A FORUM OF THE AMERICAN PHYSICAL SOCIETY • VOLUME XIV • NO. 4 • SPRING 2020

The Stony Brook Nuclear Structure Laboratory, A Personal History

By Linwood Lee, Emeritus Professor of Physics and Astronomy, Stony Brook University

Prologue Strong support for the proposals came in the form of a letter from Maurice Goldhaber, the Director of nearby Brookhaven The State University of NY (SUNY) was established in National Laboratory (BNL) pointing out that the energy 1948, as a unit of the New York State Department of Educa- range complemented the energies of existing and future tion, in response to the expected demand for higher educa- facilities at BNL, facilitating collaborations. tion following WWII. It initially brought together 29 State The proposal for purchase of the tandem and construction supported institutions, mostly Teachers Colleges, under a of its building was submitted to SUNY officials in December central administration. Since there was only one State insti- 1962 and won approval from Harry Porter, the SUNY Pro- tution on Long Island, a new “State University College on vost in mid-February. The State legislature (finally) in April Long Island” was established in 1957 on a donated estate in 1964, appropriated funds for a standard EN tandem and a Oyster Bay. SUNY got its big start when Nelson Rockefeller, 25000 square foot laboratory building. When a subsequent a strong supporter of SUNY, became Governor in 1958. He appointed a select commission, chaired by Henry Heald, Continues on page 20 then Chairman of the Ford Foundation, to recommend the framework for the future of SUNY. The forthcoming “Heald Report” called for major expansion of SUNY and the creation of two comprehensive University Centers “to stand with the In This Issue finest in the Country”, one on Long Island and one upstate. The Stony Brook Nuclear Structure The SUNY Trustees 1960 Master Plan expanded the Centers to four with one to be built at Stony Brook on land donated Laboratory, A Personal History 1 by Ward Melville, a shoe magnate. The other three were to be in Albany, Buffalo, and Binghamton on expanded existing FHP 2020 Essay Contest 2 campuses. Ground was broken for the Stony Brook campus on 1960 with Governor Rockefeller turning the first spade. It was into this situation that T. Alexander (Alec) Pond Resource Link 2 arrived at Stony Brook in the Fall of 1962 as the new Chair- man of the Physics Department replacing Leonard Eisenbud, the original Chairman. Leonard had led the recruiting of a high-quality faculty, mostly theorists, and had received Officers and Committees 2 approval to establish a PhD program starting Fall 1962, but wanted to step down. Alec was the ideal person to take over. Reflections on the Centenary He had great ambition for the Department and the Univer- of Lord Rayleigh’s Death 3 sity and was developing his plans well before his arrival. He looked for funding opportunities within the State and federal system and, with Department approval, had propos- On Future High-Energy Colliders 4 als ready to go. He knew it was important to initiate projects large enough to be noticed in the academic community. The Physics Department proposed to study the structure of the Fifteen Manhattan Project Myths atomic nucleus and create the Stony Brook Nuclear Structure and Misconceptions 5 Laboratory (NSL), which would have a tandem Van de Graaff accelerator, and appropriate researchers to exploit its capa- March 2020 FHP Sessions 6 bility. Proposals were submitted to both SUNY and the NSF, which was already supporting labs at several Universities. FHP 2020 Essay Contest Announcement

he Forum on the History of Phys- The contest is intended for under- with a cash award of $500 each. ics (FHP) of the American Physi- graduate and graduate students, but Entries will be judged by members cal Society is proud to announce is open to anyone without a PhD in of the FHP Executive Committee and Tthe 2020 History of Physics Essay either physics or history. Entries with are due by September 1, 2020, at 11:59 Contest. multiple authors will not be accepted. p.m. US Eastern Time. They should be The contest is designed to pro- Entries will be judged on originality, submitted, as Word documents or PDFs, mote interest in the history of physics clarity, and potential to contribute to by emailing [email protected] with “Essay among those not, or not yet, profes- the field. Previously published work, Contest” in the subject line. Entrants sionally engaged in the subject. Entries or excerpts thereof, will not be accept- should supply their names, institu- can address the work of individual ed. The winning essay will be pub- tional affiliations (if any), mail and email physicists, teams of physicists, physics lished as a Back Page in APS News and addresses, and phone numbers. Winners discoveries, or other appropriate topics. its author will receive a cash award of will be announced by October 1, 2020. Entries should not exceed 2,500 words, $1,000, plus support for travel to an Past contest winners and their including notes and references. Entries APS annual meeting to deliver a talk essays can be found at: aps.org/units/ should be both scholarly and generally based on the essay. The judges may fhp/essay/index.cfm accessible to scientists and historians. also designate one or more runners-up,

Resource Link

Website dedicated to the history of the University of Texas at Austin Physics Department: web2.ph.utexas.edu/ utphysicshistory/

Forum on History of Physics | American Physical Society, One Physics Ellipse, College Park, MD 20740 The Forum on History of Physics of the American Physical Society pub- lishes this Newsletter biannually at Nominating Committee Forum Officers http://www.aps.org/units/fhp/newslet- Chair: Paul Joseph D Martin Chair: Paul Cadden-Zimansky ters/index.cfm. Each 3-year volume Chair-Elect: Michel H. P. Janssen Michel H. P. Janssen consists of six issues. Past Chair: Paul Cadden-Zimansky Chanda Prescod-Weinstein Secretary-Treasurer: Audra J. Wolfe The articles in this issue represent Dwight E. Neuenschwander the views of their authors and are Fellowship Committee not necessarily those of the Forum Forum Councilor Chair: Paul Helpern or APS. Virginia Trimble Peggy Kidwell Katemari Rosa Co-Editor Other Executive Board Members Robert P. Crease Melinda Baldwin Pais Prize Committee Department of Philosophy Chanda Prescod-Weinstein Chair: Helge Kragh Stony Brook University Katemeri Rosa Melinda Baldwin Stony Brook, NY 11794 Audra Wolfe Dieter Hoffmann Gregory Good (AIP) Jinyan Liu [email protected] Donald Salisbury (newsletter) Gregory Good (ex-officio) (631) 632-7570

Program Committee Co-Editor Chair: Michel H. P. Janssen Don Salisbury Paul Cadden-Zimansky Austin College Joseph D Martin [email protected]

2 Volume XIV, No. 4 • Spring 2020 • History of Physics Newsletter Reflections on the Centenary of Lord Rayleigh’s Death

By John Meurig Thomas and Edward A Davis, Department of Materials Science and Metallurgy, University of Cambridge

Introduction engineers and quantum theorists, the Rayleigh criterion limits the perfor- Even when judged by the highest mance of optical instruments, and it is standards of intellectual achievement, appropriate to recall also that he was the legacy of the Third Baron Rayleigh the first to explain theoretically why (John William Strutt 1842-1919) ranks light from the sky is blue and polarized, among the very highest in the entire and sunsets are red. realm of the physical sciences. The list Rayleigh died in the summer of 1919 of eponymous phenomena and equa- at his Baronial home in Terling, Essex tions associated with him (Figure 1) (Figure 2), where he carried out most of reflects his prodigious versatility and his work [1]. To commemorate the cen- pre-eminence as both a theoretician and tenary of his death, the present (sixth) experimentalist. His enduring influence Lord Rayleigh and his family held an on a vast range of present-day scientific ‘Open House’ on May 11th 2019, which and technological endeavours requires was attended by many eminent physi- no elaboration. Suffice it to recall that cists, engineers, chemists, geologists Rayleigh waves are of vital impor- and historians of science, who were tance in seismology, his mathematical invited to tour Rayleigh’s still extant procedures are still used by acoustic laboratories (Figure 3), his workshops and his study, to see the visitors book as well as many other items, including Painting of the Third Baron Rayleigh by Sir some of his extensive correspondence Philip Burne-Jones in the family archive. Amongst the large collection of letters, equipment, experi- mental rigs, photographs and speci- Professor and Chancellor of the Uni- mens are items donated to him by his versity of Cambridge (1879-1884), Presi- contemporaries, for example William dent of The Royal Society (1905-1908), Crookes (1832-1919), George Stokes progenitor of the National Physical Lab- (1819-1903), Joseph Larmor (1857-1942), oratory Teddington and Scientific Advi- J.J. Thomson (1856-1940), Lord Kelvin sor to Trinity House quite apart from (1824-1907), Henry Rowland (1848- his closeness to another Prime Minister, 1901), and Nicholas Tesla (1856-1943). Lord Salisbury, who was the uncle of Figure 1 Compilation of effects, laws, The visitors’ book alone makes fas- his wife, Evelyn Balfour. Furthermore, mathematical methods, etc. named after Lord cinating reading. Apart from the entry his correspondence with scientists Rayleigh for May 1904 (Figure 4) when Rayleigh abroad, including Mendeleev, Nernst brought Kelvin and Rutherford together and Helmholtz, was considerable. (as a result of their conflicting views A great deal has been published of the age of the Earth [2]), there is the about the life and legacy of Lord Ray- July 1908 list of guests that includes leigh [4-8], but new information came Lord Rayleigh’s brother-in-law, the to light at the Open House which has Prime Minister A.J. Balfour, and the not hitherto been reported, and which future Prime Minister H. H. Asquith adds to the esteem with which Rayleigh with his wife and the 25 year old lady is held. with whom he later became besotted, One of us (EAD) elaborated in an Venetia Stanley [3]. Eminent scientists illustrated presentation on the break- whose names also appear in the visitors’ down of Rayleigh’s publications (Figure book include Albert Michelson, Edward 5), all 445 of them [9], and the other Morley, Alfred Mayer, Hermann von (JMT) traced his persistence, initiated by Helmholtz, Alfred Cornu, Oliver Lodge, the letter that was published in Nature J J Thomson, William Thomson, G in 1892, when he was pre-occupied G Stokes, John Tyndall and William with determining the density of nitro- Figure 2. Terling Place; home of the Strutt Crookes. gen (Figure 6). This was to lead to family. The laboratories created by the Third Rayleigh’s network of contacts was Baron Rayleigh are on two floors in the near- enormous, partly because he held so most wing of the house. many important posts: Cavendish Continues on page 27

Volume XIV, No. 4 • Spring 2020 • History of Physics Newsletter 3 On Future High-Energy Colliders

By Gian Francesco Giudice, CERN, Theoretical Physics Department, Geneva, Switzerland

hile the Large Hadron Col- seen at play in superconductivity and to pump energy into a massless particle lider (LHC) physics program other condensed-matter systems, but and turn it into a massive one. But noth- is still in full swing, the prepa- never before in the realm of elementary ing prevents them from doing so in the rationsW for the European Strategy for particles. The Higgs boson is some- case of a spinless particle and indeed Particle Physics and the recent release of thing truly different from anything we theoretical calculations predict that the the Future Circular Collider Conceptual have found so far in the particle world. Higgs boson should gain an enormous Design Report bring attention to the Paradoxically, the intricacy of the Higgs mass in any realistic quantum system. future of high-energy physics. How do boson lies in its simplicity. Unlike any The discovery of a relatively light Higgs results from the LHC impact the future other known elementary particle, the boson clashes with the logic of quan- of particle physics? Why are new high- Higgs boson has no spin, no electric tum mechanics, leaving theoretical energy colliders needed? charge, and it superficially appears as a physicists bewildered. This problem is simple bundle of mass. This simplicity known as ‘Higgs naturalness.’ Where do we stand after the is at the origin of a puzzle that has mys- Another important consequence of LHC discovery of the Higgs tified theoretical physicists for decades. the structural simplicity of the Higgs boson? For every massive particle, it is boson is that it provides a natural bridge always possible to conceive an observer between the known particle world — Undoubtedly, the highlight of the that catches up with the particle, thus the one described by the Standard Mod- LHC programme so far has been the seeing it at rest. When viewed at rest, el — and other possible hidden sectors, discovery of the Higgs boson, which a particle cannot distinguish any pre- related perhaps to dark matter or to was announced at CERN on 4 July 2012. ferred direction, as a consequence of other still-undiscovered particles. This The result has had a profound impact the rotational invariance of empty special property is related, once again, on particle physics, establishing new space. Therefore, a massive particle to the spinless nature of the Higgs fundamental questions and opening a must be allowed to spin along all pos- boson. Within the Standard Model, the new experimental programme aimed at sible directions and must contain all Higgs boson is the only particle that exploring the nature of the newly found possible polarisation states. This is not can form combinations that preserve particle. The revolutionary aspect of this necessarily true for a massless particle all spacetime symmetries and interact discovery can be understood by com- which, according to special relativity, with hidden particle sectors in a way paring it with the previous discovery of must travel at the speed of light and no that is not suppressed by short-distance a new elementary particle — the one of physical observer can ever measure it scales. This unique property makes the the top quark, which took place at Fer- at rest. This is why a massless particle Higgs boson one of the best keys at our milab in 1995. The situation at the time can be found spinning clockwise with disposal to unlock the door towards the was completely different. The proper- respect to the direction of motion, while mysteries of possible hidden worlds. ties of the top quark were exactly what lacking the state corresponding to anti- One of the most striking results was needed to complete satisfactorily clockwise spin. In other words, for spin- of the LHC exploration was the dis- the existing theoretical framework and ning particles there is a clear distinction covery of a completely new type of the new particle fell into its place like between being massless or massive force. Before the discovery of the Higgs the missing piece of a jigsaw puzzle. because the two cases correspond to boson, we knew of four fundamental Instead, the discovery of the Higgs a different number of quantum states. forces governing natural phenomena boson leaves us wondering about many This is not true for a spinless particle (strong, weak, electromagnetic forces questions still left unanswered. The top like the Higgs boson, for which the mas- and gravity). All of them were success- quark was the culmination of a discov- sive and massless cases are described by fully deduced from a single conceptual ery process; the Higgs boson appears to exactly the same number of quantum principle — called ‘gauge symmetry.’ In be the starting point of an exploration states. the meantime, the LHC has discovered process. The conundrum shows up when the existence of new forces in nature. The Higgs boson is not simply quantum mechanics enters the game. These forces control how the Higgs another particle to be added to the list One of the rules of the uncanny world boson interacts with quarks and lep- of the fundamental building blocks of quantum mechanics is that every- tons and, so far, the LHC has identified of matter, but it is the manifestation thing not forbidden is compulsory. This their effect on top and bottom quarks of a completely new physical phe- rule is due to the ubiquitous quantum and on tau leptons (the so-called ‘third nomenon, whose dynamical origin fluctuations which blur every physical generation’). According to the Standard still remains poorly understood and system, rendering special and non- Model, these new forces are as funda- largely mysterious in the context of generic configurations highly unlikely. mental as those previously known, but the Standard Model. This is the phe- For spinning particles, the mismatch of nomenon of spontaneous symmetry states between the massless and mas- breaking — something that has been sive cases forbids quantum fluctuations Continues on page 10

4 Volume XIV, No. 4 • Spring 2020 • History of Physics Newsletter Fifteen Manhattan Project Myths and Misconceptions

By B. Cameron Reed, Department of Physics (Emeritus), Alma College, [email protected]

ver many years of studying the Manhattan Project, I have come across a number of distorted or outrightO erroneous statements regard- ing either the physics involved in it or of how various aspects of it unfolded. These statements usually turn up in semi-popular treatments of the Project, where the authors are not physicists and likely just reiterated something claimed in another source without bothering to check an authoritative record. In some cases one has to wonder if claims are made to bring notoriety to the claimant or for advancing some agenda. Like most myths and misconceptions, I have no idea where most of them started, nor can I cite a specific source for some of Left: In this 1946 photo, Einstein and Szilard re-enact the preparation of the letter to President them beyond saying that I know I have Roosevelt. Source: Courtesy Atomic Heritage Foundation, atomicheritage.org/mediawiki/index. heard them over the years. Some do php/File:Einstein_Szilard.jpg. Right: President Roosevelt signs the declaration of war against contain germs of truth, but have grown Japan, December 8, 1941 Source: commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Franklin_Roosevelt_signing_ into perversions of the facts. declaration_of_war_against_Japan.jpg These misconceptions will likely never be stamped out. My motivation in preparing this article is the hope that name would be recognized by Roos- of critical masses or in designing the a physicist who does hear them can try evelt. Einstein actually dispatched four bombs themselves. The use of fission to set the record straight. What follows letters to FDR between 1939 and 1945; as a weapon can be treated as a largely are listed in roughly chronological copies and transcriptions can be found empirical affair. Quantum physics order. Details on many of these issues at various sites [2]. I have read that played no role at all. can be found in my book The History and Einstein was consulted on problems Science of the Manhattan Project; several involving diffusion at Oak Ridge, but Myth 2: other supporting references are also this does not seem to have amounted to The energy of fission can make a cited [1]. When I cite a source, it is by much. Nuclear physics was never Ein- grain of sand visibly jump no means to imply that this is where stein’s research area, and the idea of a I analyzed the physics of this claim something started, but rather where I chain reaction apparently came as a rev- in a paper published in the December happened to come across it recently. elation to him when he was approached 2018 edition of The Physics Teacher [3]. I would be pleased to hear from by Szilard and Wigner. Einstein would The idea of a grain of sand being pro- readers who have information on how surely have been regarded by Manhat- pelled off your desk by the fission of a any of these misconceptions originated tan Commander General Leslie Groves single uranium nucleus is an appealing or have others they would like to share. as a dangerous security threat. image, but the physics doesn’t hold Along the same line, E=mc2 had up. This myth was recently repeated Myth 1: little direct connection to the Manhattan in Gerard DeGroot’s book The Bomb: A Albert Einstein was “The Father of Project. To be sure, the energy released Life, where he mistakenly attributes it the Bomb” in fission arises from a minute loss to having been calculated by Lise Meit- The idea of the work of an avowed in mass during that process, but this ner and Otto Frisch when they were pacifist being involved with the most famous equation was never used to pre- preparing their paper on the physics of destructive weapon in history has a dict fission, was not directly involved in fission [4]. powerful appeal, but is largely incor- its interpretation (which came through Some numbers: The most common rect. Einstein’s most significant involve- the liquid-drop model), played no role form of sand is silicon dioxide, usually ment in the Project was that he signed in the experiments which led to the in the form of quartz, which has a den- a letter to President Roosevelt warning understanding of the roles of different sity of 2.65 g cm-3. A grain of diameter 1 him of the potential dangers of nuclear isotopes in the fission process, was not mm will have a mass of about 1.4 mil- energy. The letter, however, was written involved in uranium enrichment or ligrams. The energy released in fission by Leo Szilard and Eugene Wigner, who plutonium synthesis, and had noth- recruited Einstein on the basis that his ing to do with establishing the values Continues on page 14

Volume XIV, No. 4 • Spring 2020 • History of Physics Newsletter 5 March 2020 FHP Sessions

All of the following invited talks par with bio at the MRS meetings. Ore precision. However, in the late 1950s were canceled due to the corona virus extracted materials, or metals I guess, when computation was yet a nascent pandemic. The presenters were asked are being squeezed out, much to the tool, often used for verification of exist- to submit a brief overview of their chagrin of older materials scientists that ing models (rather than one for creation) intended remarks. I have spoken to. Among the centrifugal scientists studying the physical behavior forces I would add: the nano wave with of long chain molecules downplayed, History of Materials Science the NBIC program as an attempt to mistrusted, or even openly disdained Overview of History of Materials re-organize the entire field of materials computational methods. Along with fel- Research design at the molecular level, the still low panelists this presentation will open by Arne Hessenbruch, MIT fashionable biomimetic wave as an envi- space for reflection on tools, methods, ronmental friendly design of materials. and imagination. In 2004, Bernadette Bensaude-Vin- Both of them are related to materials History of Materials Science Institutions cent and I asked whether Materials Sci- by design. What about raw materials by Robert P. Crease, State University of ence was about to explode, in the sense (extracted from ores)? Are there still part New York – Stony Brook of centrifugal forces overpowering its of Materials Sciences and Engineering? centripetal ones. In 2020, Hessenbruch Our 2004 conclusion is at least not An institution may be defined as a revisited that question. We identified refuted: materials research is the proto- basic physical, organizational, educa- Merton Fleming’s metaphor of the tet- type of unstable disciplines character- tional, or regulatory structure needed rahedron as a centripetal force. It was ized by a closer integration with indus- for the operation of scientific research. holding together the equal four poles of trial (and military I would now add) Institutions are a fundamental feature structure, properties, performance and demand. How to teach foundational of science, but tend to drop out of its process and was embodied in curricula, courses in this environment is a grow- history. Scientific research requires insti- such as Sam Allen and Ned Thomas’ ing challenge. tutional networks, and the character of 1999 textbook. The centripetal forces these networks depends on scientific From Hidden Utility to Heroic Machines were visible in the change of session by E. F. Spero, Department of Materials field and national context. It is impos- topics at the Materials Research Society Science and Engineering, MIT sible to understand an institution apart (MRS). from its network. What does it look like in 2020? The How do scientists imagine (and The networks of materials science MRS sessions continue to diversify. possibly enable) futures through their research institutions have a markedly Five years ago the MRS began to clas- practices of computation? How might different character from the networks of sify topics to get a conceptual grip on particular tools and approaches transi- other kinds of science. Materials science the approximately 50 parallel sessions tion from serving as hidden utilitar- research can be thought of as advancing at Fall Meetings. One large category is ian elements to those that give rise to through a series of “performances” that biomaterials (that had still been minor new subfields and styles of thought? are possible thanks to the intersection in 2004). But even MRS’ classification This presentation takes a historical of five different kinds of institutions. changes from year to year. The main approach to the emergence of compu- Laboratories are the specially equipped reason is that the MRS business mod- tation in macromolecular science, an physical “stages” where researchers el relies on the number of attendees, interdiscipline focused on polymers that can mount the performances; educa- and hence permanence of categories is bridges physics, chemistry, and materi- tional institutions, such as university pushed aside by the desire to - putting als science and engineering. In this field departments, train researchers to carry it tendentiously - catch the latest hype today, there is a palpable enthusiasm out such performances; professional wave. for the power and speed of computa- institutions tend to the organization and Whereas such centrifugal forces tion investing in the promise of big professionalization of the researchers continue unabated, the centripetal ones data to revolutionize what is possible and their communities; governmental have weakened. Allen & Thomas was within these disciplines. Employing organizations fund the research; and able to bring metals, semiconductors, tools of high-throughput simulation communicative institutions disseminate and ceramics under one single concep- and new machine learning algorithms, the results. The contribution consists of tual framework, but it didn’t address scientists aim to close the gap between surveys of these five types of institu- biomaterials - nor could it. And no text- theory and experiment, and redefine tions in materials science and how their book integrating bio has emerged. what it means to create, designing new networks vary by region. Nano is now a category of its own on sustainable materials built with atomic

6 Volume XIV, No. 4 • Spring 2020 • History of Physics Newsletter Computation in the History of By the late 1970s many in the Ultimately, NSF created a new Office Physics (cosponsored with research community felt future scientific of Cyberinfrastructure reporting directly advances would be impeded by the lack to the NSF Director. The Office has DCOMP) of advanced computers. In mid-1983, been reorganized several times, but Physics in the History of Computing an internal NSF working group, led to this day NSF continues to provide by Peter Freeman, Georgia Institute of by Marcel Bardon, Division Director academic researchers with the latest Technology of Physics, and Kent Curtis, Division computational resources. The organi- My focus here is on the organiza- Director of Computer Research, recom- zational and programmatic changes at tional history of the U.S. National Sci- mended that NSF provide “supercom- NSF in providing HPC for the general ence Foundation (NSF) for providing puter services for academic research scientific community are a result of two advanced computational resources for and science education” and support intertwined forces: the continuing, the research community. It is a history “networks linking universities and even accelerating, pace of change in the of push-pull between the advancement laboratories with each other.” Starting technologies available and the ability in computational capabilities and the in 1985 five awards for NSF supercom- of the general scientific community to need for greater capabilities. It is also a puter centers were made to the San utilize them. The pace of change is a story of interaction specifically between Diego Supercomputing Center (SDSC), well-known story. On the other hand, physics and computer science. At NSF the National Center for Supercomputing the adoption and utilization of new tech- this push-pull has led to an on-going Applications (NCSA) at the University nology often takes much longer. NSF’s tension between the user community of Illinois at Champaign-Urbana, the organizational changes, then, are often (initially physical, geological, and atmo- John von Neuman Center at Princ- a direct result of the push-pull between spheric sciences and more recently the eton, the Pittsburgh Supercomputer technological advance and scientific biological and social sciences) and the Center, and the Cornell Theory Center. need. For the past thirty years the orga- research communities on which com- The directors of all the centers were nizational home of HPC has oscillated puter designers rely (primarily physics, physicists! Except for the Princeton and between the Office of the Director and electrical engineering, and computer Cornell centers, all are still in operation the Computer and Information Science science). That tension has caused NSF’s today as resources for the scientific com- and Engineering (CISE) Directorate in organizational responsibility for pro- munity broadly. response to competing demands. As viding advanced computing services In May 1989 Senator Al Gore intro- advocacy intensifies for more service to migrate among different director- duced Senate Bill 1067: “To provide for for the scientific community in the HPC ates and offices from the 1950s to this a coordinated Federal research program arena (which they believe the Director day. For convenience I’ve divided the to ensure continued United States lead- will ensure) and an increased focus on story into six time periods, each loosely ership in high-performance computing.” utilization of what is available (which marked by an important event. I have A later version, known as the High Per- leads the Director to move it back to been a participant in this history from formance Computing Act of 1991, was CISE) the office migrates. The broad the early 1960’s in several ways, as a enacted on December 9, 1991, and is col- history of computing and NSF affords a primary decision maker about High loquially known as the “Gore Bill.” It led fairly rich context for further historical Performance (HPC) in the early 2000’s, to the development and funding of the research. and now as a chronicler of it. National Research and Education Net- The above synopsis is based on By 1950, when NSF came into exis- work (NREN) and advanced HPC. The Chapter 10 of Computing and the National tence, the scientific need for HPC was NREN eventually became the Internet. Science Foundation, 1950 – 2016: Build- clear to those whose research demanded The rapid advance of computing, ing a Foundation for Modern Computing, it. For example, in 1953, the concept of the emergence of the Internet, and the Peter A. Freeman, W. Richards Adrion, using a computer to perform an experi- explosion of computer usage created and William Aspray, ACM Books, 2019, ment in silico was first demonstrated an environment in which NSF often New York. at Los Alamos by Enrico Fermi, John struggled to keep up with the demand On the Status of Landauer’s Principle Pasta, and Stanislaw Ulam. One of the and research opportunity in HPC. It by Katherine Robertson, University of first organizational recognitions of the seemed as though a new or revised HPC Birmingham need for computers occurred in the program was barely started before stud- 1955 NSF annual report. In May 1955, ies and panels were convened to recom- Maxwell’s demon is a creature who the National Science Board decided mend a successor. NSF followed up with cunningly violates the second law of that NSF should provide computers to two Partnerships for Advanced Com- thermodynamics. In what sense is such universities, although a formal funding putational Infrastructure, called PACIs. a demon possible? Whilst thermody- program was not established until 1959. Funding was greatly expanded in the namics legislates against such a creature, A collateral, unplanned effect of some period 2000 – 2004. The first awards for the demon looks eminently possible of the resulting grants to computational terascale computers were made in 2001. according to the underlying classical or scientists at least through the 1960’s was By 2004 it was clear to most observers quantum dynamics: Poincare’s recur- to provide support for research which that, for many scientific problems, it rence theorem and Loschmidt’s revers- later led to the foundations of computer was essential to have available the most ibility objection reveal that entropy can science. Studies commissioned in 1966 advanced computational infrastructure decrease in certain situations. and 1967 led NSF to create the Office of possible; it was no longer a discretionary The orthodoxy is that Maxwell’s Computing Activities. choice in order to be competitive. demon is vanquished by Landauer’s

Volume XIV, No. 4 • Spring 2020 • History of Physics Newsletter 7 principle, according to which there is models are assessed, to supplement of the phenomena in the outcome of an entropy cost to reset the demon’s sparse or non-existing observations. the simulation then disproves one of memory - a vital step in the cyclic pro- Their ubiquity at every stage of the sci- the alternatives, thereby confirming cess that supposedly leads to a violation entific inquiry must be met with a rigor- the other; i.e., it disproves or confirms of the second law. But the status of Lan- ous methodology for evaluating when the numerical or physical nature of a dauer’s principle is controversial: some simulations faithfully track the physical given property of a simulation outcome. take it as obviously true, others (such as consequences of the model, especially Interesting examples of this method can John Norton) have criticised the proofs when expensive observational facilities be found in the literature of the 1980’s, of this principle. are built based on simulations-based when astrophysicists were developing In this talk, I clarify the status of arguments. Yet, a few astrophysicists and testing their 3 codes. Efstathiou Landauer’s principle. First I discuss (e.g. Melott et al [1], Baushev et al [2], and Eastwood [5], for instance, tested which assumptions are required to van den Bosch et al [3] have expressed their code against푃 two-body푀 relaxation establish Landauer’s principle, and their concerns with respect to current effects by including in their simulations argue that establishing to which theory methods for assessing the reliability particles of different masses, success- (thermodynamics, statistical mechanics of simulations, i.e., convergence stud- fully detecting mass segregation effects. or quantum mechanics) these principles ies and code comparisons. Consider, In the simplified scenario upon which belong reveals the status of Landauer’s for instance, one of the main sources crucial simulations are based, moreover, principle. I then consider one of Nor- of artefacts in N-body simulations, the it is more likely to have an analytically ton’s counterexamples to Landauer’s fact that dark matter is substituted by tractable solution to compare with the principle, and discuss how it depends fewer, but more massive particles, due outcomes of simulations, and thus to on certain views about the physical to limited resolution. Such an idealiza- better understand the impact of specific implementation of computation. tion exposes simulations to discreteness- numerical or physical components. This driven effects-e.g., collisional effects, or strategy was used in Efstathiou et al [6]: Simulation Model Skill in Cosmology by Eric Winsberg, University of South two-body relaxation. Code comparisons, find a simple case—here, simulating a Florida searching for ‘robust’ properties that one-dimensional cloud of particles to remain the same across different codes, verify whether the cloud remains one- What role can/could simulation do not allow to diagnose such artefacts, dimensional, as it should if the system is play in supporting, puzzle-solving, based on a common assumption. Con- collisionless—where exact solutions are modifying, disconfirming, or falsifying vergence studies, on the other hand, available, and test whether these ideal- ΛCDM and its competitors? I review look for properties within a given code ized simulations succeed in reproducing some of the problems cosmologists have that resist a change in the value assigned the analytically known results. Such solved or hope to solve using computer to purely numerical parameters and a method, given its simplicity, is not simulation, and examine some of prob- thus are not sensitive to the specifics of computationally expensive and does not lems and successes that have emerged. the calibration— e.g., to higher mass or have to put in competition with other I draw some conclusions regarding force resolution. Increasing the resolu- methods, but rather can be strategically the kind of simulation model skill we tion to diagnose discreteness-driven used to complement them when the should expect to find in Cosmology. artefacts does not help however: in epistemic opacity of simulations, due to Simulation models have been used for the Cold Dark Matter model, structure the complexity of the simulated systems over 50 years now to test and explore forms bottom-up, so the first objects to and the lack of understanding of how the Lambda Cold Dark Matter model of form always contain only a few num- different modules contribute to the final cosmology and its precursors and rivals. ber of particles. A higher resolution outcome, makes the task of evaluating The approach has been to simulate the results in a denser environment, from the reliability of simulations especially gravitational evolution of CDM in order which these first objects condense out difficult. to predict the evolution of structure in with a higher physical density, thereby visible matter. But such simulations are increasing two-body relaxation effects References highly non-trivial, and give rise to many (Diemand et al [4]). As this example [1] Melott, A. L., Shandarin, S. F., Splinter, R. J., overlapping Duhem-type problems. But shows, higher resolution is not always & Suto, Y. (1997). Demonstrating discreteness not all such simulations have had the better resolution! and collision error in cosmological N-body simulations of dark matter gravitational same epistemic goals, and hence not all Hence, I suggest a method to diag- clustering. The Astrophysical Journal Letters, have been subject to the same problems. nose artefacts that does not promote 479(2), L79. My talk explores various approaches to the race to ever-increasing resolution [2] Baushev, A. N., del Valle, L., Campusano, L. E., tackling the various problems that arise. but rather facilitate the local evaluation Escala, A., Muñoz, R. R., & Palma, G. A. (2017). of distinct components of simulations. Cusps in the center of galaxies: a real conflict Cosmology in Silico with observations or a numerical artefact of by Marie Gueguen, University of Pittsburgh I refer to this method as that of “crucial simulations”. A ‘crucial simulation’ cosmological simulations?. Journal of Cosmol- Computer simulations constitute proposes an idealized, simplified sce- ogy and Astroparticle Physics, 2017(05), 042. an indispensable tool of contemporary nario where a physical hypothesis can [3] Van den Bosch, F. C., & Ogiya, G. (2018). Dark cosmology. They are necessary to extract be tested against a numerical one, by matter substructure in numerical simula- tions: a tale of discreteness noise, runaway predictions from cosmological models, allowing the observation of a prediction instabilities, and artificial disruption.Monthly to design the observational surveys that drawn from one of the hypotheses and Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, 475(3), will collect the data thanks to which absent from its rival. The observation 4066-4087.

8 Volume XIV, No. 4 • Spring 2020 • History of Physics Newsletter [4] Diemand, J., Moore, B., Stadel, J., & Kazantzi- Bappu Award, Vikram Sarabhai Award, inspectors of Calcutta Electric Supply dis, S. (2004). Two-body relaxation in cold dark and Jawarharlal Nehru Birth Centenary Corporation on the deployment and use matter simulations. Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, 348(3), 977-986. Lectureship Award. Buti received her of electric supply and meters in early scientific recognitions with surprise as, twentieth century Calcutta. Following [5] Efstathiou, G., & Eastwood, J. W. (1981). On using her own words, “it was almost recent works on users and non-users of the clustering of particles in an expanding uni- verse. Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical impossible for me, a woman scientist technologies, and trust and the morality Society, 194(3), 503-525. in a man-dominated field, to get nomi- of measurements, this paper examines [6] Efstathiou, G., Davis, M., White, S. D. M., & nated for prestigious awards like the how electric meters became central Frenk, C. S. (1985). Numerical techniques for Bhatnagar award” (Buti, 2008, p. 38). to concerns over issues of quantities large cosmological N-body simulations. The The man-dominated field was plasma measures by meters, the class identity Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series, 57, physics. To Indian physical sciences, of customers, and trust between the 241-260. besides writing papers and books, she supplier, consumers and the electric History of Physics in India contributed to developing a research meter. In doing so, this paper focuses program on plasma physics at the on both the design of measurements The Making of Modern Physics in Physical Research Laboratory (PRL) and instruments, and the agency and discre- Colonial India founded The Plasma Science Society in tion of the electrical consumer, thereby by Somaditya Banerjee, Austin Peay India. “We managed to establish a very providing new perspectives on how State University strong group in plasma physics, both consumers, suppliers and electrical How did modern physics establish theoretical and experimental, at PRL” measurement technologies interacted itself in India—a British colony—in (Buti, 2008, p. 39). I trace her contribu- during the early days of electricity sup- the early 20th century? Who were the tions to physical sciences, struggles to ply in colonial Calcutta. key actors and why did they develop become a female physicist, and efforts Scientific Creativity in Peripheral physics in a colonized country far to build a career and community in Locations: The Madras Triple Helix away from a European metropole? plasma physics, contributing, thus, to Model of G.N. Ramachandran By using the case studies of Jagadish the History of Science in India. by Deepanwita Dasgupta Chandra Bose, Satyendranath Bose The University of Texas at El Paso and Chandrasekhara Venkata Raman, “The free side of the meter”: I explore their physics, nationalism Trustworthiness, theft and class identity The name of the Indian scientist G. and social identity as “well-mannered in reading the domestic electric meter N. Ramachandran is associated forever in early twentieth-century Calcutta intelligentsia” who played a key role with the discovery of the triple-helix in the making of modern physics in a by Animesh Chatterjee, Leeds Trinity structure of Collagen. Present most country still under colonial domination. University abundantly in almost all connective Finally, argue how the local and the Of all the devices used in early elec- tissues of the human or animal body, global were entangled in the worldview tric supply projects in early twentieth collagen was the third great struc- of these colonial intellectuals and the century Calcutta, the domestic meter tural discovery in biomolecules after correlations between the discontinuous was perhaps the most controversial. the discovery of alpha helix by Linus ‘light quantum’ and Indian history that Introduced as a reliable billing method Pauling and the DNA double helix by played a key role in the ushering in of to measure consumption by custom- Crick and Watson. Unlike the first two modern Indian physics. ers connected to the newly introduced however, this third discovery came electric supply system, the electric from a young peripheral scientist who Women and Physical Sciences in India: Bimla Buti and efforts to flourish a meter was also at the centre of cases worked alone from an obscure newly- physical plasma community in her of “improper use” of electricity sup- founded Department at the University home country ply. The term “improper use” is used of Madras. The discovery of the triple by Inianara Silva, Graduate Program broadly here to refer to a variety of helix structure in collagen was thus in History, Philosophy and Science consumer practices that the Calcutta truly a case when a peripheral scien- Teaching, Federal University of Bahia Electric Supply Corporation believed tist won the race for discovery against to be interferences to their property and numerous Goliaths working in the field. Bimla Buti is the first Indian woman operations. These included theft of elec- In this presentation, my goal would be Physicist Fellow of Indian National tricity by bypassing or breaking seals to trace the lines of reasoning that led Science Academy (INSA) and The on electric meters, or using electricity Ramachandran develop the triple helix Academy of Sciences of the Developing for purposes other than that for which model from his early X-ray diffraction World (TWAS). Her contributions to it was supplied to the customer. This images and the subsequent controversy physical sciences have been celebrated paper examines some of the disputes on collagen that finally led to creation of with awards, such as INSA-Vainu between customers, and engineers and the Ramachandran Plot.

April 2020 Sessions

The Pais Prize session was postponed to April, 2021. The remaining sessions were canceled.

Volume XIV, No. 4 • Spring 2020 • History of Physics Newsletter 9 On Future High-Energy Colliders

Continued from page 4

of a different nature — not ‘gauge-like.’ current model of cosmology and a suf- to the energy domain explored by the While the Standard Model properly ficient number of free parameters, are LHC. In other words, they are the most describes these forces, it is silent on able to describe all known physical likely place to find surprises at the LHC. the origin of the many free parameters phenomena and the large-scale prop- Starting from these clues, in the associated with them or on any deeper erties of the universe. But, watching past decades theorists have elaborated explanation of their complex structure. attentively, we see some ‘clouds’ in the hypotheses to address some of the The ‘non-gauge’ nature of the newly horizon. shortcomings of the Standard Model, discovered forces means that we are Puzzles in today’s particle phys- proposing new bold ideas such as confronted with a completely new ics come from structural problems of supersymmetry, technicolour, extra phenomenon. For instance, the interac- the Standard Model (the nature of the dimensions, Higgs compositeness, and tion strengths of the new forces are not Higgs boson, Higgs naturalness, the a variety of other speculative theories. quantised, unlike all other quantum origin of symmetry breaking dynamics, So far, the LHC has given no positive forces we have probed so far. When the stability of the Higgs potential, the indication for the existence of new phe- compared with the logical purity and existence of three generations of matter, nomena, ruling out many versions of conceptual simplicity of the ‘gauge the pattern of quark and lepton masses the postulated theories. forces,’ the new forces associated with and mixings, the dynamics generating This result is nothing but the scien- the Higgs boson look provisional. Their neutrino masses), from embedding the tific method at work. Experiments act structure raises conceptual puzzles, Standard Model into a broader frame- as a ‘natural selection’ process in which which are not necessarily inconsisten- work (the unification of forces, quan- some theoretical hypotheses become cies of the Standard Model, but pos- tum gravity, the cosmological constant), extinct and others evolve, according to sible clues indicating the existence of a from attempts to give particle-physics ‘survival of the fittest.’ Although the deeper theoretical description. explanations of cosmological properties LHC programme is still at an interme- While the Higgs boson is playing (the nature and origin of dark matter, diate phase and it is premature to draw a central role in studies at the LHC, dark energy, cosmic baryon asymmetry, definitive conclusions, it is already clear it is only one aspect of a very broad inflation). that the LHC is radically reshaping our scientific programme. The LHC has Just as at the end of the 19th century, perspective on the particle world. The already produced a wealth of precision one may argue today that the Standard LHC experimental results are forcing measurements on parameters as funda- Model is satisfactory and there is noth- theorists to think differently about prob- mental as the W and top-quark masses, ing more to discover in particle phys- lems and to search for new solutions. on important properties of B mesons, ics, other than making more precise In this situation of renewed theoretical and on observables relevant to strong measurements. Nonetheless, clues exploration, experimental physics is interactions. With these measurements should not be dismissed because those needed — more than ever — to break we are acquiring refined knowledge ‘clouds’ could be symptoms of a more new ground. about the Standard Model, which is a fundamental disease. The real limitation necessary prerequisite to advance our of 19th century physics was describing Measurements versus understanding of the particle world and nature in terms of disconnected theories discoveries to search for new phenomena. (mechanics, gravitation, electromag- The rugged and twisted path netism, thermodynamics, optics, etc.) towards scientific knowledge is punc- The status of high-energy lacking a unified vision. Today, the tuated not only by discoveries, but physics Standard Model’s shortcomings may be also by disproved hypotheses and null At the end of the 19th century, phys- indicators of a deep structural limitation results that redirect research. As shown ics was in a satisfactory state, able to of our theoretical description. Without repeatedly by history, the non-discovery describe all known phenomena. This searching, we will never find answers. of expected results can be as effective as was summarised by the slogan: “There the discovery of unexpected results in is nothing more to discover in phys- Special puzzles for the LHC igniting momentous paradigm changes. ics; all that remains is more and more Certainly not all the problems listed When 19th century theorists were precise measurements.” Nonetheless, above can be addressed by the LHC, puzzled about how electromagnetic in a famous speech delivered in 1900, although studies at present and future waves could propagate, they addressed Lord Kelvin identified a few ‘clouds’ colliders are essential to guide research. the conundrum using the known frame- obscuring the bright sky of 19th century But out of the many ‘clouds’ that could work of Maxwell’s theory and added physics. Luckily, some physicists did turn into storms shattering the Standard the hypothesis of a new medium per- not ignore those clues: relativity and Model, two of them are playing a special meating space: the aether. The lack of quantum mechanics followed. role at the LHC: Higgs naturalness and discoveries in the Michelson-Morley Similarly, today the Standard Model dark matter. This is because there are experiment ruled out this hypoth- of particle physics, together with the good arguments to link these problems esis and eventually triggered a much

10 Volume XIV, No. 4 • Spring 2020 • History of Physics Newsletter more revolutionary solution: special - unpredictable. When Galileo perfected for second-generation particles, espe- relativity. the telescope, he could not foretell how cially the charm quark and the muon. When Le Verrier was puzzled by many moons were to be discovered Since the origin for the wide differ- the discrepancy in the precession of around Jupiter. When we propose a ence in mass between particle genera- Mercury’s perihelion, he turned to new high-energy collider, we cannot tions is still a mystery, probing Higgs Newton’s gravity for a solution and predict the number of particles we are interactions with second-generation predicted the existence of a new planet, going to discover, but we can define particles is a conceptually new test of named Vulcan. The planet was never the questions we want to address. The the mechanism that feeds mass into discovered and the real solution turned value of a scientific project dedicated to elementary particles. Another impor- out to be much more revolutionary: the exploration of the unknown does tant test is the measurement of the so- general relativity. not lie in the number of foreseen new called ‘invisible Higgs decay’, which These two examples illustrate an discoveries, but in the knowledge that corresponds to the disintegration of identical pattern. When scientists are will be gained from its results. the Higgs boson into particles that confronted with a problem, they first With the information that we have cannot be directly revealed by particle look for solutions within the accepted gathered so far from the LHC, we can detectors at high-energy colliders, such theoretical framework. When experi- already identify some broad research as neutrinos. ‘Invisible Higgs decays’ ments declare a non-discovery, then programs that have guaranteed goals of are especially interesting because they scientists are forced to think differently expanding our knowledge. Moreover, explore possible new types of elusive and this may spark a paradigm change. we know that only a vigorous program particles, maybe related to the nature The lesson for us could be that the of exploration can address the many of dark matter. Another target of the solutions devised so far by particle fundamental questions that still remain Higgs program is the measurement of physicists to deal with the shortcomings unanswered in particle physics. the Higgs self-interaction, which is a of the Standard Model are overly rooted direct test of the new kind of force that in the currently accepted framework. The Higgs program is thought to be responsible for gen- In spite of their bold appearance, the The discovery of the Higgs boson erating the non-trivial structure of the proposed theories only look like logical has opened a new compelling experi- Higgs vacuum. Such a measurement extensions of the same principles that mental program, whose goal is the pre- will also provide us with the elements govern the Standard Model. The LHC cise determination of the new particle’s to reconstruct theoretically the details experimental results may push theoreti- properties. This program is a search of the phase transition that is believed cal thinking into the territory of radical into unexplored territory because the to have occurred in the universe only changes. dynamics behind the Higgs boson has 10−11 seconds after the Big Bang. Finally, Measurements, and not only new still to be understood and the LHC another goal is to measure a variety of discoveries, can provide the decisive has so far only scratched the surface rare Higgs decays, which are rich with steps for advancements in science and of the phenomenon. Exploring the important information. For instance, knowledge. A pertinent example is the characteristics of the Higgs boson and the Higgs decay into Z and a photon is story of the Large Electron-Positron its associated forces, establishing their an efficient probe of new physics effects Collider (LEP). In spite of the lack of nature and understanding their origin occurring at very short distances; Higgs any discovery of new particles, LEP are essential objectives of future collider decays into two different leptons ( , e transformed particle physics like few projects. Indeed, all existing proposals or e) or into CP-violating final states other experimental projects before. It for future accelerators have the Higgs can probe the nature of symmetries휏휇 휏in established the gauge paradigm as the program as a primary goal. the휇 particle world. ruling principle of the Standard Model. The Higgs program is a new fron- Interestingly, the different proposals It pruned away a variety of alterna- tier for particle physics, whose tar- for future high-energy collider projects tive hypotheses. It substantiated the gets are well defined. The first goal is have a complementary role in the explo- existence of only three generations of to measure the Higgs coupling con- ration of the Higgs properties. Linear quarks and leptons (by ‘not discov- stants (which determine the interaction or circular electron-positron colliders ering’ additional light neutrinos). It strengths of all forces involving Higgs can measure the main Higgs interac- brought the question of force unification bosons) with precision down into the tions with high accuracy and make to a quantitative level. It revolutionised per mille region. Such measurements the first measurements of the as-yet the use of precision measurements are sensitive to any substructure pos- untested interaction with the charm to gain knowledge of short-distance sibly present inside the Higgs boson, quark. Exploiting the formidable rates phenomena. It is largely because of if the particle is not truly elementary. of Higgs-boson production, future LEP that today we recognize the formi- Future collider projects can measure the proton-proton colliders can then pursue dable power of gauge theories and the inner Higgs structure with an astound- further these studies and test rare Higgs conceptual synthesis of the Standard ing experimental resolution, which can decays, including the measurement Model. reach distances 100,000 times smaller of the Higgs interaction with muons than the size of a proton. The new at the percent level. Moreover, future What can we expect from Higgs forces have been measured so high-energy proton-proton colliders can future high-energy colliders? far only for the third generation of measure with precision better than ten Fundamental research beyond the matter (top, bottom, tau). The next percent the Higgs self-interaction. Mea- frontiers of knowledge is - by definition challenge is to test the Higgs forces surements at proton-proton colliders

Volume XIV, No. 4 • Spring 2020 • History of Physics Newsletter 11 are most precise for ratios of Higgs dull universe without any chemical Model prediction. The quantum effects couplings, where the large systematic structure — let alone life. In summary, from virtual particles make precision uncertainties cancel out. For this reason, the universe in which we live depends measurements in high-energy colli- global studies benefit from combin- critically on the existence of the Higgs sions especially interesting because ing results from hadron colliders with field and matter would behave very they allow us to probe, in specific cases, results from lepton colliders, whose differently if the Higgs boson differed new phenomena occurring at distanc- cleaner environment allows for very even slightly from what we observe. es much smaller than those directly precise absolute determinations of Understanding the properties of the explored by the collider energy. certain Higgs couplings. For instance, Higgs boson means understanding the Another important aspect of ‘indi- the synergy between different projects underlying reasons for the observed rect’ searches for new phenomena is is illustrated by the measurement of structure of matter. that ‘virtual’ effects generally grow with the Higgs interaction with top quarks, the energy of the collision. This means which can reach the percent precision The precision program that the higher the collider energy, the at proton-proton colliders only thanks One of the most important lega- more effective indirect searches become. to information derived from future cies of the LHC is about the exper- Indirect searches are optimized by the electron-positron collider data. imental capabilities of hadron col- right compromise between energy and These measurements are not done liders. Progress in data analysis and precision. Different high-energy collider purely for the sake of precision, but detector performance, combined with proposals have different strengths for because they provide us with new advanced theoretical calculations, led reaching the best conditions. knowledge about the least understood to previously unimaginable precision As for the Higgs program, electron- and most puzzling sector of the Stan- in measurements at proton-proton col- positron and proton-proton colliders dard Model. From these measurements liders. Today the LHC is performing can complement each other in the preci- we will learn about untested fundamen- measurements that would have been sion program. By measuring precisely tal forces of nature, about the dynamics unthinkable at the time in which the the properties of known particles (such of the space-time vacuum, and about project was designed. This patrimony as the W, Z, and top quark) at extreme the mechanism responsible for the of experience opens up the possibility high-energy conditions, not only do we masses of Standard Model particles. of a full program of precision studies at gain knowledge about those particles, Our knowledge of the electroweak sym- future colliders. but we also explore new phenomena metry breaking mechanism will be radi- A campaign of precise measure- that could help us to resolve some of the cally different after a precision Higgs ments of all Standard Model observ- Standard Model’s shortcomings. The program. Much as LEP transformed ables is essential to test the theoretical stupendous number of W, Z, and top our knowledge of the Standard Model framework and to sharpen the tools quarks that can be produced at future gauge sector, future colliders will trans- necessary to look for the small depar- colliders provides an unprecedented form our knowledge of the Higgs sector. tures between theoretical predictions probe of the detailed properties of the The goals of the Higgs program and experimental data that would Standard Model and a powerful explo- may sound rather abstract. But, on the indicate the presence of new phenom- ration tool into new phenomena. contrary, the Higgs boson is an essential ena. A crucial aspect of the precision In many respects, the Higgs and element that determines the properties program rests on a characteristic fea- precision programs are two aspects of of the ordinary matter we are made of. ture of quantum mechanics. The result the same scientific strategy. According This can be understood by imagining a of a high-energy scattering process to the Standard Model, the Higgs boson hypothetical world in which one could is sensitive not only to the properties and the longitudinal polarizations of dial the vacuum configuration of the of the particles that participate in the the W and Z bosons are only different Higgs field and change its intensity collision, but also to particles with states of the same fundamental entity. with respect to the value we observe in masses much larger than the available Therefore, precision Higgs and elec- our world. By reducing the intensity of initial energy. This counterintuitive troweak measurements are intimately the Higgs field, one would gradually result is due to quantum fluctuations, related and complement each other in make atoms grow in size. All matter which bring to existence, even if only terms of the information that can be (including ourselves) would puff up, for a very short time, ‘virtual particles’ extracted from data. until bound atoms could no longer whose presence naively seems to violate A particularly interesting aspect exist. Were one to rotate the dial in the the requisite of energy conservation. of the precision program is the study opposite direction and make the Higgs These particles, although too heavy to of a special class of decay processes field more intense, the consequences be directly produced with the avail- involving quarks and leptons (the would be equally dramatic. If the vac- able energy of the collider, nonetheless so-called ‘flavor physics’). These pro- uum configuration of the Higgs field leave an ‘indirect’ trace in the scatter- cesses offer a unique opportunity for were only a factor of five stronger than ing process as a consequence of their new discoveries because in the Stan- what we observe in our world, atomic ephemeral ‘virtual’ quantum existence. dard Model, for accidental reasons nuclei would not be stable because These ‘indirect’ traces can be detected related to the structure of the theory, neutrons would rapidly decay: hydro- through a combined effort involving they happen to be very rare or even gen would be the only chemical ele- painstakingly precise experimental absolutely forbidden. To a certain ment that could possibly exist in the measurements and extremely accurate extent, the study of these processes universe. This would make for a pretty theoretical calculations of the Standard investigates, from a different angle,

12 Volume XIV, No. 4 • Spring 2020 • History of Physics Newsletter the nature of the same new forces the microworld. Breaking the frontier expect substantial progress by pushing explored by the Higgs program. of knowledge is what drives particle only a single line of research. Further physics towards exploration into ever advancements require a global scientific The exploration program smaller distances with more powerful effort with a diversified experimental Exploration of the unknown is the colliders. program that ranges from particle main driver of fundamental science, Many of the conceptual tools that physics to observational cosmology, and it embodies one of the aspirations led to progress in our understanding of astroparticle physics and beyond. that define human civilization. The the early evolution of the universe and In the context of this broad scientific thirst for pure knowledge is a powerful its large-scale structure came — almost effort, high-energy colliders remain an vehicle for progress, which propagates paradoxically — from our study of indispensable and irreplaceable tool to from basic science into technologi- the microworld. The deep connection continue our exploration of the inner cal and social advancements. Particle existing in nature between inner space workings of the universe. While each physics has always been driven by the and outer space first emerged with the experimental technique can contribute spirit of exploration, leading it to push understanding of how stars shine in to this search from a different and com- the frontier of knowledge deep into terms of nuclear reactions and later plementary perspective, high-energy the smallest fragments of spacetime led to the successful prediction of the colliders remain the best microscopes at and to unravel the natural phenomena cosmic abundance of light chemical our disposal, with a formidable explora- that occur at the most minute distance elements in terms of nucleosynthesis. tion power into the mysteries of matter scales. This exploration was rewarded A more modern and pertinent example at short distances. No other instru- with amazing insights into the funda- of the link between elementary particles ment or research program can replace mental laws of nature. The same spirit and the cosmos is provided by inflation. high-energy colliders in the search for of exploration remains today the pri- According to this theory, a Higgs-like the fundamental laws governing the mary motivation for any high-energy field is the engine driving the early evo- universe. collider project beyond the LHC. Explo- lution of the universe and its quantum ration is the very spirit and essence of fluctuations are the seeds that created Acknowledgements research. the structures in matter and radiation I am much indebted to my col- Addressing many of the myster- that we observe in the sky. leagues Fabiola Gianotti, Michelangelo ies in particle physics requires a bold Today particle physics and cosmol- Mangano, Matthew McCullough, Ric- step in the exploration of Nature at ogy are inextricably intertwined. More cardo Rattazzi, and Gavin Salam for the smallest possible distances. With generally, research in particle physics is interesting discussions, useful sugges- present available technology, this can evolving towards an interplay of differ- tions, and for sharing with me their be done only by means of high-energy ent subjects addressing, from different insight on the subject. colliders, which allow for direct obser- angles, related questions in fundamen- vation of the phenomena that occur in tal physics. In this situation it is futile to

Volume XIV, No. 4 • Spring 2020 • History of Physics Newsletter 13 Fifteen Manhattan Project Myths and Misconceptions

Continued from page 5

averages about 170 million electron- isotope separation research to various no information on what might be hap- volts (MeV) per event, or about 2.7 x universities, industries, government pening in the way of nuclear research in 10-11 J. If all of this energy is directed into agencies, and private research institu- Germany, this was certainly a concern. projecting the grain upwards, then the tions; details can be found in Chapter Bush briefed FDR on the third Compton usual mgh formula for potential energy 4 of Ref. 1. Of particular importance report on November 27, about the time shows that we can expect to reach a during this time were three reports the Japanese fleet was setting sail to maximum height of about 0.002 mil- prepared by a committee under the Pearl Harbor. The President authorized limeters, or a mere 1/250 of the radius chairmanship of Arthur Compton, further research and development, and of the grain itself. Unless you have which examined the possibilities for more detailed plans were developed super-power eyes, you are unlikely to reactors and bombs. The second of these at a meeting between Bush and his be able to discern this. The visual acuity (June, 1941) related that plutonium had scientific advisors in Washington on of the eye is about one minute of arc. If been synthesized and tested for fissility December 6, the day before the attack. we optimistically assume half a minute, by Glenn Seaborg, and the third, dated The rest, as is said, is history. we can use a standard arc-length cal- November 6, examined the physics of a culation to estimate the distance from putative fission bomb in considerable Myth 4: which we would have to view the jump detail [5]. This latter report was heavily The headquarters of the Manhattan in order to resolve it. For a jump of 0.002 (although unofficially) influenced by a Project were in Manhattan mm we get about 14 mm, or a little over British report. Bush had been briefing This one is partially true, although a half-inch. The near point of the eye FDR periodically since inheriting the many people know little of how this (the closest distance at which one can project, and during an October 9 meet- came to be. When control of the ura- still focus) is about 25 cm, so we are out ing, the President, clearly recognizing nium project was handed over to the of luck. If you want a more accurate the possible implications, ordered that Army in June, 1942, the first officer to figure, you are safe in saying that the any considerations of atomic policy whom it was assigned, Colonel James C. complete fission of a single kilogram of were to be restricted to a group com- Marshall of the Corps of Engineers, set uranium-235 releases as much energy prising himself, the Vice President, the up his headquarters in an office build- as does exploding some 17 million kg Secretary of War, the Chief of Staff of the ing located at 270 Broadway in New of dynamite. Army, and Bush and Conant: the “Top York City, the location of the Corps’ Policy Group”. At the same meeting, the North Atlantic Division. One of the con- Myth 3: possibility of having the Army take over tractors for the project, Stone and Web- American scientists and the project was also discussed. A theme ster Engineering, had offices in the same government officials were relatively in Bush’s reports was that while he had building, and it was also convenient to inactive on atomic matters before Pearl Harbor The period before Pearl harbor could be considered a sort of “quiet phase” of the Manhattan Project. The Szilard-Wigner-Einstein letter reached President Roosevelt in October, 1939, and resulted in the establishment of the “Advisory Committee on Ura- nium” headed by the Director of the National Bureau of Standards, Lyman Briggs. One of the group’s first actions was to contribute $6000 (funded by the War and Navy Departments) towards Enrico Fermi’s graphite-pile research at Columbia. The pace of work began to pick up in the summer of 1940, when the Committee became part of Vanne- var Bush and James Conant’s National Defense Research Committee, later the Office of Scientific Research and Development. Between the fall of 1940 Some of the key figures of wartime research, April, 1940: Left to right: Ernest Lawrence, Arthur and Pearl Harbor, some $300,000 had Compton, Vannevar Bush, James Conant, Karl Compton, Alfred Loomis. Source: commons. been let for contracts for fission and wikimedia.org/wiki/File:LawrenceComptonBushConantComptonLoomis.jpg

14 Volume XIV, No. 4 • Spring 2020 • History of Physics Newsletter Columbia University, where research Myth 5: Myth 6: on uranium enrichment was underway. A “suicide squad” manned Enrico The Clinton Engineer Works at Marshall’s assignment was unusual. Fermi’s CP-1 reactor in case it ran Oak Ridge was using 1/7 of the The Army divided the country into out of control electricity being generated in the eleven geographical divisions, each A group of three young physicists United States under the authority of a Division Engi- were perched atop CP-1 at its startup, This claim seems to have originated neer. Within these divisions, smaller armed with jugs of neutron-absorbing in the autobiography of Colonel Nichols areas within which individual projects cadmium-sulfate solution to dump [9]. As described in an article published were sited (camps, airfields, ordnance into the pile in case it threatened to go in the Spring 2015 FHP newsletter, this plants, depots, ports, etc.) fell under into an uncontrollable divergent reac- one has an element of numerical truth the authority of “District Engineers”. tion. Richard Rhodes characterizes the [10]. Marshall’s new “Manhattan Engineer group a suicide squad [6]. A Depart- Data on electrical facilities at Oak District” had no geographical restric- ment of Energy publication on CP-1 Ridge can be found in Vincent Jones tions; in effect, he had all of the author- lists the group as Harold Lichtenberger, meticulously researched book on the ity of a Division Engineer. Warren Nyer, and Alvin Graves [7]. Army’s role in the Manhattan Proj- In September, 1942, Marshall was In a reminiscence published in 1982, ect [11]. By mid-1945, transmission replaced by then-Colonel Leslie R. Albert Wattenberg attributed the idea facilities there could provide electrical Groves, although he did remain as to Samuel Allison, and recalled that power up to 310 megawatts (MW), District Engineer until July, 1943, when several people were upset with it: If an of which 200 MW were for the Ernest Groves eased him out in favor of Mar- accidental breakage had occurred, the Lawrence’s electromagnetic separation shall’s own deputy, Colonel Kenneth pile would have been ruined [8]. But the plant. In August, 1945, electricity used D. Nichols; at the same time, the Dis- term “suicide squad” is literary license; by all facilities totaled about 200 mil- trict headquarters were shifted to Oak “Chicago pile hit squad” might be more lion kilowatt-hours (MkWh). Statistics Ridge. Groves’ appointment came with apt. Fermi had designed the pile to be on national generating capacity can be promotion to Brigadier General. His barely critical, and provided for redun- obtained from back issues of the Statis- personal headquarters was a small dant over-control. Cadmium-sheathed tical Abstracts of the United States [12]. suite of offices on the fifth floor of the wooden rods were used as control rods; Figures published in the 1949 edition New War Building at the intersection of inserting any one of them into the pile indicate that national generating capac- Twenty-First street and Virginia Avenue would bring it to below criticality, but ity remained fairly steady between 1943 NW in Washington. This building is several were used (the exact number and 1945 at an average of about 272.8 now part of the Department of State. now seems unknown; Fermi himself lat- billion kWh per year. One month’s Groves graduated from West Point er described it as several). In addition, worth would be about 22,700 MkWh, in November 1918, and also trained at two safety rods (known as “zip” rods) of which the Oak Ridge fraction cited the Army Engineer School, the Com- and one automatic control rod were also above would have been about 0.9%. mand and General Staff School, and incorporated into the design. During Oak Ridge got its power from the the Army War College. His career in operation, all but one of the rods would the Corps of Engineers was marked by be withdrawn from the pile. If neutron steady advancement, and by 1942 he detectors signaled too great a level of was responsible for overseeing all Army activity, the vertically-arranged zip construction within the United States as rods would be automatically released, well as at off-shore bases. His intimate accelerated by 100-pound weights. The knowledge of how the War Department automatic control rod could be oper- and Washington bureaucracies func- ated manually, but was also normally tioned and of contractors who could under the control of a circuit which be depended upon to undertake the would drive it into the pile if the level design, construction, and operation of of reactivity increased above a desired large plants and housing projects made level, but withdraw it if the intensity him the perfect candidate to oversee fell below the desired level. During the Manhattan. In the spring of 1942, one historic startup, one of the safety rods of the projects on his plate was the con- was tied off to a balcony railing, with struction of the Pentagon, which was Norman Hilberry standing by with an completed within sixteen months of axe in order to cut the rope in case the ground being broken. automatic system failed. According to While the terms Manhattan Project some sources, the phrase “to scram” a and Manhattan Engineer District are reactor – execute an emergency shut- often used interchangeably, the legal down – is an acronym for “safety con- Army term was the latter; “Manhattan trol rod axe man.” General Leslie Groves (1896-1970). Source: Project” only came into general use after commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Leslie_ the war. Groves.jpg

Volume XIV, No. 4 • Spring 2020 • History of Physics Newsletter 15 The Trinity fireball a few seconds after the explosion. Source: commons.wikimedia.org/ Artist’s conception of the startup of CP-1. Source: commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Chicagopile.gif wiki/File:Trinity_shot_color.jpg

Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA), and Schwartz’s otherwise excellent biog- the same as that as at the Earth, ~ 1400 Nichols’ figure corresponds to roughly raphy of Enrico Fermi, and is included Watts per square meter. A change of one 1/7 of that agency’s generating capac- here as an example of how errors can part per 200 corresponds to about 0.005 ity. Details are given in the newsletter slip into reputable sources [13]. Cam- magnitudes. A variation of this size is article cited above, but the short version pañia Hill was located some 20 miles to certainly detectable now with a large is that by mid-1945, TVA capacity stood the northwest of the test site, and served telescope and modern detectors, but at about 2,500 MW. The full CEW capac- as a viewing location for personnel who would have been very iffy in 1945. At ity of 310 MW would represent just were not needed at the control station best, this assertion is a stretch. At the over 12% of the latter figure, or about during the countdown. The Campañia Trinity site, the Moon had set about 4.5 one-eighth. group included Hans Bethe, James hours before the test. Had an observer Chadwick, Richard Feynman, Ernest on the Moon been looking toward New Myth 7: Lawrence, Edward Teller, and Robert Mexico at the time, however, the explo- Robert Oppenheimer viewed the Serber. Oppenheimer viewed the test sion would have momentarily appeared Trinity test from Campañia Hill from the control station 10,000 yards to thirty times brighter than Venus. This assertion appears in David the South of ground zero; Groves was at Base Camp at about 17,000 yards. Myth 9: The Enola Gay and Bockscar B-29 Myth 8: bombers had fighter escorts The light from the Trinity test could I have heard occasionally of stories have been seen reflected from the of fighter pilots describing with great Moon emotion how they participated in the This appears in Richard Rhodes’ The bombing missions at Hiroshima (Enola Making of the Atomic Bomb; I analyzed Gay) and Nagasaki (Bockscar) by val- it in some detail in a paper published iantly protecting the bombers against in 2006, but a refined estimate is given possible Japanese action; that there were here [14,15]. The issue boils down to escorts is claimed in James Kunetka’s what change in astronomical magni- 2015 book on Oppenheimer and Groves. tude would have been involved. This Copies of the mission orders can be would involve the phase of the Moon found on a Time magazine website, and at the time, so numbers here will nec- indicate no fighter escorts; a copy of the essarily be back-of-the envelope. The Nagasaki order also appears in John radiant energy at 10,000 yards from Coster-Mullen’s fantastic book on the the explosion was estimated at about bombs, as does a field order indicating 12,000 Joules per square meter. If this that no friendly aircraft were to be with- was emitted over a time of one micro- in a 50 mile area of any of the targets second (probably too short, which will from four hours prior to six hours after make the numbers overly optimistic), planned strikes times [17,18]. Fighters Robert Oppenheimer (1904-1967), ca. 1944. this would correspond to a power of ~ 7 would have been too fragile to with- Source: commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/ Watts per square meter at the Moon. The stand the shock waves from the bombs, File:JROppenheimer-LosAlamos.jpg solar flux at the Moon will be essentially and General Groves wanted nothing

16 Volume XIV, No. 4 • Spring 2020 • History of Physics Newsletter that would draw extra attention to the age at death was 76. Causes of death The next bomb of the implosion bombers; the Japanese were used to see- did include five cancers (including the type had been scheduled to be ready ing lone or small formations of bomb- leukemia), but this is certainly not out for delivery on the target on the first ers on reconnaissance and weather of line with the fact that about 20% of good weather after 24 August 1945. missions. Weather-report bombers had the population overall succumbs to can- We have gained 4 days in manufacture preceded the strike bombers to each cers. Other causes included the menu and expect to ship from New Mexico on possible target, and the bombers were of woes one would expect for an aging 12 or 13 August the final components. accompanied by observation bombers population: pneumonia, emphysema, Providing there are no unforeseen dif- which dropped instrument packages. heart failure, heart attacks, strokes, car- ficulties in manufacture, in transporta- diac arrest following prostate surgery, tion to the theatre or after arrival in the Myth 10: and an automobile accident. Between theatre, the bomb should be ready for The Little Boy and Fat Man bombs them, these men fathered at least 50 delivery on the first suitable weather were dropped by parachute children (surely an incomplete count), after 17 or 18 August. The bombs each weighed about five including 10 by Bockscar pilot Charles A couple weeks earlier, on July 30, tons. Parachute drops would not only Sweeney and 5 by Enola Gay Co-Pilot Groves had outlined anticipated bomb have been impractical and complicated Robert Lewis. Not unlike any group production figures: the designs of the bombs, but would that served in any war, some wrote In September, we should have three have been undesirable, giving Japanese memoires of their experiences while or four bombs. One of these will be anti-aircraft crews time to take aim at others said little to family and friends. made from 235 material and will have a them. However, instrument packages smaller effectiveness, about two-thirds were dropped by parachute, so it is Myth 12: that of the test type, but by November, entirely plausible to imagine that survi- Only a few bombs were available; we should be able to bring this up to vors recalled seeing parachutes. the Japanese could have kept full power. There should be either four fighting and not suffered further or three bombs in October, one of the Myth 11: nuclear attacks lesser size. In November there should The crews of the Enola Gay and This one is just plain wrong. To be be at least five bombs and the rate will Bockscar all suffered from cancers, able to enrich enough uranium or syn- rise to seven in December and increase radiation poisoning, sterility, and thesize enough plutonium to make a decidedly in early 1946. By some time mental problems after the war bomb in a short enough time to affect in November, we should have the A total of 24 men flew on the Enola the war – two years, say – required effectiveness of the 235 implosion type Gay and Bockscar; one of these, radar building facilities which, once operating, bomb equal to that of the tested pluto- officer Jacob Beser, flew both missions. turned out material continuously. To nium implosion type. A few years ago I undertook an exten- get a sense of this, we can do no better Thus, some 18-20 bombs were sive online search for obituary data, than to quote from memos from General expected to be available from Sep- and was able to find information for all Groves to Army Chief of Staff General tember through the end of the year, or but four. Ages at death ranged from 46 George C. Marshall. On August 10, 1945, about one every six to seven days. This (acute leukemia in 1967) to nearly 94; the day after the bombing of Nagasaki, rapid pace testifies to the fact that all three survived to over 90. The average Groves informed Marshall that [19] fissile-material production plants were

Left: Partial crew of the Enola Gay: Standing (l-r): John Porter (ground maintenance officer), Theodore Van Kirk, Thomas Ferebee, Paul Tibbets, Robert Lewis, Jacob Beser; kneeling (l-r): Joseph Stiborik, George Robert Caron, Richard Nelson, Robert Shumard, Wyatt Duzenbury. Right: Partial Bockscar crew. Standing (l-r): Kermit Beahan, James Van Pelt, Don Albury, Fred Olivi, Charles Sweeney; kneeling (l-r): Edward Buckley, John Kuharek, Ray Gallagher, Albert Dehart, Abe Spitzer. Photos courtesy John Coster-Mullen Volume XIV, No. 4 • Spring 2020 • History of Physics Newsletter 17 reaching full capacity at that time. Group in item (3) above was Truman’s was startling - to put it mildly. Thir- predecessor, Henry Wallace], he was teen pounds of the explosive caused Myth 13: brought up to speed on the new weap- the complete disintegration of a steel Most of the victims of the bombings on very quickly. After a brief Cabinet tower 60 feet high, created a crater 6 died by radiation poisoning meeting following his swearing-in, feet deep and 1,200 feet in diameter, Various estimates of the fraction of Truman was approached by Secretary knocked over a steel tower 1/2 mile victims who died of radiation exposure of War Henry Stimson, who related that away and knocked men down 10,000 have been published, but to claim that he wished to inform the new President yards away. The explosion was visible even the majority of victims perished “about … a project looking to the devel- for more than 200 miles and audible for in this way is an exaggeration. Surveys opment of a new explosive of almost 40 miles and more. This weapon is to be of the effects of the bombs were car- unbelievable destructive power.” The used against Japan between now and ried out by the Manhattan Engineer next afternoon, James Byrnes, head of August 10th. I have told the Sec. of War, District, the United States Strategic the Office of War Mobilization (and Mr. Stimson, to use it so that military Bombing Survey, and the Atomic Bomb soon to be Truman’s Secretary of State), objectives and soldiers and sailors are Casualty Commission [20]. If you are dramatically told Truman that “we are the target and not women and children. close enough to a nuclear explosion to perfecting an explosive great enough to … It is certainly a good thing for the receive an injurious dose of radiation, destroy the whole world. It might well world that Hitler’s crowd or Stalin’s you are more likely to have been blasted put us in a position to dictate our own did not discover this atomic bomb. It or burnt to death already. The Man- terms at the end of the war.” seems to be the most terrible thing ever hattan Project’s medical director, Dr. At noon on April 25, Stimson and discovered, but it can be made the most Stafford Warren, estimated that some Groves briefed Truman on the project. useful…[22] 7% of deaths resulted primarily from Two days earlier, Groves had submitted The notion that the effects of the radiation, although some estimates ran to Stimson a background memorandum bomb could be limited to purely mili- as high as 15-20%. This said, radiation to be given to the President. Essentially tary objectives was illusory, but it can- effects were unpleasant to say the least. a primer on the entire Manhattan Proj- not be said that Truman did not appreci- Radiation effects included depressed ect, this memorandum, titled “Atomic ate the implications of the new weapon. blood counts, loss of hair, bleeding into Fission Bombs,” ran to only 24 double- the skin, inflammations of the mouth spaced pages, but managed to cover Myth 15: and throat, vomiting, diarrhea, and every aspect of the work from the idea The Germans were close to having fever. Deaths from radiation began of uranium fission up to the prospects an atomic bomb about a week after exposure, peaked for fusion weapons [21]. The report That German scientists maintained in about 3-4 weeks, and ceased by 7-8 opened by relating that “Within four an active nuclear research program weeks. A person who survived but months we shall in all probability have during the war, particularly devoted remained continuously in a bombed completed the most terrible weapon to experimental piles, is unquestion- city for six weeks afterwards could even known in human history, one ably true: They constructed some 20 expect to receive a dosage estimated bomb of which could destroy a whole piles (if not more) of various designs, at 6-25 rems (Hiroshima) or 30-110 city,” and went on to state that “The mostly involving heavy water. The rems (Nagasaki), with the latter figure successful development of the Atomic last of these, pile B-VIII, came close to referring to a localized area; the usual Fission Bomb will provide the United achieving a chain reaction in the closing benchmark for a lethal single-shot dose States with a weapon of tremendous weeks of the war [23]. However, the is ~ 500 rems. The USSBS report states power which should be a decisive fac- German effort was always at a much that of women in Hiroshima in various tor in winning the present war more smaller scale of funding, priority, and stages of pregnancy who were known quickly with a saving in American lives personnel than was the Allied effort, to be within 3,000 feet of ground zero, and treasure. … Each bomb is estimated and was hobbled by personality clashes all suffered miscarriages, and some mis- to have the equivalent effect of from and bureaucratic turf wars. In 2005, carriages and premature births where 5,000 to 20,000 tons of TNT now, and historian Rainer Karlsch published a the infant died shortly after birth were ultimately, possibly as much as 100,000 book titled Hitlers Bombe in which he recorded up to 6,500 feet. Two months tons.” made the remarkable assertion, based after the bombing, the city’s total inci- At the time of the Trinity test on July on German documents captured by dence of miscarriages, abortions and 16, Truman was in Germany for the the Russians and returned to the Max premature births ran to 27%, as opposed Potsdam conference, but he received Planck Society in 2004, that that a group to a normal rate of 6%. a report that evening that the test was of scientists under Kurt Diebner and successful. In an entry in his personal Walther Gerlach achieved a chain reac- Myth 14: diary for July 25, Truman indicates that tion and detonated two hybrid fission/ President Truman knew little of he clearly understood the power of the fusion bombs before the end of the the Manhattan Project before the new weapon (excerpted): war. An English-language summary bombs were dropped We have discovered the most ter- of the work was published by Karlsch While Truman had only an inkling rible bomb in the history of the world and Mark Walker, a noted historian of of the project before President Roos- … we think we have found the way to wartime German nuclear efforts [24]. evelt’s sudden death on April 12, 1945 cause a disintegration of the atom. An However, historian of science Dieter [the Vice President of the Top Policy experiment in the New Mexico desert Hoffmann has concluded that, while

18 Volume XIV, No. 4 • Spring 2020 • History of Physics Newsletter [7] energy.gov/sites/prod/files/The%20First%20 [19] Groves’ July 30 memo can be found at Karlsch produced a valuable work Reactor.pdf nsarchive2.gwu.edu//NSAEBB/ that brought to light much previously NSAEBB162/45.pdf. The August 10 memo [8] A. Wattenberg, “December 2, 1942: the event unknown archival material, the bomb can be found at National Archives and and the people,” Bull. Atom. Sci. 38(10) 22-32 Records Administration microfilm record assertion is not borne out by the book’s (1982). content: The reaction rates and pressures M1109, reel 3, images 0653-0654. This micro- [9] Nichols, K. D, The Road to Trinity (New York: film set is the Correspondence (“Top Secret”) of the purported design are too small William Morrow and Company, 1987), p. of the Manhattan Engineer District, 1942- by at least two orders of magnitude to 146. 1946 (Records of the Office of the Chief of initiate a fusion reaction, it is not made [10] Reed, B. C. “Kilowatts to Kilotons: Wartime Engineers; Record Group 77; 5 rolls). clear how the Germans obtained pluto- Electricity Use at Oak Ridge,” History of [20] MED: atomicarchive.com/Docs/MED/index. nium or enriched uranium, there is no Physics Newsletter XII(6), 5-6 (2015). shtml USSBS: trumanlibrary.gov/library/ physically plausible description of the [11] V. C. Jones, Manhattan: The Army and the research-files/united-states-strategic-bomb- bomb’s design, and there is no reliable Atomic Bomb (Washington: Center of Mili- ing-survey-effects-atomic-bombs-hiroshima- analysis of the purported test regions tary History, United States Army, 1985), and?documentid=NA&pagenumber=1 p. 391. ABCC: nasonline.org/about-nas/history/ to show that nuclear reactions really archives/collections/abcc-1945-1982.html occurred [25]. There may yet be more to [12] census.gov/library/publications/time- series/statistical_abstracts.html [21] Groves’ April 23 memo can be found at the German program to be revealed, but gwu.edu/%7Ensarchiv/NSAEBB/ these sort of claims are examples of how [13] D. N. Schwartz, The Last Man Who Knew NSAEBB162/3a.pdf tantalizing but unverifiable information Everything: The Life and Times of Enrico Fermi, [22] Excerpts from Truman’s diary can be found can be extrapolated to sensationalized, Father of the Nuclear Age (New York: Basic Books, New York, 2017), p. 257. in R. H. Ferrell, Harry S. Truman and the Bomb premature conclusions. (High Plains Publishing Co., Worland, WY, [14] Ref. 5, p. 672. 1996) References [15] Reed, B. C., “Seeing the Light: Visibility of [23] B. C. Reed, “Piles of piles: In inter-coun- [1] Reed. B. C. The History and Science of the Man- the July ’45 Trinity Atomic Bomb Test from try comparison of nuclear pile develop- hattan Project (Springer, Berlin, 2019). the inner solar system,” The Physics Teacher ment during World War II,” arxiv.org/ 44, 604-606 (2006). abs/2001.09971. [2] hypertextbook.com/eworld/einstein/ [16] J. Kunetka, The General and the Genius: Groves [24] R. Karlsch and M. Walker, “New light on [3] Reed, B. C. “Can the Energy of Fission Make and Oppenheimer – The Unlikely Partnership Hitler’s bomb,” Physics World 18(6), 15-18 a Grain of Sand Visibly Jump?,” The Physics That Built the Atomic Bomb (Washington, DC: (2005). Teacher 56 , 583 (2018). Regnery History, 2016), p. 357. [25] D. Hoffmann, “The race for the bomb: How [4] DeGroot, G. The Bomb: A Life (Harvard Uni- [17] time.com/3980421hiroshima-nagasaki- close was Nazi Germany to developing versity Press, Cambridge, MA, 2004), p. 16. operations-orders/ atomic weapons?” Nature 436 (7047), 25-26 [5] B. C. Reed, “Arthur Compton’s 1941 report [18] J. Coster-Mullen, Atom Bombs: The Top (2005). on explosive fission of U-235: A look at the Secret Inside Story of Fat Man and Little Boy Am. J. Phys 75 physics,” . (12), 1065-1072 (Coster-Mullen, Waukesha, WI, 2016). See (2007). pp. 326 and 331. [6] R. Rhodes, The Making of the Atomic Bomb (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1986), p. 438.

Volume XIV, No. 4 • Spring 2020 • History of Physics Newsletter 19 The Stony Brook Nuclear Structure Laboratory, A Personal History

Continued from page 1

grant from NSF “for half the estimated Stony Brook concluded its search by Funds for SUNY buildings and cost of the building” was received in late 1964 and I was offered the position equipment are provided through the October 1964 Alec persuaded the Stony of Professor and Director of the Nuclear State University Construction Fund Brook leadership to use the NSF funds Structure Laboratory (NSL). The deci- (SUCF) which normally chooses and to acquire the newly developed model sion to move was very difficult. We negotiates with providers. Fortunately, FN (King) tandem which proved to be were very happy at Argonne and in the Karl and I were allowed in these cases far superior to the EN. Chicago suburbs. The years at Argonne to work directly with HVEC and the With the funds in hand the Physics had been extremely productive and architects on behalf of the Fund. A grant Department had its high profile facility personally enjoyable. The Physics Divi- from NSF for part of the building costs but no experimental nuclear physicists sion at Argonne was almost family enabled us to purchase a larger model (and only one theorist) to develop and - a marvelous group of friends and col- FN (King) tandem and before discus- utilize the Nuclear Structure Labora- laborators. However the opportunity sions with HVEC I visited several FN tory. A search was initiated for the to be part of the creation of a possibly installations to obtain information on Laboratory Director and at the urging great University proved decisive and I any problems and suggested improve- of Jim Raz, the only nuclear theorist, accepted the position and prepared to ments. Two improvements prompted with whom I had worked at Argonne start at Stony Brook at the start of the by these visits were the choice of pure National Laboratory, I agreed to be a Fall 1965 semester. sulfur hexafluoride insulating gas with candidate. Alec’s “predictions”, and more, liquid storage and a new high intensity started to become reality even before I Helium ion source. The resulting con- Stony Brook arrived. The announcement that John tract with HVEC also included their In the late fall of 1964 I visited Stony Toll would become Stony Brook’s Presi- supervision of the tandem installation Brook for two days at the invitation of dent was made in the early Spring for which funds were provided. Alec Pond. In addition to presenting a 1965 followed by the appointment of The architect chosen by SUCF, Colloquium on our research at Argonne H. Bentley Glass, a very distinguished Smith, Haines Lundberg & Wheeler, I met with most of the Physics faculty as biologist, as Academic Vice President. had done much of the early Stony Brook well as Arts and Sciences Dean, Stanley A four-page article in Science July 30, campus, and had also done much work Ross. In our discussions Alec exhibited 1965 summarized Stony Brook’s recent for AT&T. They produced rather dull great enthusiasm for the (yet unan- accomplishments including a discus- buildings with good engineering, the nounced) aspirations of Stony Brook. sion of the NSL and the likelihood of last of which was very helpful for us. Among these was that John Toll, the Yang’s appointment which was formal- Once suggestions to locate the Lab at dynamic Chairman of Physics at The ly announced in November. Articles in the edge of the campus because of radi- University of Maryland, was expected Physics Today, Time, and Newsweek soon ation were rejected (shielding would to become Stony Brook’s President in followed and it was clear that Stony suffice) a site was chosen. The Lab the fall of 1965, finalizing a multiyear Brook had arrived. It was no longer nec- would be a separate building adjacent search. Alec also expressed confidence essary to start discussions by describing to Physics and positioned to expand that Nobelist C.N. (Frank) Yang would the University. into part of a new Physics building in leave The Institute for Advanced Stud- Meanwhile there was much to be the future. The space arrangement was ies to hold an Einstein Professorship at done. The Laboratory building had to to be very simple; large shielded areas Stony Brook and establish an Institute be sited and designed; the contract with for tandem and experimental areas and for Theoretical Physics. High Voltage Engineering (HVEC) had a single large area combining accelera- One discussion regarding the Labo- to be negotiated and finalized and NSL tor control, data stations, and evolving ratory was over equipment funds which faculty and staff had to be recruited. All spaces such as a library/seminar area, would be immediately available. New of these had to be addressed simultane- computer stations and grad student York State recognizes that a new build- ously and immediately. It was agreed desks. This proved to be a singular ing must be suitably equipped and that I would take some of my accumu- asset for the Laboratory. Instead of lists are prepared and budgeted as lated vacation time at Argonne to be a dispersing to their offices elsewhere, construction proceeds. Alec and his col- consultant to Stony Brook during part students, postdocs and staff all tended leagues had done well in “equipping” of the period before my arrival. For to stay in the Lab, leading to a collegial the existing new Physics Building and help with the building and accelerator atmosphere for the exchange of ideas. a large portion had been allocated to I was fortunate to recruit Karl Eklund The offer from Stony Brook included the nuclear program. This would pro- who had worked with Allan Bromley in two junior faculty positions and four vide the means to start preparing for setting up the Wright Nuclear Structure support positions to be filled before experiments as accelerator acquisition Laboratory at Yale. His work at Yale was the opening of the NSL. As soon as and building design and construction essentially finished and Allan recom- I accepted I contacted many friends proceeded. mended him highly. and colleagues in the Nuclear Physics

20 Volume XIV, No. 4 • Spring 2020 • History of Physics Newsletter By Donald Salisbury

community for help in locating the best assembly and testing of the accelerator elected President. Dan left us in 1979 possible faculty candidates. Outstand- at the factory before disassembly and for a job at JLab in Virginia and we were ing among the early applicants was shipping to Stony Brook. This was very fortunate to immediately recruit Dave Fossan from the small but excel- slowly proceeding with minor difficul- Andre Lipski to replace him. He had lent Lockheed group using the Stanford ties through much of 1966 and early been the target maker at the Rutgers tandem. Dave had been a postdoc at 1967, anticipating delivery in late 1967. Nuclear Lab which had just lost its Copenhagen before Lockheed and was Meantime Alec Pond had created the funding so was ready to continue and strongly recommended by colleagues position of “Director of the Physical expand our target preparation work. at both laboratories. Dave and I visited Laboratories” in the Department office Stony Brook became a major target Stony Brook together right after the and moved Karl Eklund into that posi- source for many other labs where the Spring 1965 APS meeting and it became tion. While searching for a replacement skills were not available. The targets clear that he was the perfect person for Associate Director for NSL I received a were usually free or “at cost”; any pay- us. We were able to offer Dave an Assis- note from Georges Temmer at Florida ment was by barter. Sadly, now that tant Professorship starting in Fall 1965 State on the possible availability of Tony NSL is no longer active, Andre is no and, fortunately for us, he promptly Bastin, who had recently left their lab longer making targets but performing accepted. Dave was the backbone of for England (and had been replaced) other tasks for the Department our Laboratory from his arrival until his but now was hoping to return to accel- Meanwhile Dave Fossan and I untimely death in 2003. He mentored erator technology. I immediately con- were recruiting graduate students and by far the most students and his skill tacted Tony and was able to convince arranging for the equipment needed to and enthusiasm for Physics inspired him to join us as Associate Lab Director initiate our experimental program as all of us. starting January 1968. We were also soon as the tandem became available. After considering a number of other able to augment our technical staff with Dave was able to start some experi- candidates for the second position we Gene Schultz, an experienced accel- ments at Brookhaven Lab (BNL) and chose Bob Weinberg, a former student erator technician who had just worked spent the summer of 1966 there. I was at of Leon Lidofsky at Columbia and a on installation of an FN Tandem at BNL one month and finished up some NATO postdoc at Harwell UK. He was Argonne and was looking for a change. Argonne work the other. Back at Stony very highly recommended by the facul- His experience there was a great asset Brook we submitted our first proposal ty at Columbia and by George Morrison that helped our upcoming assembly go for operating support from the National with whom he was working at Harwell. very smoothly. Science Foundation (NSF), the only His expertise in the use of computers Tony and Gene now occupied two of federal agency funding new University to analyze reaction data matched our the State funded support positions and nuclear physics initiatives. It was for needs well and he accepted our offer to it was necessary to fill the rest. I decided $19,555 to support grad students and start in the fall of 1966. to devote one of the remaining positions some faculty during the summer of The architect produced an excel- to the making of targets (usually thin 1967 and was funded. I should say at lent building design which met all of films) for our future experiments. Tra- this point that Bill Rodney, who did our requirements very well. Unfortu- ditionally the making of targets for their an excellent job running the Nuclear nately, the estimated cost was about experiments was part of the “learning Physics desk at NSF for many years, double the amount budgeted by the experience” for graduate students but was supportive of Stony Brook from the Construction Fund. Their people had as experiments were becoming more beginning and did his best for us. It was treated the Lab building as if it were demanding target development was NSF policy to favor installations which classroom space with no consideration becoming a field for professionals. By they had financed so our State financed for the needs of a Nuclear Laboratory. about 1970 there were “target makers”, program had to prove itself outstanding My response was to contact colleagues mostly in national laboratories, and I among university nuclear laboratories. who were involved in recent or current felt our lab should have one. The man As plans for the Laboratory pro- Laboratory construction regarding their we recruited, Dan Riel, worked hard to ceeded it became clear that a program building costs. All responses confirmed acquire the specialized skills required involving only three faculty could not the accuracy of the Smith-Haines esti- and we were able to provide him with make take full advantage of the capa- mate. This, coupled with the potential the equipment necessary for a target bilities and promise of NSL, Fortunately embarrassment of an accelerator arriv- laboratory. Target making is an art I became aware that Peter Paul, an ing and no place to put it, convinced and Dan became one of its masters. In outstanding young visitor at Stanford, the Fund to revise the budget to an May 1972 16 target makers (all but four would be leaving there for another posi- amount which met our needs after a Canadian) met in Montreal to discuss tion. I was able to convince the Physics few “luxuries” were dropped out of the the art and share experiences. Dan was Department of our needs and that Peter proposed design. Even after this agree- one of the attendees and suggested that represented an unusual opportunity ment I never felt really comfortable the group consider becoming a more and we were able to invite him to join until a bulldozer arrived to destroy the formal organization. This was followed us. Fortunately, Peter welcomed the beautiful small woods which was to be by a meeting in October 1973 at Stony excitement of building a new program the Lab location. Brook at which the “Nuclear Target and accepted our offer to start January Development Association” (which still of 1968. He has been a driving force in Getting Going exists) decided to incorporate, and with the Laboratory and the University right The contract with HVEC called for formal incorporation in 1975 Dan was from his arrival.

Volume XIV, No. 4 • Spring 2020 • History of Physics Newsletter 21 Delivery and Assembly Nuclear Theory come to Stony Brook in the fall of 1968, At HVEC construction of the Tan- A top experimental group should asking us to postpone any announce- dem proceeded with the usual minor be complemented by a similar group ment until he had returned to Princeton setbacks and successes. Factory tests of top nuclear theorists. The oppor- in the fall of 1967. Along with Gerry, were completed in late 1967 and deliv- tunity to form such a group arrived in the fall of 1968, Tom Kuo and Andy ery scheduled for early Spring 1968. when Frank Yang arrived to head the Jackson came as tenure-track faculty Meanwhile, after finally obtaining ade- Institute of Theoretical Physics. Shortly and Akito Arima joined the group as quate funds, ground was broken for the after his arrival in early 1966 I had lunch a Professor. Thus the start of the Stony building with completion just in time with Frank and asked for his help in Brook Nuclear Theory Group which for acceptance of the accelerator. The establishing nuclear theory at Stony continues to evolve and excel. The high voltage portion of the accelerator Brook. His immediate response was “ opportunity to establish this “Institute” system is contained inside a pressure Who is the best nuclear theorist in the was a major factor in Gerry’s decision to tank 44 ft. long and 13 ft. diameter. To world?” After some discussion it was come to Stony Brook. get the tank into the building one end decided that Gerry Brown, at that time of the accelerator vault had to be left a Professor at Princeton and Nordita, Normalcy open (to be closed later) and a ramp was the best theorist for Stony Brook. I I will not attempt to describe the prepared to move the tank down into knew Gerry from when we were both many experiments conducted in the the vault. The tank was to be shipped briefly at The University of Minnesota decades following under normal opera- by rail to western CT and by oversize and from his frequent visits to Argonne tions. Initially groups formed around truck from there to Stony Brook. It was and, of course, Frank knew him from interests as they developed. Dave Fos- too large to be handled by The Long their both being in Princeton. Frank san concentrated on gamma ray spec- Island Railroad. contacted Gerry and, as Gerry has said, troscopy; Peter Paul’s main interest was The building was completed just they went for “a walk in the woods” in Giant Resonances; Bob Weinberg and in time and the tank was due to arrive and discussed a possible move to join I studied charged particle reactions. We on a beautiful spring day in early April Frank’s Institute and establish a nuclear also had to develop external support for of 1968. The arrival was not without theory group at Stony Brook. operation of NSL. As mentioned above, excitement and humor. On entry to the Gerry and his family visited on a Bill Rodney at NSF was supportive and campus at the North entrance the truck beautiful spring weekend, getting a we received a grant which enabled us to carrying the tank got “hung up” at the good first impression in spite of the support a number of graduate students crest as its length to clearance ratio was “construction site” Gerry has referred and add our first postdoc, Nelson Cue, too large for the slope. After much wig- to. That initiated negotiations, mostly a student of Dave Bodansky from the gling and scraping it finally made it to informal, as Gerry returned to Nordita University of Washington. the slope into our building (which also (on leave from Princeton) “before think- Of course we faculty were all teach- had to be reduced) The tank was paint- ing more about future plans”. ing during the academic year. In par- ed with a chrome yellow primer and There followed a correspondence ticular Bob Weinberg found great suc- as it moved slowly into the building a between Frank and Gerry which includ- cess and satisfaction teaching one of group of students cheerfully serenaded ed a tentative offer of a Professorship the large introductory courses. He also the procedure with renditions of “We all in ITP and other considerations which became heavily involved in University live in a yellow submarine”. were important to Gerry. One sig- affairs as an “ombudsman” during the Once the tank was in place assembly nificant source of confusion occurred student unrest here, as on many cam- of the tandem and associated experi- when Frank’s letter containing the offer puses, during the late 60’s. For Bob this mental equipment proceeded at a rapid inadvertently went by surface mail, resulted in reduced interest in NSL , pace. At the accelerator Gene Schultz taking about six weeks to reach Gerry. although he continued to contribute to took charge of the work inside the tank Meanwhile Frank persisted although our experimental buildup. Finally Bob and Tony Bastin the ion source, analyz- Gerry, partly out of concern about decided that his future in Physics was to ing magnet, gas handling system, and what he called “the Vietnam business” be in innovating teaching. He decided other externals. Students (both graduate was reluctant to give up his foothold at he would no longer be doing research and undergrad) and faculty worked Nordita. Gerry proposed an arrange- in NSL and requested a tenure decision feverishly to set up beam lines and ment in which he would establish a based mostly on his teaching and Uni- experimental stations, run cables, and group at Stony Brook while alternating versity service. I told the Department set up electronics to have experiments his presence between Copenhagen and that, while Bob had been a fine col- ready when the tandem passed accep- Long Island. This would not have been league, we would need a replacement tance specifications. possible at Princeton but Frank and our for the research program in NSL. Bob This was accomplished by mid President, John Toll quickly agreed and was not offered tenure and left in 1969 August and the first of hundreds of an offer was sent to Gerry (this time for a faculty position at Temple Univer- papers reporting results from experi- by air). sity where he has had a very successful ments in the Stony Brook Nuclear Struc- Gerry indicated he would probably teaching career. Meanwhile we were ture Laboratory (NSL) appeared in the accept but delayed his reply until the fortunate in immediately recruiting Bob Physical Review in early 1969. Nordita Board approved the arrange- McGrath, then a postdoc at Berkeley, as ment. On receiving approval in late his replacement. He has been a perfect April 1967, Gerry accepted the offer to match, with a fine career in our Lab,

22 Volume XIV, No. 4 • Spring 2020 • History of Physics Newsletter mentoring a large number of very suc- who had joined us as a Noether fellow little over one year the work at Caltech cessful students. Later, as activity in the and moved into a faculty position. produced a 150 Mhz resonator of lead NSL slowed, he gradually moved into The other major increment was, in plated copper (lead is a superconductor University administration, becoming 1975, the moving of the Physics Depart- at liquid Helium temperatures) ready Provost in 2000. ment onto a new and very large Physics for testing with beam at Stony Brook. The Lab continued to produce a Building. In the initial location of NSL Meanwhile, with the early work number of significant experimental we had anticipated the new building looking so promising, Peter and Gene results. Support from NSF picked up which was positioned so its basement produced a massive proposal for a and we were able to consider adding extended to NSL and provided a com- full booster linac based on the Caltech more faculty. One direction I felt we plete new target room which could resonators. The booster was to have should go was the study of “hyperfine receive beams from the Tandem. This forty liquid Helium cooled 150 Mhz interactions”, the study of the inter- gave us the ability to set up experiments resonators in 12 modular cryostats to action of the nucleus with its atomic in one target room while the beam was reach energies of 10 Mev/A for A up to environment. Stan Hanna, a friend form in the other and also proved crucial over 100. Features of the proposal were Argonne who was now at Stanford, told in future expansion of NSL described a NY State contribution of one million me of his student Gene Sprouse, who below. dollars and the ability to fit the entire had done some beautiful work on accel- accelerator complex into the existing erator induced Mossbauer effect and The Linac building, avoiding any new construc- other work on hyperfine interactions. During this period experiments tion. The detailed beam dynamics were I was able to convince the Department in Nuclear Structure Physics moved provided by Ernest Courant, one of the that adding him could benefit a variety toward use of beams of heavy ions (C12 world’s leading accelerator theorists, of groups and in 1970, we were able to and heavier) for which tandem Van der who was in our Institute of Theoretical recruit him. Gene has become a world Graaffs are excellent tools. However, Physics. The proposal was submitted to leader in the field. He and his students higher beam energies are needed if one NSF July 7, 1977 with Peter and Gene as have performed a series of remarkable wishes to study reactions with a variety Co-Principal Investigators. and difficult experiments, testifying to of beams. Argonne National Lab was Meanwhile other university labs his deft leadership. exploring the use of superconducting were also considering the possibility of With Gene’s arrival the Lab reached resonators in a linear accelerator booster major upgrades. In particular the nucle- its (more or less) equilibrium level: five injected by their tandem. Meanwhile ar group at Stanford proposed a booster faculty, four or five postdocs, twelve to a select NAS committee chaired by drawing from the experience at SLAC fifteen graduate students, and selected Gerhard Friedlander of BNL had recom- with Niobium superconducting resona- undergrads. I will not attempt here to mended construction of two boosters tors. This resulted in a direct competi- describe the many and varied experi- at University Labs. Led by Peter Paul’s tion between their proposal and ours for ments performed over the early years as great enthusiasm we all agreed that NSF support. In response to this NSF set our program grew and flourished. Sup- the possibility of proposing to build a up a committee of accelerator experts to port from NSF grew appropriately and booster linac was a great opportunity evaluate the two proposals. The panel a number of remarkable PhD students for our laboratory. was chaired by Robert Behringer from came through the Lab and have gone When we expressed our enthusiasm Yale and included Lowell Bollinger who on to distinguished careers. During this to Bill Rodney at NSF he suggested was directing superconducting booster period Nuclear Structure Physics began joining with the applied superconduc- development at Argonne National Lab- to move to studies of reactions induced tivity group at Cal Tech who, with NSF oratory which was already well along. by accelerated heavy ions for which our funding, were developing a suitable The panel made extensive visits to both tandem was an ideal tool. prototype superconducting resonator Stanford and Stony Brook and were to Two notable events occurred during which would not be used at Cal Tech. advise which, if any, proposal to fund. the mid 1970’s. Now that Stony Brook Stony Brook could be given the task of Tests of the Caltech 150 Mhz reso- was recognized as a major center for making the Cal Tech resonators into an nator cited above went very well and, nuclear studies we were able to expand accelerator. This seemed a marvelous hoping for choice of our proposal, a and recruit an outstanding young exper- opportunity for us and discussions meeting, including Bill Rodney, was imenter, Peter Braun-Munzinger, from were quickly initiated resulting in an held at Caltech to determine respon- the Max-Planck Institute for Nuclear informal collaboration agreement in sibilities. A full four resonator module Studies, Heidelburg. In NSL Peter initi- May 1975. The Caltech group would was ready to be sent to SB for testing ated a series of novel experiments using produce and improve resonators and with beam. For the final accelerator beams of heavy ions, greatly expanding Stony Brook would test their perfor- construction Caltech would fabricate the lab’s output of exciting results. He mance with beams of particles. NSF the resonators and controllers and send later led the Department’s efforts as would provide additional funds to them to Stony Brook for plating and our priorities moved into the study of support these developments. As part of assembly. A budget was worked out relativistic heavy ion interactions at this collaboration Gene Sprouse joined which was in rough agreement with the BNL. His leadership in that transition Peter in heading this effort and spent proposal. Work toward the accelerator maintained Stony Brook’s leadership at a semester at Caltech working on the would continue as rapidly as possible the frontiers of nuclear studies. In these resonators and developing an elegant awaiting the recommendation by the efforts he was joined by Johanna Stachel method for resonator fine tuning. In a panel.

Volume XIV, No. 4 • Spring 2020 • History of Physics Newsletter 23 In early January 1979 members of Pancake, the director of the department job in creating this new facility. It was the two competing groups met with the electronics shop. The controls linked a a singular moment for them and for panel at NSF offices in Washington DC state of the art system of small comput- Nuclear Physics at Stony Brook. to reach a final decision. Stony Brook ers to provide user friendly control The successful operation of both emerged as the winner and we were of the entire accelerator system. The the Stony Brook and Argonne super- off and running. On advice of the panel development was part of Al Scholdorf’s conducting linacs demonstrated that the proposed budget was increased PhD thesis. this new technology could be utilized and NSF funds were to be available in By mid 1982 construction was well at a variety of levels. Within a year July. The New York State equipment along. Gene Sprouse was handling from our dedication a number of labo- funds were available immediately and the very difficult job of the cryogenic ratories were considering proposals could be used for “long range” items. system, John Noe, our Associate Lab and one, Florida State, was funded by One of these was the 400 kV ion source Director, was supervising the tandem NSF. Future resonator construction was table required for suitable beam injec- upgrades and assembly of the accel- greatly enhanced by the development, tion into the tandem. Specifications erator modules was proceeding well. by Mike Brennan and Ilan Ben-Zvi at had already been sent out for bid and It seemed sure that we would have an Stony Brook, of an improved resona- on January 9, 1979 a purchase order operating tandem-linac system within a tor design, a Quarter Wave Resona- contract was issued by the State Office year. An operating Ion Source Table was tor (QWR) which was sturdier and of General Services to General Ionex delivered by GIC and beams became easier to fabricate than the Cal Tech Corp. (GIC) for a “Heavy Ion Injection available for testing the linac modules and Argonne Split Loop Resonators System”, a 400 kV table and all associ- as they were installed. The ion source (SLR). The lead plated QWR was chosen ated instrumentation. GIC was the com- and tandem injection beam optics were by The University of Washington for mercial supplier of the ion sources we operated without the expected telem- a DOE funded booster and the QWR had been using and had come up with etry which GIC was having trouble became the design of choice for major what appeared to be a good design. completing. superconducting linacs such as ALPI at All components on the table were to be With the end in sight and with sup- INFR Legnaro Italy and the Facility for controlled from the accelerator control port from NSF we announced an Inter- Rare Isotope Beams (FRIB) being built table through fiber optic telemetry. national Conference on nuclear physics at Michigan State University. The remaining State funds were des- with heavy ions at energies below 20 This seemed to me to be a good ignated for an extensive upgrading of Mev/A to be held at Stony Brook April time for me to step down as Labora- the tandem. 14-16, 1983 to celebrate the dedication of tory Director after 18 exciting years. Now came the task of creating an our LINAC. This provided a target for The group decided to rotate the job accelerator. A prototype four resona- us to obtain full energy performance of of Director among the senior faculty tor module was successfully tested the tandem-linac system and on March in three-year terms and Gene Sprouse in March 1979 and everything looked 17 a 280 Mev S-32 beam was produced was selected to be the first. Peter Paul good. The team that Peter and Gene put on target using all twelve of the acceler- became Chairman of the Physics together was truly remarkable, ranging ator modules. This called for the bottle Department. I decided to take a long- from experienced and aspiring accelera- of Champagne I had put in the lab postponed sabbatical at Argonne in the tor physicists to a number of graduate refrigerator to help in the celebration. Spring of 1984 working with a group and undergraduate students. Prominent The Dedication/Conference was who were using their linac to study few among these are Ilan Ben-Zvi on leave a great festive occasion. The keynote nucleon transfer in reactions induced by from the Weiszman Institute, who speaker at the Dedication was Edward Ni beams. It was to be a very productive joined us from the Stanford team, and Knapp, the Director of NSF who visit which set the stage for the research Mike Brennan, a new postdoc from emphasized the linac as an outstanding I would do on returning to Stony Brook. Rutgers who had decided to do accel- example of NSF support of University Soon after the dedication the linac erator physics. Both of them are now laboratories. Peter and Gene also spoke was in regular use for experiments with leaders in the accelerator programs at along with Jim Mercerau, the head of a remarkably fast learning curve. While Brookhaven National Lab. Important the Caltech group. April 14 was pro- construction had been proceeding those visitors were Bala Kurup and Raj Pillay claimed “LINAC DAY” by our County not closely involved were preparing from the Tata Institute in Mumbai and Legislature. In the next two days over the target area for future experiments Chen Chia-ehr from Beijing University 200 physicists from as far away as Japan and beam lines were instrumented and who later became President of the Uni- and Australia presented the most recent ready. From May through the rest of versity. The resonator development at work from their institutions, 25 papers 1983 a wide variety of experimental Cal Tech was led by Jean Delayen who in all. The Proceedings, edited by Peter runs were producing good results; we later led superconducting resonator Braun-Munzinger, were published by were back in business with new capa- development at the Thomas Jefferson Harwood Academic Publishers. Most bilities. This was interrupted by the dis- Lab in Virginia. A very special contri- important, the addition of the super- covery, during a routine tank opening bution was the system for computer conducting linac booster, the second in in January, of cracks on two sections of control of the whole accelerator system the world and the first at a University, the glass column supporting the entire which was developed by Al Scholdorf, placed Stony Brook among the leading tandem structure. This was serious, and a graduate student, John Hasstedt, centers of nuclear structure research. after careful study by us and HVEC it our computer specialist, and Chuck Peter and Gene had done a magnificent was determined that those sections of

24 Volume XIV, No. 4 • Spring 2020 • History of Physics Newsletter the column must be replaced, a very As linac operating experience devel- elements, which is unstable and not big job. The complete rebuilding was oped during the next few years, ave- available in nature but can be produced accomplished with great support from nues for improvements were identified. by beams from our linac. Francium is HVEC over a six month period and Small ones were routinely implement- particularly attractive as a laboratory operation for experiments was resumed ed, providing modest gains in opera- to explore for parity non-conserving in July 1984. tional effectiveness. Others were more (PNC) effects which test the Standard Those six months provided an challenging and required long range Model and become more probable for opportunity to complete several major solutions. Most important of these prob- heavier nuclei. In collaboration with improvement projects which did not lems was a mechanical instability which Luis Orosco from our Atomic Phys- require a tandem beam. Among these developed in the low beta resonators ics group Gene’s group were able to was the completion of the linac beam seriously limiting the power level at capture Francium atoms in a magneto- pre- and re-buncher arrangements in which they could be phase locked. The optical trap and perform a series of laser their final form. The re-buncher was ultimate solution for this was to replace spectroscopic studies - a major series positioned in the target area and a new all of the low beta split loop resonators of accomplishments over a number of “double-drift” pre-buncher was devel- with quarter wave resonators following years. In the end our linac beams could oped and installed. Development of the the design developed by Mike Brennan not produce enough Francium for PNC final linac control system was also com- and Ilan Ben-Zvi (see discussion above). studies and the experiment has now pleted including a computer-assisted As earlier I will not try to describe moved to TRIUMF, a large nuclear linac phasing system which used the the many and varied experiments per- physics lab in Vancouver BC where +45 degree beam line for energy analy- formed but will say a few words about Luis (now at the University of MD) and sis. This provided a systematic method the work of each of the varied research several of Gene’s students and postdocs for setting up selected linac beams, groups in the decades following initial are leading a collaboration. greatly increasing the efficiency of the linac operation. With the availability of the “Big process. Dave Fossan’s group were able to set Mac” Bob McGrath and his group, in Substantial improvements were up an array of six large Compton-sup- collaboration with John Alexander from also made to the 400 kV ion source pressed Germanium gamma detectors Chemistry, embarked on a series of table. These included a more intense and 14 small BGO multiplicity detectors experiments to study nuclear proper- ion source and (finally) installation of to continue his spectroscopic studies in ties at high temperature, the formation a CAMAC fiber-optic control system. a wide variety of nuclei. Dave had been and decay of heavy composite nuclei This enabled the final closing of the con- one of the designers of Gammasphere, formed in fusion-evaporation reactions. tract with General Ionics. Other projects a large spherical array of Ge detectors They set up an electrostatic deflector to were rebuilding of the Laddertron and when it began to circulate among separate the evaporation residues from charging chain and the designing and National Labs he extended many of his beam and used arrays of small detectors installation of a radiation-protection experiments to its use. and position sensitive large detectors system for the linac and target areas. Peter Paul and his group continued to study their decay. Analysis of cor- Operation with the rebuilt tandem their giant resonance studies to reso- relations between detectors gave infor- and the complete linac resumed with nances built upon excited nuclei and mation on the source size and energy great enthusiasm. The experimental to a series of experiments using the spectra gave a measure of the effective stations evolved with regular improve- GDR as a time reference when used to “temperature” of the emitting nucleus. ments and new and extended efforts study fission dynamics. He developed These results provided tests of various developed. In addition to the increase an array of parallel-plate gas avalanche statistical models being developed to in beam energy the linac beam arrives counters to measure fission fragment treat highly excited nuclei. at the target in sub-nanosecond bunches distributions in coincidence with the When I returned from my sabbati- at chosen intervals, about 100 nano- GDR. He also developed a series of elec- cal at Argonne I decided to initiate a seconds in normal operation. With tron-positron detectors to study internal program to study the influence of few rebunching these can be as short as 100 pair decays in nuclei, particularly to nucleon transfer on heavy ion reactions picoseconds or lower and we achieved a search for Giant Monopole transitions at energies near the threshold for a record 12 ps FWHM for a 140 Mev C-12 which can determine the compressibil- reaction, the “Coulomb Barrier”. Mea- beam. The availability of these pulsed ity of nuclear matter. surements a several labs had observed beams opened up new experimental After a spectacular success in mea- larger fusion cross sections than pre- opportunities. suring magnetic moments of fission dicted by barrier penetration models Our ability to perform experiments isomers Gene Sprouse embarked on an and along with two graduate students involving charged particles was greatly ambitious and very successful program and one postdoc, we set out to mea- enhanced by the installation in the of laser spectroscopy of nuclei produced sure transfer strength near the barrier. summer of 1985 of a very large (2.4m in reactions induced by beams from the To identify the transfer products we diameter) scattering chamber designed linac. An innovative “recoil into gas” measured total energy, energy loss and by Bob McGrath. Its size provided space method was developed and isotope mass in counters one meter from our for the use of a variety of detector arrays shifts and hyperfine interactions were target with velocity from time-of-flight and long paths for time-of flight experi- measured for several systems. Gene using the linac bunching as our time ments. Its appearance and designer and his students then turned to studies reference. Using the Big Mac we were gave it the lab nickname of Big Mac. of Francium, the heaviest of the alkali able to set up an array of ten detectors

Volume XIV, No. 4 • Spring 2020 • History of Physics Newsletter 25 separated by ten degree intervals to get colleague and, with Barbara as leader, retirement. The next year our Chair, an almost complete angular distribution the Stony Brook group became one of Janos Kirz, had received approval from in one run. the top contributors to the successes the Dean and I retired effective Dec 31, In the late nineteen eighties a new of PHENIX which continue to this day. 1999. My replacement was Axel Drees approach to nuclear studies was emerg- Unfortunately for us, Barbara was lured one of the current leaders in our RHI ing; the study of heavy ion reactions at away from us by Berkeley in 2010 but program and, as of this writing (2020), very high energies - relativistic heavy the success of the group continues. (see Department Chairman. ion collisions (RHI). The Bevalac at LBL below) Even with the depletion of faculty, and the AGS at Brookhaven were modi- This left NSL with the “core” faculty research progress in NSL continued fied to produce beams of heavy ions who had been together since 1970. In to be high thanks to Dave Fossan’s and experiments were being planned. the fall of 1994 Bob McGrath accepted extremely active spectroscopy group Peter Braun-Munzinger and Johanna a part time appointment as an Associ- and the continuing successes in Gene Stachel left our lab to set up a group ate Provost which did not diminish his Sprouse’s trapping and studying of to work at BNL. They quickly became research program but in 1996 a new Francium (the world’s only Francium leaders as these studies showed prom- Provost asked him to be Vice Provost, a lab). Dave would form collaborations ise to become a major avenue of future full time job. Bob managed to graduate for approved experiments at Gamma- nuclear physics research. As particle two more students but effectively left sphere and obtain preliminary data here physicists realized earlier, relativistic the Lab, becoming our Provost from with his smaller array. Armed with this energy experiments are best performed 2000 until his retirement in 2010. information the Gammasphere experi- in a collider mode and a proposal was Meanwhile important things were ments usually went well and their pro- developed to build a Relativistic Heavy happening at BNL. In the summer of ductivity was remarkable. In 2002 we Ion Collider (RHIC) at BNL. In 1989 1997 the Department of Energy decided were also able to add Norbert Pietral- the NSF/DOE Nuclear Science Advi- to terminate the contract with Associ- la, an outstanding young PhD from sory Committee (NSAC), chaired by ated Universities Inc. (AUI) which had Cologne by way of Yale. His interests Peter Paul, designated RHIC the high- managed BNL since its inception in in Nuclear Spectroscopy complemented est priority for new construction and 1947 and requested proposals for tak- Dave’s nicely and he quickly attracted urged prompt funding. With the deci- ing over the job. Bob suggested to the graduate students and produced good sion to build RHIC at BNL the next Provost and President that this was a results. new direction in nuclear physics was great opportunity for Stony Brook and A singular moment in the history established. All of us agreed that this was given the job of coordinating the of Stony Brook Physics and the NSL was a marvelous opportunity for Stony proposal preparation. The result of hard occurred in the spring of 2000 when Brook nuclear physics. The NSL would work by Bob and many colleagues was the Stony Brook Physics Department continue its very successful program the formation of Brookhaven Science hosted a “Reunion”, inviting as former but new investments, both in theory Associates (BSA), an alliance between students, postdocs and faculty for a and experiment, should be in RHI phys- Stony Brook and Battelle (an expe- weekend of physics and remembrance. ics. Peter and Johanna were among the rienced lab management company) The response for our lab was very good. leaders in the experiments at the AGS including representation from six elite Almost a third of the people we were and in 1990 they were able to add Tom Eastern Universities. BSA won the able to contact were able to come and Hemmick as an assistant professor in award and took over the management many others sent extensive regrets. On their group. Tom has had great success of BNL on January first 1998. Jack Mar- Saturday afternoon there were break- in RHI physics and also in teaching our burger, our former President, became out sessions for short talks and general first year courses. Director of BNL and Peter Paul became discussion. Ours was, as always, in the As RHIC approached reality poten- his Deputy Director for Science. At middle of the control room, and was tial user groups deluged BNL with Stoney Brook Bob McGrath became very lively. It was especially gratifying proposals for its utilization. BNL man- Vice President for Brookhaven Affairs to see different generations of our stu- agement urged groups with similar and, when our Provost moved on in dents sharing their memories and tell interests to merge and eventually two 1999, acting Provost and then, in 2000, of their varied current undertakings. large detector systems and two smaller Provost. The gathering reminded all of us that efforts were approved for construction. In 1998 I turned 70. My small pro- the greatest contribution of our Lab to Peter, Johanna and Tom, along with gram had produced some good results science was not our experiments but Michael Marx from our particle phys- in “near barrier” physics and, more our 62 PhD students, many of whom ics group, took a major role in building important, two PhD students who have had distinguished careers and the and using PHENIX, one of the large obtained good postdoc positions. I many postdocs and visitors who passed systems. In 1995 Peter and Johanna both decided that I should not commit to through the NSL. accepted offers of top Professorships in any more graduate students so I told The 90’s had been exciting years for Germany, Johanna at Heidelberg and our Chairman I would retire if a nuclear the NSL but a great loss for Nuclear Peter at Darmstadt and GSI. We were physicist were added to replace me Physics, and for all of us, occurred soon able to establish new leadership by and I could continue to teach some when Dave Fossan suffered a massive recruiting Barbara Jacak from Los Ala- of our first year courses with a mod- fatal heart attack in the summer of 2003. mos who was already one of the PHE- est compensation; at that time new Dave was the first faculty member I NIX leaders. Barbara was a wonderful faculty could not be added without a brought here and was a marvelous

26 Volume XIV, No. 4 • Spring 2020 • History of Physics Newsletter personal friend and colleague for all accepted this new challenge and did a collaboration and in 2004 Abhay Desh- those years. We all were deeply sad- magnificent job for eight years before pande was added to the group as a dened. He had become a world leader returning to Stony Brook. BNL-RIKEN fellow. He is a leader in in nuclear spectroscopy and was by far As word of the closing down of “RHIC SPIN’ studies in which polarized the most productive member of our our linac spread we were contacted by proton and deuteron beams are study- group (21 PhD students, 17 postdocs Shengyun Zhu, who had been a visitor ing the quark contribution to the spin and 260 publications). His presence in NSL working with Gene, suggesting of the nucleon. is still felt in nuclear physics with the that our linac might become a booster The Stony Brook Nuclear group successes of his students and the Gam- for the tandem at the China Institute for is also looking farther into the future. masphere detector. Atomic Physics, where he had a leader- The study of nuclear structure is evolv- Dave’s passing was a huge loss ship position, Discussions followed and ing into nucleon structure, the study for Nuclear Structure Physics and, of it was finally agreed that China would of the behavior of the quark content course, for the NSL. Gene and Norbert “purchase” the entire linac for a sum of the proton and neutron best done continued to make good use of beams representing its market value. In 2009 a with high energy electrons as probes. form the linac for several years and small army of technicians and workers Toward this end the 2019 NSAC Long completed the thesis work for five more came to NSL and everything associated Range Plan (Chaired by Don Geesaman, students, but choices had to be made. with the linac was loaded into shipping a student of Bob McGrath) endorsed Norbert’s became obvious; he was containers bound for Beijing. Recent the creation of an Electron Ion Collider offered the Professorship in Nuclear word from Zhu suggests it is almost (EIC). Designs are being developed and Physics at the University or Darmstadt, installed in their laboratory. it is hoped that an EIC will be the next one of the most distinguished in Ger- The tandem was used for a few major investment in Nuclear Science. A many. That was an offer one does not years for experiments in our grad/ Center for Frontiers in Nuclear Science refuse and he left us in 2005. Gene com- senior laboratory but as of this writ- (CFNS) has been created in collabora- pleted beautiful Atomic Physics studies ing it is “operative” but suffering from tion with BNL with Abhay Deshpande of Francium and some other unstable lack of SF6 and funds for even minor as Director. The center combines both systems and the linac produced its last repairs. Meanwhile Nuclear Physics at theory and experimental work and will beams in November 2006 which was Stony Brook is thriving. The PHENIX concentrate on the physics and develop- close to the end of our last NSF grant. detector at RHIC continues to produce ment of an EIC. As I complete this “His- Almost immediately Gene was offered groundbreaking results and the Stony tory” word has come from DOE that the position of Editor in Chief for the Brook group is one of its leaders. Before BNL has been chosen as the site for the American Physical Society, one of the she left us in 2010 Barbara Jacak had EIC assuring Stony Brook’s leadership three leadership positions in APS. Gene been “spokesman” for the PHENIX in Nuclear Science will continue.

Reflections on the Centenary of Lord Rayleigh’s Death

Continued from page 3

the discovery of argon, which earned E.J. Routh, who, in a 33-year career, Shortly after he graduated, the Rayleigh the 1904 Nobel Prize in Phys- coached over 600 pupils and guided 28 young Strutt struck up a friendship ics – the first to be awarded to a British of them to be Senior Wranglers. with the taciturn George Gabriel Stokes physicist. His discovery of argon led, Writing almost 60 years after Strutt’s (1819-1903), another Senior Wrangler, in turn, to the monumental paper that graduation, Sir James Jeans disclosed who had become Lucasian Professor, he published with Sir William Ramsey that “… there still lingers in Cambridge and who, like another earlier occupant (the Nobel Prize winner in Chemistry in a tradition as to the lucidity and literary of that illustrious chair, Isaac Newton, 1904) entitled Argon, a New Constituent finish of his answers in the examination was, in addition to being a redoubtable of the Atmosphere [10]. …”. The fine sense of literary style that mathematician, also an accomplished Strutt exhibited, even under pressure in experimentalist [11]. It was this latter An outline of his early career the examinations, never deserted him. quality of Stokes’, as much as anything J. W. Strutt was Senior Wrangler, the Every paper he wrote, even those deal- else, that was responsible for Strutt’s top graduate in mathematics at Cam- ing with the most abstruse subjects is a affinity towards him. bridge in 1865. He had been tutored, model of clarity and simplicity and con- In 1861, shortly after he was appoint- like other scientific luminaries in Cam- veys the impression of having been writ- ed as a Fellow of Trinity College, Strutt bridge, for example J.J. Thomson, J.A. ten with effortless ease – see for example felt dissatisfied that there was no course Larmor, G. Darwin and A.N. White- the opening sentence of his eighth paper available in the University of Cam- head, by one of the most gifted tutors, On the Light from the Sky (figure 6). bridge at that time that would enable

Volume XIV, No. 4 • Spring 2020 • History of Physics Newsletter 27 Figure 5. Breakdown of the Third Baron Rayleigh’s publications into topics.

studies also influenced his later support for the establishment of the National Figure 3. View of one of the rooms of the Third Baron Rayleigh’s laboratories. Physical Laboratory in Teddington. His other interests were not neglected dur- ing this period; for example, he devel- him to acquire experimental skills contains detailed descriptions of the oped the Rayleigh disc for measuring desirable for someone eager to pursue mechanics of vibrating systems, while the intensity of sound and introduced natural philosophy. Whilst Stokes gave acoustic wave propagation is treated the concept of surface waves in solids, him some encouragement and guidance in volume 2. Both texts are still in use which are important in seismology as in this regard, Strutt resorted to seek- today by acousticians. Such is the gener- already mentioned but also in today’s ing help from G.D. Liveing, the then ality of many of Rayleigh’s mathemati- electronic circuits as filters and delay Professor of Chemistry at Cambridge. cal descriptions of vibrations and waves lines. In total, 60 of his papers were He received from this source, for six that many of these could be applied to, published in this period, during which months or so, a course on analytical or analogies found in, other fields - for he also introduced practical classes as chemistry, which greatly assisted him in example hydrodynamics, optics and an important part of undergraduate developing experimental skills. Indeed, electromagnetism - as indeed he dem- teaching. he was to become an adroit experimen- onstrated over much of his scientific On his return to Terling, Rayleigh talist in addition to blossoming as a life. continued to work on a wide variety of fiendishly able theoretician. From an early age Strutt (as he then problems, including wave propagation was) made himself an accomplished in periodic systems, stimulated by his Rayleigh the physicist photographer, constructing pin-hole observations of the colours of thin films, Rayleigh wrote the majority of vol- cameras and developing his own pho- beetles, butterfly wings, etc. Magnetic ume 1 of his classic text The Theory of tographs. He used his expertise in this phenomena, electrodynamics, viscos- Sound in 1872 while cruising on the regard to fabricate diffraction grat- ity, elasticity, wave-guide theory, optics Nile – a trip that had been prescribed ings by contact printing and produced and, of course, his first-love, acoustics, as a recuperative measure following optical zone plates with light focusing all figure in his numerous later publi- a serious attack of rheumatic fever. It properties. He established formulae for cations. The story of the discovery of the resolving power of gratings, deter- argon and his work in parallel with mined the criterion for the ultimate Ramsay to isolate the gas has been well optical resolution achievable by opti- documented [4,10,12]. What has recent- cal instruments and contributed to an ly come to light [13] is a ‘pli cacheté’ early understanding of the behaviour (secret packet) deposited by Ramsay of spectroscopes. It was during this with the French Académie des Sciences phase of his work that Rayleigh struck in July 1894 and first opened as recently up correspondence with H.A. Rowland as 2004. Deposition of such packets in Baltimore. (sealed with wax) allowed an individ- An extremely productive period of ual to lay claim to a discovery without his life was during his tenure as Cav- actually publishing it. A translation (by endish Professor from 1879 to 1885. His Alwyn Davies [14]) of the document work there on electrical standards, in signed by Ramsay is as follows: which he was assisted by his sister-in- Guided by the experiments of Lord Figure 4. Extract from visitors’ book at Terling law, Eleanor Sidgwick (née Balfour), Rayleigh on the density of nitrogen, Place, May 1904 confirming meeting between provided new values for the units of which show that the nitrogen obtained Lord Kevin, Lord Rutherford and Professor resistance, current and voltage, which from the air by means of copper metal is Schuster. stood for many decades. No doubt these more dense by one part in 231 than the

28 Volume XIV, No. 4 • Spring 2020 • History of Physics Newsletter Figure 7. The opening sentences of the letters in which Rayleigh and Ramsay report their simultaneous isolation of argon. (from reference [12]).

laboratories in England. The only one that surpassed it in the range of chemicals and equipment had been established in the early 1800s, first by Humphrey Davy and then enlarged by Michael Faraday, at the Royal Institu- tion in London [15]. Rayleigh’s labora- tory, even to this day, is impressive. It is equipped with an unusually large collection of chemicals – far greater than was typical in a British university chemical laboratory fifty years ago. Rayleigh’s skills as a practical chem- Figure 6. Hand-written manuscript of Rayleigh’s classic paper explaining why the sky is blue. ist are reflected in the many papers he wrote, having carried out the experi- mental work himself. Thus, in his 1902 paper on the ‘Distillation of Binary nitrogen obtained by chemical means 7). A joint paper and two Nobel Prizes Mixtures’ [16] he describes his detailed from ammonia, or from nitrous acid, I followed, not to mention a whole new work on mixtures of alcohol, ammonia, have studied the residue after a large column in the Periodic Table! and several acids with water, preceded quantity of nitrogen from air has been This section of the paper cannot by a theoretical outline of the phenom- absorbed by means of magnesium at be concluded without mention of the enon of distillation of pure liquids and red heat. ……. Rayleigh-Jeans law. Rayleigh’s work liquids that form homogeneous mix- ….. I hope to decide soon if the gas embraced essentially all aspects of clas- tures. Other papers, such as his work on is a modification of nitrogen, perhaps sical physics known at the time. His the electrochemical equivalent of silver N3, or a new element, by carrying out theoretical treatment of the spectrum [17] and periodic precipitation of crys- the absorption by magnesium, making of black-body radiation accounted tals [18] (one of his last publications), each experiment more quantitative by exceedingly well for the spectral distri- testify to his skills as a laboratory- volume, and by measuring the ammo- bution of energies at long wavelengths oriented chemist. Moreover, in connec- nia or a combination of X with hydro- but, being classical, failed at short tion with his discovery of argon – which gen, I can decide what is its approxi- wavelengths - the so-called ultraviolet followed from his finding that ‘pure’ mate atomic weight. If it happens that catastrophe. Although he was still very nitrogen derived from the atmosphere I have a new gaseous element, I intend active at the age of 58 when Planck was always slightly heavier than nitro- to name it Eikazote, with the symbol Ez. produced his formula and quantum gen he prepared from chemical sources, To end this note, it should be recog- concepts came to the fore to account for such as ammonia and urea – he devised nized that it is to Lord Rayleigh, with this evident failure, Rayleigh was rather several ingenious chemical methods whom I have been in communication, reluctant to embrace these ‘new’ ideas of eliminating traces of oxygen from that this discovery is credited; he has and preferred to leave them to future atmospheric nitrogen [12,19]. shown the place to explore; I found the researchers. means to isolate this novel gas. Rayleigh and Dimensional In fact, both Rayleigh and Ramsay Rayleigh the chemist worked independently to isolate the It is noteworthy that Rayleigh Analysis gas and both succeeded within a month assembled in the 1870s one of the Rayleigh’s landmark paper [20] of the packet being deposited (Figure best-equipped chemical-physical where he established that the intensity

Volume XIV, No. 4 • Spring 2020 • History of Physics Newsletter 29 [10] Lord Rayleigh and Professor William Ramsay, of scattered light is inversely related optical character of some brilliant animal Argon, a New Constituent of the Atmosphere, Phil to the fourth power of the wavelength colours [25]. Few practitioners and his- Trans Roy Soc A, (1895) pp187-241. used the so-called method of dimen- torians of science in its broadest aspects [11] It was Stokes who discovered the phenomenon sional analysis. He also derived this would dispute that Lord Rayleigh was of fluorescence, which he demonstrated at a relationship and the facts pertaining to one of the most remarkable physical Friday Evening Discourse at the Royal Institu- the polarization of scattered light by rig- scientists of his generation. tion in 1853. orous mathematical analysis. Through- [12] J.M. Thomas, Argon and the Non-Inert Pair, out his life he commended the virtue of Notes and References Angewandte Chemie International Edition, using the method of dimensional analy- [1] Contrary to the information given in Wiki- 43 (2004) p6418. sis. Indeed, forty-five years after his pedia, Rayleigh did not spend his whole [13] Yves Jeannin, Comptes Rendus Chimie, 8 landmark paper he wrote an article in scientific life in the University of Cambridge. (2009), pp3-7. The assertion of priority while He was the second occupant of the Cavendish Nature, under the title ‘The Principle of avoiding publication is discussed in this case Chair of Experimental Physics (after Maxwell and more generally by Michael Jewess, Royal Similitude’ [21], which began with the died) but stipulated that he would hold this Society of Chemistry Historical Group Newsletter, following remark: “I have often been post for only five years (1879-1884). He later No 71 (Winter 2017), 22-27 (hard copy), 12-14 impressed by the scanty attention paid was engaged as Professor of Natural Philoso- (online).” even by original workers in physics to phy at the Royal Institution, where, in 1898, he became joint Director with Sir James Dewar, [14] Alwyn Davies, Royal Society of Chemistry His- the great principle of similitude”. In this of the Davy-Faraday Research Laboratory. torical Group Newsletter No.70 (Summer 2016) article, Rayleigh bemoans the fact that For the rest of his life he worked in his own, pp33-37 (hard copy),pp18-20 (online). this was not used as extensively as it privately-built laboratory in converted stables [15] The Clarendon Laboratory was established in should be. To press home this point, he at the family seat at Terling. Oxford in 1868, the Cavendish Laboratory in recites fifteen examples of how informa- [2] Rutherford gave a Friday Evening Discourse Cambridge in 1872. Thanks to the efforts of tion of vital importance can be readily at the Royal Institution in early 1904, during Prince Albert, the Royal College of Chemistry in London (by 1907 indirectly subsumed into retrieved by dimensional analysis. Here the course of which he declared that the age of the Earth, based on his work on radioactivity, Imperial College) was established in 1845 and are just three: could be as large as a thousand million years Prince Albert facilitated the appointment of • The velocity of propagation of peri- in blatant contradiction to the estimates made one of Germany’s foremost experimentalists, odic waves on the surface of deep by Lord Kelvin, who was in the audience. A. F. Hofmann, to be the first Professor of water is as the square root of the After the Discourse, Rayleigh told Kelvin that Chemistry in the College. The Royal Institu- wavelength, Rutherford was likely to be nearer the truth tion had an impressive laboratory from 1801 than Kelvin. He said he would arrange for onward. • The resolving power of an object- the two to meet in Terling; the visitors book glass, measured by the recipro- [16] Lord Rayleigh, On the Distillation of Binary records when exactly they met and who the Mixtures, Phil. Mag. IV (1902) p521. cal of the angle with which it can others were that attended. deal, is directly as the diameter [17] Lord Rayleigh, The Electrochemical Equivalent of [3] H.H. Asquith, the 54-year-old Prime Minister Silver, Nature, LXI (1897) p292. and inversely as the wavelength of of the day became intensely associated with the light, the 25-year-old Venetia Stanley who was pres- [18] Lord Rayleigh, Periodic precipitations of crystals, • In a gaseous medium, of which the ent, along with Asquith and his wife and A.J. Phil. Mag. XXXVIII (1919) p738. particles repel one another with a Balfour at Terling Place in July 1908. The defin- [19] In a letter to Nature XLVI (1892) p512 he wrote: itive biography of Asquith (by Roy Jenkins, force inversely as the n’th power published in 1964) disclosed that Asquith was ‘I am much puzzled by some results on the density of the distance, the viscosity is besotted by Miss Stanley and wrote frequently of nitrogen, and I shall be obliged if any of your as (n + 3)/(2n – 2,) power of the to her when he chaired cabinet meetings, even chemical readers can offer suggestions as to the when his country was at war. cause. According to the methods of preparation, absolute temperature. Thus, if n = I obtain two quite distinct values. The relative 5, the viscosity is proportional to [4] Life of John William Strutt, Third Baron Rayleigh difference, amounting to about one part in 1000, temperature. by Robert John Strutt (Fourth Baron Rayleigh) is small in itself, but it lies entirely outside the University of Wisconsin Press 1968 errors of experiment, and can only be attributed to Concluding Remarks [5] Lord Rayleigh: The Man and His Work by Robert a variation of the character of the gas.’ The impression left on all the visi- Bruce Lindsay, Pergamon Press 1966 [20] Lord Rayleigh, On the Light from the Sky, its tors to the ‘Open House’ celebration [6] J.H. Howard, Research of the Third Baron Ray- Polarization and Colour, Phil. Mag. XLI (1871) was that they were exposed afresh not leigh, Proc. of the Royal Institution, 60. (1988) pp 107-120, 274-279. only to a supreme theorist and experi- p73. [21] Lord Rayleigh, The Principle of Similitude, mentalist, but also to an individual who [7] Maxwell’s Enduring Legacy; A Scientific History Nature, XCV (1915) p66. had an unquenchable curiosity for an of the Cavendish Laboratory by Malcolm Longair, [22] Lord Rayleigh, Soaring of Birds, Nature, XXVII enormous range of natural phenomena Cambridge University Press 2016, p69. (1883), p534. and their scientific interpretation. The [8] E.A. Davis, Lord Rayleigh: His Works and [23] Lord Rayleigh, The Sailing Flight of the Albatross, soaring of birds [22], the sailing flight Laboratories, in The Roots of Physics in Europe, Nature, XI (1889) p14. Proceedings of the first European Symposium of the albatross [23] and the fascination on the History of Physics, ed. P.M. Schuster, [24] Lord Rayleigh, On some Iridescent Films, Phil. of iridescent crystals [24] were topics Living Edition Science, Austria 2010, p35. Mag. XXIV (1912) p751. that engaged his interest in the 1900s, [9] All but a few are single-author papers which [25] Lord Rayleigh, On the Optical Character of Some and one of his last papers published in Rayleigh submitted in long hand. Brilliant Animal Colours, Phil. Mag. XXXVII the year of his death was entitled On the (1919) p98.

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