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Routledge Handbook of Southeast Asian Economics

Ian Coxhead

A century of growth, crisis, war and recovery, 1870–1970

Publication details https://www.routledgehandbooks.com/doi/10.4324/9781315742410.ch3 Anne Booth Published online on: 18 Dec 2014

How to cite :- Anne Booth. 18 Dec 2014, A century of growth, crisis, war and recovery, 1870–1970 from: Routledge Handbook of Southeast Asian Economics Routledge Accessed on: 01 Oct 2021 https://www.routledgehandbooks.com/doi/10.4324/9781315742410.ch3

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Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 12:01 01 Oct 2021; For: 9781315742410, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315742410.ch3 aeo hn,mc ihrarclua este,dniiswr tl ut o nms at of settled. densely parts considered be most could Vietnam in North of low region delta quite the still and Bali, were the densities in densities, the especially agricultural Only and, Asia. higher populations Southeast larger much had China, which India, of and case contrast China In of development. civilizations economic ancient their of the level to the in not and were structure region economic the in of dissimilar parts greatly various the expanding, were America North and Europe industrializing epeadcptllf epadlsiglgce oteidpnetgvrmnsi h region. the in governments independent the to legacies lasting and deep left capital and people rdmnnl ua n giutrl ihterbscneso od hle n ltigadother and bours. clothing and shelter was food, Asia satis Southeast of being of needs manufactures population basic the their of with agricultural, most commercial region, and and the rural predominantly urban of an parts and most centuries in many existed for certainly established tradition been had world outside the with links fmc ftergo esse ni 92 n noteps-90era. post-1950 the into and 1942, until persisted region the of much of Introduction needn im(sTaln a nw ni 99 a ocddcnieal uooyin autonomy considerable conceded nominally had even 1939) and powers, until European known of was control Thailand the (as under Siam was independent Asia Southeast of most 1870, By change structural and growth Economic did considerable were only two there least, the Not means and no region. by them but between Last the fl and China. and colonies, of India various of parts reservoirs the population 1929, within many huge until both on people, continued of effect it movements Asia serious stantial Southeast a in had that Asia suggest depression Southeast I in world 1913, the and the in that peaceful end when world consider colonies an historians the former to economic some into came many to in region globalization Although 1942 was the prolonged. from which and occupation of independence, Japanese violent parts to the others many 1930s, transition the the of of and integration depression 1945, great rapid the the to by 1870 saw followed from economy, century which the century over Asia a Southeast of 1970, development economic the surveys chapter This w fcptl ohpbi n rvt,it otes sa hs increased These Asia. Southeast into private, and public both capital, of ows hnteSe aa a utcmltdi 80 n otes Asia Southeast and 1870, in completed just was Canal Suez the When 2 hr a osdrbeeooi hneatr17,bttefnaetlyarra nature agrarian fundamentally the but 1870, after change economic considerable was There etr fgot,cii,war crisis, growth, of century A ’ omdt rd rwrpdybten17 n 90 u hr eesub- were there but 1930, and 1870 between rapidly grow trade commodity s fi “ dfo hi w aor rta fterimdaefml n neigh- and family immediate their of that or labour, own their from ed ne core inner n eoey 1870 recovery, and ” fteNtelnsIde,cmrsn h sad fJv and Java of islands the comprising Indies, Netherlands the of COLO RETLADARCNSTUDIES AFRICAN AND ORIENTAL OF SCHOOL ’ rdn ik ihrapidly with links trading s , NVRIYO LONDON OF UNIVERSITY 1 lhuhtrading Although neBooth Anne – fl w fgoods, of ows 1970 fi s r of era rst 3 43 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 12:01 01 Oct 2021; For: 9781315742410, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315742410.ch3 where ( 1929 until South continued growth and apart, Burma Thailand Thailand, early in become regions all the surplus had By from Indies rice. supplies Netherlands in on and Vietnam. the dependent especially and commodities importers, Malaya trade, developed rice primary British intra-regional other net Philippines, few The from some the and Asia. also a century, power Southeast was twentieth exporting colonial of there the of parts from although many goods pattern countries, from capital colonial and exports consumption classic in importing increase the an followed to region led expansion trade world sa cnme ufrdsm eln nprcpt D fe 99a euto h global the of result a Thailand. was GDP except as capita everywhere per 1929 Southeast levels 1938 1913 after main by above But the GDP exports. well All tropical capita still 1913. for per demand after affected in terms severely capita which decline depression, per some in but suffered lower progress were economies little rates Asian there growth was Elsewhere doubled. Thailand than in more Malacca only GDP with together capita Sarawak, per and where Borneo Penang), North and plus states unfederated and federated the 1942 h otpr,tegot narclua uptocre yrpiaigkonproduction known replicating by occurred output agricultural in growth the part, most the tpe ihwihtergo a ogbe soitd nldn ua,rc,cfe,ta spices, tea, coffee, rice, sugar, including agricultural associated, traditional By been of long export. number had a for hard region of and the quantities consumption which larger domestic with ever staples for exporting was both Asia growth, Southeast agricultural 1930, by mainly driven was n15,adsbeun raiswt te oeg powers. effect into foreign went other which with Treaty treaties Bowring subsequent the and of 1856, provisions in the under policy-making economic Booth Anne hc nldsSrwkadSbh h grsfrBraatr11 ee o12,13 n 96respectively. 1936 44 and 1931 1921, to refer 1913 after Burma for figures The Sabah. and Sarawak includes which Notes (2005). Hooley from 1913 after Singapore Sources Malaysia Thailand Philippines Indonesia 4 Burma 1870 Year 3.1 Table 93100 1913 99132 104 1929 1920 98108 122 1938 1934 9082 58 1960 1950 9094 1970 90621141,764 1,194 642 685 1970 Dollars) 1913 Geary–Khamis International (1990 capita per GDP uha ua nJv,ddicesdyed e nto adcnrbt ogot noutput. in growth to contribute land of unit agricultural per in yields increased increase did cases, The few Java, a 94). in in only 1975: sugar although land, as (Creutzberg cultivated such of rubber expansion considerable of with associated production for was accounting output total were Indonesia of in producers half smallholder 1930s, almost the by and rapidly, expanding was o 80t 93 siae fprcpt D hwgot o oto otes Asia. Southeast of most for growth show GDP capita per of estimates 1913, to 1870 For h rwhi uptta okpaei otprso otes sabten17 n 1930 and 1870 between Asia Southeast of parts most in place took that output in growth The ne:11 0.TeetmtsfrMlyi n igpr ee otemdr ttso igpr n Malaysia, and Singapore of states modern the to refer Singapore and Malaysia for estimates The 100. = 1913 Index: : fi adsn(03 8–)wt aafrSnaoeatr11 rmSgmt 21:15 n o h Philippines the for and 185) (2011: Sugimoto from 1913 after Singapore for data with 180–5) (2003: Maddison : rsadccntol nadto,tecliaino e rp uha ubradpl oil palm and rubber as such crops new of cultivation the addition, In oil. coconut and bres e aiaGPmr hnteldbten17 n 99 n nmdr aasa(until Malaysia modern in and 1929, and 1870 between trebled than more GDP capita per rnsi e aiaGP 1870–1970 GDP, capita per in Trends 100 129 105 130 111 113 132 904 72 93 1053 106 100 133 124 136 127 146 175 74 Table .) h otrpdgot a nSingapore in was growth rapid most The 3.1). 4 ,9 ,7 4,439 2,079 1,694 841 100 128 201 n/a n/a 97 85 94 98 3 ewe 80ad11,rapid 1913, and 1870 Between 173 0 1,279 900 123 100 171 187 151 170 231 74 159 110 100 136 170 149 141 269 53 5 For Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 12:01 01 Oct 2021; For: 9781315742410, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315742410.ch3 915. n/a 55.6 1931 965. n/a 55.0 1926 915. n/a 56.0 1921 908. 73.5 85.0 1970 965. n/a 55.4 1916 907. 66.6 73.6 1960 934. n/a 46.2 1913 985. n/a 58.8 1938 erTia aasaIdnsaBurma Indonesia Malaysia Taiwan Year the Burma, lower densely of the region from people delta regions. of frontier the migration to considerable as heartlands of rural result such settled the regions, was production some rice In in expansion land. more over technologies d c Malaysia, Taiwan, for 1970 b and 1960 for Data a 251). (1976). (1989: Bank Notes Sompop World from Thailand: Thailand (1999); and Lee Burma and Saito Burma: (2005); Sources: 34.4 1900 3.2 Table 966. n/a 60.3 1936 noei,tePiipns.I noei,6 e eto oa upti siae ohave to estimated is output total of cent per 66 ( activities Indonesia, non-agricultural which from In for originated countries Philippines). those the in around Indonesia, most product at for national accounted sector the agricultural the half 1930s, late the By economies. national various and diversi which trade agriculture, transport, This as in well industries. as expansion mining rapid including it production, with export of brought growth the to due partly was ayclna ii evns seilyi noei n nohn,ta h ooileconomies colonial the that among Indochina, conviction and widespread Indonesia a in in resulted especially 1930s servants, early pointed civil the Shepherd colonial in As markets goal. many policy export a of as collapse industrialization the consider out, to seriously began Asia Southeast entrepreneurs. those Indian protection, or Chinese of by began forms often costs other transport produced, high or locally through be protection tariffs natural to through of measure 1930s, some was the enjoyed encouragement that before manufactures positive production little alcoholic local Although other to clothing. and given beer western (including and foodstuffs newsprint goods processed consumption cigarettes, as new drinks), such of for locally demand part produced to latter rise be the gave could in centuries which in occurred twentieth growth early that some the and incomes also and was industry in nineteenth there can increase of the region, The the growth there of consumption. the parts While local many on in for correct. impact force manufacturing labour strictly important wage an a not of had is formation activities the this on processing but that doubt export, little for be processing mineral and agricultural 1929. respect Figures 1903. iue o h hlpie ee o10,11,12 n 1938. and 1928 1918, 1902, to refer Philippines the for Figures o-giutrlscoso h cnme fSuhatAi loge vrteedcds This decades. these over grew also Asia Southeast of economies the of sectors Non-agricultural oee twswt h ersino h 90 htclna oenet nvrosprsof parts various in governments colonial that 1930s the of depression the with was it However to restricted largely was Asia Southeast in industrialization 1940, to up that, asserted often is It : awn iouh n mmr 18:248;Idnsa a e n 20:112;Piipns Hooley Philippines: 171–2); (2002: Eng der van Indonesia: 234–8); (1988: Umemura and Mizoguchi Taiwan: ively. o um ee oficlyas10–,11–2 961,12–2 962,13–2 963 n 1938–39 and 1936–37 1931–32, 1926–27, 1921–22, 1916–17, 1911–12, 1901–2, years fiscal to refer Burma for ecnaeo oa D/D crigfo o-giutrlscos 1900–38 sectors, non-agricultural from accruing NDP/GDP total of Percentage a fi ainldt osdrbecag nteeooi tutr fthe of structure economic the in change considerable a to led cation n/a 62.7 62.1 63.1 70.1 59.6 67.1 59.5 66.3 55.5 64.6 6 Table 3.2). rwh rss a n eoey 1870–1970 recovery, and war crisis, Growth, fi fi aca evcs swl si processing in as well as services, nancial 2456.2 42.4 90n/a 49.0 96n/a 49.6 2071.7 62.0 53n/a 35.3 4260.4 64.2 6655.3 36.6 8755.7 48.7 6456.3 36.4 56n/a 45.6 ue r vial Bra Thailand, (Burma, available are gures b hiadPhilippines Thailand c 61.4 61.0 71.8 61.1 70.0 61.5 61.9 60.2 60.5 60.0 45 d Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 12:01 01 Oct 2021; For: 9781315742410, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315742410.ch3 Malay factor devel- other industrial the Japan’ about products, of concern primary success greater extraordinary tropical into the Asia for was Southeast markets opment in on governments slump colonial world goaded industrialization the that than of enthusiasm impact more the with from upon seized was none utb diversi be must Booth Anne 46 latter the after in Asia colonies most Southeast in of force ( labour parts 1930s the many the of cent of in per part sectors 60 least non-agricultural at of employed output still agriculture of 1900, growth the of spite In Diversi market world to vulnerable extremely were which nutilz sn t bnatsple fceplbu,wyntJv,o Indochina? or Java, not why provide labour, to cheap of of was supplies colonial abundant measures its Increasingly encourage these using to manufactures. industrialize was of consequence of secondary intention a production but main countries, local mother The the from goods. exports for textile protection on particularly quotas, the to reacted governments colonial etrntol rwmr ail u lobgnt con o rwn hr fexports. of share growing a manufacturing for the account to that began Japanese, 1970 also particularly but after and rapidly accelerated more foreign, grew Asia when only only Southeast in not was than sector in slower It manufacturing was Japan. service growth in alone and of The let industrial investment pace 1970. the Korea, the by 1960s, Singapore South GDP the of and by total exception although Taiwan of the But cent with Malaysia. per expanding, in were cent 70 per sectors than 70 economic more over in for also accounted differences was grew share economy and also per the 1950, of in were sectors after inequalities There non-agricultural quickly the marked region. quite Thailand, and 1970, the Philippines also By the across both growth doubled Malaysia. obvious In 1950s, structure. and than already the Singapore through were more both terms GDP GDP in capita capita per 1960s capita in the per growth in slow stagnation, in accelerated After the growth economic 1970. of accelerated and of the parts 1950 was other decades between striking In after Particularly increased. growth. where had some Thailand, output saw decades total two in agriculture, these services smallholder slightly region, after including and only sectors, retrogression was labour-intensive manufacturing structural the it small-scale been of Indonesia share had and in the there while that Indonesia 1938, sense in the in in that than 1950, 1970 argued in 209) (see lower (1960: levels still Paauw 1938 was higher. below it Burma was in 1950 1970; in to GDP capita per countries three all 3.1). In was Table 1945, 1949. August the late 17 on in the grant declaration Hatta Dutch Indonesian after and the to Sukarno shortly pressure, by exerted independence signed Americans pledges the independence, granted After of previous 1948. was early Burma in honoured India and British of Americans 1946, rest in The places independence some full ideology. in were Philippines which communist movements Japan’ nationalist by After with high. deal inspired were to rates had forced people mortality powers often and colonial local were returning regions, particular and the home in requisitioned their men from were young far projects; supplies move government food to various as on work in to set Philippines parts forced the some rapidly were in in disillusion liberators and as Asia, greeted Malaya, Southeast initially British were of Japanese and the Burma Although Indies. in Netherlands powers the and colonial the on defeats humiliating h eaeo h 90 a h aaeeIpra ryseptruhtergo,infl region, the through sweep Army Imperial Japanese the saw 1940s the of decade The nBraadIdnsa e aiaGPrcvrdol lwyi h w eae rm1950 from decades two the in slowly only recovered GDP capita per Indonesia, and Burma In tts otarclua mlyetwso mlhlig;lresaeett agriculture estate large-scale smallholdings; on was employment agricultural most States, fi aino employment of cation fi d nodrt euedpnec nanro ag fpiaycommodities primary of range narrow a on dependency reduce to order in ed, Table .) ihteecpino rts aaa n seilyteFederated the especially and Malaya, British of exception the With 3.3). fl o fcepJpns auatrsb nraigtrfsand tariffs increasing by manufactures Japanese cheap of ood ra xotdiedrn h al 1930s. early the during drive export great s fl uctuations. fi il esndta fJpncould Japan if that reasoned cials “ mn h ouin offered solutions the Among ” Sehr 91 ) Apart 5). 1941: (Shepherd fi al eonzdb the by recognized nally eeti 1945, in defeat s 8 7 icting Most Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 12:01 01 Oct 2021; For: 9781315742410, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315742410.ch3 noei (1930) Indonesia hlpie (1939) Philippines rts aaa(1930) Malaya British um (1931) Burma hiad(1929) Thailand oe (1930) Korea yial eevdb oe okr,adtelc faywre rtcin u lal many under clearly work But protection. to worker prepared any were of lack women the of and thousands 19 workers, These (1945: women manufacture. Kurihara child by as mat with received such combined and typically Critics be chores. hat could domestic this in other and dominated and home-workers, care to also out Women contracted manufactur- native women. often of and were were sub-sector occupations dressmaking all other male Embroidery, any almost the workers. than and female of workers ing, all cent more of employed per cent together 7.9 per manufacture employed textile 25 manufacturing almost that but In found force Indonesia. and census labour Burma 1939 in case the the also weaving, Philippines, was Thailand this the In jobs; workers. female considered women were by pottery dominated and cookery often than fewer was employing manufacturing typically Rural workshops, small people. in 10 or home the in either manufactures producing awn(1930) Taiwan (1930) Japan o-giutrlepomn a nsalsaeidsre n et rd.The the trade. of petty Much and force. labour industries total small-scale the in of proportion was small employment a non-agricultural only to employment full-time offered Kurihara Philippines: 1.5); table appendix 144). (1978, 57, Mertens (1971: Indonesia: Ingram 1.6); Thailand: table 16); (1999 (1945: Lee and Saito Burma: 99); (1932: Sources Country/Year 3.3 Table oprdwt noei rBra ti nieyta oeta n ilo epewere people million 1930s. one late the than in Asia more Southeast that of enterprises, whole unlikely large-scale the is in in sector it was factory the 1939 Burma, in in or employed Philippines Indonesia the with in compared manufacturing in employed workers eidadbyn ssrrsn nta trn one othe to counter runs it that in surprising is beyond and period independence. after do to continued they indeed as incomes, household 90.I nohn,Rbqan(94 siae htamxmmo 2,0 okr was workers 120,000 1930s. of late maximum the a by that industry estimated modern (1944) in employed Robequain Indochina, the In in employment 1930s. that estimated (1941) Spate Burma, In from “ million. 1939, 24 in of Indonesia force in labour people estimated 300,000 an about only employed sector manufacturing large-scale atrn l elnd lhuhtergoa matwsuee eas fpo rnpr.While transport. poor of manu- because sugar uneven weaving and was as making, impact paper regional such earthenware, the industries although and traditional declined, pottery all that making, facturing metal argued and Resnick increased, iron Ingram, America spinning, and and North Heide and der Europe van industrial Homan of economies industries from part these last imports indigenous Resnick as the as in that, Africa. many market and Philippines and world the century, Asia the for and nineteenth South products Thailand in the agricultural Burma, producing as in of well involved case as more the became Asia, in Southeast argued in 58) attention (1970: much had has which factory h essec falrehnirf etri otes sau ilteedo h colonial the of end the till up Asia Southeast in sector handicraft large a of persistence The otwreseueae as enumerated workers Most aa:Gadne 14) oe:Sh(98 al ) awn rjazv(92 3;BiihMly:Vlieland Malaya: British 33); (1942: Grajdanzev Taiwan: 2); table (1978, Suh Korea: (1944); Grajdanzev Japan: : ” cuainldsrbto fteepoe ouain aa,Taln n oois .1930 c. colonies, and Thailand Japan, population, employed the of distribution Occupational etr(nldn ieil)wsaon 0,0 ntelt 90,btcnrce nthe in contracted but 1920s, late the in 100,000 around was ricemills) (including sector “ eefamne n displaced and fragmented were 68.0 69.0 60.8 69.6 84.2 79.6 73.0 49.6 Agriculture “ mlydi manufacturing in employed 9 vni ahrlre hr fte601,000 the of share larger rather a if Even rwh rss a n eoey 1870–1970 recovery, and war crisis, Growth, 10.4 12.2 12.3 11.0 20.1 Industry “ 2.2 6.3 8.6 bad” odtosi re osupplement to order in conditions “ ” ” de-industrialization utn uhrte uhas such authorities Quoting . – ncnue eeocpe in occupied were censuses in 2 one otelwwages low the to pointed 22) 19.6 18.8 26.9 19.4 13.6 14.1 18.3 30.3 Other 10 “ ” modern hypothesis 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 Total ” 47 or Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 12:01 01 Oct 2021; For: 9781315742410, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315742410.ch3 consisted tncoii een ograkdi h otidpnec censuses. post-independence regarding the is questions it in although 1970 asked population, By longer the world. of no the cent of were parts per origin other 2 ethnic to than or less region comprised the Chinese of policy that China, parts for likely aggressive other left to Chinese an move 100,000 adopted to over decided Indonesia, 1960s others In Indians. and early most the of departure in the in power Burma resulted which in assumed although in which independence, Indians government and after Chinese important military migrant remained of the was role also The agriculture Asia region. in Southeast the employed of of parts force economies employment most the labour in of cent the structure per of 70 the to proportion or in 65 the changes growth, around still 1970, 1970s, slow By and the slowly. 1960s of only the result place in a took GDP as capita largely per But, in arrived. declines independence even political when 1950s the by nIdnsab h 90,te nycmrsdamnrt ftelbu oc nteeoccupa- these in both force in labour the employment of minority found a had comprised and only these transport, they professions tions. the 1930s, of and and the trade trade many by both including in Indonesia and important occupations, in were service force workers Chinese of Although labour service. range government total a and the industry of manufacturing cent per 85 uptadbyr fipt,ada aewres rdtr rdebtors. or of creditors sellers workers, as economy wage cash as the and with inputs, familiar of been buyers have and would output certainly and off-season, the in jobs 0prcn ftelbu oc a mlydi o-giutrlocptoseeyhr except everywhere occupations Asian non-agricultural in Southeast employed ( several was Thailand some force in in labour of the force demise of the labour cent per for diversi the 30 allowing more century, even becoming twentieth that, was doubt early economies little the be by can industries, there cottage true, been have might this Booth Anne 48 or China either than century twentieth the of of decades part latter early the the in India. growth and population century faster much nineteenth experienced the Asia Southeast of countries The economy plural the emergence of the and urbanization change, Demographic usd aa ol tl aebe iigi rdtoa ussec cnm.Icesnl,this well. Increasingly, as economy. Asia Southeast subsistence of traditional parts a other in of living true been was have still would Java, outside otes sacmae ihete ni rCiawstegetraudneo adand of land health the of children. promote abundance to young century programmes and greater including taking nineteenth babies measures, also the were health in governments was public colonial in-migration. for mortality 1920s China responsibility high the greater by lower or Malaya, although population, India for and to relative either explanation Burma supplies food with in important compared especially an Asia and that Southeast Africa, per compared probable mortality cent and falling seems per Asia fertility, 2 high It of over of parts combination was a it other to Malaya due with British was growth as rapid such This in-migration annum. substantial attracted that regions ouainrsror fIdaadCia yte13sthese 1930s the by China; and India of reservoirs population in China in century. life human nineteenth of the toll heavy of a decades took middle that rebellions the and wars recurrent of kind the prevented ncmaio ihmgainsrasars h tatct h S,tenmesmvn into moving numbers the USA, the to Atlantic Burma. the of across cent per streams 10 migration around with and Singapore, comparison including In Malaya, British of population the half than hspol nmn at fSuhatAi eearayfmla ihtemntzdeconomy monetized the with familiar already were Asia Southeast of parts many in people Thus nIdnsa um n h hlpie,idgnu okr cone o elover well for accounted workers indigenous Philippines, the and Burma Indonesia, In uho h oeg nmgaint otes sai h ooileawsfo h vast the from was era colonial the in Asia Southeast to in-migration foreign the of Much 11 14 aywreswowr tl anyepoe narcluewudhv ae nother on taken have would agriculture in employed mainly still were who workers Many nalcssteana vrg rwhi ouainwswl vr1prcn,adi those in and cent, per 1 over well was population in growth average annual the cases all In fmgatwresfo hn n ni u hswsnttecs elsewhere. case the not was this but India and China from workers migrant of Table .) nBiihMly ag rprino h o-giutrllbu force labour non-agricultural the of proportion large a Malaya British In 3.3). 15 nadto,teclna eie nms at fSuhatAsia Southeast of parts most in regimes colonial the addition, In fi di em fsucso noe yte13s over 1930s, the By income. of sources of terms in ed 13 “ oeg Asians foreign 12 nyamnrt,even minority, a Only ” opie more comprised Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 12:01 01 Oct 2021; For: 9781315742410, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315742410.ch3 okr rmdneystldrgosi aaadNrhVenmt sae ra nSmtaand Sumatra in areas estates to Vietnam North and Java respectively. Vietnam in of South regions of French settled of and densely programme from Dutch into unassisted continued workers a Both policy was This began era. Sumatra. movement 1900 especially post-independence islands, population after outer the this the Indonesia to of Java in in from rights Much Dutch migration sponsored land century. the individual although nineteenth of introduction government, the the by of by part facilitated cases latter and some region the the in in was everywhere lands movement new this colonize to that areas religious agricultural settled local densely of adopting out moved as censuses. well in separately as enumerated names, always Spanish not were and community they Thai Thus local took practices. the In usually into force. labour themselves and estate integrated successfully the migrants of more Chinese part Philippines, considerable the a the as smaller in comprised and such controls they much regions, Thailand where imposed particular a Sumatra, in had of were important Coast Dutch were East Asians the migrants the where Migrant Chinese although Indonesia, years. century, in twentieth these population early over total million migration the inward of 1.55 net again, percentage around home returned to Asia amounted Southeast into still migrants the of proportion high a sas hl nMdnidgnu noein eeol 4prcn ftepopulation. the of cent per 54 only were foreign other Indonesians or indigenous Chinese European, Medan were 1930 in in population while the of Asians, cent per 20 over Bandung), h omr hywr fe ne rsuefo oeflmtooia neet oesr that ensure to interests land. metropolitan to powerful access with from get side did pressure always estates under not commercial often did were regimes agricultural colonial they While tropical former, frequent. the for more con demand became century, smallholders the twentieth and as estates early but the in smallholders, boomed landowning products on based economy rural rs irto noBra rts aaaadTaln a vrtiea iha rs migration gross as high as twice over USA. 1929, was the and Thailand into 1911 and between Malaya British that, Burma, estimated into have migration Caggiono gross and Huff large. quite were Asia Southeast 0prcn fteubnpplto fBrai 91wr nieosBree h percentage the Burmese; indigenous only were example 1931 For in lower. even Burma peoples. Asia was of non-indigenous Rangoon population Southeast of for urban in the proportion cities of high cent colonial a per most contained 60 of often feature they further that A was smaller. considerably was proportion ooywt 8prcn ftepplto iigi h largest the in living population the urbanized most of the cent was Malaya per British 400,000. 18 Bangkok of with Manila, excess Singapore, in by colony populations followed with 533,000, of all population Rangoon, a and with region, the in city largest etr.Hf 21:tbe1) table (2012: Huff century. severe century. legacy society twentieth its the the plural with of when the wrestle half to last Asia, 1930s, the were Southeast of the governments most of Post-colonial of by for entrenched. parts to process well particular, attempt most were the some in in economy of that and in-migration China spite thought reduced from In downturn he elsewhere. in-migration economic than But on Asia Africa. Southeast controls South in impose world further and tropical the gone States outside had societies Furnivall United and differentiation several distinct. language in the remained evident separate were Canada, they a society socially including also plural but a often of marketplace, very traces the that and in admitted role, together economic came own They its religion. had group Each combine. 304 (1948: n oiepplto,adtecnor fthe of contours the and population, mobile and nadto ofrini-irto,teei bnateiec htidgnu populations indigenous that evidence abundant is there in-migration, foreign to addition In h xeto raiainisl aidcnieal nSuhatAi yteerytwentieth early the by Asia Southeast in considerably varied itself urbanization of extent The hsb h al wnit etr,SuhatAi a hrceie ya nraigymixed increasingly an by characterized was Asia Southeast century, twentieth early the by Thus – )pitdot h aiu tncgop nSuhatAi ie u i not did but mixed Asia Southeast in groups ethnic various the out, pointed 5) 16 lhuhntmgainwsmc oe hni h S,re USA, the in than lower much was migration net Although 17 19 otclna oenet nSuhatAi atdt sals a establish to wanted Asia Southeast in governments colonial Most fi d htb 90 aai a aat a hnkon a the was known) then was Jakarta (as Batavia 1930, by that nds ntefu ags iiso aa(aai,Srby,Smrn and Semarang Surabaya, (Batavia, Java of cities largest four the In 18 rwh rss a n eoey 1870–1970 recovery, and war crisis, Growth, “ lrlsociety” plural fl csoe adbtenlrecommercial large between land over icts fi il lofclttdtemvmn of movement the facilitated also cials fi li ose sFurnivall As see. to plain etws lehr the Elsewhere towns. ve fl cigtefc that fact the ecting fi cially 49 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 12:01 01 Oct 2021; For: 9781315742410, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315742410.ch3 norgn ainlcncoses u lowne oescienti more wanted also but consciousness, national encouraging declined. inevitably employment a of virtues the in belief parents a that not reason was The colonies crime. most cases in some children in their “ and educate to nationalism, saved of and growth scrimped the with hand in hand ihrta nSuhKraadTia,adol lgtyblwJpn(ot 07:194). 2007a: was (Booth Japan population below to slightly relative only graduates and technology Taiwan, other and and most Korea science than South of in people numbers than university-educated 1955, higher more in had Asia; Philippines of English, the parts in legacy, teach Because American to backgrounds. continued the rural Philippines from of especially the students, and indigenous usually colonies, disadvantaged albeit often British region, this former the although of The 51 parts base. most 1943: low in a education (Furnivall tertiary from economies and secondary industrial both the in expansion with rapid up catch to order quali their of value the people education young more such as although to society, colonial access a in gained advancement economic and social to means ooilatoiisb h al er ftetetehcnuywr led lre tthe at alarmed already were century the Asia, twentieth Southeast the of parts of in years also but early particular, the the growing in for by India clerks provide In authorities to sector. Asia necessary colonial of private was parts the it most that and in extent service the governments civil to colonial except that education held neglected widely Africa is and It facilities. health and educational nMly,weeteubnpplto opie 5prcn ftettli 97 h Chinese the 1947, in total the of cent areas. per urban 35 most comprised in population predominated urban the where Malaya, In Booth Anne 50 grew Japan) fell. (excluding India Asia and from China exports both total in of Asia that Southeast while of steadily share the 1938, to 1830 From economy international the with links Increasing neteti bouetrsatog nprcpt em twssrasdb ohBiihMalaya 12 British 1998: both Lindblad by 6; surpassed table was 2004: it foreign (Booth terms of Philippines capita recipient the per largest and in the although was Indonesia terms over Colonial absolute for Asia. in in accounted investment investment economies direct Asian foreign mineral Southeast all of 1938 of extraction By half the in petroleum. also and but coal estates, addition agricultural including In in resources production. just smallholder not of invest growth to the began and investors foreign estates, by crops export of production scale mot fe 90wr h K h S,Grayad nraigy aa.Jpns mot of imports Japanese Japan. increasingly, and, Germany USA, the UK, the were 1900 after imports Netherlands The were century. changes important twentieth metropole, early the the some with While extensively by dearest. trade in the place in equipment) did products) taking capital Asia primary and Southeast (usually goods exports in consumer their colonies sell manufactured and (usually market imports cheapest buy the to This metropole. able the not from was originates also investment foreign “ most that and power, metropolitan rd ewe 90ad14 srte eakbe h ao orecutisfrIndonesia for countries source major The Indonesia remarkable. of trading rather share major declining is a and not 1940 was low and Netherlands its 1900 trade the undeveloped, between total that relatively trade fact of were the industries percentage for its high allowing and expected Even nation, the 1939. by had USA Philippines the Indonesia the with of only colonies, cent Asian per Southeast France’ was 14 as only cent, 1939, per 40 under was trade western colonial” ainlssi ayprso otes sasweuaini enclrlnugsa en of means a as languages vernacular in education saw Asia Southeast of parts many in Nationalists swl shvn etracs oifatutr,ubnppltosuulygtbte cesto access better got usually populations urban infrastructure, to access better having as well As thsfeunl enage htms ooistn otaedsrprintl ihthe with disproportionately trade to tend colonies most that argued been frequently has It ” “ dctdunemployment educated atr ftaei upsdt aeipsdacnieal oto h ooyi htit that in colony the on cost considerable a imposed have to supposed is trade of pattern dcto o t w ae u ahracnito htsc dcto a h only the was education such that conviction a rather but sake, own its for education 20 ” swl steeiec hticesdeuainwent education increased that evidence the as well as , ’ xot eegigt h ehrad.Aogthe Among Netherlands. the to going were exports s fIdcieetae(ot 07:tbe52.By 5.2). table 2007a: (Booth trade Indochinese of s 21 hsrefl This ce ohterpdgot flarge- of growth rapid the both ected fi – ain sapspr to passport a as cations 23). ’ fi n ehia dcto in education technical and c hr fIndonesia of share – ) fe 90 hr was there 1950, After 2). “ ’ modern export s ’ ’ ” s s Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 12:01 01 Oct 2021; For: 9781315742410, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315742410.ch3 eec a htteeprofi these that was defence ums oenetmd ag otiuin oteBiihIda ugti eh hc were which Burma. Delhi in in budget expenditures lenders Indian by money British balanced labourers, the the not to addition Indian In contributions of 182). large 1948: population made (Andrus large India government to very Burmese earnings the their repatriated to who least, businessmen, other at and part in due, was surplus xeto fIdcia hr paetyi a eieaeFec ooilplc oke out keep notable to the policy with colonial 1920, French after France deliberate increase rapidly was and grew it products apparently Asia Japanese where Southeast Indochina, of of parts exception most to manufactures cheap onre hc eegatdpoeto rmbt oetcadfrincmeios swl as bene all. well presence at whose as if bureaucracies competitors, little, colonial foreign military and and civilian domestic the both to from payments profi protection monopoly granted nationalist the were The which represented develop. countries to they were they that if was import to response had colonies undeveloped the which expertise, ri rueti ocre,i ayprso h eintertoo omdt mot to These exports. imports of commodity cent outward per of 75 considerable ratio than fund less the to were used region countries were most the surpluses in of export and 1900, parts after many sharply fell in exports concerned, is reduced. argument be low-yielding drain would for growth or the on consumption of trade for of policies trade impact investment individuals from run private the longer accruing and the income concerns governments investment, increased both growth the that to use extent lead the to To to preferred sector. trade private of the and failure government the for reason third netetplce hc eemr uprieo xotpouto ntepr fboth of part and the rate on exchange production pursued export exports, of taxing companies. supportive foreign-owned while large more and group, were smallholders invest- latter which foreign The deterred a policies and as sectors. investment exporters saw export penalized nationalists that many in policies what ment adopting to by the reacted and regime former inward-looking trade the The colonial into 1967). divided Asia (Myint Southeast groups of outward-looking countries the 1950, after that assertion 1831 from century, entire 1900, an after for Asia Indonesia Southeast in of level parts high several a in at based 1928 large sustained broadly unusually so-called was after was more and the this promote declined that of argued to also been size trade has the of It imports) surplus. concerns failure of of Asia the terms terms for Southeast reason income in in the second development the earnings A 1913; where 2.1). export after table Indonesia, of 1998: trade in (Booth power severe of purchasing especially terms (the been commodity trade have deteriorating to by appears penalized deterioration were Chinese. economies or Asian Indian smallholder often have many lenders, to addition money appears In rural rice 7.1). to as table indebted such 2007a: increasingly staples (Booth became basic years producers of interwar probably the consumption did in capita standards especially coffee, per living Asia trade declined, corn, and places incomes Southeast rice, some international real as of in regions, diverse but some parts that as improve, In many crops spices. opportunities export and in pepper of great that the rubber, production the copra, fact their to for increased the standards rapidly of vigorously living and spite presented, in responded in improvement was populations appreciable This any indigenous population. to lead the not of did majority it that was 1930 hiadadtePiipnsicesd(ot 04 als3ad4.These 4). Singapore, and and 3 Malaya tables British Indonesia 2004: of (Booth and share increased Indochina the Philippines while Burma, the 1950 and of after Thailand share fell The Asia Southeast 1980. from after exports again total in increase to began only and 1937, oka h su fgvrmn netetepniue nmr ealblw sfra the as far As below. detail more in expenditures investment government of issue the at look I hr ol pert esvrlraosfrti aao.I the In paradox. this for reasons several be to appear would There to 1870 from decades the over occurred which growth export-led the of criticism frequent A fe 90 h hr fSuhatAi naleprsfo h rpclwrdfl oprdwith compared fell world tropical the from exports all in Asia Southeast of share the 1950, After 24 nterte pca aeo um,i a enage htthe that argued been has it Burma, of case special rather the In srpeetda represented ts ’ hr ftecolony the of share s 25 “ arreturn fair rwh rss a n eoey 1870–1970 recovery, and war crisis, Growth, ” ntefrinrsucs ohcptland capital both resources, foreign the on so nepie rmtemetropolitan the from enterprises of ts fl ’ w fprofi of ows imports. s “ drain 22 fi s lc,ms Southeast most place, rst s h tnadcolonial standard The ts. ” fi rurqie export unrequited or , ue upr Myint’ support gures “ – phenomenal 0t 1931 to 40 fi e h colonies the ted – 40. ” trade 23 51 A s Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 12:01 01 Oct 2021; For: 9781315742410, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315742410.ch3 ra mhsson emphasis great iso hc a a rmpplri h USA. the in popular from far was which mission saw government American aaeeclne fTia n oe.Ohrprso otes sa nldn independent including Asia, Southeast infrastructure. with of endowed the well parts with less favourably Other 1930s very the Korea. by compared were and regions Thailand, in two Taiwan networks; these rail of area and of colonies road unit Japanese extensive per had road Malaya of kilometres Peninsular of and terms Java 1930s, the By welfare. social re were Asia Java of islands settled densely the Sulawesi. from and people Sumatra in of projects more settlement expanded movement land irrigation, to much greater Bali the improved and and a through launched education agriculture taking the Dutch to rice were by of access The But development Asia order. responsibilities. the Southeast and emphasized their which in law of of governments view maintenance several the proactive century, and revenues twentieth of early collection the were functions aia(ndla em)rne rm2 olr nteFdrtdMlySae otredlasin dollars of American three an to by States out Malay carried Federated study comparative the A in per 4). dollars expenditures table 29 government 2007b: from (Booth 1929, ranged Vietnam In terms) sector. dollar by (in expenditures capita government of and breakdown ports the railways, roads, in investment heavy agricultural require the of would electri development Malaysia full education. Peninsular the to that of access recognized potential expanding British on laissez-faire emphasis supposedly the special Even placed and self-government, for Philippines eoe osdrbersucst ala osrcin anyfrdfneproe,btlargely but purposes, defence for mainly construction, railway to resources considerable devoted uko hi eeusfo adtxs n o-a ore uha oenetcagsand govern- charges some government While on as opium. reliance such including reduce sources monopolies, to non-tax state tried and from ments revenues taxes, the and land deriving payments from were governments royalty revenues Asian Southeast their most of century, twentieth bulk the of years early the By government of role changing The Booth Anne 52 revenues. government of part substantial a for them on rely to continued others narcotics, ttshdfle oudr1 e et(ot 07:tbe1.Drc ae nproa and personal on taxes Direct 1). Philippines. Burma, table the and Indonesia 2007b: extent in lesser except (Booth everywhere a revenues cent to total and of per part small 10 a Malay were under Federated incomes the corporate to and Settlements fallen Straits early the proportion had in the the revenues 1938 States in opium by alcohol and from 1920, derived and after revenues opium fall total did from of reliance States) revenues although century, their Unfederated twentieth all the States, of of Federated decades proportion Settlements, substantial a (Straits deriving Malaya were British of components three sa lehr rdrtxto eie uha edtxsrmie important. Southeast remained of taxes parts head as many such in devices available taxation not cruder was Elsewhere which Asia. information cadastral accurate required they ml rprino elhadeuain h eeae aa tts hc a yfrthe far health, by education, had to budget which development. the agricultural half States, around and Malay devoting works was Federated public terms, The capita per share, education. correspondingly in a greater expenditure and and largest much service, health a debt on and Indies defence proportion Netherlands administration, on small the going In of was most cent, service. and per debt agriculture, 77 and around and expendi- works administration public total to of to cent one-third per balance 18 around the around devoting and health, was and Philippines education to the tures that found 1931 in Philippines h eydfeetpten fbdeayalcto htwr la yte12si Southeast in 1920s the by clear were that allocation budgetary of patterns different very The a of that was state colonial the of view traditional The y13,teewscnieal aito ohi oenetepniue e aia n in and capita, per expenditures government in both variation considerable was there 1930, By fi ain n usata uswr pn nteescosatr1900. after sectors these on spent were sums substantial and cation, fl ce nvr ifrn u-un eadn xedtr nbt nrsrcueand infrastructure both on expenditure regarding out-turns different very in ected iee valeur en mise “ aieupliftment native hog nrsrcuedvlpet hl ntePiipns the Philippines, the in while development, infrastructure through “ ietaxes” vice 27 adtxswr motn nsm ertre,although territories, some in important were taxes Land 31 ” stemi justi main the as uha hs eie rmslso loo and alcohol of sales from derived those as such 30 h mrcn a hi oea rprn the preparing as role their saw Americans The 29 rnhplc nIdciaplaced Indochina in policy French fi “ nightwatchman ainfrisclna iso,a mission, colonial its for cation 32 nTaln h government the Thailand In “ tia policy” ethical 28 ” hs main whose , fi ili the in cial n1901, in 26 The Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 12:01 01 Oct 2021; For: 9781315742410, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315742410.ch3 ouain cosAi,woloe otergvrmnst rvd mrvdifatutr and infrastructure improved provide to era. governments their post-1950 to the looked in who governments Asia, across most populations most for and challenge Singapore, major in a housing became poor region, and the babies Overcrowding many in time. for cities that death other premature at of Singapore risk in the children increased and which overcrowding and housing poor the ntePiipnsadBiihMly;i ohteeclne twsltl ifrn rmTaiwan. from different little since was it decline colonies some these both lower been in was It had Malaya; initiatives. British health there and public Philippines government colonies to the these due in mainly all century, twentieth in the of although turn the Indochina, and Java Burma, nohn n/a 826 Indochina 1,171 Burma 1,318 Thailand Indonesia Taiwan onr e aiaGP 98(1990 1938 GDP, capita Per Country urban in re rates This mortality States. the Malay infant Federated of that rural basis more found the the 110) On in than high. (1932: higher very Vlieland considerably remained were Malaya, rates Singapore British mortality those infant in than areas care census medical urban to 1931 some access better in had areas, rates usually popula- rural mortality areas indigenous urban in Chinese, the in among the children than of and lower babies children but While and tions. Europeans, babies than among higher Among than higher slightly USA. considerably only the were were and Asia Europe Southeast West in in reach, children those geographical European of among 162 terms rates 2012: (Booth mortality in group infant limited ethnic be of terms to in tended also and often programmes health government But bene But to designed development. often road were to constructed given were was which railways emphasis and more roads Philippines, the the In building. road neglected b British 52); 20, (1957: Sundrum Furnivall a Burma: from enrolments only. Educational 4.1). Notes Hanoi Zablan table (1975: to Philippines: al. et refer only; Palmore crude Java rates rates: (1943). 36–7); death to mortality crude (2000: XV); refer Banens infant table Vietnam: (1939: and Cochinchina; Evans 35); 39) Malaya: (1989: to table Sompop refer Thailand: 113, rates 161); (1970: 146, death Nitisastro (1954: Barclay Indonesia: Taiwan: for 100–5); rates (1978: death crude and rates Sources 3.4 Table hlpie 1,542 Malaya Philippines sa n nidpnetTaln,i natmraiy n rd et ae,a ela in as well as rates, death ( crude GDP and mortality, capita infant per in and Thailand, enrolments independent educational in and industry Asia, large-scale to only usually and affl areas, more urban the to to restricted and was water piped and electricity et orihasadmi od eentconstructed. not were roads main and railheads to ments bene their and o h hlpie,Mly,Tia n noei,GPdt r he-eraeae etrdo 98 o Thailand For 1938. on centered only. averages 1938 three-year to are refer data data GDP the Indonesia, Burma and and Taiwan Malaya, Philippines, the For D n rd et aedt ee otetrioycvrdb oenMlyi BiihMly lsSbhand Sabah plus Malaya (British Malaysia to modern refer enrolments by Educational covered only. States territory Malay Singapore. Federated including the the Malaya to to refer British rates refer mortality data Infant Singapore). rate less Sarawak death crude and GDP h deto oiia needneieial asdepcain ntepr findigenous of part the on expectations raised inevitably independence political of advent The ytelt 90,teewsas osdrbevrainaogtevrosclne nSoutheast in colonies various the among variation considerable also was there 1930s, late the By : D aa adsn(03 8–) dctoa nomns unvl 14:11.Dt nifn mortality infant on Data 111). (1943: Furnivall enrolments: Educational 182–3). (2003: Maddison data: GDP : b eeomn niaos atadSuhEs sa ae1930s late Asia, East South and East indicators: Development fi 1,426 ne ainldollars) national inter st oa ouain eelmtd seilywe edrraslnigsettle- linking roads feeder when especially limited, were populations local to ts 740 etrsdnilneighbourhoods. residential uent a 2–5 28 225–250 rates mortality Infant 4 21 142 4 21 147 3 23 139 9 24 30 190 232 / 22 n/a Table – 1.Tpcly ytelte ato h 1930s, the of part latter the by Typically, 71). rwh rss a n eoey 1870–1970 recovery, and war crisis, Growth, .) natmraiyrmie ihin high remained mortality Infant 3.4). rd et ae dctoa enrolments Educational rates death Crude 33 ital vrwee rvso of provision everywhere, Virtually fi 11.36 11.54 s%o oa population total of % as 10.65 oeg enterprises, foreign t 4.01 7.76 2.47 5.45 fl ected 53 34 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 12:01 01 Oct 2021; For: 9781315742410, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315742410.ch3 hr e aiaGPsilhdntrtre oispe14 ekb 90 n successive and 1960, infl for by consequences peak inevitable with pre-1942 bank, central its the to from borrowing returned by Indonesia, funded and not in were Burma both had acute in in especially dif still higher was had lower GDP slightly problem governments were only The capita 7). were terms per table they real 2013: where and in in (Booth 1938, Federation subsided capita in Malayan prices than per the commodity Philippines revenues on the government War and Korean 1954 Indonesia the By of mid-1950s. impact the the after especially programmes, ec,adeooi lnigi oefr rohrwsaotdb otgvrmns But governments. most dif by adopted proved was other often or form it some in planning economic and influence, noe,i lomd hmmr unrbet h aaiso ol akt o rpclproducts. tropical for markets world of vagaries the cash to their vulnerable increase smallholder more did them this of made While also millions export. it for also incomes, crops and of but production the Chinese companies in economic foreign-owned involved driving mainly became in large producers role were crucial only a who not played growth Increasingly, Asians, export growth. that migrant is conclusion and main third Americans, The though Indians. and colonial even the Europeans region of nationals the other by monopolized of power, were populations jobs indigenous administrative in and the growth technical managerial, for did many increase as did occur, agriculture did outside growth nities to Industrial lead region. did the occurred that transport, of growth trade, economies the the that in is remain conclusion change to second structural managed The that control. 1870 country colonial between the direct Asia Thailand, of Southeast in free was in growth occurred slowest have the to Paradoxically, appear 1940. does and GDP, capita per increasing of sense ubro ocuin a edanfo hssre.The survey. this from drawn be can conclusions of number A Conclusions rates improved. mortality enrolments infant educational region, the and of 1950 parts after many decline In education. did and health including services better Booth Anne 54 neednems onre nSuhatAi a osrgl ihrsn xettosfo their from expectations rising with struggle to had Asia Southeast in considerable countries most them independence gave which facilities, health era. and post-independence educational the both in was the to advantages of Asia access majority Southeast the better of comprised had parts India signi often a and other were China and in of from Malaya, parts record British migrants other in The 1930s, population most were the higher in rates By were than mortality patchy. lower rates infant more probably literacy much 1930s and and late Asia, the Africa, Southeast By of and care. parts Asia other health most to in and than considerably. education, lower to varied access outcomes on of administration the American terms that the in of suggests emphasis evidence the Philippines the the Here In Asia. Southeast growth. in industrial standards promoting 1930s, in the role By facilities. activist health more and a and educational taking to taxing were access in of governments role terms several in increasing also an but between take infrastructure and of did terms time governments over that the both doubt in no considerably, spending be varied can developmental there as that But activities of colonies. on revenues thought popula- those indigenous be spent the and now revenues for would raised facilities government health which and to extent educational The of tions. provision the in and infrastructure man orhcnlso sta oenet,frfo dpigaliszfie or laissez-faire, a adopting from far governments, that is conclusion fourth A h atcnlso eae otelgc fclnaimfrps-ooilgvrmns After governments. post-colonial for colonialism of legacy the to relates conclusion last The A ” oe ee yteerytetehcnuy aigamr ratv oei building in role proactive more a taking century, twentieth early the by were, role, , fi t ocuinrltst h mato cnmcgot n tutrlcag nliving on change structural and growth economic of impact the to relates conclusion fth fi fi aca evcsadpbi evcs oalmtdetn,epomn opportu- employment extent, limited a To services. public and services nancial s ato h wnit etr,adta h eut eeovosntjs in just not obvious were results the that and century, twentieth the of part rst fi fi utt as suf raise to cult ut nraigtxadnntxrvne.Pritn oenetde government Persistent revenues. non-tax and tax increasing culty fi in eeust udabtosgvrmn spending government ambitious fund to revenues cient fi atmnrt lehr.TeCieei particular in Chinese The elsewhere. minority cant fi 35 s sta cnmcgot,i the in growth, economic that is rst oils da a considerable had ideas Socialist “ pitn h natives the uplifting “ nightwatch- ” ation. adoff paid fi cits Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 12:01 01 Oct 2021; For: 9781315742410, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315742410.ch3 7Temtosue yettscmaist nuelbu omv,adteipc ntewlaeof welfare the on impact the and move, to labour induce to companies estates by used methods The 17 Notes until persist tensions these of day. consequences rebellion. present the open but the and force, unrest military social by into suppressed over usually boiled adopting were and They resentments by popular Burma domestic. that and In independence surprising foreign hardly slow. both of was investment, the was It discouraged challenges recovery and with exports economic countries the against dealing discriminated of several the that parts time in policies to most and same in responded earlier lower the governments decade was at a Indonesia, GDP capita than while Per 1950 goods, output. in economic public region on of 1940s the provision of of consequences terms in populations 1SeBoh(07:tbe .,63ad64.I ssrkn htidgnu okr opie larger a agricultural of comprised analysis workers an For indigenous that 12 striking is It 6.4). 15 and (1945: 6.3 Kurihara 6.2, in given tables is (2007a: Philippines Booth the See for data 11 census 1939 the of analysis An 10 5Fracmrhniedsuso fhat oiisi ooilMly,seMnesn(1996). Manderson the see strife; Malaya, civil colonial in and policies wars Hu health See of of discussion result 16 comprehensive a a as For 1870 15 and 1850 between indigenous fell the actually for China 1900 of after population income The of source 14 a as labour wage of importance increasing the Given 13 o icsino h orn rayi h otx fteTa cnm nte15sseIngram see 1850s the in economy Thai the of context the in Treaty Bowring the of discussion a For 3 Maddison 4 sfloeveso nutilzto nSuhatAi eoe14 a efudi hped(1941) Shepherd in found be can 1940 before Asia Southeast in industrialization of overviews Useful 9 the in development Asian Southeast of account an For 2 aubedsuso fgot n ehia hnei h ol ua nutyi ie nEesnand Evenson in given is industry sugar world the in change technical and growth of discussion valuable A 5 example for population; total the of proportion high a for accounted often regions settled densely These 1 nutilzto a adrt civ noe n adaudn cnme uha peninsular as such economies land-abundant and open in achieve by to response the harder and Owen Asia, was to also exports See Japanese Industrialization in (1974). increase Adas 8 the for by reasons is the of Burma discussion in extensive cultivation an For rice of 7 expansion the of discussion classic The 6 okr,wr ihycnrvrilepcal nclna noei.Frarve fteise in issues the of review a 5). and For 4 chapters Indonesia. (2004: Kaur colonial and (1999) in al. et especially Houben controversial see Indonesia, highly were 2). workers, part (2004: Kaur see Indies, Netherlands the and Malaya n um hnwstecs nKraadTia nte13s hr aaeentoaswr more were nationals Japanese where 1930s, the in Taiwan and Korea in Philippines the case Indonesia, the in dominant. professions was the than and government Burma in and (1978). employed Mertens force labour in the found of be proportion can employment on data census 1930 the of analysis siae ouaini 80o 1 ilo a nyrgie n10;i ni ouainge u ta at but grew population India in 160). 1905; (2003: in Maddison regained in only See was rate. form million 1. slow to 412 chapter of slow 1850 especially so in (1947), population were Thompson estimated organizations see worker this of why discussion ask a might For one Asia. migrants, Southeast for colonial as well as populations, sa,Ri 20)hsage htatr10,tepretg ftepplto nubnand urban in population the of percentage the 1700, 33 (1971: after contracted. that probably Asia argued Southeast in has occupations non-agricultural (2001) Reid essay, pt 14:7) n o nohn e oeui 14:33.Nrud(91 icse h aeof case the discusses (1991) Norlund 303). (1944: see Robequain Burma, see for 856), Indochina (1956: for Oorschot Vietnam. van and see 78), Indonesia, (1941: on material 2013). Spate additional Eng For der (1942). (van Mitchell Japan and from imports on placed were controls after 1930s the area. land the of cent per 7 only had Java although Indies, Netherlands the of ilv(95 hpe ) fe h i-90,flsi ol rcsmatta h elvleo ilsper yields of value real the that meant prices world 1921 in the with falls compared mid-1920s, fell the hectare After 3). chapter (1975: Kislev Java 1930 in aasa hr xot fntrlrsuc xot etteecag aetohg omk most make to high too rate exchange the kept exports resource pro natural manufacturing of (2003). domestic Booth exports also where See (1994). Malaysia, Guerrero and Sugiyama in papers the see governments, colonial (1972). (1988). Siamwalla Boomgaard and see (1971) period, colonial Dutch the in Java in industry sugar ff n agao(07 al ) nteipc flbu irto nlbu akt nBritish in markets labour on migration labour of impact the On 1). table (2007: Caggiano and – ’ s )adPogaci n ae 19:98 (1995: Baker and Phongpaichit and 5) fi ’ ouainwsetmtdt eoe 0mlin oprdwt ny1 ilo nterest the in million 19 only with compared million, 40 over be to estimated was population s ue neooi rwhi hiadaetknfo opp(99 251). (1989: Sompop from taken are Thailand in growth economic on gures fi al (Hu table “by-employment – ek(ot 98 222 1988: (Booth peak 5 ff 02.I noei,acto etl nutyol eeoe in developed only industry textile cotton a Indonesia, In 2002). ” nclna aa e npriua omar (1991). Boomgaard particular in see Java, colonial in – 9). rwh rss a n eoey 1870–1970 recovery, and war crisis, Growth, g fcommerce of “age – ) o icsino h vlto fthe of evolution the of discussion a For 3). ” e ed(93.I another In (1993). Reid see – 2.Avaluable A 22). 55 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 12:01 01 Oct 2021; For: 9781315742410, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315742410.ch3 6A con ftedi the of account An 26 7Fradsuso fteeouino the of evolution the of discussion a For the of 27 estimate an For (1969). al. et Maung Shein particular in 5. and see 4 chapters system especially (1983), contract Khor see provincial Malaya, British of the case On the in lines these 25 along argument an For 24 210 (1998: Booth See 23 8I h hlpie,the Philippines, the In 28 of response the of and years, interwar the in Asia Southeast to exports Drabble Japanese see of rapid; discussion particularly was further Malaya For British from 22 exports of growth The 2). table (2004: Booth See 21 0O h oiain fAeia oiyi h hlpie e uccot(00.As sflaeMay are useful Also (2000). Hutchcroft 42 see (1932: Philippines Schwulst the in 31 policy and (1993) American Boomgaard of in motivations given the are On introductions good 30 extensive; is policy ethical the on literature The 29 Hu in given is 1950 before Asia Southeast in urbanization of 21). overview (1941: Pelzer An Baxter by and given 20 121) is era (1957: colonial Sundrum the of 19 end the at Asia Southeast in issues tenure land of discussion classic A 18 Booth Anne 56 (1974) Michael Adas, References and kind cash, in taxes local from clinics health and schools built governments local many Indonesia, In 35 the Of 57). (1998: Metzer in given especially is 1930s (1985), the Kaur for Index see Development Human Malaya, a construct colonial to attempt in An development 34 infrastructure of discussion critical a For 33 2Boh(07:tbe47.Fra nlsso Thailand of analysis an For 4.7). table (2007a: Booth 32 ds ihe (1998) Michael Adas, 1852 h ooiaino h Philippines the of colonisation the otr(03.Frhrdsuso fterl foimi oenetrvne nclna otes Asia Southeast colonial in revenues (2013). government in Booth opium in of given role is the of discussion Further (2003). Foster (1976). Golay in drain found “imperial be can Asia Southeast in drain van see the economy, of Indonesian discussion the to Further damaging (1993). less Eng were surpluses der account current that argues which view ae nrrlaes otatoiiscniee h eutn ytmt ehgl ersie e Popkin See regressive. highly be land to and system taxes resulting head the of considered mixture 142 authorities a (1979: most implemented areas; French rural the in Vietnam, taxes In 57). 1984: (Doeppers incidence (1971). Luton the in reform to given administration is American the Philippines by the attempts in the of overview An (1990). Booth see di 39). (2000: 18)adAa (1998). Adas and (1980) (1993). Cribb 4). chapter (1988: are Sundaram Malaya and colonial in 4) issues chapter tenure (1977: land of Lim discussions in Valuable given 3). chapter (2007a: Booth also See (1945). aor epewr iln opytxsfrspeci for taxes pay to life willing and were Chile. except enrolments People country labour. educational American literacy, other Latin only any GDP, (the than India capita higher and and Thailand per than ranked), of higher countries was Asian terms This twenty-second. in was Philippines ranked the expectancy, he which countries 36 6. chapter 390). (1935: au 16)dsussteelclrvne nmr detail. more in revenues local these discusses (1960) Paauw assume not power did police the government subjects capita of terms the per in that than higher broadly critical had more function States its in interpreted still Malay not were has Federated what running were the authorities British and the e that Settlements argued critics Straits colonies, other the than expenditures both that evidence the certi identity and registration euepoet rights property secure Singapore in government colonial the that ff ff c ihwtha tts mro 16:36 rudta nteSrisSettlements Straits the in that argued 306) (1964: Emerson states. nightwatchman ect rn ooisseBoh(2003). Booth see colonies erent – 1941 eodbscsntto and sanitation basic beyond ”, – aio:Uiest fWsosnPress. Wisconsin of University Madison: , 9). ” sapooto fntoa noei um,seBoh(07:tbe9). table (2007b: Booth see Burma, in income national of proportion a as mrvn ntecvlsn iso?Asmtoso ntdSae xetoaimin exceptionalism States United of Assumptions mission? civilising the on “Improving h um et:Eooi eeomn n oilCag na sa ieFrontier, Rice Asian an on Change Social and Development Economic Delta: Burma The – ff 9.Schwulst 59). rn tiue orvne rmoimi di in opium from revenues to attitudes ering ” – cedula 4 o icsino h noeincretacutsrls o nalternative an For surplus. account current Indonesian the of discussion a for 14) (Hu ff fi a edtxlve nteSaiheawihbcm a became which era Spanish the in levied tax head a was 94 168). 1994: cate ’ ”, ” main s nteAeia eid iems edtxsi a ersiei its in regressive was it taxes head most Like period. American the in Itinerario io ereo education of degree minor “a fi clsse nIdnsai h atpr fteDthclna era, colonial Dutch the of part last the in Indonesia in system scal fi ocie fisrl spiaiyt noc a n re and order and law enforce to primarily as role its of “conceived dnsaesmaie nBoh(07:tbe7.I pt of spite In 7). table (2007b: Booth in summarized are ndings 24:44 22(4): , n epniiiyfrteaeuc ftelvso its of lives the of adequacy the for responsibility “any fi ’ rjcswoebene whose projects c odadri uligporme,seAndrews see programmes, building rail and road s – 66. ff rn ooilrgmscnb on in found be can regimes colonial erent ”.Hu ff ff ’ fi oercn td argued study recent more s (2012). cre olclpeople. local to accrued t mro a especially was Emerson ”. ido personal of “kind h government “the fi clsystem scal Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 12:01 01 Oct 2021; For: 9781315742410, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315742410.ch3 nrw,JmsM (1935) M. James Andrews, aes as(2000) Maks Banens, (1948) J.R. 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University Harvard 39 Monograph Period, Interwar miia Investigations Empirical Statistics. – ahntn C ntdSae oenetPitn Offi Printing Government States United DC: Washington, , 92:79 59(2): , 1940 – 27. ”, East– ”, ago,Uie ain cnmcCmiso o saadtePaci the and Asia for Commission Economic Nations United Bangkok, , eteDsuso ae o 150 No, Paper Discussion Centre ine eteeti h sai Tropics Asiatic the in Settlement Pioneer etPplto nttt,RpitSre 70 Series Reprint Institute, Population West ol als1976 Tables World – einnso nutilsto nBurma” in industrialisation of “Beginnings rnsaddfeeta nmortality in differential and “Trends 143. eoto h ugtand budget the on “Report ot-atAinpplto itr n h ooilimpact colonial the and history population Asian “South-East otes sai h g fCmec 1450 Commerce of Age the in Asia Southeast nutyi ot atAsia East South in Industry rts aaa eoto h 91Cnu n nCranPolm fVtlStatistics Vital of Problems Certain on and Census 1931 the on Report A Malaya: British rwhadSrcua hne nteKra cnm,1910 Economy, Korean the in Changes Structural and Growth ouainsaitc fBurma”, of statistics “Population igpr:WrdScientifi World Singapore: , h ieidsr nmiln otes sa 1850 Asia, Southeast mainland in industry rice “The cnmcGot fSnaoei h wnit etr:Hsoia D siae and Estimates GDP Historical Century: Twentieth the in Singapore of Growth Economic iacn cnmcDvlpet h noeinCase Indonesian The Development: Economic Financing h ainlPaat h oiia cnm fRrlSceyi Vietnam in Society Rural of Economy Political The Peasant: Rational The eOtikln a eNjehi nIndonesie in Nijverheid de van Ontwikkeling De h cnmcDvlpeto rnhIndo-China French of Development Economic The ao rbesi otes Asia Southeast in Problems Labor aaa erok1939 Yearbook Malayan ad aoradcptli he iegoigdla fSuhatAsia Southeast of deltas rice-growing three in capital and labour “Land, h eln frrlidsr ne xotepnin oprsnamong comparison a expansion: export under industry rural of decline “The cnmcdvlpeto hiad 1850 Thailand, of development “Economic e ae,C:Yl otes sa Studies. 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Geographical American York: New , ” ,in rwh rss a n eoey 1870–1970 recovery, and war crisis, Growth, e ae,C:Yl nvriyPress. University Yale CT: Haven, New , cnmc eerhPoet ttsia ae o 3, No. Paper Statistical Project, Research Economics oouu nvriyo Hawaii. of University Honolulu: , ouaino h hlpie,CutyMonograph Country Philippines, the of Population , – cnmcGeography Economic sa ouainHistory Population Asian 60 oue2 xaso n Crisis and Expansion 2: Volume 1680, “‘ rvnilCnrc System Contract Provincial ce. ”, ora fteBraRsac Society Research Burma the of Journal e agadBnug .van W. Bandung: and Haag Den , odn xodUiest Press. University Oxford London: , h eorpi iuto in situation demographic “The – 1950 01:51 30(1): , lno,I:TeFe Press. Free The IL: Glencoe, , fi Relations. c – ul upr Oxford Lumpur: Kuala , 1914 ” – h israin State Dissertation, PhD , nTJ i,JmsLee, James Liu, T.J. in ”, 1940 7 75 17: ”, – fi abig,MA: Cambridge, , xod Oxford Oxford: , 73. ora fteSiam the of Journal c. – 92. 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