B. 1996. Silver in the Viking Age. A bindings inside the tubes, they could the most time-consuming. Regional-Economic study. Stockholm. possible originate from the clay cases used Hedegaard, K. R. 1992. in box carburisation of steel for tools and Bronzestøberhåndværket i yngre The project “Metallurgical ceramics germanertid og tidlig vikingetid i weapons. 800–1200” is supported by the Berit Skandinavien – teknologi og th In early 12 century the priest Wallenberg Foundation. organisation. Lag 1992. Højbjerg. Theophilus describes the process in his Jakobssen, S. 1991. Hersker og smed. book “On Divers Arts”: “…smear them Smedarbeider i Tønsberg i perioden ca with old pig fat and wrap them around with 1150-1350. Tønsberg. leather strips cut from goat skin and bind Jakobsson, T. 1996. them with linen thread. After this cover References / Additional reading Bronsgjutarverkstäderna på Birka – en them individually with kneaded clay, leaving Arrhenius, B. 1998. Why the king needed kort presentation. Icke-järnmetaller, malmfyndigheter och metallurgi, the tangs bare. When they are dried, put his own goldsmith. Laborativ arkeologi Föredrag från symposium på them into the fire, blow vigorously, and the 10-11. Arrhenius, B. (ed.). Stockholm. Bayley, J. Eckstein, K. 1997. Silver Refining Jernkontoret den 16 mars 1995. goatskin will be burnt. Hastily extract them – Production, Recycling, Assaying. Forshell, H. (ed). Stockholm. from the clay and quench them evenly in Archaeological Sciences 1995. water. Then take them out and dry them at Proceedings of a conference on the the fire”. application of scientific techniques to the study of archaeology, Liverpool July Still more information to interpret 1995. Sinclair, A. Slater, E. Gowlett, J. Obviously, there is a lot of information (ed). 1997. Oxford. About the authors still to be retrieved from the materials Carlsson, D. 1999. “Ridanäs”, Ny Björn Gustafsson is an collected in the Fröjel Discovery Vikingahamnen i Fröjel. Visby. archaeologist specialized in the Programme. Our project is an example of Dahlström, C. Eriksson, T. 2002. Rapport material culture of late Iron Age från utgrävningen av den vikingatida the work that takes place after the actual Scandinavia, in particular hamn-och handelsplatsen i Fröjel, excavation, which is mainly a phase of manufacturing techniques and Gotland 2000. Fröjel Discovery workshop strategies. collecting objects and registering Programme, Dnr 220-1955-00. Email: [email protected] information. Gustin, I. 2004. Mellan gåva och marknad. Anders Söderberg is an archeologist, The main part of the work takes place Handel, tillit och materiell kultur under specialized in Iron Age/Early Medieval afterwards, in the examination and vikingatid. Malmö. metallurgy and experimental research interpretations that can put life and Hawthorne, J. G. Smith, C. S. 1979. on technical processes from the era. colours into, for instance, some dull rows Theophilus; On Divers Arts. The Email: [email protected] of stones enclosing a tidy area containing Foremost Medieval Treatise on

17 http://viking.hgo.se Viking Heritage Magazine 3/05 The Worlds of the Vikings – an exhibition at Gotlands Fornsal, Visby

By Malin Lindquist For those who left, the world really did become bigger. It stretched from Ireland “He who has not in the west to Russia in the east, from The Viking Age Iceland and Greenland in the north to The raid on the Lindisfarne monastery off travelled has learnt Greece and Istanbul in the south-east. the coast of Northumberland in the They headed east and they headed summer of 793 is generally accepted as nothing and knows west. Those who could not find their the beginning of the Viking Age. For livelihood in their own countries about 250 years the Scandinavians emigrated to Iceland and onward to dominated practically all of Europe. The nothing about people”. Greenland and Newfoundland. They set end of this splendid time is marked by the out to find a new homeland, thus From Hávámal. fatal defeat of the Norwegian King Harald constituting our first emigrants. Some Hardrade, when he attempted to conquer went plundering in the rich countries England in 1066. These raiding such as the towns, monasteries and expeditions in western Europe have given churches in England, France and Spain. the Vikings their reputation as wild Others went on trading journeys through plunderers and warriors. their realm. Travel was imperative, not Russia to faraway trading markets. However, Nearly everybody was a only for practical reasons; it was part of a There are numerous theories on the farmer in those days. Their world was man’s upbringing to have travelled far and underlying causes of the Viking-age their farm. They were all-round wide. “He who has not travelled has learnt expansion. A crying need for land, handymen – as indeed Gotlandic farmers nothing and knows nothing about people” overpopulation and internal conflicts may always have been. They tilled the land and can be read in Havamal. have constituted some of these causes. tended their livestock. The women’s main duty was the house and home. Children Over the sea had to contribute to the family livelihood That the Vikings’ sheer skill in building The big world – the enticement of the as soon as they were able. seaworthy sailing ships was the key to Orient. From the exhibition. However some managed to expand Photo Raymond Hejdström their successful expansion is a generally

http://viking.hgo.se 18 Viking Heritage Magazine 3/03

The small world – weaving was one of the women’s main tasks. Photo Raymond Hejdström

accepted claim. The Viking-age shipbuilders were undoubtedly skilful. They built different types of boats for different purposes. Never have more beautiful or more utilitarian boats been produced in Scandinavia. Warships, or long boats, were up to 20 metres or more in length. The animals were smaller than those The core of society was the clan and Narrow, slender and elegant in design, with which we are familiar today. They the family. Their realm was the farm, they were able to carry a crew of up to 60 provided food and raw materials, such as which satisfied all their needs. Inheritance men with weapons and horses. hides, feathers, horns, antlers and fleece. determined possession – then as now. Trade ships were broader and deeper, They were used as draught and riding These people were not Vikings! built with cargo-carrying capacity in mind animals. Animals also featured as status – 20 to 30 tons was not uncommon. symbols and were significant in various The big world They could even transport a family aspects of religion. This was particularly Countries such as England, France and complete with household goods and true of the horse. Spain enticed the Vikings with their livestock across the Ocean. The amount of livestock on a farm towns, monasteries and churches, whose Smaller, lighter and shallow-draught depended on the area of available riches were ransacked by the formidable boats were used for trading trips along pastureland. The livestock inventory also Danish and Norwegian Vikings. These rivers and lakes. They had room for 10 to determined the acreage of tilled land, raiding expeditions in Western Europe 12 men onboard. since animal dung was used to fertilize the have given the Vikings the reputation of Experience had taught them to fields. wild plunderers and warriors and also navigate according to natural elements – Diet was based on the farm’s own their name. the currents, the direction of birds in animals and crops, which were Only those who participated in flight and the stars at night. supplemented by the yields from hunting, plundering expeditions in affluent Europe fishing and gathering. Primary produce can rightly be called Vikings. They were The small world was dried or smoked. Salt was still a rare probably a minority among Viking-age During this period many acres of land commodity. Honey was the most people. were claimed for cultivation. Of the cereal common sweetener. The most common Only one Gotlander is known to have crops, barley was the most important fare on the Vikings’ table was porridge taken part in these raids. It was Helge grain. Cultivated root vegetables and and bread, accompanied by meat, fish or from Hablingbo parish on whose greens included cabbages, onions, beans, vegetables, according to season and gravestone is written: “Vatair and Helgair turnips and peas. supply. have erected the stone after Helge, their

19 http://viking.hgo.se Viking Heritage Magazine 3/05 father. He had gone west with the Vikings.” always find ways to communicate. him. We burn him rapidly in a fire and he He was a Viking! The word Viking Bulgar by the bend of the River Volga will go directly to Paradise.” means someone fighting at sea, a pirate. was, according to Ibn Fadlan, a market This is not what we, in modern terms, From eastern Sweden, possibly mainly place were “they all live in tents that are call racism – this is more of a cultural Gotlanders, young men set out on far- decorated with oriental carpets”. He also clash between sophisticated Muslims and flung trading expeditions eastwards to tells that the Nordic merchants built (in their eyes) barbarians from the North! places such as the Bulgar bend on the wooden houses by the river. The place was River Volga and Miklagard (the Swedish probably also filled with sheds and Halvdan in Miklagård name for Constantinople, known today as bazaars. The area around the town was Miklagård was the magnificent capital of Istanbul). good for trading: people came from all the Byzantine Empire, the centre of This is where goods were exchanged – around with all kinds of goods to sell. Christianity with churches and palaces, art Nordic weapons and furs for the coveted Merchants from the Caliphate, perhaps and culture and a pleasant climate. This silver, which was transported home in vast even China could offer silver, silk, and walled town had about 100,000 quantities. other luxurious objects for furs and inhabitants. Birka’s estimated population Those people were not Vikings! weapons. at the same time was one thousand. The Oriental sources differentiate Here our Nordic traders moved among This golden city must have impressed between the Vikings and the . people, doing business. Among others the Nordic visitors! Imagine the impact of The Scandinavians, who went East to they met the Arabian emissary, Ahmad the bazaars! There were – just like today – trade were called Varangians by the people ibn Fadlan ibn al-Abbas ibn Rashid ibn a throng of people and goods from the they met. One interpretation is that it Muhammed, called Ibn Fadlan for short. Orient, Africa and Europe. A successful originally is a Scandinavian word meaning Admittedly, he described them as “stray deal resulted in the acquisition of luxury sworn or under oath. These Scandinavians, donkeys” and “getting drunk day and night”, goods such as ivory, cloth, spices, silver who headed east, are known as but he also reported that he had “never embroideries and gaudy glass beads, rock Varangians. seen such perfect bodies; they were like palm crystal and cornelian, which were then trees, tall, blond and ruddy”. conveyed home to the North. Cultural clashes Famous is the description of a Some of these Varangians probably Merchants who travelled to these foreign Varangian funeral and how slaves, food never returned home. One of them might markets met people from near and far. and drink are carried on board and how have been Halvdan – he who carved his They met other cultures, other religions, they set fire to it all which highly name in runes in one of the balustrades in and other languages. How did this affect astonishes the Arab. Perhaps even more the Hagia Sofia church in Constantinople. them and how did they communicate, on interesting is to hear what the What did he think standing in the the whole: how did they manage? had to say: galleries following the orthodox service? Of course it is impossible to answer “You Arabs are really stupid. You take the Maybe he hesitated about whether to stay these questions. According to Ibn Fadlan, person you love the most and put him into or to go home. If he stayed he probably an Arab who met these Norsemen, there the earth and insects and worms will eat became a soldier in the Emperor’s were interpreters but I can imagine that they developed a kind of “pidgin- language” just like all people who travel have always done. The dream of doing good business The vane, a noble ornament on the stem. From also unites people and they Källunge church, Gotland. Photo Raymond Hejdström

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The Worlds of the Vikings The exhibition “The Worlds of the Vikings” opened May 15, 2005 in the Origins of the European County Museum of Gotland. It will be open till the middle of May 2006. At the same time the Spillings is Economy. Communications on display in the Treasury. The exhibition wishes to change and Commerce AD 300–900 the common picture of the Viking as a warrior and a plunderer. It presents him as a farmer, merchant and sailor. The name refers to the different worlds in which the Vikings lived. In one, “the small world”, the realm was the farm, which satisfied all their New needs. Nearly everybody was a farmer and all-round handymen – as book! indeed Gotlandic farmers always have been. The core of society was the clan and the family. However some of them managed to expand their realm. Young men set Written by Michael out on far-flung trading expeditions McCormick. to places such as the Bulgar bend on Published by Cambridge the River Volga and Miklagard = “the big world”. University Press. 2001. Some probably never returned ISBN 0-521-66102-1 home, but many did, bringing with them a considerable fortune, some of it displayed in the County Museum of Gotland. This is an important and well-documented book that has been well received by international professional press. The inquiry ranges over half a millennium, and Malin Lindquist covers all of Europe with some slices of Asia and Africa. The author has collected and analysed a great deal of written and archaeological primary source material from those parts of the world. Thus the book exceeds the Viking world in both time and space but Varangian guard. Otherwise he returned McCormick also introduces an important new concept The Northern Arc, which home full of memories, impressions and is a new trade route between the North Sea and the Orient. It runs via southern maybe a considerable fortune to hide in Jutland across the Scandinavian Peninsula or via the Baltic, along the Russian the Gotlandic soil. rivers to Byzantium and the Caliphate. This route vas opened by Frisian and Oriental merchants, who had the necessary geographic know-how, during the 9th And just remember this: century and was the economic prerequisite for trading places like Haithabu, “East of the river Elbe there are no Vikings and west of the river Elbe there are Birka, Paviken, Novgorod and Kiev. no Varangians.“ McCormick shows that the trade between northern Europe and the Orient (Stig Wikander: Araber, Vikingar, flourished during the final centuries of the first millennium. This is contrary to th Väringar) the Pirenne thesis from the mid-20 century, which says that Islamic expansion in the Mediterranean disrupted commerce. Regrettably, one of McCormick’s conclusions is that Europe’s most abundant product around 800 was the Europeans who were sold as slaves to the more advanced economies of Africa and Asia. The European economies did engage deeply with those of the Muslim world About the author and Byzantium. Birka was an important place because it was situated far outside Malin Linquist is well known to the the range of Christian juridictions, which meant that the treatment of even readers of VHM as she has Christian slaves was uninhibited. contributed several articles over the One of the book’s shortcomings is that a result of the trading activities – years. In her daily work she is the Islamic coins is not discussed in full regarding Scandinavia. One reason is senior curator and responsible for the obviously that we still lack a handsome survey of those finds, but actions to archaeological collections at the County Museum of Gotland. She has correct that should be taken in Scandinavia. worked as an archaeologist for many This book ought to be read by everyone engaged in studies of the Viking-age years, mainly on Gotland. economy. Email: Carl Löfving [email protected]

21 http://viking.hgo.se Viking Heritage Magazine 3/05 DESTINATION VIKING The Fearless Vikings…

By Geir Sør-Reime

Destination Viking Sagalands held its last ordinary meeting in the Faroe Islands just prior to St. Olof’s Mass, the National Day of the Faroe Islands (29th July). The meeting was held in Tórshavn, July 22–27, 2005.

Destination Viking

Destination Viking is a concept for presenting the Vikings and the Viking Age. It includes museums, visitor centres, prehistoric villages, re-enactment groups etc., and is working with research, presentation and the development of a trans-national tourist destination. Map by Dan Carlsson. Destination Viking includes a number of separate projects, currently the Destination Viking Living History (former Baltic Stories), funded by the Interreg IIIB Region programme and the Destination Viking Sagalands project, funded by the Interreg IIIB Northern Periphery programme. The project Destination Viking Living History has now come to an end, see VHM The main issues on the agenda were 2/2005. But the Destination Viking Sagalands project continues and will contribute to naturally the final reports, the summing Viking Heritage Magazine for the coming two issues. up of project activities throughout the last three years. Also, tangible results like the Project consultant for Destination new Sagalands book, the Sagalands map, Viking projects: the website etc. were on the agenda. Mr Geir Sør-Reime, Senior Advisory The main purpose of having a meeting Officer, Rogaland County Council in the Faroe Islands was of course to visit [email protected] our Faroese partners: the National Museum of the Faroes and the Faroese Project manager Destination Viking Living History: Tourist Board and look at the projects Mr Björn Jakobsen, Director, Fotevikens they have been running on the islands of Museum Sandoy and Skúvoy. [email protected] These two islands lie south of the main island Streymoy, where Tórshavn is Project manager Destination Viking DESTINATION situated. Sandoy is quite a large island and Sagalands: VIKING a major agricultural area, whereas Skúvoy Mr Rögnvaldur Gudmundsson, Director, is a rather small island with a current Tourism Research & Consulting [email protected] population of around 40 persons.

Co-ordinator of Destination Viking + Skúvoy Viking Heritage partnership: During our excursion day, we headed for Mr Dan Carlsson, Skúvoy from Tórshavn on an early Associate Professor, Sunday morning, arriving there in perfect Gotland University These projects are co-financed by the EU Interreg IIIB Baltic Sea Region programme and Northen sunshine. Then we made our way from [email protected] Perihery programme and NORA. the village, lying above the landing place, up through the relatively steep river valley, http://viking.hgo.se 22 DESTINATION Viking Heritage Magazine 3/05 VIKING

The Sagalands group in the village of Dalur at Sandoy. Photo Rögnvaldur Gudmundsson.

whish is the main agricultural area, rocks into the sea and swimming to the includes stops where stories from the towards the top of the island. The distant Su∂uroy, where unfortunately, he Sagas, but even legends, myths, and other landscape rises quite steeply from sea level was killed. The story refers to Sigmundur stories are told. Work is in progress to to almost 400 metres above sea level, and Brestisson, who was sent to back to Faroes produce very attractive signboards at these on the top you can see that the other side by Olof Tryggvasson to try and christen locations, so that you can also do the walk of the island is a vertical cliff wall. the Faroese. Trondur in Gøta chased him on your own. The view of us on the top reminded and forced him to escape by jumping into During our stay on Sandoy, we had the me of the story of Asterix meeting with the sea. The whole story appears in the pleasure of paying a visit to the village of the Vikings. There it is told that the Færeyinga Saga. Sandur. Here, excavations around the Vikings knew no fear, even when A stone with an engraved Celtic-style church have shown a series of churches on throwing themselves off such high cliffs. cross on the old graveyard on Skúvoy is the site, and current excavations in the There is, in fact, a Saga relating to attributed to Sigmundur. vicinity of the church have revealed Skúvoy and a Viking jumping off the cultural layers of around 2 metres. It is probable that Sandoy was an important Sandoy centre in the Faroes from the Viking times On Sandoy, the regional onwards. tourist board has At the small village of Dalur we were developed a Viking, or invited to a traditional Faroese Sunday rather a Fairy trail. Guided dinner, with soup, lamb and rhubarb walks are already offered pudding, followed by a long session of along this trail, which traditional Faroese songs and dance.

Kirkjubø Our programme also included a visit to Kirkjubø, the traditional seat of the bishops of the Faroe Islands. Here, the oldest church on the islands, the Olof’s Church, a stone church dating from the 12th century, and the ruins of the St. The Celtic-style cross on Magnus Cathedral, built in the 13th the grave of Sigmundur century stand alongside the manor house. Brestisson. This house is composed of several older Photo Rögnvaldur houses built together, and in the oldest Gudmundsson. part, the large hall, we had a superb

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On top of Skúvoy. dinner, followed by story telling and Photo Rögnvaldur Gudmundsson. developed. traditional dancing. This new project was also discussed at We also had a paper by Niels Halm, the meeting. It was agreed that the new The public seminar the Director of the Nordic House in Sagalands project will have a broader As usual, the programme also included a Tórshavn, discussing festivals and events scope than just the Viking period, but seminar open to the public. This seminar and the opportunities for the Sagalands that it will still focus on culture- and was held in downtown Hotel Hafnia and network to join what they are doing at the heritage-based tourism. quite a few local people attended. Nordic House. The final meeting of the current The lectures included papers by Símun Destination Viking Sagalands project will V. Arge, an archaeologist at the National A new Sagalands project be held in Newfoundland, Canada, Museum of the Faroe Islands. He spoke Among the other important issues September 15–22. about the archaeology/early history of the discussed at the meeting were the ideas of It is likely that a few new partners will islands of Sandoy and Skúvoy. developing an extension proposal to join the Sagalands project during the Later, Olga Biskopstø from the Outer enable the network established during the extension project, and I do hope that Islands Committee told us about the work last years to be maintained until a new none of the current partners will jump off this association of people living on the main project can be launched. It is the cliffs either, but stay on together with outer islands of the Faroes is currently suggested that the current project be the other fearless Vikings to face a new 1 doing to promote development of the extended for another 1 /2 years. During and exciting stage in the history of the outlying islands including Skúvoy. this period, a new project proposal will be Sagas!

We offer Viking Age replica artifacts from Denmark and Sweden. TURM A/S, distinguished Danish silversmiths, makes our jewelry from moulds provided by the Danish National Museum. Our glass is from Scanglas AB of Sweden and is also in replica, made with 1000-year old glass blowing techniques. These pieces are in many Nordic museum gift stores and, owing to their authenticity, have been selected by the Smithsonian and other major U.S. museums for their Viking exhibits. We ship worldwide. A sketch of a in the Moesgard Museum, Aarhus, Denmark, depicting a fearsome 1420 NW Gilman Boulevard – No. 2105, - Issaquah, Washington 98027-5394 USA mask to frighten evil spirits from a fallen Viking. We offer this dramatic Please visit our Website: www.vikingtrader.net * Email: [email protected] piece as a brooch or pendant. Toll free phone in U.S. 1.800.842.1676

http://viking.hgo.se 24 DESTINATION Viking Heritage Magazine 3/05 VIKING

Brough of Birsay Viking settlement, Orkney. The remains of longhouses on the slope to the left of the picture are Viking period – the conglomeration of buildings in the By Julie Gibson foreground and to the right are 12th century and later. St Peter’s church, also 12th and Tom Muir century, lies in the centre. Acknowledgement: Raymond Parks.

There has long been discussion as to what happened to the original Genocide in Orkney? inhabitants of Orkney when the Vikings took over. Did The fate of the they intermarry peacefully? Or, did a more sinister fate befall them? Orcadian Picts

Experts are divided on the subject. It has been claimed that there was continuity between the Pictish and Viking inhabitants in the archaeological record. By contrast the placename record does not bear this out – recent research by the Shetland archivist, Brian Smith compares the placenames of Orkney with those of Tasmania, where an alien race systematically exterminated the local population, replacing local placenames with English ones. The overwhelming number of placenames in Orkney derives from the , with almost no evidence for names of an earlier time.

The main written source for the Viking invasion of Orkney comes from the Orkneyinga Saga, in this we are told that King Harald Fairhair led an expedition against Viking raiders based in Orkney and Shetland. There is no mention made of the original population. The only reference to an earlier people comes from the late 12th century Historia Norwegiae (a near contemporary of Orkney. Map by Dan Orkneyinga Saga, it was compiled from earlier unknown sources). Carlsson In this it claims that Orkney was inhabited by Picts and Papae (priests), referred to as two races, but then described in such a way

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Interior of later Norse longhouse on the Brough of Birsay. The style of building was still essentially Viking, with the long hearth retained as a central focus of the main living room. Other rooms with different purposes were built as extensions. Acknowledgement: Vikki Szabo as to render them part of a mythological Pictish (curvilinear) buildings. Orkney. Burial in long cists (stone-slab past, rather than real people. An interpretation of cultural lined graves containing bodies laid out continuity, based on material apparently straight) occurs, in both pagan and The reality of the Picts is undoubted. alien to the style of building it is found possibly Christian contexts during this These were the people inhabiting Orkney in, is questionable. It seems reasonable to period. from the 4th to the 8th or 9th centuries suggest instead that this kind of finding At Moaness, Westness, Rousay the AD. Then, Orkney was a distinct and could have stemmed from Vikings using cemetery is more famous for its pagan outlying part of a much larger kingdom abandoned buildings or taking material Viking burials, particularly a very rich and references from the mid 6th century which had originally been Pictish and woman’s burial including a raided or tell of Orkney’s minor king or “regulus” at using it for themselves. An example would traded Irish brooch. But the burial ground the court of the “potentissimus” or most be a particularly long-lived round Pictish is also adduced as an argument for powerful, Pictish King Bridei who also house, excavated at Pool in Sanday that continuity, since the majority of burials held hostages from Orkney at his court. was still being used as an outhouse, well there were Pictish, in long cists orientated The Picts are most famous for their into Norse times. east-west (so possibly Christian) and were sculptured stone work – in particular their The most frequently found material on left undisturbed by the later Viking enigmatic symbol stones. Although there Pictish sites is pottery. The absence of burials. would always have been volatile political pottery, a basic cultural artefact, during This lack of disturbance has been held relationships between potentates, the the earlier Viking period is noticeable to be a signifier of respect by the Vikings evidence of the sculptured stones found in throughout the islands. Pottery returns, in for their Pictish neighbours. However, the Orkney that bear identical symbols to a different form and fabric only in later Pictish graves were marked on the surface, many found elsewhere in the heartlands of Viking (Norse) times. and easily avoided. They did not hold any Pictish Scotland, clearly demonstrate that If there had been a Pictish population grave goods or treasure, and there seems the islands were thoroughly Pictish at the contemporary with the Vikings and even to be no good reason why they should time of the Vikings arrival. if they were enslaved, one could expect have been disturbed. By contrast one of that they would continue to make and use the pagan Viking graves (which had At risk of over-simplifying argument, it pottery for themselves at least, as they contained goods, presumably) had been can be said that archaeological evidence always had. This very basic change in dug into. for the continuity of the Pictish people at material culture would suggest that the The dates for the Pictish style graves settlement sites is based on Pictish Picts were driven from the islands or and the pagan style Viking graves do not artefacts being found in Norse style slaughtered. apparently overlap. (With the proviso that (rectangular) buildings, and to a lesser the calibration curve at about 1000 AD is extent on Viking material being found in Pictish burials are not common in particularly flat, and uninformative!) The http://viking.hgo.se 26 DESTINATION Viking Heritage Magazine 3/05 VIKING

Westness graves can therefore equally well be held to support the idea of Picts being wiped out A drawing showing three Pictish once the pagan Vikings had warriors from a broken symbol properly arrived. stone found on the Brough of Birsay. There was evidence of Recent research has Pictish occupation before the suggested that some Pictish arrival of the Vikings. The man combs were made from in front is more elaborately Reindeer antler – which dressed and carries a highly decorated shield, suggesting he was not available in was of superior status to his Britain. This has been companions. His hairstyle (looking like interpreted as indicating he has left his curlers in!) is similar to trade between Scandinavia one shown on a Pictish carving from and Orkney before the Jarlshof in Shetland. Viking invasion. The land- Acknowledgement: hungry Vikings could have Drawing by Anne Brundle. become familiar in this way with the political geography of the rich cattle lands of Orkney. drove out the old people of the island, who another piece of the jigsaw; another clue The peripherality of Orkney to the migrated to the west side of Rousay, and as to the fate of the Orkney Picts who main Pictish kingdom, which was equally there made themselves underground stood and watched the sails of the Viking being raided by Vikings, but also pressed dwellings.” appearing over the horizon. by Scots, could have meant that the Both of these references suggest that Orkney Picts were left to defend the earlier chambered tombs, earth houses themselves. A local population distributed (underground chambers) and ancient Further reading: Historia Norwegiae. Translated by Peter amongst islands was for the most part, houses buried through time were Fisher. Museum Tusculanum Press, probably easy pickings. considered to be the homes of the Picts. Copenhagen, 2003. The term ‘Picts houses’ is still used in Orkneyinga Saga. Translated by Hermann Historia Norwegiae says of the Picts Orkney to refer to any ancient building, Pálsson and Paul Edwards, Penguin that they were “only a little taller than no matter what period they date from. Classics, London, 1981. pygmies [who] accomplished miraculous Another story that was recorded in the Scar, a Viking Boat Burial on Sanday. achievements by building towns, morning late 19th century tells how the Picts were Olwyn Owen and Magnar Dalland, and evening, but at midday every ounce of driven from the coastal sites to the parish Tuckwell Press, East Linton Scotland, strength deserted them and they hid for fear of Harray in the centre of the West 1999. Sea Change: Orkney and Northern Europe in underground chambers.” Mainland. The Vikings led an attack from in the later Iron Age AD 300–800. Written only a few hundred years after the east and west, eventually defeating the Edited by Jane Downes and Anna their defeat this story reinforces the Picts to become the undisputed masters of Ritchie, Balgavies Scotland, 2003. “otherness” or non-human attributes of Orkney. Like all folktales, it is very New History of Orkney. William P.L. earlier inhabitants - whose humanity was difficult to say how old it really is; was it Thomson, 2nd edition, Mercat Press, and perhaps had been, irrelevant to their an account of a final battle, the Edinburgh, 2001. conquerors? A folk memory recorded on culmination of Viking warbands killing or Blood of the Vikings. Julian C. Richards, the island of Rousay in the late 19th displacing the original population, island Hodder, 2001. century echoes this claim. by island, or a 19th century invention? The story goes that “It was a tradition of the first coming of the Norse men to A recent DNA study of today’s Rousay, when the fairy people made such a population of native Orcadians and About the authors show of glittering spears on the hillside above Shetlanders showed that a very high Julie Gibson is the County Trumland that the Viking ships sheered off proportion was descended from Archaeologist for Orkney. She and departed. They returned, however, and . This genetic research is just participated in the excavation of Westness Viking Cemetery, working A Pictish house built in the with Sigrid Kaland of Bergen ditch between the Iron Age Universitet, and was instrumental in broch tower and its rampart identifying the Scar boat burial on defences. The Picts, the island of Sanday. apparently did not see the Tom Muir is Exhibitions Officer for need to defend their houses. Orkney Museums and Heritage. He is Here Pictish people would a storyteller and writer, specialising in have lived in the comfort of folklore. many small, roundish rooms - Both are participants in the note the built-in cupboards Destination Viking Sagalands project. and fancy stairs. Credit: Frank Email. [email protected] Bradford 59°N.

27 http://viking.hgo.se Viking Heritage Magazine 3/05 DESTINATION VIKING How to make the Iron Age come alive – Theatre and re-enactments at Gene Iron-age farm in northern Sweden by Maria Blomster livestock lived in the longhouse, which was divided into 7 different parts. The th first longhouse was dated from 0–300 AD Since the 6 century farm and the second from the period 300–600 was reconstructed in 1990, AD. making prehistory come alive Two barns, a pit-house for linen has been quite a natural task weaving, a bronze-casting house, an extremely large unique smithy with four at Gene Iron-age village in fireplaces and even more buildings were the province of found. When the smithy burned down Ångermanland, in north- the roof of turf and birch-bark had been eastern Sweden. The creation excellently preserved thanks to a coaling process after the fire, and under the roof of Iron-age roles and the blacksmith tools were found. re-enactments have been Based on all these facts, the Gene farm integrated as a natural part of was a very large farm for the time with and a kind of precondition for about 15 inhabitants, most certainly a wealthy chieftain’s farm where agriculture, the development of activities fishing, livestock-breeding, advanced and daily life on the farm, as handicraft technology and contacts with is the case in few other other cultures were all part of daily life. reconstructed prehistoric How to recreate Iron-age life? farms. The roles have also After the years of excavation a foundation functioned very positively in was made, and the reconstruction of the ensuring social and mental farm started in 1990. In reconstructing integration among the people the Gene farm the aim was to create the best and most authentic farm as possible working at Gene. based on the documented excavation and archaeological findings. Background and history With this technical authenticity it also The ancient area of the Gene farm, Iron-age actors at Gene Iron-age village. became natural to think about the other situated about five kilometres outside the Photo Agne Säterberg side of the coin: the authenticity of the town of Örnsköldsvik in northern Iron-age people and Iron-age living! How Sweden, was discovered by mere accident did they live their daily lives? What did in the 1970s. The municipality intended they wear? What did they talk about and to build apartments in the forested area of of the archaeology of the middle and think about? The last question we can Genesmon, but thanks to a known and northern parts of Sweden at that time. only imagine. partially excavated grave field with 13 Until the 1970s, scholars believed that Very soon it became necessary to create grave mounds in this area, archaeologists only groups of hunters and gatherers had a sort of historic daily life at Gene, were forced to do an excavation first. lived in northern Sweden during the naturally with archaeological facts as a During this excavation a unique Roman Iron Age. However the unique starting point, but more and more aimed prehistoric sedentary settlement was artefacts found at the Gene settlement at creating an Iron-age atmosphere for found and dated to the Scandinavian such as iron tools, bronze-casting forms, Gene Iron-age Village’s many visitors, Roman Iron Age period (0–600 AD). agricultural tools, and glass-beads from such as schoolchildren, tourists and Traces of two longhouses, each 40 meters the Middle East, indicated a companies. This cannot always be long, were found with the post-holes and technologically advanced society and that accomplished with the help of walls clearly indicating how the houses the people at Gene had lived as farmers archaeological facts alone. had been built. with quite large herds of livestock. However archaeology helps us to The excavation prompted a rethinking Both the family members and their understand some of the relationships http://viking.hgo.se 28 DESTINATION Viking Heritage Magazine 3/05 VIKING

Iron-age actors at Gene Iron-age village in 2003. Photo Agne Säterberg

between different family members during the Iron Age. One example of this is that the farm chieftain could be either a woman or a man, since the 13 ancient grave mounds in the area contain both men´s and women’s graves. We also know that people in these days lived mostly at peace with each other and therefore probably had maids instead of slaves. formed the character of the Iron-age one, have always experienced Iron-age life Moreover the Icelandic Sagas tell us and many of the people working at Gene when visiting Gene, since the staff are about the sorcery (völva) existing in the have kept their names for many years. always acting in their roles when working prehistoric society as a medium between Some have identified with their role so and wearing Iron-age clothing. the world of the humans and that of the strongly that it has been nearly impossible Depending on who has been working, the prehistoric gods. In the Sagas we also find for them to have a separate identity. visitors have met different family names of people, names that probably Other persons have, however, changed members playing their own role. have been used even in the Iron Age, a roles over the years, or new roles have Above all, in the summer when there few hundred years before the Viking Age. been created when needed. Other than are activities and guided tours for visitors the six family members there has been a every day, the roles have become clear in The creation of a family grandmother, maids, labourers and the short re-enactments (role playing), Based on these facts, gradually a family neighbours from the neighbouring farms, arranged during all guided tours. These with names was created by the people Bäck and Vågsnäs, all with their own re-enactments can be recurrent ones, used working at Gene. When they started personalities. In this way a sort of day after day or year after year, but some work, everyone was given his or her own unwritten, invented history has been of them can also be created here and now, role in the family and a personal name. created at the farm. depending on the specific occasion. For The chieftain’s name was Sixten, his wife example, dialogues between two or more Hägvid and their four children Harald, Re-enactments people in the family are always Sigrid, Sigvald and Sibbe. The unique thing about Gene Iron-age spontaneous and just like it could have The character of the real person simply village has been the fact that the visitors been in real Iron-age life. The special thing about the re- enactments at Gene, however, is that the people act in their Iron-age roles, but the next second leave these roles to talk to the visitors in the present. This becomes especially obvious during the guided tours when the guides switch between the present (when telling facts) and Iron-age times (when acting in a role).

The Gene play – living history at its best During the latest years, there has been a need to develop the history of the Gene family. A real family history is very The Iron-age longhouse in Gene Iron-age village. Photo Agne Säterberg dynamic, and naturally that was also the

29 http://viking.hgo.se Viking Heritage Magazine 3/05 DESTINATION VIKING case with the Iron-age family at Gene. but even friendship, all were given a face creating our own Iron-age Saga. Finally it Another reason to develop history was in an Iron-age way. Isgerd brought several has fulfilled its aim in an excellent way; to also that new people became employed at people with her to the farm, among them create living history in a place where Gene, creating new characters and her brother Isbjörn who decided to stay at written sources are missing and thus happenings in the family. Gene and become a blacksmith. recreate Iron-age life in modern times. Therefore, in 2001, the Gene play had In the following plays of 2002, 2003 its first performance on an outdoor stage and 2004, the plot evolved. Harald and For further information outside the longhouse at Gene Iron-age Isgerd got married and their conflicts with The Gene Fornby Foundation village. The reason for this first play was the neighbouring reindeer, non- Bäckagården actually the visit of a group of delegates agriculture culture were some of them. 892 43 DOMSJÖ SWEDEN from the network of prehistoric villages in In 2004, men from the King’s army Sweden (Nätverket Sveriges Levande (hirden) invaded the Gene farm on At present the activities at Gene Iron-age Forntid). The play, which was a sort of horseback, trying to force the men of the village are run by: welcome to the group, was a success and farm to join the army to go to the Roman AGMA- Forntid & Äventyr after that theatre as a form of living Empire. Bågegatan 6 history attracted a great deal of attention In all the plays, the aim has been to 891 31 Örnsköldsvik in many prehistoric villages all over present as good archaeological facts as SWEDEN Sweden. possible. Research has therefore been a +46 070- 602 39 98 The actors in the play were the whole natural part of the work in creating true- www.destinationhogakusten.com [email protected] staff group of amateur actors, as well as to-life situations. When we are unsure of children and horses, about 20 persons in how to do something, we have just left total. Since the joy of creating theatre that happening and chosen another About the author together was so great, new plays with new archaeologically safer one. Iron-age clothes Maria Blomster is a museum happenings were written the following and good properties have, of course, been educationalist and has worked with summers. These were then performed for a natural part of the plays, as well as programs and activities for schools, the public, with tickets sold for the showing different social status between companies and other groups. She has performances. different people. This has been been one of two people responsible The first play dealt with a new accomplished most easily with clothes and for developing the year-round happening in the family at Gene: The colours. activities at Gene Iron-age village over the past four years. At the oldest son Harald’s fiancé, Isgerd, arrives In addition to this archaeological side moment she runs her own company - at the farm from another province in of the play, however, the Gene play, with AGMA- Forntid och Äventyr. Sweden to live with Harald and his family hundreds of visitors over the years, has Email: [email protected] at the Gene farm. Confusion and envy, been a fantastic instrument to use in

New Vikingarnas språk 750-1100 book! Written by Rune Palm (The language of Published by Norstedts Förlag the Vikings) ISBN 91-1-301086-7

What do we really know about Viking Age? Much is based on a romantic view of history and disconnected facts from Sweden’s period as a great power and the 19th century. But language doesn’t lie. The runic stones in our country give solid evidence of how people talked, wrote and the way they lived. Through them we can obtain knowledge about our history. There is a good supply of reference material: more than 135,000 words and 3,300 preserved Nordic inscriptions from 800 to around 1100 AD are available. The runic stones dominate in the provinces of Uppland, Sörmland and Östergötland, but many inscriptions are found even outside Scandinavia. Vikingarnas språk describes the development of the history of language and gives a lesson in how to read runes and interpret the Eddic poems. The work is a readable, scientific account of the Viking-age language, society and culture. Vikngarnas språk is only available in Swedish at present. The author Rune Palm is a runologist and senior lecturer in Nordic language at the University of Stockholm. CC

http://viking.hgo.se 30 Viking Heritage Magazine 3/05

Written by Angelo Forte, Richard Oram, Frederik Pedersen. Published by Cambridge Viking Empires University Press 2005. ISBN 0-521-82992-5

The dust jacket of the book reads: New Islamic coins, especially on Gotland, are proof Viking Empires is a definitive new account of the of this. Viking world. From the first contact in the 790s, book! This route was crucial for the Viking-age this book traces the fascinating history of the economy in southern Scandinavia. It is named Viking Age from the North American seaboard in the west “The Northern Arc” by Michael Mc Cormick in his book, to the Baltic States in the east. which was published as early as 2001 (Look for the review of this book in this magazine). Neither the hoards nor • An illustrated history of five hundred years of Viking McCormick’s book are discussed in the volume. civilisation The main viewpoint for Viking Empires is the North Sea • A ground-breaking global perspective and the Atlantic area viewed from Ireland and on the Viking Age Scotland. The developments in these • Integrates social, political, cultural, parts of the globe are related in economic, maritime and military full. This includes the history with archaeology, literature colonisation of Iceland, Greenland and religion to offer a rich account and Vinland in North America. of the rise and fall of the Viking Even the necessary conditions for empires. this – ships and seafaring are thoroughly discussed in different Indeed it is an interesting and chapters. comprehensive book, but only for A new and important perspective of those parts of the Viking world that the book is summarised in the chapter are examined. The global Scandinavian and European integration: perspective is lacking because reform and rebirth. It is stressed that the almost all the Scandinavian Scandinavians from the Migration Period activity east of the Baltic is to the Middle Ages were a part of the larger omitted. European economy. In this chapter the early The reason may be that the direct Viking medieval Danish rulers, the Scandinavian activity there is difficult to trace in written sources. archdiocese and the Crusades are discussed. Certainly the origins of the Rus are obscure, but As usual there are a few errors in the text but in my Scandinavians and Frisians were important actors along opinion the book is well documented - west of the Baltic. with Finnish, Slavonic and Oriental peoples when the trading route between the Baltic and the Orient was Carl Löfving opened up during the 9th century. The large hoards of

31 http://viking.hgo.se Viking Heritage Magazine 3/05 Heritage News “Golden old Two ships leave men” found in Gotland for eastern faraway rivers A tremendously unique discovery has been found in Norway. “This is a find As a small event in the Viking Year made only once in a lifetime”, says 2005, two famous Viking ships met at Professor Heid Gjøstein Resi, the woman , Gotland, on July 5. Their chiefs, in charge of the excavation. Dotes on Krampmacken and Carl The eleven small golden reliefs, dating Bråvalla on Viking Plym, had agreed to from 600-700 AD, are only about 1,1 show how their men met to sail centimetres in size and the most intact eastward together. object depicts a couple, possibly the Krampmacken – the unique famous mythological figures Fröy and Gerd. It is replica ship from Gotland with sailing believed they were used as a form of memories from Miklagård and Viking payment or offering at rituals. Plym – the beautiful ship of splendour, The latest finds in Norway were now the oldest one sailing in the world. unearthed on Lofoten in the 1980s and Together they made a quite spectacular the biggest collection ever, around 2,300, pair. was found on the Danish island of Viking Plym, built in 1912, with Bornholm. Similar finds have also been features like the Gokstad ship (but not a made in Sweden. replica of it!), is made for ten rowers. Archaeologists will resume digging in Krampmacken was built in 1979–80; its the spring and then the location site will shape is based on a traditional design be made public. and built with six boards and nine frames. Source: Aftenposten At Slite the ships were filmed by a Japanese film team from TBS Vision The meeting of the two Viking ships and a cameraman moved between the Krampmacken and Viking Plym outside two ships and a following boat. The two Women on Gotland in July 2005. ships will be shown together with scenes Photo/copyright: Gunnar Britse from both Birka and Gotland. Viking raids www.eco-photos.net Carl Bråvalla Viking warriors were homemakers who couldn’t wait to ship their wives over to settle the lands they had conquered. Scientists from Oxford University have discovered from studying Scots of Viking Scandinavian cooperation ancestry in Scotland and Orkney, that there must have been far more Viking women in the Dark Ages settlements than originally on the Iron Age presumed. Power, myths and monuments – is the name of a new cultural historical By sampling 500 residents of Shetland cooperation between the Scandinavian countries. Using information technology, it using a toothbrush to extract some of their saliva, the scientists were able to identify is possible to take a virtual journey through our Nordic history. genetic traits in the Scots, which they share Gamla Uppsala, Sweden, Midgard Historic Senter in Norway and Kongerens with modern-day Scandinavian populations. Jelling in Denmark all have something in common – the Scandinavian Iron Age. By examining two elements of DNA, one Recently these three sites were granted project funds from the Nordic ministerial that passed from father to son and one council to present our common Iron-age history. passed down the female lineages, they could Planning is underway for an interactive digital product to give visitors a deeper work out the gender balance of the original knowledge of the connection between these different Iron-age societies. The Viking populations. visitors will also be able to penetrate deeper into different time periods, look at The study showed that the genetic archaeological finds and ancient monuments, learn more about the legends around balance became more male orientated the the sites, and much more. further away from Scandinavia; colonial The interactive product will be accessible in the different museums and on the strongholds would have been safer the closer Internet. The project is planned to run for three years. to home they were. Source: Riksantikvarieämbetet Source: Svenska Dagbladet

http://viking.hgo.se 32 Viking Heritage Magazine 3/05 Heritage News Symposium about the Bayeux tapestry in Denmark A three-day symposium called The Bayeux tapestry – an embroidered chronicle from the Viking Age will take place in the National Museum in Copenhagen on February 8–10, 2006 The symposium will be held in conjunction with a separate exhibition about the famous Bayeux tapestry and its Viking market on Gotland, summer 2005. Photo Catharina Lübeck close ties to Scandinavia, starting in the beginning of 2006 at the National Museum in Copenhagen. The Bayeux tapestry is one of the most Viking attractions 2005 important and magnificent documents in Europe. This excellent, beautiful 1 The summer is over and the organizers of have visited the island during summer to embroidery is 70 m long and /2 m high the many Viking events can now relax after write about and document Gotland Viking and describes the invasion of England by quite a hectic period. Island. Now it is time to reflect upon how William of Normandy at the battle of we will continue to develop the Viking Hastings on October 14, 1066 in images The Viking Year 2005 on Gotland (see theme on Gotland; this is just the and with short Latin texts. previous issues of VHM) is not over yet beginning! Several interesting lectures will be held but so far the results have been positive. All during the symposium. Further in all the Viking theme has been a information from the co-producer successful venture. Folkuniversitetet: www.fukbh.dk or The Viking village in Tofta and the www.natmus.dk County Museum of Gotland have had an increasing stream of visitors during the summer. The theatre performance in När The Battle of “The Snakewoman’s children” was very popular with its audiences, the Althing in Roma will have a follow-up next year, Hastings 2006 Riding hopefully a whole week, people came from A re-enactment of the Battle of Hastings the oxen. the whole island to take part in the Viking will take place on October 14–15, 2006 on Gotland market in Slite, not to mention the the site of the original battle in England. Viking archaeology sessions for children in Fröjel Re-enactors from all over the world will which were fully booked every day. Island 2005. participate in this open event and in habit Dan Carlsson, the project leader, is very the large Living History encampment. satisfied with the outcome of the year. Photo In the year 2000 about 1500 persons in There has been vast interest shown and it Catharina costume took part. Eleven hundred of these will continue to grow. Journalists and film Lübeck were warriors from 16 different countries. teams from France, The coming event is expected to be even Belgium, Japan, bigger! Switzerland, The site custodians, English Heritage, Germany and Italy have appointed The Vikings re-enactment society in charge of the event. The Vikings are the oldest and largest Dark-age re- enactment society in the UK, founded as The cast of “The early as 1971. Snakewomen’s A website with all the details for children”, the great attending the event is now available. There Viking theatrical you can find clothing and costume guides, success on Gotland combat rules and requirements and lots this summer. more. Photo Catharina For further information: http://hastings.vikingsonline.org.uk Lübeck.

33 http://viking.hgo.se Viking Heritage Magazine 3/05 Heritage News

A 1000 year- old church V king Heritagemagazine found in Skien, The ultimate forum for all those interested in Vikings and the Viking Age!

Norway Viking Heritage Magazine, The remains of what seems to be Gotland University Press Norway’s oldest church have been found. Cramérgatan 3, 621 67 Visby, Sweden. Tel. +46 498 29 97 43, Experts now believe that Norway was Fax +46 498 29 98 92 Christian long before Håkon the Good, [email protected] • www.hgo.se/viking Olav Tryggvason and Olav Haraldsson Gotland University: www.hgo.se began their missionary raids. It would Publisher likely push Christianisation back to the 800s. Jörn Staecker Researchers have also found two Photo: Sky High Entertainment Advisory Editor Christian graves from 885-990 at the Dan Carlsson, [email protected] same site, which may indicate that there is The IMAX movie Viking: Editor another church. “There might be about Marita E Ekman, [email protected] 1000 people buried here over a period of Journey to New 400 years”, says Brendelsmo, an Language and translation check archaeologist at the Foundation for Luella Godman, Cultural Heritage Research. The site is Worlds – now in [email protected] currently destined to become a park. Subscriptions Source: Aftenposten Stockholm! Subscription rate, four issues Sweden 250 SEK The Viking film for giant screens, Viking: Denmark, , Norway and the Baltic Journey to New Worlds, is making its way countries 260 SEK A little knight on around the world. Now it has come to Other countries 300 SEK Cosmonova in Stockholm. As a new subscriber you will receive the horseback – a The film tells the history and culture of guidebook, Follow the Vikings. Highlights of the Vikings, about how and why they the Viking World, as a special gift. This book explored and colonized land towards the contains 50 of the most important West. The film is about 50 minutes long destinations in different countries, selected by chess piece? an international group of archaeologists and and, among many other things, we can Recently an amateur found a little knight is richly illustrated in full colour. follow Leif Eriksson on his voyage over the on horseback using a metal detector in seas to North America, 500 years before Subscription conditions north Nottinghamshire in England. Columbus crossed the Atlantic. For orders outside Scandinavia we can The find is puzzling archaeologists; it is Cosmonova, a part of the Swedish only accept payment in advance by startlingly similar to chess pieces found credit card (VISA, Mastercard, Eurocard). Museum of Natural History in Stockholm, is Within Scandinavia orders can be sent hundreds of miles away in 1831, on a the only IMAX-cinema in Sweden, as well as beach on the Isle of Lewis. The Lewis by mail order or payment in advance by the largest planetarium with astronomy credit card. chessmen, made of walrus ivory, are performances. thought to be part of at least four NEW! Digital subscription different sets. Therefore dozens of pieces A digital version of Viking Heritage are missing. The knight can’t be one of Magazine is now available at reduced the missing pieces since he is made of “The cow-find” price! See: www.hgo.se/viking copper alloy, but his helmet and shield are Subscription information very similar to those of the Lewis knights. [email protected] th th – 185 coins in The style suggests a late 11 or early 12 Tel. +46 498 29 97 43 century date. Viking Heritage webshop A oddity is that x-ray and metal the silver hoard www.hgo.se/viking analyses have shown that the piece was A new silver hoard was found on Gotland in Advertising once soldered onto something else and the May 2005, see VHM 2/2005. Now the find Luella Godman, face is too corroded to tell whether it was place has been fully investigated. [email protected] as vivid as those of the Lewis soldiers, The first 30 coins were dug out of the Viking Heritage [email protected] biting their shields in rage or terror. The ground by grazing cows, so the hoard is now Layout and printed knight has no great commercial value, but called “the cow-find”. It consisted of 185 is of immense historic importance. Arabic coins spread in the ground. Many of by Godrings Tryckeri, Visby, Sweden 2005 them are Russian imitations of Arabic coins Source: The Guardian of that time. ISSN 1403-7319 http://viking.hgo.se 34 Viking Heritage Magazine 3/05

Destination Viking Living History around the Baltic Sea A new Viking Route book is out!

When the Council of Europe established the European Viking route and border area. A new Viking village is now being Route in 1996, the sites included were presented in the book, constructed in Ale along the river. Follow the Vikings, edited by Dan Carlsson and Olwyn Moving further south, the book stops at Owen. Fotevikens Museum in Scania, southern Sweden. Then, in 2001, the first regional route within this New Here, one of the largest Viking-age Living History European Route was established, namely the Western museums has been constructed. The chapter on Viking Route. This route was the immediate result of book! Foteviken also tells the story of the oldest urban the North Sea Viking Legacy project, financed by the settlements in Scania. Interreg IIC North Sea programme. This route was also We then jump to Trelleborg on Seeland in presented in a book, Destination Viking Western Viking Route, Denmark. Here we can read of the impressive fortifications built edited by Marita Engberg Ekman. around AD 975 in the areas controlled by the Danish kingdom When the North Sea Viking Legacy project at that time. Naturally the main centre of attraction is Trelleborg ended in 2001, several partners felt that work itself and the fascinating story behind the excavations and should continue, and in 2002, a new project reconstructions at this site. called Destination Viking Living History Returning to Sweden, the book received funding from the Interreg IIIB Baltic then takes us to Storholmen Viking Sea programme. This project has focused Village in east Mid-Sweden. Their primarily on the presentation of living history chapter focuses on the links between at reconstructed Viking villages, and these Sweden and the areas to the East villages as well as a number of Viking-age during the Viking period, whereas the sites in their vicinity are now being chapter on Gunnes gård slightly presented in the third Viking Route book: further west concentrates on runic Destination Viking Living History around the stones found in the area. Baltic Sea. We then move eastwards to the This guidebook, also edited by Marita Viking island of Gotland. Here the Engberg Ekman, is the same pocket size as island’s wealthy Viking past is presented, the Western Viking Route and has a with hoards, picture stones, burial similar layout. It presents Living History mounds and fortifications in abundance. museums in five countries: Russia, Then follows a chapter on Germany, Sweden, Denmark and Ukranenland in Germany and how a Norway. group of enthusiasts there have managed The book begins with a brief to create a reconstructed Slavonic introduction of the project by Björn settlement along the Ukra River. The Jakobsen, project manager, and Geir relationship between Slavonic tribes and Sør-Reime, project consultant, Scandinavians in this area is also followed by a short introduction to the Viking highlighted. period by Dan Carlsson from Gotland University, one of the The final chapter is about Russia, with a project partners. special focus on the early Scandinavian influences at Starya There is a thematic approach to each chapter. The book Ladoga and in Novgorod. Again, the interaction between the opens with Avaldsnes, the first Royal throne of Norway and Scandinavians and Slavonic peoples is of major interest. presents the early history of the Norwegian kingdom and Avaldsnes as a Royal manor, followed by a presentation of the Geir Sør-Reime Viking village there and all the Viking-age remains still to be seen in the surrounding area. The book can be ordered from Viking Heritage Magazine, The book continues to Ale along the Göta River in Western Gotland University, SE-621 67 Visby, Sweden. Sweden, narrating fascinating stories about the struggle between www.hgo.se/viking the Nordic kingdoms for the control of this important trade Email: [email protected]

! NEW Digital subscription!

A digital version of Viking Now you can subscribe to a digital version of Heritage Magazine is now Viking Heritage Magazine and read it with the help of the free, Award-Winning Zinio available at reduced price! Reader that you download.

For further information, see: www.hgo.se/viking

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l • Casting trefoil brooches • • Ailikn’s wagon and Odin’s warriors • r d museums and monuments. Travel d i in the west. Richly illustrated in full o • The Gotlandic Althing • Vestfold • The thegns of Cnut the great • n s back in time and space and get a a e w colour, 184 pages. – the history that disappeared • How to make an early lute and rebec lively, engaging insight into life in • Braslav Lake District in Belarus • • Kings and warriors • Price: SEK 100 per copy the Viking Age. Richly illustrated in • The Viking ship Icelander • • Viking events • full colour. 152 pages. B Price: SEK 100 per copy Now you can also order and pay from our website www.hgo.se/viking

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