From the Opening Sequence of Citizen Kane to the Final Shot of the Birds: a Filmic Microanalysis of Three Painted Scenes Dario Lanza Vidal

From the Opening Sequence of Citizen Kane to the Final Shot of The Birds: A Filmic Microanalysis of Three Painted Scenes dario lanza vidal

Abstract the essence of this proposal, this study aims to perform a microanalysis of three scenes, this article aims to highlight the impor- all well-known, and submit them to a “moving tance of matte painting in cinematographic away” examination, going from detail to a gen- construction and to emphasize the analytical eral view. The examples were chosen for their value of these pieces of artwork. To this end, single common characteristic: they involved, three painted scenes were chosen and sub- without the viewer’s knowledge, painted scen- jected to a multifaceted analysis that under- ery. They all provide examples of the manu- lines their contribution as pictorial creations, facture of filmic images through pictures, a their role in landscape painting tradition, and mechanism known as matte painting, a typical their function as an element of filmmaking con- resource in cinematographic construction but struction, within a set film model, while provid- one that has received little analytical attention. ing evidence for the unique ways in which this Matte painting is both a show of filmmaking technique connects film and painting. trickery and an example of special effects, and it is traditionally linked to other special effects Introduction such as pyrotechnics, animatronics, and fluid simulation. However, due to the particular na- Filmic microanalysis—that is, the study of cer- ture of this resource, located somewhere be- tain filmic elements as a means of achieving tween cinematographic and pictorial, it offers a the compression of a cinematographic piece in wealth of interpretation considerably superior its totality—is an extraordinarily useful tool for to that of the other special effects to which it highlighting the importance of certain aspects is often linked. This article aims to investigate that routinely escape analysis in other ways. in detail whether or not a painted scene has It proposes to draw attention to certain “small its own analytical value that would enable it to fragments, micro-sequences that can be scruti- be studied through the prisms of both pictorial nised under the analytical microscope in order representation and cinematographic narration. to observe the condensation of the lines of That is to say, the intent is to discover whether force that make up the film from which they are the painted scene has a multifaceted analyti- extracted” (Zunzunegui, Closer Look 9). Taking cal value precisely due to its hybrid nature, a condition of being neither one nor the other, which so far has held it back from specialized dario lanza vidal holds a PhD in information research. and communication technologies and is an as- The scenes chosen for this in-depth analysis sociate professor in the Faculty of Fine Arts in the Complutense University of Madrid, Spain. His main are from the filmsCitizen Kane (Orson Welles, research focuses on techniques for pictorial simu- 1941), Spartacus (Stanley Kubrick, 1960), and lation within the cinematographic medium. The Birds (Alfred Hitchcock, 1963). Of course, journal of film and video 73.1 / spring 2021 33 ©2021 by the board of trustees of the university of illinois the nature of the study means that any selec- step will involve considering the more pictorial tion of works is necessarily incomplete, and dimension of these representations in an at- another catalogue could have been chosen that tempt to shed light on their value as pictorial would have been equally valid. However, these texts, their significant function as landscape films were chosen in an attempt at a sufficiently paintings, and the description of the cinemato- diverse selection that would allow this article to graphic landscape provided by the painting as examine different approaches to this particular well as the attitude of the author in the commu- phenomenon of painted scenes, essential and nicative process. omnipresent in the history of film. The author’s Next, observing from a greater distance interest in undertaking this study has its roots away, this article will seek to link the paintings precisely in the aforementioned scarcity of with the filmic texts of which they are part, analytical research into this unique element of asserting the value of the paintings’ narrative cinematographic construction and in the role— contribution to the cinematographic story and tertiary, rather than secondary—that pictorial attempting to discover whether or not it is pos- representation has traditionally occupied in sible to recognize the characteristics of the film film studies. model from the painted image. The gradual distancing over the course of these three levels Methodology of analysis is essential for avoiding “the hypertrophy of a microscopic study which tends to- The objective of this work, a method for ana- wards self-satisfaction in the partial discovery lyzing painted scenes, means that the shots which it refuses, consciously or unconsciously, must be observed from a perspective that to link with the overall dimension of the text” will inherently be multifaceted. For this, it is (Zunzunegui, Landscapes 94). This should help particularly pertinent to apply a method based achieve a more complete view of the scene in on the positions of Panofsky, who suggested context. beginning any analysis of a visual work with the description of its formal characteristics—its Views of the Xanadu Mansion in Citizen format, tonal palette, represented motives, and Kane, by Mario Larrinaga, Chesley technique—before going on to elevate one’s Bonestell, and Fitch Fulton scrutiny to an iconographic level. This involves highlighting the importance of the meanings Among all the matte paintings created by implicit in representation and interpreting the Mario Larrinaga, Chesley Bonestell, and Fitch codes mobilized by the author in his or her Fulton for Citizen Kane, the most memorable communicative act. It is then necessary to are probably those used to produce the open- move on to an iconological level, in order to ing sequence, which shows the exterior of relate the work to its narrative, historic, or cul- the decadent mansion of Xanadu through the tural context. linking of six situational shots that are actu- Using Panofsky’s proposal as a vehicle ally six matte paintings interwoven with a false for this study’s analysis, going from detail to tracking shot approaching the window of the overview, and taking on each of these painted bedroom in which Kane is dying. This sequence scenes by looking first at their status as ex- has been analyzed on numerous occasions and amples of trickery, this article will begin by de- from varying points of view, but the pictorial scribing the content of the representation and nature of the scene has always proven elusive, investigating the technical processes involved and it is this condition that this essay will use in its construction. However, obviously, it would as a basis for its first analysis. be better not to be limited to a mere instrumen- The sequence begins with a vertical track- tal description of these techniques, so the next ing shot of the wire fence from the “No

34 journal of film and video 73.1 / spring 2021 ©2021 by the board of trustees of the university of illinois Trespassing” sign before proceeding to a shot all in a ruinous state of neglect. Above all of showing a faraway view of the Xanadu mansion these spaces, the bedroom window remains lit, from the exterior railing. The foreground here constant in the same place in every shot, serv- shows the “K” of Kane forged high up on the ing as a magnet for the eye and as the center gate, and all that is visible beyond the railing is of the discourse. In this way, the window, its a painting displaying the mansion on top of a location unchanging as the shot approaches, hill in which a window lit from within contrasts causes the “rupture of the visual central unit” with the dark palette of the night. The point of cited by Mereghetti. This effect would have view chosen for this composition is low, mean- been difficult to achieve without the precision ing the mansion is shown in the upper area of afforded by the construction of the sequence the painting, near the edge. In this image, all using matte paintings. the space from the gate in the foreground to Working as matte painters on the RKO staff, the mansion window toward the back, includ- Larrinaga, Bonestell, and Fulton were able to ing the murky terrain in between, is in perfect use the optical printer that Linwood Dunn had focus. Thus, the deep focus characteristic of been perfecting since the 1930s and that would the film is apparent from its very opening shot. come to be so important to Welles and to this In fact, the in-depth focus that brought fame film’s visual design. In fact, the device scarcely to the film’s director of photography, Gregg found quite the starring role in filmic narration Toland, often was produced not only through that it did in Citizen Kane. Naturally, the film the skillful use of lens and diaphragms but owes its extraordinary visual quality to Toland’s also through shots filmed separately and then excellent photography and to its innovative composed in the lab using an optical printer. deep focus, but also, as mentioned previously, However, with the traditional secretiveness to a great degree to the shots composed “invis- surrounding the use of special effects, Toland ibly” by Dunn on his optical printer. Dunn him- never acknowledged that this extreme depth self remembered that as soon as he had shown was often “reinforced” using optical printing. Welles the potential of the optical printer, it This fact was later confirmed by Bordwell, had become indispensable for the producer: Staiger, and Thompson, and it was a device “Telling Orson about the optical printer was that would prove fundamental to the construc- the kiss of death. He used it like a paintbrush, tion of the sequence being analyzed here. which was fine, except that he asked me to do This first matte painting merges into a closer things that I’d never done before. However, he view that is almost identical in terms of com- had enough power at the studio to OK the time position: once the shot goes through the gate, and money it would take. I learned a lot from it” there is a cage of monkeys from Kane’s private (qtd. in Rickitt 74). zoo, seemingly abandoned, behind which the The main advantage offered by the device hill is visible with the mansion at its peak, was that of turning composition into a much occupying exactly the same position in the safer and more conservative process than frame as in the previous shot. Next, the scene riskier mechanisms based on rétroprojection fades to a shot of two gondolas on a pond, the or multiple exposures. The optical printer al- mansion reflected on the water. Again, the lit lowed for the end of these delicate assembly window of Kane’s bedroom occupies, in this techniques and separated the processes of reflection, exactly the same position in the capture and composition. Now, this process frame as in the previous shot, confirming the is operated retrospectively in the safety of the bedroom as a potent center of gravity. The fol- postproduction lab, with no risk to the filmic lowing shots, of identical composition, show material. The specific characteristic of working successively closer views moving toward the with the optical printer is this total posteriority mansion: the jetty, golf course, and stone gate, in terms of shooting, its post-process nature,

journal of film and video 73.1 / spring 2021 35 ©2021 by the board of trustees of the university of illinois Figure 1 (a, b, c, d, e, and f): Construction of the sequence through linked matte paintings made by optical printer. which made it the first mechanism to establish for composing paintings with shot scenes, al- a total disjunction with regard to filming and lowing the matte painter to produce and film instituting a rejection of profilmic manipula- the painting in an independent film and use tion. It is the mechanism that most roundly the optical printer to operate this suturing in a corresponds to the Metzian category of “tape safe manner. In fact, the entire sequence under trucage” (Metz), by situating its manipulation analysis here was constructed using a single of the film tape via optical-chemical lab pro- painting: a view of Kane’s opulent residence cedures. Given that this device allows for the with the majestic Xanadu mansion’s impos- suturing of various film fragments, it is ideal ing presence on the top of a hill, a mansion

36 journal of film and video 73.1 / spring 2021 ©2021 by the board of trustees of the university of illinois that becomes a recurring visual motif joining mechanisms involved in the creation of the the sequence together. With great attention to image has been carried out, it is necessary to detail, particularly in the representation of the move on to an iconographic analysis in order overgrown exotic vegetation, this painting was to highlight the attitude of the creators of this filmed and later composed using the optical landscape. The preceding description will suf- printer with the image of the railing, the cage of fice to accentuate the meaningful elements of monkeys from Kane’s abandoned zoo, and rest this painting. The landscape is demonstrative of the props in the sequence. of the attitudes of Larrinaga, Bonestell, and Ful- This greater precision afforded by the use ton and their intent to portray a natural space of the optical printer in the composition of conquered, invaded, dominated, and trans- footage, in contrast to other contemporary formed according to human will. These images techniques, was essential in maintaining the are designed to show Kane’s ownership of the protagonist’s bedroom window in exactly the territory, his altering of its orography, flora, and same location in every frame. Of particular fauna and construction of a new summit to rival interest is the shot in which the mansion is the features found naturally. The luxuriant tropi- reflected on the surface of the pond. Using a cal vegetation—king of the ecosystem in other vertically inverted version of the same painting, environments—is reduced to mere ornament, the optical printer was fundamental here in being as it is a tamed, pruned Eden. Nature is incorporating the ripples on the surface of the domesticated on the golf course, caged at the water and, over both fragments, a haze of con- zoo, imprisoned at the lake. This painting does densation that gives the scene a misty sense of not contain any allusions to the primitive forces irreality. In the next shot, this same painting is of nature but rather confirms its subjugation. shown, now composed with a jetty and filmed The image seeks to confer a position of domi- from a closer standpoint. This was a reframing nation, albeit decadent, one of domestication operation resolved by the optical printer with and artificial landscaping, of appropriation and particular ease, via the shifting of its projector conquest, and to represent these ideas, Larri- head. However, in this shot, the widening of the naga, Bonestell, and Fulton chose a constative painting used to suggest an approaching mo- and explicit attitude. tion caused a reduction in the painting’s defini- From the attitude of these creators that is tion, noticeable in a decrease in its contrast communicated to the viewer through meaning, and sharpness. This effect is especially notice- it is necessary to move on to an iconological able in the following two shots, which are the level to try to relate this painting to the narra- last two to use this painting and which show it tive of the filmic text in which it is found. Thus, from progressively closer positions, combined once at the level of the narrative contribution with a golf course and a model of a stone gate. of the painting to the plot, we can certify that Despite this loss of sharpness caused by zoom- these shots are open to myriad interpretations. ing in on the picture, the sequence is notable They convey a mixture of grandiosity and futil- for constituting an excellent example of con- ity, opulence, and decadence, where rather struction through matte paintings and shows than admiring wealth, the viewer is privy to the extraordinary understanding of the possibilities memory of faraway splendor that has now been offered by optical printing. Its discursive articu- lost. There is fortune without hope, success lation, in which it repeatedly utilizes the same without happiness, accomplishment but loss. painting, achieves important subjective mean- The ambiguous environment, completely sym- ing for the scenography, with the window being bolic of the reality of the protagonist, means the clear and indisputable protagonist of the that the matte paintings do not just underpin entire sequence. one single meaning but play with the explora- At this point, now that a detailed description tion of multiple interpretations. In these views, of the formal features and the instrumental the ruins of Xanadu are shown as evidence of journal of film and video 73.1 / spring 2021 37 ©2021 by the board of trustees of the university of illinois Figure 2: Tragic grandeur, psychological character of the space, and baroque style of Citizen Kane. Matte painting by Mario Larrinaga, Chelsey Bonestell, and Fitch Fulton.

Kane’s unlimited power, while simultaneously repetition of the unmoving window draw the portraying the transient nature of that power. viewer directly in and display an example of the The tragedy that is the brevity and short-lived powerfully psychological condition of the plot, condition of every human action dominates the and the role that this space and scene play in painting, showing a path where opulence can- Kane’s baroque writing is emblematic. not avoid its drift toward the phantasmagorical. And so it is that this painting, an apparent There is ill-fated splendor and the material re- piece of trickery subject to little interpretation mains of a bright past where ambiguity displays beyond its ornamental aim as a background, grandeur alongside darkness and desolation. is able to bear the weight of a study of its The space is baroque, metaphorized, and meaning in the same conditions and at the highly amplified and given greater depth, while same analytical level as any other landscape the deep-focus postulate seen here invites an portrayal and also in terms of cinematographic insight into a hypertrophied space that spans narration, displaying as it does the same narra- the distance from the entrance gate to the inte- tive features as the film of which it is part and rior of the bedroom. contributing to the discourse as much as any This sequence shows the viewer that the other element of the film’s construction. space was destined to be penetrated and navi- gated, sucking us into it centripetally. Drama- View of Rome from the Forum in tism in the frames and theatrics in the lighting Spartacus, by Peter Ellenshaw turn the viewer’s gaze into a psychological one. The rupture of the spatial continuity, an unde- The unexpected richness of the microanalysis niable requirement for classical construction, of the previously discussed shot, which has that the immobile omnipresence of the window enabled us to develop readings of the shot as a achieves manages to subjectivize the tracking piece of filmmaking trickery, as a pictorial art- shot and turn it into a movement more psy- work, and as a narrative element, could merely chological than it is real. In this sequence, the be a happy coincidence, so it is now necessary theatrical irreality given off by the painted land- to focus on a different matte painting, radi- scape, the scene’s tragic grandeur, and the reit- cally different if possible. The next painted erative nature of the frames and the obsessive scene to be analyzed here was created by Peter

38 journal of film and video 73.1 / spring 2021 ©2021 by the board of trustees of the university of illinois Figure 3: Appropriation, conquest, and domestication of the terrain in Spartacus. Matte painting by Peter Ellenshaw.

Ellenshaw for Stanley Kubrick’s Spartacus. It brushstrokes, achieving the effect of great consists of a situational shot of central Rome depth, accentuated by the atmospheric treat- following the sequence portraying the rebellion ment given to the far distance. of the gladiators in Capua. The point of view With regard to the painting’s pictorial fea- here is slightly elevated, upon a raised platform tures, undoubtedly the most noteworthy fea- for speakers at the Forum, but close enough to ture is Ellenshaw’s unique brushstrokes in this ground level for viewers to see the expressions period of maturity. The strokes are loose and at- of the figures in the foreground. The platform, mospheric, particularly notable in the facades the plaza to the left, and the market to the right around the Forum and the faraway buildings, are fragments from real sets, filmed separately blurring the contours and obtaining a misty and and combined with a painting in which Ellen- vivid effect. These soft, airy, hazy brushstrokes, shaw incorporated the brick houses that delin- with which Ellenshaw rejected solidity and eate the Forum, the structures of the market, reinforced the plasticity of the image, help to and all the monuments and edifices that make accomplish an experience closer to real percep- up the city’s profile. tion than to photography, a more “live” image, The architectural design displayed in this as the artist himself asserted: painting, with its abundance of low brick constructions, appropriately reflects the city The trick in matte painting, if you know what layouts of the republican period in which the you are doing, is you must not make it too narration is set. The only potentially anachro- highly finished—just give the imagination time to work. Really, this is not like a pho- nistic element is a dome with an open oculus tograph when you really look at it. It is more that is reminiscent of, albeit smaller than, alive, I think. It is more like looking at the the Pantheon. Near the golden section, Ellen- actual scene. This is a good example of a shaw placed a prepossessing column in the matte painting done the right way, I think. foreground, which serves as a potent visual (Ellenshaw under Glass) axis on which to distribute the weights on the image. To the column’s right and behind the The backlighting allows for soft blending in market, there is a small Corinthian-style hexa- the shaded foreground and facilitates the shap- style temple evocative of the Maison Carrée of ing of the dome, pillar, rooftops, and buildings. Nimes. In the center of the painting, Ellenshaw It also shows up the high contrast between created the representation of the Capitoline Hill the foregrounds, which softens going into the and, at its peak, the Temple of Jupiter towers, distance, merging into the hazy atmosphere the indisputable protagonist of the composi- that envelops the hills on the horizon. The color tion, suffusing the urban vistas with grandeur. palette gradually goes from the brilliant ochres In the distance, the city structure is extended, illuminated by the sun to the browns and blending into itself with progressively looser reds of the brickwork and tiles further back, journal of film and video 73.1 / spring 2021 39 ©2021 by the board of trustees of the university of illinois Figure 4 (a, b, and c): Hazy, atmospheric brushstrokes, materialized and tangible (details). before transitioning toward a range of blues different artists who display a similar inclina- and grays on the horizon, in a progressive de- tion for making the atmosphere explicitly pres- chromatization, reproducing the corollaries of ent in their scenes, such as Turner or Monet. atmospheric perspective. This in-depth atmo- This atmosphere, dense and tangible, is made spheric treatment of the space and the loss of significant by Ellenshaw and works here as a sharpness that call to mind Leonardo da Vinci Barthian punctum, lending a sense of realism and his sfumato link Ellenshaw to other, very that transcends mere visual description of the

40 journal of film and video 73.1 / spring 2021 ©2021 by the board of trustees of the university of illinois Figure 5: The painstaking, detailed brushstrokes of Ellenshaw for Quo Vadis. Matte painting by Peter Ellenshaw. space and evokes for the viewer, more subcon- and then combined with the painting seems sciously than consciously, the sense of experi- to suggest that Ellenshaw would have opted encing times gone by. for composing the image using masks instead To see the artist’s maturity at this point, one of his usual glass, which would have made need only compare this painting with the way in the incorporation of the non-simultaneous which this same type of backdrop was used for filmed elements impossible. The filmEllenshaw the views of Rome that Ellenshaw himself cre- under Glass shows this painting on its original ated for Quo Vadis (Mervyn LeRoy and Anthony stand, and it is evident that though the paint- Mann, 1951) a decade previously. The natural- ing was produced in formidable 2.2:1 format ist treatment of the lighting and its surprising for the anamorphic Panavision system, it was atmospheric quality make this extraordinary created in its natural proportions without the painting one of Ellenshaw’s best if not his best. compression that the anamorphic format forced In terms of the physical production of the on other matte painters. This suggests that matte painting, Ellenshaw’s most-used tech- Ellenshaw had an anamorphic lens available to nique was known to be glass shot, but there him for the filming of this painting. The optical are indications that in this case he also may printer, which separated the filming process have used the optical printer to complete the from the assembly process, would have al- image’s composition later. The fact that the two lowed Ellenshaw to combine this painting with fragments of live action were shot separately the two real fragments in the safety of the lab,

Figure 6: Masking and natural proportion of the image showing a possible disjunc- tive composition using the optical printer. Matte painting by Peter Ellenshaw. journal of film and video 73.1 / spring 2021 41 ©2021 by the board of trustees of the university of illinois with no risk to the filmed material and no need qualify this matte painting as eminently clas- to intervene during filming. This was a disjunc- sical. Promptly following the postulates about tive strategy that Ellenshaw used very few scenography in classical cinema, the image’s times, given that he advocated for the visual composition, whose busy urban center could quality of the first-generation image provided have become a muddled view, is instead care- by glass-shot painting, but one that he used on fully balanced in order to be easily readable. this occasion to great effect. The commemorative pillar, skillfully situated in Leaving aside the formal description and the golden section, serves as a powerful visual instrumental research and moving on to mean- axis that organizes the distribution of shapes. ing, it is clear that in the representation of The fragments of footage with actors are made this landscape, Ellenshaw is communicating up symmetrically from left to right, the parallel humanity’s conquering of nature. In this paint- placement of the buildings helps to geometrize ing, civilization considers itself part of the the space, and the pillar establishes a point of ecosystem and as one more agent of change interest, with the Temple of Jupiter at the back, in the environment, seeing nature as one of its helping guide the viewer’s eye in deeper. The belongings. From this inclusive position, the location of the slightly foreshortened point of territory is seen here as an available space for view renders the creepage lines diagonal, mak- humans to use and own at their will and whose ing the composition more dynamic and under- appropriation humankind legitimizes due to scoring the three-dimensional depiction of the the aforementioned sense of ownership. The space. This maximizes the image’s readability, hills of Rome and the surrounding areas were and this in turn is reinforced by the aerial per- the first conquest of the Romans, and their do- spective and the fact that the palette becomes minion, majestic but strict, inflexible but beau- less and less saturated moving toward the tiful, serves as a metaphor for their dominant back, where Ellenshaw’s loose, atmospheric attitude toward other peoples. The Romans are brushstrokes further enhance the sense of here owners of the territory, the river and the depth. This haze, materialized almost to the hills, and they have bent nature to their will, point of palpability, aside from accentuating using it as they see fit. Ellenshaw conveyed this the readability, also helps to portray the city as appropriation, conquest, and domestication a living entity, one that throbs with activity in with something closer to explicitness than allu- its homes and ritual offerings. The atmosphere sion, just as in Kane’s example. becomes eloquent, underpinning the depiction Moving on to a narrative plane, is it possible of the city as a center of culture and power. This to identify any quality of the film narrative balanced composition, maximized readability, model from this painting? Looking at the ways and unique, unambiguous message are all in which the image is connected to the char- characteristics of classical cinema and are dis- acteristics of the plot allows us to effectively tinctly evident in this painting.

Figure 7: Peter Ellenshaw photographed with the matte painting he produced for Spartacus.

42 journal of film and video 73.1 / spring 2021 ©2021 by the board of trustees of the university of illinois Figure 8: The oppressive presence of the painting, imposed on the characters in The Birds. Matte painting by Albert Whitlock.

There are four other matte paintings in the halves: land to the left and the winding coast film, created by veteran artist Russell Lawson, to the right. Behind the two rails in the fore- but they are lesser works, lacking the plastic ground, the tree and barn form a pair of sym- nature and scenographic presence of Ellen- metrical shapes that Whitlock used to organize shaw’s painting. The extraordinary quality of the space. The longitudinal outline of the road, this painting, its evocative capacity, the vibrant which stretches into the distance, is reinforced naturalism of its light, the composition of its by the rail and the electrical cables on either masses, its depth of space, and above all, side of it. These were further resources used by the materialization of the atmosphere, which Whitlock to prolong the shape of this escape Ellenshaw achieved in a manner much more route toward the horizon, and covering the effective than that of other, less subtle matte cables with birds produces a rhythmic pattern painters, serve to make it one of the greatest akin to an iconic punctuation mark, underlining works in the history of this art form. the latent threat accompanying their escape. In this painting, Whitlock uses a predominantly Final Shot of The Birds, by Albert Whitlock gray, green, and blue palette, with contrasting light, creating large shaded areas next to bright In search of a definitive confirmation of the areas bathed in the first light of the morning. initial hypothesis of this article, a third and The loose, hazy brushstrokes afford the paint- final microanalysis will now be undertaken of ing a misty quality, not unlike Ellenshaw’s work another painted scene, in order to certify the in Spartacus. extraordinary analytical richness of matte paint- At an instrumental level, this shot is a com- ing as a resource for cinematographic construc- plex combination of Whitlock’s painting, a tion. fragment of live action, which is the car driving For the construction of the coastal village away, and several elements of set, populated seen in The Birds, Hitchcock used locations that with real birds. No fewer than thirty-two distinct were then complemented by sets constructed elements came into play in a scene Hitchcock in a studio and with paintings created by the himself considered “the most complex shot artist Albert Whitlock. The film contains a total [he’d] ever filmed” (Counts). Following is a tes- of twelve paintings by Whitlock, including the timony from the director himself, describing the intriguing final shot in which Mitch, Melanie, production of this shot: and the family drive away through thousands of birds. The composition of this painting is mark- That took 32 different pieces of film. We had edly symmetrical around the axis of the road, a limited number of gulls allowed. Therefore, which, shot head-on, divides the space into two the foreground was shot in three panel sec- tions, left to right, up to the birds on the rail.

journal of film and video 73.1 / spring 2021 43 ©2021 by the board of trustees of the university of illinois The few gulls we had were in the first third, Blue screen could have been a risky technique we re-shot it for the middle third, and for the here because it tends to generate an unwanted right-hand third, using the same gulls. Just bluish halo around cut-out subjects when they above the heads of the crows was a long, move quickly, which of course seemed inevi- slender middle section where the gulls were table with the unpredictable movements of the spread again. Then the car going down the birds and would have revealed the mechanism driveway, with the birds on each side of it, was another piece of film. The sky was an- of the trick shot. To obtain masks of the neces- other piece of film. (Bouzereau) sary quality, Whitlock opted for an experimen- tal method consisting of filming the thirty-two The last element to which Hitchcock was elements independently and situating them on referring was, effectively, Whitlock’s painting. a screen lit with a sodium-vapor lamp, which Because of the complex structure of this scene, projected a characteristic yellow light onto the Whitlock, an artist who tended toward compo- screen. Inside the filming camera, two different sition through multiple exposures, rejected the rolls of film were placed, one sensible to the sharpness of original image in that technique sodium-vapor light and the other conventional, in favor of the safety and flexibility of non- so that while the conventional film was shoot- destructive composition offered by the optical ing the action, the vapor-sensitive film was ex- printer. Whitlock had even greater reason than clusively registering the presence of this back- Ellenshaw in Spartacus to employ the optical ground light. This meant that the action itself printer: the unpredictable nature of filming was being registered at the same time as its animals combined with the sheer number of high-precision mask, and the aforementioned fragments to assemble made this scene too blue halos that the blue screen would have risky for composition through multiple expo- caused around the birds’ sudden movements sures, which was a procedure that would leave could be avoided. Thanks to this strategy of no room for the correction of mistakes, so a extracting masks, somewhere between the transference strategy was then more advis- blue screen and the process known as Dun- able. However, the greatest problem with this ning-Pomeroy, the distinct fragments making scene was obtaining the necessary masks to up this scene could be suitably cropped and perform the composition of all the elements. assembled with precision by Whitlock using

Figure 9: Photograph of Albert Whitlock’s painting for The Birds.

44 journal of film and video 73.1 / spring 2021 ©2021 by the board of trustees of the university of illinois the optical printer. As a result, the resolution of painting’s narrative contribution, this is a pro- this shot—which was hugely complex, techni- foundly psychological image immersed in an cally speaking—its notable artistic quality, and equally psychological plot. The road down which its rich meaning make this matte painting one the characters are driving opens up the space of the most remarkable in Whitlock’s extensive into the distance, highlighting the interminable portfolio. length of the ground they have yet to cover, a In terms of meaning in the portrayal of the pathway that even in the horizon is still flanked landscape, Whitlock was alluding with this by birds sitting on the electrical cables and sepa- painting to a reality, a threat, somewhere rating the characters from their salvation. The beyond that which is depicted. Nature, which creatures’ oppressive presence and the fragility was believed to be dominated and caged, has of the calm amplify the threat’s magnitude and shown itself to be rebellious and is demonstrat- play down the protagonists’ strength. Here, the ing the reach of its power and the futility of our scenario that Whitlock has created imposes it- own. The forces of nature, represented here by self on the characters, who are submerged in an the flocks of birds, are dormant now but may impenetrable mass of birds and made small by wake at any moment, and their waking may the hypertrophy of space in the distance, repre- prove fatal. This threat suggests to the viewer sented by the endless road. that we are mere guests in nature and that The hypertrophic depth of the terrain is ac- it may choose to impose its dominion at any companied by hypertrophic density dedicated moment, an allusion to the creative forces of to the atmosphere. In this painting, the hazy nature, or more accurately in this case to its de- light between the parting clouds, bringing a structive forces, with nature portrayed here as psychological dimension to the flight of the pro- a supreme, primordial entity. While part of the tagonists, is very effectively produced. Unlike danger is represented in the form of the birds Ellenshaw’s painting, which constitutes a visual present in the image, the true danger resides portrayal of the characteristics of the classical not in that which is shown but in that which the regime, using the atmosphere to unidirection- viewer senses is beyond, something indirectly ally underline the meaning of the plot, here insinuated by the painting. Here, humans do the dramatic illumination in chiaroscuro and not own the territory as they believe but are the sun rays bathing the scene suggest a sort subject to greater forces that cannot be seen of relief charged with tension, trust but also or understood, where we are reminded that desolation, the possibility of a future but one our conquering of nature is merely partial and that will never be free from threat. Salvation, temporary. This painting serves as a symbol, a yes, but also despair. It is these contradictory reference, an image whose value lies more in sentiments that the painting communicates to what it implies than what it shows. This is an the viewer. There is ambiguity and psychologi- evocative position from which more is commu- cal tension underpinned by this dramatic illu- nicated than what is denoted, where the hazy mination, constituting a significant turn in the creation of the atmosphere and its dramatic representation of the atmosphere. The marking plays of light are used by Whitlock to reinforce of the depth, the scenery towering over the this allusive function. This symbolic effect, un- scale of humans, the multiplicity and explora- like the landscapes analyzed previously, shows tion of non-obvious meanings, and the ambigu- that Whitlock’s approach consisted in prioritiz- ous psychological approach of the painting are ing evocation above connotative depiction, positions totally aligned with the mannerism using the painting as a vehicle to communicate and baroque of the Hitchcockian style, enabling a message that goes beyond mere portrayal. this article to affirm that this painting is also Moving on now from the level concerning capable of exhibiting the narrative features of the communicative intention and toward the the film model of which it is part.

journal of film and video 73.1 / spring 2021 45 ©2021 by the board of trustees of the university of illinois Figure 10: Significant atmosphere, psychological tension, and mannerist ambiguity (detail).

Conclusion However, in addition to being a pictorial piece, a perspective from which it is already This article has attempted to bring to the valuable, a matte painting takes on true worth as forefront the phenomenon of matte painting, an element of set design in films—in short, as a a mechanism for the construction of cinemato- component of the construction of the cinematographic material through pictorial means, and graphic ensemble. It is for this reason that an one that is habitually relegated to a mere tech- analysis of this phenomenon must not overlook nical space in the context of trucage and spe- the matte painting’s contribution at a narrative cial effects. However, a practice as unique as level. From this perspective, this article has at- this one constitutes an interesting topic of anal- tempted to confirm whether or not a link exists ysis, undoubtedly due to its privileged position between the film narrative model and the char- halfway between filmmaking and painting. In acteristics of the painting. If so, it should be pos- an endeavor to emphasize the uniqueness of sible to differentiate matte paintings developed the method’s contribution, three famous shots under different narrative styles, as well as to created with paintings were chosen for this acknowledge the specific discursive characteris- article, and going further than simply describ- tics of a given film model for which the paintings ing the mechanism of their construction, this were developed. This article has confirmed how study attempted to first highlight the value of the characteristics of a scene in classic film, the matte painting as a painting, as a pictorial characterized by an exquisite composition and text in its own right, and to explore its capacity maximum readability in support of the plot’s to bear the weight of analysis with regard to its unique meaning, are also transmitted through significance in pictorial representation. For this these paintings, as seen in the matte painting purpose, its principal role in landscape repre- created by Peter Ellenshaw for Spartacus. On the sentation was held up. This position enabled us other hand, baroque cinema, with its abundant to situate matte painting within the traditions and profoundly psychological spaces, excessive of landscape painting and photography, which in their depth and seeking to explore ambiguous in turn allowed us to investigate the various meanings, communicates these same features strategies for showing meaning. In some cases, in its matte paintings. This can be seen in the this involved depiction, and in others, evoca- painted images in Citizen Kane and The Birds, tion, mobilized around the intent and attitude confirming that it is indeed possible to detect in of the creator in this communicative process, as these paintings all the “lines of force constitut- well as in the construction and description of ing the film from which they are extracted,” as space within the painting itself. mentioned by Zunzunegui (Closer Look).

46 journal of film and video 73.1 / spring 2021 ©2021 by the board of trustees of the university of illinois In light of these deductions, the result of this REFERENCES article is twofold. First, a means was identified Bordwell, D., et al. The Classical Hollywood Cinema: of studying matte painting as a cinemato- Film Style and Mode of Production to 1960. Rout- graphic resource that has so far lacked the ledge, 1988. analytical attention it warrants. Second—and Bouzereau, L., director. All about The Birds. Documen- tary film. Universal Studios, 2000. this is the transcendental point for which this Counts, Kyle B. “The Making of Alfred Hitchcock’s The study was aiming—it has been shown that Birds.” Cinefantastique, vol. 10, no. 2, 1980, https:// matte painting is much more than a special ef- the.hitchcock.zone/wiki/Cinemafantastique fect resource; rather, it is an expressive art form _(1980)_-_The_Making_of_Alfred_Hitchcock%27s particularly rich in meaning, from the prism of _The_Birds. Ellenshaw under Glass. YouTube, uploaded by 146Ya- pictorial landscape representation through to magata, 3 July 2010, playlist compiled by Eyes on its narrative contribution to the plot. We can Cinema, 24 Apr. 2016, https://www.youtube.com see that matte painting experienced a continu- /playlist?list=PLbFbLvJse3moPdatXkHhXJdlr9bN0 ous molding through the varying film narrative 4YX3. models to the degree where the cinemato- Mereghetti, P. Orson Welles. Cahiers du Cinéma, 2007. Metz, C. Essais sur la signification au cinema. Klincks- graphic context can even be inferred from the ieck, 2013. painting’s observable features. Panofsky, E. Meaning in the Visual Arts. U of Chicago This particularly fruitful result regarding an P, 2008. element of filmmaking construction that had Rickitt, R. Special Effects: The History and Techniques. Aurum Press, 2006. scarcely the tools necessary for its study evi- Whitlock, C. Designs on Film: A Century of Hollywood dences the need for this article and provides Art Direction. Harper Collins, ItBooks, 2010. justification for its being undertaken. Zunzunegui, S. The Closer Look. Shangrila Associa- tion, 2016. ———. Landscapes of the Form. Catedra Publishing, 1994.

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